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Code-switching
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This article is about alternating between two or more languages in speech. For other uses, see Code-switching (disambiguation).
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In linguistics, code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. Multilinguals, speakers of more than one language, sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with the syntax and phonology of each variety.
Code-switching is distinct from other language contact phenomena, such as borrowing, pidgins and creoles, loan translation (calques), and language transfer (language interference). Borrowing affects the lexicon, the words that make up a language, while code-switching takes place in individual utterances.[1][2][3] Speakers form and establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language form an intermediate, third language. On the other hand, speakers practice code-switching when they are each fluent in both languages. Code mixing is a thematically related term, but the usage of the terms code-switching and code-mixing varies. Some scholars use either term to denote the same practice, while others apply code-mixing to denote the formal linguistic properties of language-contact phenomena and code-switching to denote the actual, spoken usages by multilingual persons.[4][5][6]
In the 1940s and the 1950s, many scholars considered code-switching to be a substandard use of language.[7] Since the 1980s, however, most scholars have come to regard it as a normal, natural product of bilingual and multilingual language use.[8][9]
The term "code-switching" is also used outside the field of linguistics. Some scholars of literature use the term to describe literary styles that include elements from more than one language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers.[10] In popular usage, code-switching is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two languages, such as Spanglish, Taglish, or Hinglish.[11] Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic study, the name code-switching is sometimes used to refer to switching among dialects, styles or registers.[12] This form of switching is practiced, for example, by speakers of African American Vernacular English as they move from less formal to more formal settings.[13] Such shifts, when performed by public figures such as politicians, are sometimes criticized as signalling inauthenticity or insincerity.[14]
Contents
1 Social motivations
1.1 Markedness model
1.2 Sequential analysis
1.3 Communication accommodation theory
1.4 Diglossia
2 Types of switching
3 Reasons
4 Grammatical theories
4.1 Poplack's model
4.2 Matrix language-frame model
4.3 Constraint-free
4.4 Controversies
5 Examples
5.1 Spanish and English
5.2 French and Tamil
5.3 Hopi and Tewa
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Social motivations[edit]
Code-switching relates to, and sometimes indexes social-group membership in bilingual and multilingual communities. Some sociolinguists describe the relationships between code-switching behaviours and class, ethnicity, and other social positions.[15] In addition, scholars in interactional linguistics and conversation analysis have studied code-switching as a means of structuring speech in interaction.[16][17][18] Some discourse analysts, including conversation analyst Peter Auer, suggest that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but that it is a means to create social situations.[19][20][21]
Markedness model[edit]
Main article: Markedness model
The Markedness Model, developed by Carol Myers-Scotton, is one of the more complete theories of code-switching motivations. It posits that language users are rational and choose to speak a language that clearly marks their rights and obligations, relative to other speakers, in the conversation and its setting.[22] When there is no clear, unmarked language choice, speakers practice code-switching to explore possible language choices. Many sociolinguists, however, object to the Markedness Model’s postulation that language-choice is entirely rational.[23][24]
Sequential analysis[edit]
Scholars of conversation analysis such as Peter Auer and Li Wei argue that the social motivation behind code-switching lies in the way code-switching is structured and managed in conversational interaction; in other words, the question of why code-switching occurs cannot be answered without first addressing the question of how it occurs. Using conversation analysis (CA), these scholars focus their attention on the sequential implications of code-switching. That is, whatever language a speaker chooses to use for a conversational turn, or part of a turn, impacts the subsequent choices of language by the speaker as well as the hearer. Rather than focusing on the social values inherent in the languages the speaker chooses ("brought-along meaning"), the analysis concentrates on the meaning that the act of code-switching itself creates ("brought-about meaning").[16][23]
Communication accommodation theory[edit]
The communication accommodation theory (CAT), developed by Howard Giles, professor of communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara, seeks to explain the cognitive reasons for code-switching, and other changes in speech, as a person either emphasizes or minimizes the social differences between himself and the other person(s) in conversation. Giles posits that when speakers seek approval in a social situation they are likely to converge their speech with that of the other speaker. This can include, but is not limited to, the language of choice, accent, dialect, and para-linguistic features used in the conversation. In contrast to convergence, speakers might also engage in divergent speech, in which an individual person emphasizes the social distance between himself and other speakers by using speech with linguistic features characteristic of his own group.
Diglossia[edit]
Main article: Diglossia
In a diglossic situation, some topics and situations are better suited to the use of one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model[25] (later refined by Blom and Gumperz)[26] wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess.[27]
Types of switching[edit]
Scholars use different names for various types of code-switching.
Intersentential switching occurs outside the sentence or the clause level (i.e. at sentence or clause boundaries).[28] It is sometimes called "extrasentential" switching.[29] In Assyrian-English switching one could say, "Ani wideili. What happened?" ("Those, I did them. What happened?").[30]
Intra-sentential switching occurs within a sentence or a clause.[28][29] In Spanish-English switching one could say, "La onda is to fight y jambar." ("The latest fad is to fight and steal.")[31]
Tag-switching is the switching of either a tag phrase or a word, or both, from one language to another, (common in intra-sentential switches).[28] In Spanish-English switching one could say, "Él es de México y así los criaron a ellos, you know." ("He's from Mexico, and they raise them like that, you know.")[32]
Intra-word switching occurs within a word itself, such as at a morpheme boundary.[29] In Shona-English switching one could say, "But ma-day-s a-no a-ya ha-ndi-si ku-mu-on-a. ("But these days I don't see him much.") Here the English plural morpheme -s appears alongside the Shona prefix ma-, which also marks plurality.[32]
Most code-switching studies primarily focus on intra-sentential switching, as it creates many hybrid grammar structures that require explanation. The other types involve utterances that simply follow the grammar of one language or the other. Intra-sentential switching can be alternational or insertional. In alternational code-switching, a new grammar emerges that is a combination of the grammars of the two languages involved. Insertional code-switching involves "the insertion of elements from one language into the morphosyntactic frame of the other."[32]
Reasons[edit]
There are several reasons to switch codes in a single conversation.
A particular topic: People generally switch codes during discourse about a particular topic, since it requires specific language; varieties related to a particular topic may be better able to convey or communicate issues surrounding it.
Quoting someone: People have to switch codes while quoting another person.
Solidarity and gratitude: While expressing gratitude or solidarity, people may speak in ways that express these feelings.
Clarification: Speakers may alter their speech when listeners have trouble understanding how they communicated a thought or idea before.
Group identity: People may alter their language to express group identification. This can happen, for example, when introducing members of a particular group to others.[33]
To soften or strengthen command: While asking someone to do something, code switching works to mark emphasis or provide inspiration.
Lexical need: People often use some technical terms or words written in another language. In that case, if people try to translate those words, that might distort the exact meaning and value of the word or term. In this case, code switching occurs to maintain the exact meaning of the word.
Grammatical theories[edit]
This article's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article's neutral point of view of the subject. Please integrate the section's contents into the article as a whole, or rewrite the material. (June 2016)
In studying the syntactic and morphological patterns of language alternation, linguists have postulated specific grammatical rules and specific syntactic boundaries for where code-switching might occur.
Poplack's model[edit]
Shana Poplack's model of code-switching is the best known theory of the underlying grammar of code-switching.[32] In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The free-morpheme constraint stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing. Generally, borrowing occurs in the lexicon, while code-switching occurs at either the syntax level or the utterance-construction level.[1][2][3] The equivalence constraint predicts that switches occur only at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar.[32] For example, the sentence: "I like you porque eres simpático" ("I like you because you are nice") is allowed because it obeys the syntactic rules of both Spanish and English.[34] Cases like the noun phrases the casa white and the blanca house are ruled out because the combinations are ungrammatical in at least one of the languages involved. Spanish noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then adjectives, while the adjectives come before the nouns in English noun phrases. The casa white is ruled out by the equivalence constraint because it does not obey the syntactic rules of English, and the blanca house is ruled out because it does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.[32]
Critics cite weaknesses of Sankoff and Poplack's model. The free-morpheme and equivalence constraints are insufficiently restrictive, meaning there are numerous exceptions that occur. For example, the free morpheme constraint does not account for why switching is impossible between certain free morphemes. The sentence: "The students had visto la película italiana" ("The students had seen the Italian movie") does not occur in Spanish-English code-switching, yet the free-morpheme constraint would seem to posit that it can.[35] The equivalence constraint would also rule out switches that occur commonly in languages, as when Hindi postpositional phrases are switched with English prepositional phrases like in the sentence: "John gave a book ek larakii ko" ("John gave a book to a girl"). The phrase ek larakii ko is literally translated as a girl to, making it ungrammatical in English, and yet this is a sentence that occurs in English-Hindi code-switching despite the requirements of the equivalence constraint.[32] The Sankoff and Poplack model only identifies points at which switching is blocked, as opposed to explaining which constituents can be switched and why.[32]
Matrix language-frame model[edit]
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Carol Myers-Scotton's Matrix Language-Frame (MLF) model is the dominant model of insertional code-switching.[32] The MLF model posits that there is a Matrix Language (ML) and an Embedded Language (EL). In this case, elements of the Embedded Language are inserted into the morphosyntactic frame of the Matrix Language. The hypotheses are as follows (Myers-Scotton 1993b: 7):
The Matrix Language Hypothesis states that those grammatical procedures in the central structure in the language production system which account for the surface structure of the Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituent (linguistics) are only Matrix Language–based procedures. Further, the hypothesis is intended to imply that frame-building precedes content morpheme insertion. A Matrix Language can be the first language of the speaker or the language in which the morphemes or words are more frequently used in speech, so the dominant language is the Matrix Language and the other is the Embedded Language. A Matrix Language island is a constituent composed entirely of Matrix Language morphemes.[36]
According to the Blocking Hypothesis, in Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituents, a blocking filter blocks any Embedded Language content morpheme which is not congruent with the Matrix Language with respect to three levels of abstraction regarding subcategorization. "Congruence" is used in the sense that two entities, linguistic categories in this case, are congruent if they correspond in respect of relevant qualities.
The three levels of abstraction are:
Even if the Embedded Language realizes a given grammatical category as a content morpheme, if it is realized as a system morpheme in the Matrix Language, the Matrix Language blocks the occurrence of the Embedded Language content morpheme. (A content morpheme is often called an "open-class" morpheme, because they belong to categories that are open to the invention of arbitrary new items. They can be made-up words like "smurf", "nuke", "byte", etc. and can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some prepositions. A system morpheme, e.g. function words and inflections, expresses the relation between content morphemes and does not assign or receive thematic roles.)
The Matrix Language also blocks an Embedded Language content morpheme in these constituents if it is not congruent with a Matrix Language content morpheme counterpart in terms of theta role assignment.
Congruence between Embedded Language content morphemes and Matrix Language content morphemes is realized in terms of their discourse or pragmatic functions.
Examples
Hindi/English
life ko face kiijiye with himmat and faith in apane aap. (Code-switching)
"Face life with courage and faith in self." (Translation)
Swahili/English
hata wengine nasikia washawekwa cell. (Code-switching)
"Even others I heard were put [in] cells." (Translation)
We see that example 1 is consistent with the Blocking Hypothesis and the system content morpheme criteria, so the prediction is that the Hindi equivalents are also content morphemes. Sometimes non-congruence between counterparts in the Matrix Language and Embedded Language can be circumvented by accessing bare forms. "Cell" is a bare form and so the thematic role of "cell" is assigned by the verb -wek- 'put in/on'; this means that the verb is a content morpheme.
The Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis states that when an Embedded Language morpheme appears which is not permitted under either the Matrix Language Hypothesis or Blocking Hypothesis, it triggers the inhibition of all Matrix Language accessing procedures and completes the current constituent as an Embedded Language island. Embedded Language islands consist only of Embedded Language morphemes and are well-formed by Embedded Language grammar, but they are inserted in the Matrix Language frame. Therefore, Embedded Language islands are under the constraint of Matrix Language grammar.
Examples
Swahili/English
*Sikuona your barau ambayo uliipoteza. (Code-switching ungrammatical)
"I didn't see your letter which you lost." (Translation)
Swahili/English
*Nikamwambia anipe ruhusa niende ni-ka-check for wewe. (Code-switching, ungrammatical)
"And I told him he should give me permission so that I go and check for you." (Translation)
Nikamwambia anipe ruhusa niende ni-ka-check for you. (Code-switching, grammatical)
Example 1 is ungrammatical (indicated by the leading asterisk) because "your" is accessed, so the Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis predicts that it must be followed by an English head (e.g., "your letter") as an Embedded Language island. The reason is that possessive adjectives are system morphemes. We see the same thing happen in example 2, which is therefore ungrammatical. However, the correct way to finish the sentence is not "for wewe", switching back to Swahili; rather, it should end with "for you", which would be an Embedded Language island.
The Embedded Language Implicational Hierarchy Hypothesis can be stated as two sub-hypotheses:
The farther a constituent is from the main arguments of the sentence, the freer it is to appear as an Embedded Language island.
The more formulaic in structure a constituent is, the more likely it is to appear as an Embedded Language island. Stated more strongly, choice of any part of an idiomatic expression will result in an Embedded Language island.[32]
The Implication Hierarchy of Embedded Language Islands:
Formulaic expressions and idioms (especially prepositional phrases expressing time and manner, but also as verb phrase complements)
Other time and manner expressions
Quantifier expressions
Non-quantifier, non-time noun phrases as verb phrase complements
Agent Noun phrases
Theme role and case assigners, i.e. main finite verbs (with full inflections)
Examples
Wolof/French
Le matin de bonne heure ngay joge Medina pour dem juilli. Suba tee nga fa war a joge. (Code-switching)
"Early in the morning you leave Medina to go to pray. Early in the morning you should leave then." (Translation)
Swahili/English
Ulikuwa ukiongea a lot of nonsense. (Code-switching)
"You were talking a lot of nonsense." (Translation)
We see example 1 work because the French Embedded Language island Le matin de bonne heure, "early in the morning", is a time expression. (Also, it is repeated in Wolof in the second sentence.) In example 2, we see the quantifier a lot of is a predicted Embedded Language island. Here we see an objective complement of a finite verb begin with the quantifier.
Constraint-free[edit]
Jeff MacSwan has posited a constraint-free approach to analyzing code-switching. This approach views explicit reference to code-switching in grammatical analysis as tautological, and seeks to explain specific instances of grammaticality in terms of the unique contributions of the grammatical properties of the languages involved. MacSwan characterizes the approach with the refrain, "Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars."[37] The approach focuses on the repudiation of any rule or principle which explicitly refers to code-switching itself.[38] This approach does not recognize or accept terms such as "matrix language", "embedded language", or "language frame", which are typical in constraint-based approaches such as the MLF Model.
Rather than posit constraints specific to language alternation, as in traditional work in the field, MacSwan advocates that mixed utterances be analyzed with a focus on the specific and unique linguistic contributions of each language found in a mixed utterance. Because these analyses draw on the full range of linguistic theory, and each data set presents its own unique challenges, a much broader understanding of linguistics is generally needed to understand and participate in this style of codeswitching research.
For example, Cantone and MacSwan (2009)[39] analyzed word order differences for nouns and adjectives in Italian-German codeswitching using a typological theory of Cinque that had been independently proposed in the syntax literature; their account derives the word order facts of Italian-German codeswitching from underlying differences between the two languages, according to Cinque's theory.[citation needed]
Controversies[edit]
Much remains to be done before a more complete understanding of code-switching phenomena is achieved. Linguists continue to debate apparent counter-examples to proposed code-switching theories and constraints.[4][32][40]
The Closed-class Constraint, developed by Aravind Joshi, posits that closed class items (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.) cannot be switched.[41] The Functional Head Constraint developed by Belazi et al. holds that code-switching cannot occur between a functional head (a complementizer, a determiner, an inflection, etc.) and its complement (sentence, noun-phrase, verb-phrase).[35] These constraints, among others like the Matrix Language-Frame model, are controversial among linguists positing alternative theories, as they are seen to claim universality and make general predictions based upon specific presumptions about the nature of syntax.[4][40]
Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, issues 8(1) and 8(2).
Examples[edit]
In this section, segments that are switched from the primary language of the conversation are shown in red.
Spanish and English[edit]
Researcher Ana Celia Zentella offers this example from her work with Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilingual speakers in New York City.[11] In this example, Marta and her younger sister, Lolita, speak Spanish and English with Zentella outside of their apartment building.
Lolita: Oh, I could stay with Ana?
Marta: — but you could ask papi and mami to see if you could come down.
Lolita: OK.
Marta: Ana, if I leave her here would you send her upstairs when you leave?
Zentella: I’ll tell you exactly when I have to leave, at ten o’clock. Y son las nueve y cuarto. ("And it’s nine fifteen.")
Marta: Lolita, te voy a dejar con Ana. ("I’m going to leave you with Ana.") Thank you, Ana.
Zentella explains that the children of the predominantly Puerto Rican neighbourhood speak both English and Spanish: "Within the children’s network, English predominated, but code-switching from English to Spanish occurred once every three minutes, on average."[11]
French and Tamil[edit]
This example of switching from French to Tamil comes from ethnographer Sonia Das's work with immigrants from Jaffna, Sri Lanka, to Quebec.[42]
Selvamani: Parce que n’importe quand, quand j’enregistre ma voix ça as l’aire d’un garçon. ([in French] "Because whenever I record my voice I sound like a guy.")
Alors, tsé, je me ferrai pas poigné. ("So, you know, I’m not going to be had.")
[laughter]
Selvamani: ennatā, ennatā, enna romba ciritā? ([in Tamil] "What, what, what's so funny?")
Alors, qu’est-ce que je disais? ([in French] "So, what was I saying?")
Selvamani, who moved from Sri Lanka to Quebec as a child and now identifies as Québécois, speaks to Das in French. When Selvamani's sister, Mala, laughs, Selvamani switches to Tamil to ask Mala why she is laughing. After this aside, Selvamani continues to speak in French. Selvamani also uses the word tsé ("you know", contraction of tu sais) and the expression je me ferrai pas poigné ("I will not be handled"), which are not standard French but are typical of the working-class Montreal dialect Joual.[42]
Hopi and Tewa[edit]
Researcher Paul Kroskrity offers the following example of code-switching by three elder Arizona Tewa men, who are trilingual in Tewa, Hopi, and English.[43] They are discussing the selection of a site for a new high school in the eastern Hopi Reservation:
Speaker A: Tututqaykit qanaanawakna. ([in Hopi] "Schools were not wanted.")
Speaker B: Wédít’ókánk’egena’adi imbí akhonidi. ([in Tewa] "They didn’t want a school on their land.")
Speaker C: Naembí eeyae nąeląemo díbít’ó’ámmí kąayį’į wédimu::di. ([in Tewa] "It’s better if our children go to school right here, rather than far away.")
In their two-hour conversation, the three men primarily speak Tewa; however, when Speaker A addresses the Hopi Reservation as a whole, he code-switches to Hopi. His speaking Hopi when talking of Hopi-related matters is a conversational norm in the Arizona Tewa speech community. Kroskrity reports that these Arizona Tewa men, who culturally identify themselves as Hopi and Tewa, use the different languages to linguistically construct and maintain their discrete ethnic identities.
See also[edit]
Linguistics portal
Bibliography of code-switching
Code-switching in Hong Kong
Heteroglossia
Metaphorical code-switching
Mixed language
Situational code-switching
Style shifting
Raciolinguistics
Translanguaging
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Poplack, Shana; David Sankoff (1984). "Borrowing: the synchrony of integration". Linguistics. 22 (269): 99–136. doi:10.1515/ling.1984.22.1.99.
^ Jump up to: a b Muysken, Pieter (1995). "Code-switching and grammatical theory". In L. Milroy; P. Muysken. One Speaker, Two Languages: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives on Code-switching (PDF). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 177–98.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bokamba, Eyamba G. (1989). "Are there syntactic constraints on code-mixing?". World Englishes. 8 (3): 277–92. doi:10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00669.x.
Jump up ^ Clyne, Michael (2000). "Constraints on code-switching: how universal are they?". In Li Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.
Jump up ^ Genessee, Fred (2000). "Early bilingual language development: one language or two?". In Li Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. Routledge.
Jump up ^ Weinreich, Uriel (1953). Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, B.; Kohnert, K. (2005). "Speech, language and hearing in developing bilingual children: Current findings and future directions". Language, Speech and Hearing services in Schools. 36 (3): 264–67. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/026).
Gutierrez-Clellen, V. (1999). "Language choice in intervention with bilingual children". American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 8: 291–302.
Kohnert, K.; Yim, D.; Nett, K.; Duran, P. F.; Duran, L. (2005). "Intervention with linguistically diverse preschool children: A focus on developing home language(s)". Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools. 36 (3): 251–63. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/025).
Jump up ^ Brice, A.; Brice, R. (2009). Language development: Monolingual and bilingual acquisition. Old Tappan, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ Torres, Lourdes (2007). "In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a Writers". Melus. 32 (1): 75–96. doi:10.1093/melus/32.1.75.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zentella, Ana Celia (1997). Growing Up Bilingual. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Jump up ^ Demby, Gene (3 April 2013). "How Code-Switching Explains The World". Retrieved 20 September 2016.
Jump up ^ DeBose, Charles (1992). "Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire". In Eastman, Carol. Codeswitching. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. pp. 157–167. ISBN 1-85359-167-X.
Jump up ^ Kanngieser, Anja (2012). "A sonic geography of voice: Towards an affective politics". Progress in Human Geography. 36 (3): 336–353.
Jump up ^ See:
Heller, Monica (1992). "The Politics of Codeswitching and Language Choice". In C. Eastman. Codeswitching. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Rampton, Ben (1995). Crossing: Language and Ethnicity among Adolescents. London: Longman.
Pujolar, Joan (2000). Gender, Heteroglossia and Power. A Sociolinguistic Study of Youth Culture. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
^ Jump up to: a b Wei, Li (1998). "The 'Why' and 'How' Questions in the Analysis of Conversational Codeswitching". In P. Auer. Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity. London: Routledge. pp. 156–76. ISBN 978-0415216098.
Jump up ^ Sebba, Mark; Wooton, Tony (1998). "We, They and Identity: Sequential Versus Identity-Related Explanation in Code Switching". In P. Auer. Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity. London: Routledge. pp. 262–86.
Jump up ^ Cromdal, Jakob (2001). "Overlap in Bilingual Play: Some Implications of Code-Switching for Overlap Resolution". Research on Language and Social Interaction. 34 (4): 421–51. doi:10.1207/S15327973RLSI3404_02.
Jump up ^ Auer, Peter (1984). Bilingual Conversation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Jump up ^ Cromdal, Jakob (2004). "Building bilingual oppositions: Code-switching in children's disputes". Language in Society. 33 (1): 33–58. doi:10.1017/S0047404504031021.
Jump up ^ Musk, Nigel John (2012). "Performing bilingualism in Wales: Arguing the case for empirical and theoretical eclecticism". Pragmatics: Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association. 22 (4): 651–669.
Jump up ^ Myers-Scotton, Carol (1993). Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon.
^ Jump up to: a b Auer, Peter (1998). Code-Switching in Conversation. London: Routledge.
Jump up ^ Woolard, Kathryn (2004). "Codeswitching". In A. Duranti. A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 73–94.
Jump up ^ Fishman, Joshua (1967). "Bilingualism with and without diglossia; Diglossia with and without bilingualism". Journal of Social Issues. 23 (2): 29–38. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1967.tb00573.x.
Jump up ^ Blom, Jan-Petter; John J. Gumperz (1972). "Social meaning in linguistic structures: Code switching in northern Norway". In J. J. Gumperz; D. Hymes. Directions in Sociolinguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Jump up ^ Reyes, Iliana (2004). "Functions of code switching in schoolchildren's conversations". Bilingual Research Journal. 28 (1): 77–98. doi:10.1080/15235882.2004.10162613.
^ Jump up to: a b c Li Wei, ed. (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge.
^ Jump up to: a b c Myers-Scotton, Carol (1989). "Codeswitching with English: types of switching, types of communities". World Englishes. 8 (3): 333–346. doi:10.1111/j.1467-971X.1989.tb00673.x.
Jump up ^ McClure, Erica (2001). "Oral and Written Assyrian-English Code-switching." In Rodolfo Jacobson. Codeswitching Worldwide II. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001. pg 166. Print.
Jump up ^ Woolford, Ellen. "Bilingual Code-Switching and Syntactic Theory." Linguistic Inquiry. Vol. 14. Cambridge: MIT, 1983. 520-36. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Winford, Donald. "Code Switching: Linguistic Aspects." An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003. 126-167. Print.
Jump up ^ Hult, F.M. (2014). Covert bilingualism and symbolic competence: Analytical reflections on negotiating insider/outsider positionality in Swedish speech situations. Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 63-81.
Jump up ^ Sankoff, David; Shana Poplack (1981). "A formal grammar for code-switching". Papers in Linguistics. 14 (1–4): 3–45. doi:10.1080/08351818109370523.
^ Jump up to: a b Belazi, Heidi; Edward Rubin; Almeida Jacqueline Toribio (1994). "Code switching and X-Bar theory: The functional head constraint". Linguistic Inquiry. 25 (2): 221–37.
Jump up ^ Scotton, Carol. Duelling languages: grammatical structure in codeswitching. Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press ;, 1993. Print.
Jump up ^ MacSwan, Jeff (2000). "The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: Evidence from codeswitching". Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54.
Jump up ^ MacSwan, Jeff (2013). "Code-switching and grammatical theory". In T. Bhatia and W. Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.
Jump up ^ Cantone, K. F.; MacSwan, J. (2009). "The syntax of DP-internal codeswitching". In Isurin, L.; Winford, D.; de Bot, K. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Codeswitching. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 243–278.
^ Jump up to: a b Bhatt, Rakesh M. (1995). "Code-switching and the functional head constraint". In Janet Fuller; et al. Proceedings of the Eleventh Eastern States Conference on Linguistics. Ithaca, NY: Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics. pp. 1–12.
Jump up ^ Joshi, Aravind (1985). "How much context-sensitivity is necessary for assigning structural descriptions: Tree adjoining grammars". In Dowty, D.; Karttunen, L.; Zwicky, A. Natural Language Parsing. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Das, Sonia (2011). "Rewriting the past and reimagining the future: The social life of a Tamil heritage language industry". American Ethnologist. 38 (4): 774–789. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2011.01336.x.
Jump up ^ Kroskrity, Paul V (2000). "Language ideologies in the expression and representation of Arizona Tewa identity". In P. V. Kroskrity. Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press. pp. 329–59.
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List of Cricket World Cup finals
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Cricket World Cup is an international cricket competition established in 1975.[1] It is contested by the men's national teams of the members of the International Cricket Council (ICC), the sport's global governing body.[2] The tournament generally takes place every four years. Most recently, the 2015 Cricket World Cup, jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand, was won by Australia, who beat their co-hosts New Zealand. The current trophy was instituted in 1999. It always remains with the ICC, and a replica is awarded to the winning team.[3][4]
Nations with Test status automatically qualify for the World Cup, while associate and affiliate ICC members must qualify through a qualification tournament, the World Cup Qualifier. Though an associate member is yet to reach the final, Kenya did reach the semi-finals in 2003.[5] Australia is the most successful team in the competition's history, winning five tournaments and finishing as runner-up twice.[6] Twice, teams have won successive tournaments: the West Indies won the first two editions (1975 and 1979) and Australia won three in a row (1999, 2003 and 2007). Australia has played in the most finals (seven out of eleven: 1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015). England is the team to reach the final and not win the World Cup most often, ending as runner-up in all three final appearances.[7][8]
Of the twenty teams that have qualified for at least one Cricket World Cup, seven have contested a tournament final.[9] Seven venues have hosted the final; only two of those – Lord's, in London, and the Melbourne Cricket Ground – have hosted multiple finals.[10] India is the only country that has hosted a World Cup final at more than one venue, with Eden Gardens, Kolkata, hosting in 1987 and Mumbai's Wankhede Stadium hosting in 2011.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 List of finals
3 Results by country
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Lord's has hosted the final four times.
The inaugural ICC Cricket World Cup final was held on 21 June 1975 at Lord's, contested by Australia and the West Indies. A man of the match performance,[11] including a century from West Indian captain Clive Lloyd coming in to bat at number five with his team 50/3,[12] formed the basis of a 149-run fourth-wicket partnership with Rohan Kanhai.[13] Keith Boyce added a quick 34 and the Australians were set a target of 292 to win in a 60-over encounter. In reply, Alan Turner hit 40 from 54 deliveries and Australian captain Ian Chappell scored 62 from 93 balls. Australia "contributed to their own destruction" in an innings with five run outs, and the West Indies were crowned the first cricket world champions, winning by 17 runs.[14] Four years later, the West Indies qualified for the final, this time facing England, hosted at Lord's for the second consecutive tournament. An unbeaten 138 from Viv Richards, and support from Collis King in a 139-run partnership for the fifth wicket,[15] saw the West Indies set England a target of 287 runs to win in 60 overs.[16] A profitable yet slow opening partnership between Mike Brearley and Geoffrey Boycott (the latter taking 17 overs to reach double figures)[17] saw England to 129. However, following Brearley's dismissal, only Graham Gooch and Derek Randall made a "brief assault" on the West Indian bowling,[17] before a batting collapse, Joel Garner taking five wickets in eleven balls.[18] England ended 194 all out, and presented the West Indies with their second consecutive title, winning by 92 runs.[17]
Lord's re-hosted the third World Cup final in June 1983, and was West Indies' third consecutive final. On this occasion, they faced India in front of 24,609 spectators.[19] Sunil Gavaskar was dismissed early in the innings for two runs, and only Kris Srikkanth scored more than thirty;[20] Andy Roberts took three wickets for the West Indies leaving India all out for 183.[20] Following the dismissals of Viv Richards, Desmond Haynes and Larry Gomes by Madan Lal for six runs between them, the West Indies collapsed to 140 all out, handing the title to India by 43 runs.[19] India and Pakistan co-hosted the 1987 tournament; the final was held at Eden Gardens in Kolkata between Australia and England, both appearing for the second time and vying for their first title. Australia won the toss and elected to bat first; David Boon scored 75 runs from 125 deliveries, while Mike Veletta made a rapid 45 from 31 deliveries taking Australia to a total of 253/5 by the close of play, this time after 50 overs.[21] In front of around 70,000 spectators, England's middle order of Bill Athey, Mike Gatting and Allan Lamb provided some resistance, but with 17 runs required in the final over to win, England fell short and lost by 7 runs.[22]
The 1992 tournament was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand, with the first ever day/night final being held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Australia between England and Pakistan. In their first final appearance, Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat first. Despite two early wickets from Derek Pringle, Pakistani batsmen Imran Khan and Javed Miandad shared a third-wicket partnership of 139. Both Inzamam-ul-Haq and Wasim Akram added over thirty runs each at more than a run-a-ball, leading Pakistan to a total of 249/6 in 50 overs.[23] A crowd of over 87,000 saw man-of-the-match Wasim Akram take three of England's wickets, including that of all-rounder Ian Botham for a duck, after Graeme Hick was "baffled by the googly".[24] England were bowled out for 227, and Pakistan won by 22 runs.[23] India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka hosted the tournament in 1996. Sri Lanka was making their first appearance in the final, and faced 1987 champions Australia in another day/night contest. After winning the toss, Arjuna Ranatunga sent Australia in to bat at the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore. Captain Mark Taylor and Ricky Ponting added 101 in their second-wicket partnership as Australia completed their 50 overs 241/7.[25] Man of the match Aravinda de Silva's century, assisted by partnerships with Asanka Gurusinha and Ranatunga led Sri Lanka to the total with 22 balls and 7 wickets to spare, and their first win in the final. This was the first time a host won the title, though the final was played in Pakistan. It was also the first time that the team batting second emerged victorious.[25]
Australia's Adam Gilchrist made sizeable contributions with the bat in three consecutive finals.
Australia's "12-year era of World Cup dominance" began with the 1999 tournament,[26] hosted for the fourth time by England. In a "one-sided" final,[27] Shane Warne's four wickets helped to restrict Pakistan to 132 runs, all out with 11 overs yet to bat.[28] A rapid fifty from Adam Gilchrist, and support from Mark Waugh, Ponting and Darren Lehmann, saw Australia reach the total in just over 20 overs, winning by eight wickets.[28] The 2003 tournament had three co-hosts: South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe, the final being a day/night match contested between Australia and India at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg. Gilchrist and Matthew Hayden opened the batting, making a century partnership before Ponting and Damien Martin went on to score the highest partnership in any World Cup final with an unbeaten 234.[29] Australia batted out their fifty overs, and ended on the highest score in World Cup final history: 359/2.[30] Player of the tournament Sachin Tendulkar was dismissed in the first over of India's reply but Virender Sehwag and Rahul Dravid combined to score 88 in their fourth wicket partnership. However, following Dravid's dismissal, India's batting collapsed, and they finished on 234 all out with nearly eleven overs remaining, handing Australia a 125-run victory.[30]
The 2007 final, held at the Kensington Oval in Barbados, was reduced to 38 overs a side following a two-hour rain delay.[31] Australia's Gilchrist hit the fastest century in a World Cup final at a strike rate of over 143 and his opening stand with Hayden became the largest first-wicket partnership in World Cup history.[29] Australia ended on 281/4, an average of 7.39 runs per over.[32] In reply, Sanath Jayasuriya and Kumar Sangakkara accumulated 116 runs for the second wicket, but with Chamara Silva the only other batsman to score over 20, Sri Lanka capitulated. Despite a revised target, due to a further rain break, calculated using the Duckworth–Lewis method, Sri Lanka scored 215–8 from their allotted overs. With a 53-run victory, Australia won their third consecutive World Cup.[32] Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka co-hosted the 2011 tournament,[33] with the latter pair meeting in the final in the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai. Scoring 91 runs in their final 10 overs,[34] Sri Lanka's innings ended on 274/6, Mahela Jayawardene top-scoring with an unbeaten 103.[35] Sehwag was out leg before wicket to Lasith Malinga in the second ball of the Indian innings, Tendulkar soon followed him, but 97 from Gautam Gambhir and an unbeaten 91 from MS Dhoni saw India home with 10 balls to spare. By winning the match, India became the first team to win the finals on home soil.[35]
List of finals[edit]
Key to list of finals
The final was played as a day/night game.
The final was decided by the Duckworth–Lewis method.
The "Year" column refers to the year the World Cup was held, and links to the article about that tournament.
The links in the "Result" column point to the article about that tournament's final game.
Links in the "Winners" and "Runners-up" columns point to the articles for the national cricket teams of the countries, not the articles for the countries.
List of finals, along with the host nation and location and result of the final
Year
Winner
Result
Runner-up
Final venue
Host nation(s)[2]
Crowd
1975
West Indies
291/8 (60 overs) West Indies won by 17 runs[11] Australia
274 all out (58.4 overs) Lord's, London England 24,000
1979
West Indies
286/9 (60 overs) West Indies won by 92 runs[16] England
194 all out (51 overs) Lord's, London England 32,000
1983
India
183 all out (54.4 overs) India won by 43 runs[20] West Indies
140 all out (52 overs) Lord's, London England 30,000
1987
Australia
253/5 (50 overs) Australia won by 7 runs[21] England
246/8 (50 overs) Eden Gardens, Kolkata, India India, Pakistan 95,000
1992
Pakistan
249/6 (50 overs) Pakistan won by 22 runs[23] England
227 all out (49.2 overs) MCG, Melbourne, Australia Australia, New Zealand 87,182
1996
Sri Lanka
245/3 (46.2 overs) Sri Lanka won by 7 wickets[25] Australia
241/7 (50 overs) Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore, Pakistan India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka 62,645
1999
Australia
133/2 (20.1 overs) Australia won by 8 wickets[28] Pakistan
132 all out (39 overs) Lord's, London England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Netherlands 30,000
2003
Australia
359/2 (50 overs) Australia won by 125 runs[30] India
234 all out (39.2 overs) Wanderers, Johannesburg, South Africa Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe 32,827
2007
Australia
281/4 (38 overs) Australia won by 53 runs [32] Sri Lanka
215/8 (36 overs) Kensington Oval, Bridgetown West Indies 28,108
2011
India
277/4 (48.2 overs) India won by 6 wickets[35] Sri Lanka
274/6 (50 overs) Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai, India Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka 65,000
2015
Australia
186/3 (33.1 overs) Australia won by 7 wickets New Zealand
183 all out (45 overs) MCG, Melbourne, Australia Australia, New Zealand 93,013
Results by country[edit]
Map of winning countries
National team
Final appearances
Winners
Runners-up
Years won
Years runners-up
Australia
7 5 2 1987, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015 1975, 1996
India
3 2 1 1983, 2011 2003
West Indies
3 2 1 1975, 1979 1983
Sri Lanka
3 1 2 1996 2007, 2011
Pakistan
2 1 1 1992 1999
England
3 0 3 – 1979, 1987, 1992
New Zealand
1 0 1 – 2015
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "ICC CWC History". International Cricket Council. Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "ICC Cricket World Cup". ESPN. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Rodrigopulle, Elmo (11 April 2007). "Big money for winner of World Cup 2007". Daily News (Sri Lanka). Cabinet of Sri Lanka. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Wijesiri, Lionel (28 April 2011). "Battle for World cricket supremacy". Daily News (Sri Lanka). Cabinet of Sri Lanka. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Outsiders seek to prove their worth". The Hindu. Chennai: The Hindu Group. 4 March 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
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