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Endocrine system
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Endocrine system
Main glands of the endocrine system. Note that the thymus is no longer considered part of the endocrine system, as it does not produce hormones.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema endocrinum
FMA
9668
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The endocrine system is the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs. The phenomenon of biochemical processes' serving to regulate distant tissues by means of secretions directly into the circulatory system is called endocrine signaling. The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and adrenal glands. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.[1] Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.
In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.[1]
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words ἐνδο- endo- "inside, within," and κρίνειν krinein "to separate, distinguish".
Contents
[hide]
1 Endocrine organs and known secreted hormones
1.1 Hypothalamus
1.2 Pineal body (epiphysis)
1.3 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
1.3.1 Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
1.3.2 Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
1.4 Thyroid
1.5 Digestive system
1.5.1 Stomach
1.5.2 Duodenum (small intestine)
1.5.3 Liver
1.5.4 Pancreas
1.6 Kidney
1.7 Adrenal glands
1.7.1 Adrenal cortex
1.7.2 Adrenal medulla
1.8 Reproductive
1.8.1 Testes
1.8.2 Ovarian follicle and corpus luteum
1.8.3 Placenta (when pregnant)
1.8.4 Uterus (when pregnant)
1.9 Calcium regulation
1.9.1 Parathyroid
1.9.2 Skin
2 Targets
2.1 Heart
2.2 Bone marrow
2.3 Skeletal muscle
2.4 Adipose tissue
3 Major endocrine systems
4 Physiology
4.1 Interaction with immune system
4.2 Other types of signalling
4.2.1 Autocrine
4.2.2 Paracrine
4.2.3 Juxtacrine
5 Diseases
6 Other animals
7 Additional images
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Endocrine organs and known secreted hormones[edit]
Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones
Hypothalamus[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
Produced by
Effect
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Dopamine
(Prolactin-inhibiting hormone)
DA or PIH Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus Inhibit prolactin released from anterior pituitary
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
GHRH Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary
Somatostatin
(growth hormone-inhibiting hormone)
SS, GHIH, or SRIF Neuroendocrine cells of the Periventricular nucleus Inhibit Growth hormone release from anterior pituitary
Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GnRH or LHRH Neuroendocrine cells of the Preoptic area Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release from anterior pituitary
Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
CRH or CRF Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the Paraventricular Nucleus Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from anterior pituitary
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic hormone)
ADH or AVP or VP Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons, Magnocellular neurosecretory neurons of the Paraventricular nucleus and Supraoptic nucleus Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume
Pineal body (epiphysis)[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Melatonin
Pinealocytes Antioxidant
Monitors the circadian rhythm including induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core body temperature
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)[edit]
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk.[2] The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is connected to the hypothalamus via the hypothalamo–hypophyseal portal vessels, which allows for quicker and more efficient communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary.[3]
Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Growth hormone
(somatotropin)
GH Somatotrophs Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1 release from liver
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(thyrotropin)
TSH Thyrotrophs Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release from thyroid gland
Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(corticotropin)
ACTH Corticotrophs Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid and mineralcorticoid) and androgen synthesis and release from adrenocortical cells
Beta-endorphin
– Corticotrophs Inhibits perception of pain
Follicle-stimulating hormone
FSH Gonadotrophs In females: Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in ovary
In males: Stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules
In males: Stimulates spermatogenesis
In males: Stimulates production of androgen-binding protein from Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone
LH Gonadotrophs In females: Stimulates ovulation
In females: Stimulates formation of corpus luteum
In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis from Leydig cells (interstitial cells)
Prolactin
PRL Lactotrophs Stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands
Mediates sexual gratification
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
MSH Melanotropes in the Pars intermedia of the Anterior Pituitary Stimulates melanin synthesis and release from skin/hair melanocytes
Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)[edit]
Stored hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Oxytocin
OX or OXT Magnocellular neurosecretory cells In females: uterine contraction during birthing, lactation (letdown reflex) when nursing
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic hormone)
ADH or AVP Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume
Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.
Thyroid[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Triiodothyronine
T3 Thyroid epithelial cell (More potent form of thyroid hormone)
Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis
Thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine)
T4 Thyroid epithelial cells (Less active form of thyroid hormone)
(Acts as a prohormone to triiodothyronine)
Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis
Calcitonin
Parafollicular cells Stimulates osteoblasts and thus bone construction
Inhibits Ca2+ release from bone, thereby reducing blood Ca2+
Digestive system[edit]
Stomach[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Gastrin (Primarily)
G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin
P/D1 cells Stimulate appetite.
Neuropeptide Y
NPY Increased food intake and decreased physical activity. It can be associated with obesity.
Somatostatin
D cells Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon
Lowers rate of gastric emptying
Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.[4]
Histamine
ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin
X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach[5]
Duodenum (small intestine)[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Secretin
S cells Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands
Enhances effects of cholecystokinin, stops production of gastric juice
Cholecystokinin
I cells Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas
Release of bile from gallbladder, hunger suppressant
Liver[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily)
IGF Hepatocytes insulin-like effects
regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and angiotensin
Hepatocytes vasoconstriction
release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
Thrombopoietin
THPO Hepatocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[6]
Hepcidin
Hepatocytes inhibits intestinal iron absorption and iron release by macrophages
Pancreas[edit]
The pancreas is a mixocrine gland and it secretes both enzymes and hormones.
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Insulin (Primarily)
β Islet cells Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood.
Intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes. Other anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also Primarily)
α Islet cells Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver.
Increases blood glucose level.
Somatostatin
δ Islet cells Inhibit release of insulin[7]
Inhibit release of glucagon[7] Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide
PP cells Self regulate the pancreas secretion activities and effect the hepatic glycogen levels.
Kidney[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Renin (Primarily)
Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)
Proximal tubule cells Active form of vitamin D3
Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin
stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[6]
Adrenal glands[edit]
Adrenal cortex[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)
zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue
Inhibits protein synthesis
Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue
Inhibits immunological responses (immunosuppressive)
Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti-inflammatory)
Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)
Zona glomerulosa cells Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys
Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure
Stimulates potassium and H+ secretion into nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion
Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)
Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells In males: Relatively small effect compared to androgens from testes
In females: masculinizing effects
Adrenal medulla[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)
Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
Dilate the pupils
Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine
Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin
Chromaffin cells Regulate pain
Reproductive[edit]
Testes[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Androgens (chiefly testosterone)
Leydig cells Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength,
Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
Estradiol
Sertoli cells Prevent apoptosis of germ cells[8]
Inhibin
Sertoli cells Inhibit production of FSH
Ovarian follicle and corpus luteum[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Progesterone
Granulosa cells, theca cells Support pregnancy:[9]
Convert endometrium to secretory stage
Make cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to sperm.
Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo
Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[9]
Inhibit lactation
Inhibit onset of labor.
Other:
Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels
Increase core temperature during ovulation[10]
Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus)
Anti-inflammatory
Reduce gall-bladder activity[11]
Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy
Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts
Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin
Promote healing by regulating collagen
Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin
Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen
Androstenedione
Theca cells Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol)
Granulosa cells Structural:
Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics
Accelerate height growth
Accelerate metabolism (burn fat)
Reduce muscle mass
Stimulate endometrial growth
Increase uterine growth
Maintain blood vessels and skin
Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation
Protein synthesis:
Increase hepatic production of binding proteins
Coagulation:
Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen
Increase platelet adhesiveness
Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth
Decrease LDL, fat deposition
Fluid balance:
Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention
Increase growth hormone
Increase cortisol, SHBG
Gastrointestinal tract:
Reduce bowel motility
Increase cholesterol in bile
Melanin:
Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin
Cancer:
Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers[12] (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.)
Lung function:
Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.[13]
Inhibin
Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary
Placenta (when pregnant)[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Progesterone (Primarily)
Support pregnancy:[9]
Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus.
Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[9]
Inhibit lactation
Inhibit onset of labor.
Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids.
Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)
Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin
HCG Syncytiotrophoblast Promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy
Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
Human placental lactogen
HPL Syncytiotrophoblast Increase production of insulin and IGF-1
Increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
Inhibin
Fetal Trophoblasts Suppress FSH
Uterus (when pregnant)[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Prolactin
PRL Decidual cells milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin
Decidual cells Unclear in humans and animals
Calcium regulation[edit]
Further information: Calcium metabolism
Parathyroid[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Parathyroid hormone
PTH Parathyroid chief cell Calcium:
Stimulates Ca2+ release from bone, thereby increasing blood Ca2+
Stimulates osteoclasts, thus breaking down bone
Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney
Stimulates activated vitamin D production in kidney

Phosphate:
Stimulates PO3−4 release from bones, thereby increasing blood PO3−4.
Inhibits PO3−4 reabsorption in kidney, so more PO3−4 is excreted
Overall, small net drop in serum PO3−4.
Skin[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3)
Inactive form of vitamin D3
Targets[edit]
Heart[edit]
Secreted hormone
Abbreviation
From cells
Effect
Atrial-natriuretic peptide
ANP Cardiac myocytes Reduce blood pressure by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
Brain natriuretic peptide
BNP Cardiac myocytes (To a lesser degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
Bone marrow[edit]
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Thrombopoietin
liver and kidney cells stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[6]
Skeletal muscle[edit]
In 1998, skeletal muscle was identified as an endocrine organ[14] due to its now well-established role in the secretion of myokines.[14][15] The use of the term myokine to describe cytokines and other peptides produced by muscle as signalling molecules was proposed in 2003.[16]
Adipose tissue[edit]
Signalling molecules released by adipose tissue are referred to as adipokines.
Secreted hormone
From cells
Effect
Leptin (Primarily)
Adipocytes decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Estrogens[17] (mainly Estrone)
Adipocytes
Major endocrine systems[edit]
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.[18]
TRH – TSH – T3/T4
GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones
CRH – ACTH – cortisol
Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone
leptin vs. insulin
Physiology[edit]
Interaction with immune system[edit]
Extensive bidirectional interactions exist between the endocrine system and the immune system.[19] Cortisol has major immunosuppressive effects,[20][21] and dopamine has immunomodulatory functions.[22] On the other hand, cytokines produced during inflammation activate the HPA axis at all three levels, sensible to negative feedback.[23] Moreover, cytokines stimulate hepcidin release from the liver, which is eventually responsible for the anemia of chronic disease.[24]
Other types of signalling[edit]
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
Autocrine[edit]
Main article: Autocrine signalling
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Paracrine[edit]
Main article: Paracrine signaling
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.[1]
Juxtacrine[edit]
Main article: Juxtacrine signalling
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.[25]
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.[3]
Diseases[edit]
Disability-adjusted life year for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[26]
no data
less than 80
80–160
160–240
240–320
320–400
400–480
480–560
560–640
640–720
720–800
800–1000
more than 1000
Main article: Endocrine diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[27] including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.[citation needed]
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.[28]
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison’s disease, Cushing’s disease and Grave’s disease. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism . Cushing’s disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.[29] Some clinical signs of Cushing’s disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.[2] Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.[30]
Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.[2] Graves' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.[3]
Other animals[edit]
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an hypothalamus-pituitary axis.[31] All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form.[32][33] All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers.[34] All vertebrates have some form of renin-angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.[35][36]
Additional images[edit]
Female endocrine system.
Male endocrine system
See also[edit]
Endocrine disease
Endocrinology
Exocrine gland
Neuroendocrinology
Nervous system
Paracrine signalling
Releasing hormones
Tropic hormone
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Jump up ^ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, Gorska AE, Dumont N, Shappell S, Washington MK, Neilson EG, Moses HL (2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science. 303 (5659): 848–51. PMID 14764882. doi:10.1126/science.1090922.
Jump up ^ Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Paun DL, Mirica A, Dumitrache C (2016). "Cushing's disease: a multidisciplinary overview of the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment". Journal Of Medicine & Life. 9 (1): 12–18.
Jump up ^ Inder, Warrick J.; Meyer, Caroline; Hunt, Penny J. (2015-06-01). "Management of hypertension and heart failure in patients with Addison's disease". Clinical Endocrinology. 82 (6): 789–792. ISSN 1365-2265. doi:10.1111/cen.12592.
Jump up ^ Hartenstein V (September 2006). "The neuroendocrine system of invertebrates: a developmental and evolutionary perspective". The Journal of Endocrinology. 190 (3): 555–70. PMID 17003257. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06964.
Jump up ^ Dickhoff, Walton W.; Darling, Douglas S. (1983). "Evolution of Thyroid Function and Its Control in Lower Vertebrates". American Zoologist. 23 (3): 697–707. JSTOR 3882951. doi:10.1093/icb/23.3.697.
Jump up ^ Galton, Valerie Anne (1 January 1988). "The Role of Thyroid Hormone in Amphibian Development". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 28 (2): 309–18. JSTOR 3883279. doi:10.1093/icb/28.2.309.
Jump up ^ Pohorecky LA, Wurtman RJ (March 1971). "Adrenocortical control of epinephrine synthesis". Pharmacological Reviews. 23 (1): 1–35. PMID 4941407.
Jump up ^ Wilson JX (1984). "The renin-angiotensin system in nonmammalian vertebrates". Endocrine Reviews. 5 (1): 45–61. PMID 6368215. doi:10.1210/edrv-5-1-45.
Jump up ^ Colombo L, Dalla Valle L, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P (April 2006). "Aldosterone and the conquest of land". Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 29 (4): 373–9. PMID 16699307. doi:10.1007/bf03344112.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The endocrine system
The Wikibook Anatomy and Physiology of Animals has a page on the topic of: Endocrine System
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GND: 4113434-5
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Endocrine organ

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text:
Ain't No Mountain High Enough
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with River Deep – Mountain High.
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
Single by Marvin Gaye & Tammi Terrell
from the album United
B-side
"Give a Little Love"
Released
April 20, 1967
Format
7-inch single
Recorded
December 1966 – February 1967
Studio
Hitsville USA, Detroit, Michigan
Genre
Soul
rhythm and blues
pop
Length
2:28
Label
Tamla (T-54149)
Songwriter(s)
Nickolas Ashford
Valerie Simpson
Producer(s)
Harvey Fuqua
Johnny Bristol
Marvin Gaye & Tammi Terrell singles chronology
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
(1967) "Your Precious Love"
(1967)
"Aint No Mountain High Enough"
(1967) "Your Precious Love"
(1967)
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough" is an R&B/soul song written by Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson in 1966 for the Tamla label, a division of Motown. The composition was first successful as a 1967 hit single recorded by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell, becoming a hit again in 1970 when recorded by former Supremes frontwoman Diana Ross. The song became Ross' first solo number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell original
1.2 The Supremes and Temptations version
2 Diana Ross solo version
2.1 Weekly charts
2.2 Year-end charts
2.3 Credits and personnel
3 Notable remakes/Usage in media
4 Personnel
4.1 Gaye/Terrell version
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell original[edit]
The song was written by Ashford and Simpson prior to joining Motown. British soul singer Dusty Springfield wanted to record the song but the duo declined, hoping it would give them access to the Detroit-based label. As Valerie Simpson later recalled, "We played that song for her (Springfield) but wouldn't give it to her, because we wanted to hold that back. We felt like that could be our entry to Motown. Nick called it the 'golden egg'."[1] Dusty recorded a similar verse melody in 'I'm Gonna Leave You' on Dusty.
The original 1967 version of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" was a top twenty hit. According to record producers, Terrell was a little nervous and intimidated during recording because she did not rehearse the lyrics. Terrell recorded her vocals alone with producers Harvey Fuqua and Johnny Bristol, who added Gaye's vocal at a later date.[2] "Ain't No Mountain" peaked at number nineteen on the Billboard pop charts, and went to number three on the R&B charts.[3]
This original version of "Ain't No Mountain", produced by Fuqua and Bristol, was a care-free, danceable, and romantic love song that became the signature duet between Gaye and Terrell. Its success led to a string of more Ashford/Simpson penned duets (including "You're All I Need to Get By", "Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing", and "Your Precious Love").
The Gaye/Terrell version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, and is regarded today as one of the most important records ever released by Motown.
The Supremes and Temptations version[edit]
Diana Ross & The Supremes recorded a version of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" which was more faithful to the Terrell-Gaye original version as a duet with The Temptations. That song was an album cut from a joint LP released by Motown Records in 1968 on the two superstar groups, titled Diana Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations.
Diana Ross solo version[edit]
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
Single by Diana Ross
from the album Diana Ross
B-side
"Can't It Wait Until Tomorrow"
Released
July 16, 1970
Format
7-inch single
Recorded
March 13, 14, and 18, 1970
Studio
Hitsville USA (Studio A), Detroit, Michigan
Genre
Soul
Length
6:18 (album version)
3:32 (single version)
Label
Motown (M 1169)
Songwriter(s)
Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson
Producer(s)
Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson
Diana Ross singles chronology
"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)"
(1970) "Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
(1970) "Remember Me"
(1970)
"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)"
(1970) "Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
(1970) "Remember Me"
(1970)
In late 1969, after the Top 20 success of her first solo single, "Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)", Ashford and Simpson had Ross re-record "Ain't No Mountain High Enough". Initially, Ross was apprehensive, but was convinced to make the recording. The remake was similar to gospel with elements of classical music strings (provided by the Detroit Symphony Orchestra), spoken word passages from Ross, with The Andantes, Jimmy Beavers, Jo Armstead, Ashford & Simpson and Brenda Evans and Billie Calvin of The Undisputed Truth as backing singers, giving the song a soul and gospel vocal element.
Motown chief Berry Gordy did not like the record upon first hearing it. He hated the spoken-word passages and wanted the song to begin with the climactic chorus/bridge. It was not until radio stations nationwide were editing their own versions and adding it to their playlists that Ashford and Simpson were able to convince Gordy to release an edited three-minute version as a single. Ross' version of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" rose up to number one on both the pop and R&B singles charts.[4] Ross received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. This version is in the key of C minor for most of the song, then towards the end, the key changes to F sharp major.
In 2017, "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" was remixed by Eric Kupper, StoneBridge, and Chris Cox, amongst others, on Motown/UMe.[5]The new remix went to number one on the Billboard US Dance Club Songschart.[6]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Peak
position
Australia 25
Canada 7
Ireland 14
UK 6
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[7] 1
U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary 6
U.S. Billboard R&B[8] 1
U.S. Cash Box Top 100[9] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Rank
Canada [10] 97
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[11] 6
U.S. R&B (Billboard)[8] 16
Credits and personnel[edit]
Lead vocals by Diana Ross
Background vocals by Nickolas Ashford, Valerie Simpson, Joshie Armstead, Jimmy Beavers, and The Andantes: Jackie Hicks, Marlene Barrow, and Louvain Demps[citation needed]
Instrumentation by The Funk Brothers and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, with Valerie Simpson on the piano.
Notable remakes/Usage in media[edit]
Hugh Masekela included the song in his 1968 album The Promise of a Future.
In 1981, American Disco band Inner Life from Salsoul Records released their version, which topped #20 on US Dance Chart.[12]
The Boys Town Gang formed a medley of the two songs "Remember Me" and "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" in 1981. The single was a club hit.
Australian singer Jimmy Barnes released an album of soul remakes titled Soul Deep in 1991, including his rock version of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough". His version reached #28 in Australia in 1992.[13]
In 1993, the film Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit, incorporates a unique mashup cover version, in which the verses and chorus of the song contain the original Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell version, whereas the Diana Ross version's bridge and ending are used. It is performed by Whoopi Goldberg and the rest of the cast.
The song was used in the 1999 film Our Friend, Martin. Performed by Debelah Morgan
In 2000, Dutch airline carrier KLM used the Supremes/Temptations version in a commercial.
Also in 2000, Disney featured the song in the sports drama film Remember the Titans.
Both in 2003 and 2004, Swedish girl group Play covered the song on their albums Replay, and Don't Stop the Music with both members Janet Leon, and Fanny Hamlin.
In 2004, Scottish singer Jimmy Somerville covered the song in his album "Home Again".
In 2005, the Diana Ross version was featured at the end of the animated film Chicken Little.
In 2006, Australian vocal group Human Nature included a remake on the second album of their Motown trilogy, Dancing in the Street: the Songs of Motown II. The album debuted at #1 on the ARIA charts.
Also in 2003, Michael McDonald included the song on the first of his Motown trilogy, Motown.
In 2011, the song was re-recorded by Paul Epworth and used in a commercial for DHL.[14]
This song is in Just Dance 2015
In 2011, the French singer Chimène Badi recorded a version with the singer Billy Paul.
In 2013, Michael Bolton recorded the song with Kelly Rowland for his 2013 album Ain't No Mountain High Enough – Tribute to Hitsville.
In the 2014 film Guardians of the Galaxy, by Marvel Studios, the original version was used in the epilogue, and was part of Peter Quill's Awesome Mix Vol. 1 Cassette tape.
Amy Winehouse used the backing of the song in "Tears Dry on Their Own" in her second and final album, Back to Black.
An orchestral version of the song was featured in a TD Canada Trust commercial that debuted in 2017.
In 2018 a remix of the Diana Ross version reached #1 on the US Dance Club Songs chart. Diana Ross appeared at the Abbey Night Club in West Hollywood to promote the new remix.
Personnel[edit]
Gaye/Terrell version[edit]
All vocals by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell
Instrumentation by The Funk Brothers and Detroit Symphony Orchestra
See also[edit]
List of number-one dance singles of 2018 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Valerie Simpson interview; Ashford and Simpson remembered". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ Chin, Brian (2001). Liner notes for Marvin Gaye & Tammi Terrell: The Complete Duets. New York: Motown Records/UMG Recordings.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Book of Top 40 R&B and Hip-Hop Hits. New York, NY: Billboard Books, 2006. Print.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004. Record Research. p. 501.
Jump up ^ "Diana Ross – Ain't No Mountain High Enough / Can't It Wait Until Tomorrow". discogs. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dance Club Songs – January 20, 2018". Billboard. January 16, 2018. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ [Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955–2002]
^ Jump up to: a b "1969: The Top 100 Soul/R&B Singles". Rate Your Music. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 13, 2016. Retrieved 2016-05-27.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". collectionscanada.gc.ca.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1970/Top 100 Songs of 1970". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Allmusic: Inner Life – Awards". Billboard. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
Jump up ^ Chart Position @ Australian-Charts.com Retrieved May 3, 2009
Jump up ^ "DHL Express presents "The International Specialists"". DHL. May 31, 2011. Retrieved September 5, 2011. [permanent dead link]
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Ain't No Mountain High Enough Lyrics
Preceded by
"War" by Edwin Starr Billboard Hot 100 number-one single (Diana Ross version)
September 19, 1970 (three weeks) Succeeded by
"Cracklin' Rosie" by Neil Diamond
Preceded by
"Don't Play That Song (You Lied)" by Aretha Franklin Billboard Best Selling Soul number-one single
October 3, 1970 Succeeded by
"I'll Be There" by The Jackson 5
[show]
v
t
e
Marvin Gaye singles discography
1960s: (Tamla)
1961
"Let Your Conscience Be Your Guide"
1962
"Sandman"
"Soldier's Plea"
"Stubborn Kind of Fellow"
"Hitch Hike"
1963
"Pride and Joy"
"Can I Get a Witness"
1964
"You're a Wonderful One"
"Once Upon a Time"
"What's the Matter with You Baby"
"Try It Baby"
"Baby Don't You Do It"
"What Good Am I Without You"
"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)"
1965
"I'll Be Doggone"
"Pretty Little Baby"
"Ain't That Peculiar"
1966
"One More Heartache"
"Take This Heart of Mine"
"Little Darling (I Need You)"
"It Takes Two"
1967
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
"Your Unchanging Love"
"Your Precious Love"
"You"
"If I Could Build My Whole World Around You"/"If This World Were Mine"
1968
"Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing"
"You're All I Need to Get By"
"Chained"
"Keep On Lovin' Me Honey"
"You Ain't Livin' till You're Lovin'"
"His Eye Is on the Sparrow"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"
1969
"Good Lovin' Ain't Easy to Come By"
"Too Busy Thinking About My Baby"
"That's the Way Love Is"
"Abraham, Martin and John"
"What You Gave Me"
"How Can I Forget"
1970s: (Tamla)
1970
"Gonna Give Her All the Love I've Got"
"The Onion Song"
"California Soul"
"The End of Our Road"
1971
"What's Going On"
"Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
"Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)"
"Save the Children"
1972
"You're the Man"
"Trouble Man"
"I Want to Come Home for Christmas"
1973
"Let's Get It On"
"You're a Special Part of Me"
"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)"
"Come Get to This"
1974
"You Sure Love to Ball"
"My Mistake (Was to Love You)"
"Don't Knock My Love"
"You Are Everything"
"Distant Lover"
1976
"I Want You"
"After the Dance"
"Since I Had You"
1977
"Got to Give It Up"
1978
"Pops, We Love You (A Tribute to Father)"
1979
"A Funky Space Reincarnation"
"Anger"
"Ego Tripping Out"
1980s: (Tamla/
Columbia)
1981
"Praise"
"Heavy Love Affair"
1982
"Sexual Healing"
1983
"My Love Is Waiting"
"'Til Tomorrow"
"Joy"
Posthumous
1985
"Sanctified Lady"
"It's Madness"
"Just Like"
1986
"The World Is Rated X"
1991
"My Last Chance"
1994
"Lucky, Lucky Me"
1995
"This Love Starved Heart Of Mine(It's Killing Me)"
2001
"Music"
2005
"Let's Get It On (The M.P.G. Groove Remix)"
2015
"Where Are We Going"
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Diana Ross singles
Discography
1970s songs
"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)"
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
"Remember Me"
"Reach Out (I'll Be There)"
"Surrender"
"I'm Still Waiting"
"Good Morning Heartache"
"Touch Me in the Morning"
"You're a Special Part of Me"
"Last Time I Saw Him"
"My Mistake (Was to Love You)"
"You Are Everything"
"Don't Knock My Love"
"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)"
"Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)"
"Love Hangover"
"Gettin' Ready for Love"
"Ease on Down the Road"
"Pops, We Love You (A Tribute to Father)"
"What You Gave Me"
"The Boss"
"It's My House"
1980s songs
"Upside Down"
"I'm Coming Out"
"My Old Piano"
"It's My Turn"
"Endless Love"
"Why Do Fools Fall in Love"
"Mirror, Mirror"
"Muscles"
"Pieces of Ice"
"All of You"
"Swept Away"
"Missing You"
"Eaten Alive"
"Chain Reaction"
1990–2000s songs
"When You Tell Me That You Love Me"
"Someday We'll Be Together" (Remix)
"Take Me Higher"
"I Will Survive"
"Not Over You Yet"
"Goin' Back"
"I've Got a Crush on You"
Featured songs
"A Brand New Day"
"We Are the World"
Book
Category
Template
[show]
v
t
e
Jimmy Somerville
Discography
Studio albums
Read My Lips
Dare to Love
Manage the Damage
Home Again
Compilations
The Singles Collection 1984/1990
The Very Best of Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat and The Communards
For a Friend: The Best of Bronski Beat, The Communards & Jimmy Somerville
Singles
"Suspicious Minds"
"Comment te dire adieu"
"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)"
"Read My Lips (Enough Is Enough)"
"To Love Somebody"
"Smalltown Boy ('91 Remix)"
"Gimme Shelter"
"Heartbeat"
"Hurt So Good"
"By Your Side"
"The Number One Song in Heaven"
"Why? (Almighty Mix)"
"Can't Take My Eyes Off You"
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
Other songs
"Love to Love You Baby"
"Johnny Remember Me"
"Lover Man"
"Do They Know It's Christmas?"
"From This Moment On"
"Someday We'll Be Together"
"But Not Tonight"
"I Was Born This Way"
"Tell Me Why"
Related articles
Bronski Beat
The Communards
Category
Book
[show]
v
t
e
Michael McDonald
Studio albums
If That's What It Takes (1982)
No Lookin' Back (1985)
Take It to Heart (1990)
Blink of an Eye (1993)
Blue Obsession (2000)
Motown (2003)
Motown Two (2004)
Soul Speak (2008)
Wide Open (2017)
Compilation albums
Sweet Freedom (1986)
Singles
"I Keep Forgettin' (Every Time You're Near)"
"No Lookin' Back"
"Sweet Freedom"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
"Reach Out, I'll Be There"
"Baby I Need Your Lovin'"
"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)"
"Deck the Halls/Jingle Bells"
"Walk On By"
"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher"
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas!"
Record labels
Warner Bros.
Reprise
Universal Music Group
Motown
Related articles
Discography
The Doobie Brothers
Toto
Amy Holland
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ain%27t_No_Mountain_High_Enough&oldid=831019914"
Categories:
1967 singles
1970 singles
Marvin Gaye songs
Tammi Terrell songs
Diana Ross songs
Michael McDonald (singer) songs
Songs written by Valerie Simpson
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles
Billboard Dance Club Songs number-one singles
Vocal duets
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Song recordings produced by Harvey Fuqua
1966 songs
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Song recordings produced by Johnny Bristol
Song recordings produced by Ashford & Simpson
Songs written by Nickolas Ashford
Garage house songs
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