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Little Shop of Horrors (musical)
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This article is about the musical. For other uses, see Little Shop of Horrors.
Little Shop of Horrors
Original Cast Album
Music
Alan Menken
Lyrics
Howard Ashman
Book
Howard Ashman
Basis
The Little Shop of Horrors
by Charles B. Griffith
Productions
1982 Off-Broadway
1983 West End
1986 Film
2003 Broadway
2004 US National Tour
2006 West End Revival
2009 UK Tour
2016 UK Tour
Awards
Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Musical
Drama Desk Award for Best Musical
Outer Critics Circle Award
Evening Standard Award for Best Musical
Little Shop of Horrors is a horror comedy rock musical, by composer Alan Menken and writer Howard Ashman, about a hapless florist shop worker who raises a plant that feeds on human blood and flesh. The musical is based on the low-budget 1960 black comedy film The Little Shop of Horrors. The music, composed by Menken in the style of early 1960s rock and roll, doo-wop and early Motown, includes several well-known tunes, including the title song, "Skid Row (Downtown)", "Somewhere That's Green", and "Suddenly, Seymour".
The musical premiered Off-Off-Broadway in 1982 before moving to the Orpheum Theatre Off-Broadway, where it had a five-year run. It later received numerous productions in the U.S. and abroad, and a subsequent Broadway production. Because of its small cast and relatively simple orchestrations, it has become popular with community theatre, school and other amateur groups.[1] The musical was also made into a 1986 film of the same name, directed by Frank Oz.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
1.1 Act I
1.2 Act II
2 Original production
2.1 Original Off-Broadway cast
2.2 1983 West End
3 Musical numbers
4 Differences between the 1960 film and stage musical
5 Subsequent productions
5.1 2003 tryout and Broadway
5.2 2004 U.S. national tour
5.3 2006 London revival and 2009 UK tour
5.4 Encores! 2015
5.5 2016 Australian Tour
5.6 2016 UK Tour
6 Audrey II puppets
7 Adaptations
7.1 1986 feature film
7.2 1991 animated series
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Act I[edit]
An offstage voice recalls a time when the human race "suddenly encountered a deadly threat to its very existence". A trio of 1960s street urchins named Crystal, Ronette, and Chiffon set the scene ("Little Shop of Horrors") and comment on the action throughout the show. Seymour Krelborn is a poor young man, an orphan living in an urban skid row. Audrey is a pretty blonde with a fashion sense that leans towards the tacky. They lament their stations in life and the urban blight in their neighborhood ("Skid Row (Downtown)"). They are co-workers at Mushnik's Skid Row Florists, a run-down flower shop owned and operated by the cranky Mr. Mushnik. Seymour has recently obtained a mysterious plant that looks like a large venus flytrap. While he was browsing the wholesale flower district, a sudden eclipse of the sun occurred, and when the light returned, the weird plant had appeared ("Da-Doo"). Seymour is secretly in love with Audrey and names the plant Audrey II in her honor.
The plant does not thrive in its new environment and appears to be dying. Seymour questions why it should be doing poorly, since he takes such good care of it. He accidentally pricks his finger on a rose thorn, which draws blood, and Audrey II's pod opens thirstily. Seymour realizes that Audrey II requires blood to survive and allows the plant to suckle from his finger ("Grow For Me"). As Audrey II grows, it becomes an attraction and starts generating brisk business for Mushnik. As the caretaker of the plant, the timid Seymour is suddenly regarded as a hero ("Ya Never Know"), while Audrey secretly longs to leave her abusive boyfriend. Her dream is to lead an ideal suburban life with Seymour, complete with a tract home, frozen dinners, and plastic on the furniture ("Somewhere That's Green").
Meanwhile, the employees at Mushnik's are sprucing up the flower shop because of the popularity of the rapidly growing Audrey II and the revenue that it is bringing in ("Closed for Renovation"). Orin Scrivello, a sadistic dentist, is Audrey's abusive boyfriend. Modeled after the "Leader of the pack" characters of the 1950s, Orin drives a motorcycle, wears leather, and enjoys bringing other people pain ("Dentist!"). Orin encourages Seymour to take the plant and get out of Skid Row. Realizing that his store's sudden profitability is completely dependent on the plant (and therefore on Seymour), Mushnik takes advantage of Seymour's innocence by offering to adopt him and make him a full partner in the business. Having always wanted a family, Seymour accepts, even though Mushnik has always yelled at him and treated him poorly ("Mushnik and Son"). However, Seymour is having difficulty providing enough blood to keep Audrey II healthy. When Seymour stops feeding the plant, Audrey II reveals that it can speak. It demands blood and promises that, if fed, it will make sure that all of Seymour's dreams come true. Seymour initially refuses, but he then witnesses Orin abusing Audrey. The plant presents this as a justification for killing Orin. Not realizing that he is being manipulated again, Seymour gives in to his baser instincts and agrees ("Feed Me (Git It)").
He sets up a late-night appointment with Orin, intending to kill him. However, Seymour loses his nerve and decides not to commit the crime. Unfortunately for Orin, who is getting high on nitrous oxide, the gas device is stuck in the "on" position, and he overdoses while asking Seymour to save him. Seymour cannot bring himself to shoot Orin but lets him die of asphyxiation ("Now (It's Just The Gas)"). Seymour feeds Orin's body to the now huge Audrey II, and the plant consumes it with ravenous glee ("Act I Finale").
Act II[edit]
"Suddenly, Seymour"
The beginning of the last chorus of "Suddenly, Seymour", performed by Kerry Butler and Hunter Foster on the 2003 Broadway revival cast recording.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The flower shop is much busier, and Seymour and Audrey have trouble keeping up with the onslaught of orders ("Call Back in the Morning"). Audrey confides to Seymour that she feels guilty about Orin's disappearance, because she secretly wished it. The two admit their feelings for one another, and Seymour promises that he will protect and care for Audrey from now on ("Suddenly, Seymour"). The two plan to leave together and start a new life, although Seymour mistakenly attributes Audrey's feelings to his newfound fame, not realizing that she loved him even before he found the plant.
Before they can go, Mushnik confronts Seymour about Orin's death. Mushnik has put two and two together: the bloody dentist's uniform, the drops of blood on the floor, and he has seen Seymour and Audrey kissing. Seymour denies killing Orin, but Mushnik wants him to give a statement to the police, who have begun investigating. Audrey II tells Seymour that he has to be rid of Mushnik or he will lose everything, including Audrey ("Suppertime"). Seymour tells Mushnik that he put the days' receipts inside Audrey II for safekeeping. Mushnik climbs inside the plant's gaping maw to search for the money, realizing the deception too late, and screams as he is devoured. Seymour now runs the flower shop and reporters, salesman, lawyers and agents approach him, promising him fame and fortune. Although tempted by the trappings of his success, Seymour realizes that it is only a matter of time before Audrey II will kill again and that he is morally responsible. He considers destroying the plant but believing that his fame is the only thing that is earning him Audrey's love, he is unable to do so ("The Meek Shall Inherit").
As Seymour works on his speech for a lecture tour, Audrey II again squalls for blood. Seymour threatens to kill it just as Audrey walks in asking when Mushnik will return from visiting his "sick sister". Seymour learns that Audrey would still love him without the fame and decides that Audrey II must die after the scheduled LIFE magazine interview at the shop. Audrey is confused and frightened by Seymour's ramblings, but she runs home by his order. That night, unable to sleep and distressed by Seymour's strange behavior, Audrey goes to the flower shop to talk with him. He is not there, and Audrey II begs her to water him. Not sensing the mortal danger, she approaches to water it, and a vine wraps around her and pulls her into the plant's gaping maw ("Sominex/Suppertime II"). Seymour arrives and attacks the plant in an attempt to save Audrey. He pulls her out, but Audrey is mortally wounded and tells him to feed her to the plant after she dies so that they can always be together. She dies in his arms, and he reluctantly honors her request ("Somewhere That's Green" (reprise)). Seymour falls asleep as Audrey II grows small red flower buds.
The next day, Patrick Martin from the World Botanical Enterprises tells Seymour that his company wishes to take leaf cuttings of Audrey II and sell them across America. Seymour realizes the plant's evil plan: during the solar eclipse, Audrey II came from an unknown planet to conquer Earth. He tries shooting, cutting, and poisoning the plant, but it has grown too hardy to kill. Seymour, in desperation, runs into its open jaws with a machete planning to kill it from the inside, but he is quickly eaten. Patrick, Crystal, Ronette, and Chiffon search for Seymour. Not finding him, Patrick tells the girls to take the cuttings.
Crystal, Ronette, and Chiffon relate that, following these events, other plants appeared across America, tricking innocent people into feeding them blood in exchange for fame and fortune. Out of the fog, Audrey II, bigger than ever, appears with opened new flowers revealing the faces of Seymour, Audrey, Mushnik and Orin, who beg that, no matter how persuasive the plants may be, they must not be fed ("Finale Ultimo: Don't Feed the Plants"). Audrey II slithers towards the audience threateningly (In the original Off-Broadway production, plant tendrils fell all over the audience, as if each audience member were to be pulled into the plant, while in the Broadway production, a monstrously huge Audrey II was projected out over the fifth row and the balcony seats, as if it would eat the audience members).
Original production[edit]
The musical had its world premiere Off-Off-Broadway on May 6, 1982 at the Workshop of the Players' Art (WPA) Theatre, playing there until June 6, 1982.[2] It opened Off-Broadway at the Orpheum Theatre in Manhattan's East Village on July 27, 1982. The production, directed by Ashman, with musical staging by Edie Cowan, was critically acclaimed and won several awards including the 1982–1983 New York Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Musical, the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical, and the Outer Critics Circle Award.[3] Howard Ashman wrote, in the introduction to the acting edition of the libretto, that the show "satirizes many things: science fiction, 'B' movies, musical comedy itself, and even the Faust legend".[4]
The production ran for 5 years. When it closed on November 1, 1987, after 2,209 performances, it was the third-longest running musical[5] and the highest-grossing production in Off-Broadway history.[6] Though a Broadway transfer had been proposed for the production, book writer Howard Ashman felt the show belonged where it was.[7] Since it was not produced on Broadway, the original production was ineligible for the 1982 Tony Awards. The producers were the WPA Theatre, David Geffen, Cameron Mackintosh and the Shubert Organization. The Audrey II puppets were designed and operated by Martin P. Robinson.[4]
An original cast recording, released in 1982, omitted the songs "Call Back in the Morning", and "Somewhere That's Green" (reprise), and had abridged versions of "Now (It's Just the Gas)," "Mushnik and Son," and "The Meek Shall Inherit." It also shifted the location of the song "Closed for Renovation," appearing in the show after "Somewhere That's Green" while appearing on the cast album after "Now (It's Just the Gas)" to serve as an upbeat bridge from Orin's death to the Act II love ballad, "Suddenly, Seymour".[8] The recording features Leilani Jones, who replaced Marlene Danielle as Chiffon two weeks after the musical opened.
Original Off-Broadway cast[edit]
Seymour Krelborn – Lee Wilkof
Audrey – Ellen Greene
Mr. Mushnik – Hy Anzell
Chiffon – Marlene Danielle (replaced after two weeks by Leilani Jones)
Crystal – Jennifer Leigh Warren
Ronette – Sheila Kay Davis
Audrey II (voice) – Ron Taylor
Audrey II (manipulation) / Wino #1 – Martin P. Robinson[9]
Orin Scrivello, Narrator, Wino #2, Customer, Radio Announcer, Bernstein, Mrs. Luce, Skip Snip, and Patrick Martin – Franc Luz
1983 West End[edit]
A London West End production opened on January 1, 1983 at the Comedy Theatre, produced by Cameron Mackintosh. It ran for 813 performances, starring Barry James as Seymour and Ellen Greene (reprising her role) as Audrey. It received the Evening Standard Award for Best Musical and closed on October 5, 1985.[10][11]
Musical numbers[edit]
Act I
Prologue ("Little Shop of Horrors") – Chiffon, Crystal, and Ronette
"Skid Row (Downtown)" – Company
"Da-Doo" – Chiffon, Crystal, and Ronette (with Seymour speaking)
"Grow for Me" – Seymour
"Ya Never Know" – Mushnik, Chiffon, Crystal, Ronette, and Seymour
"Somewhere That's Green" – Audrey
"Closed for Renovation" – Seymour, Audrey, and Mushnik
"Dentist!" – Orin, Chiffon, Crystal, and Ronette
"Mushnik and Son" – Mushnik and Seymour
"Sudden Changes" – Seymour
"Feed Me (Git It)" – Audrey II and Seymour
"Now (It's Just the Gas)" – Orin and Seymour
Coda – Chiffon, Crystal, Ronette, and Audrey II
Act II
"Call Back in the Morning" – Seymour and Audrey
"Suddenly, Seymour" – Seymour, Audrey, Chiffon, Crystal, and Ronette
"Suppertime" – Audrey II (with Seymour and Mushnik speaking)
"The Meek Shall Inherit" – Company
"Sominex/Suppertime" (reprise) – Audrey and Audrey II
"Somewhere That's Green" (reprise) – Audrey (with Seymour speaking)
"Finale Ultimo ("Don't Feed the Plants") – Company
Differences between the 1960 film and stage musical[edit]
Further information: The Little Shop of Horrors
The musical is based on the basic concept and dark comic tone of the 1960 film, although it changes much of the story. The setting is moved from Skid Row, Los Angeles to Skid Row in New York. Seymour's hypochondriacal Jewish mother is omitted in the musical, and Seymour becomes an orphan in the care of Mushnik. Also dropped is the subplot involving the two investigating police officers. The characters of Mrs. Siddie Shiva and Burson Fouch are also omitted, although Mrs. Shiva is mentioned as being the shop's biggest funeral account. The gleefully masochistic dental patient, originally played by Jack Nicholson, is not in the musical but is in the 1986 film, played by Bill Murray.
In the musical, the sadistic dentist, Orin Scrivello, is killed by suffocation from laughing gas instead of being stabbed with a dental instrument as in the film. His abusive relationship with Audrey is added to the musical to give Seymour a motive to kill him. In the film, Seymour murders several innocent bystanders, and Mushnik tricks a thief into looking for money inside the plant, which eats the thief. In the musical, Seymour tricks Mushnik in the same way when Mushnik plans to turn Seymour over to the police. The two neighborhood girls in the film are replaced in the musical by a chorus of three street urchins: Crystal, Chiffon and Ronette, named after (and reminiscent of) girl groups of the 1960s. The plant is named "Audrey II" in the musical, rather than the film's "Audrey Junior", and instead of being a crossbreed of a butterwort and a Venus Flytrap, in the musical it is a creature from outer space intent on taking over the world.
Perhaps the biggest difference is the ending. The musical ends with Orin, Mushnik, Audrey and Seymour all eaten by the plant, and the three girls report that Audrey II's progeny continues to consume people. In the 1960 film, Mushnik and Audrey survive, and the plant's carnivorous activities are discovered when its flowers bloom with the faces of its victims, including Seymour, imprinted on them. The musical references this ending in its finale, in which the Plant's four victims' faces are seen in its blooming flowers.
The change in ending of the musical contributes to its portrayal of class struggles and moral values. Whilst the film shows Seymour and Audrey escaping to the dream suburban house, encapsulating ideals of the 1950s American Dream, the musical hints to a metaphorical portrayal of Seymour's greed as the plant. [12] Seymour’s greed gradually consumes himself and Audrey. The musical engages with ideas relating to human values in the face of capitalist culture, disempowering those who are enveloped with motivations of personal monetary gain and overlook moral values. It serves as a social commentary of commodity fetishism. [13]
Subsequent productions[edit]
2003 tryout and Broadway[edit]
In 2003, an $8 million revival of Little Shop of Horrors was planned with the goal of opening on Broadway. A $1 million pre-Broadway production debuted at the Miracle Theatre in Coral Gables, Florida on May 16, 2003. Lee Wilkof, who originated the role of Seymour in 1982, was cast as Mr. Mushnik. The production was directed by Wilkof's wife, Connie Grappo, who was the assistant to Howard Ashman during the original production.[7] Muppeteer Martin P. Robinson, who designed the original Audrey II puppets, enlisted friends at The Jim Henson Company to create new, high tech puppets for the show. Hunter Foster and Alice Ripley played Seymour and Audrey, and the prologue was recited by Robert Stack.[14]
Critics complained that by expanding the show to fit a larger theatre, its intimacy was lost; they also judged several actors as miscast, although the Miami Herald declared that "Alice Ripley's Audrey – part lisping Kewpie doll (a la Ellen Greene, who originated the role), part dental punching bag – is heartbreakingly adorable."[15] In June 2003, the producers announced that the Broadway production was canceled.[16] Nevertheless, within weeks, they ousted Grappo in favor of veteran Broadway director Jerry Zaks, who fired everyone in the cast, except Foster, and redirected the production from scratch. New casting was announced in July.[17][18]
The musical made its Broadway debut at the Virginia Theatre on October 2, 2003 with Foster as Seymour, Kerry Butler as Audrey, Rob Bartlett as Mr. Mushnik, Douglas Sills as Orin, Michael-Leon Wooley as the voice of Audrey II and DeQuina Moore as Chiffon.[17][18] Although this was the first time it had played on Broadway, the show's success in film and numerous regional productions made it fall under the "Revival" category for the 2003 Tony Awards. Foster was nominated for the 2004 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical for his performance. The revival was fairly faithful to the original 1982 production. Changes included the expanded version of the title song heard in the 1986 film, and expanded "You Never Know" with a "WSKID" radio introduction, and a revised Act I Finale and added Entr'acte before "Call Back in the Morning." The orchestrations were beefed up for the bigger theatre to add reeds, trumpets and percussion to the original 5-piece combo.[19] In the finale, a gigantic Audrey II extended over the audience to snap its hungry jaws at them.[20]
The cast album was released on October 21, 2003.[21] Demo recordings to five songs ("A Little Dental Music", "The Worse He Treats Me", "We'll Have Tomorrow", "Bad" and "I Found a Hobby") cut during the development process of the musical were included as bonus material for the album.[19][21][22] The production closed on August 22, 2004 after 40 previews and 372 regular performances.[23] The closing Broadway cast included Joey Fatone as Seymour.[23]
2004 U.S. national tour[edit]
On August 10, 2004, a U.S. national tour of the Broadway production began, with Anthony Rapp starring as Seymour, Tari Kelly as Audrey and Lenny Wolpe as Mushnik.[24] The tour closed April 16, 2006 in Columbus, Ohio.[citation needed]
2006 London revival and 2009 UK tour[edit]
Audrey II devours Audrey; 2006–07 West End production
A production began previews on November 17, 2006 at the Menier Chocolate Factory. This revival, directed by Matthew White, featured a new Audrey II designed by David Farley, resembling the pitcher plant.[25] The production was a critical and commercial success and transferred to the Duke of York's Theatre in London's West End in March 2007. In June 2007, the show transferred to the Ambassadors Theatre, where it ended its run on September 8, 2007.[26] The cast featured Paul Keating as Seymour, Sheridan Smith as Audrey, Alistair McGowan as Orin, and Mike McShane providing the voice of Audrey II.[25] Smith and McGowan received 2008 Laurence Olivier Award nominations, and the production was nominated for Best Musical Revival.[27]
The production toured the UK in 2009 with a cast including Damian Humbley as Seymour, Clare Buckfield as Audrey, Alex Ferns as Orin, Sylvester McCoy as Mr Mushnik and Clive Rowe as the voice of Audrey II.[28]
Encores! 2015[edit]
A three-performance Encores! concert staging at New York City Center as part of its Off-Center series ran in July 2015. Directed by Dick Scanlan, the production starred Jake Gyllenhaal as Seymour, and Ellen Greene reprising her role as Audrey. Taran Killam played Orin, with Tracy Nicole Chapman, Marva Hicks and Ramona Keller as the urchins. Joe Grifasi was Mr. Mushnik, with Eddie Cooper as the plant. Reviewers praised Greene, Gyllenhaal and the cast in general.[29] Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times: "A confluence of alchemical elements was at work, converging in ways that made a perfectly charming but small musical feel like a major event."[30]
2016 Australian Tour[edit]
An Australian tour opened at the Hayes Theatre in Sydney on February 22, 2016, before touring to Her Majesty's Theatre, Adelaide; The Comedy Theatre, Melbourne; Canberra Theatre Centre; Queensland Performing Arts Centre, Brisbane, and The Roslyn Packer Theatre, Sydney. It starred Brent Hill as Seymour, Esther Hannaford as Audrey, Tyler Coppin as Mushnik and Scott Johnson as Orin. Hill also voiced Audrey II. The production was directed by Dean Bryant and choreographed by Andy Hallwsorth[31] The production was nominated for ten Sydney Theatre Awards, winning eight, including Best Production of a Musical,[32] and five Helpmann Awards, winning none.[33] Cassie Tongue wrote of it in The Guardian: "Watching this show feels like a discovery, or a reaffirmation; to be reminded why musical theatre matters, to be assured that musicals are a difficult, exhilarating art. And all this from a campy cult classic. What magic."[34]
2016 UK Tour[edit]
A UK tour began on August 4, 2016, directed by Tara Wilkinson, starring Sam Lupton as Seymour, Stephanie Clift as Audrey and Rhydian Roberts as Orin.[35] It was booked through November 26, 2016.[36]
Audrey II puppets[edit]
The character of Audrey II is described as being "An anthropomorphic cross between a Venus flytrap and an avocado. It has a huge, nasty-looking pod that gains a shark-like aspect when open and snapping at food. The creature is played by a series of increasing[ly] large puppets".[37]
In productions, the first puppet is a small potted plant "less than one foot tall" held by the actor portraying Seymour.[37] He manipulates the plant himself with his hand and then sets it down, where it is moved by an unseen hand from beneath a shelf. The second puppet is slightly larger than the first and is operated by Seymour during the song "You Never Know". A fake arm in a sleeve matching Seymour's jacket is attached to the plant's pot, while the actor's real arm operates the plant. The third puppet sits on the floor and is large enough to hide a person inside, who moves the plant's mouth in sync with Audrey II's voice, which is supplied by an offstage actor on a microphone. The puppeteer's legs are clad in green tights with "leaf" shoes" that serve as part of the plant's tendrils. In Act II, the largest puppet again hides an actor inside, who manipulates the puppet's mouth and often some of its branches. By this point, the head is at least six feet long and capable of "swallowing" characters. For the finale, additions can be made to make the plant appear taller and even bigger.[37] Actors and stage hands are often used to move larger branches and roots, which, in the original off-Broadway production, spilled off the stage and into the audience. In some productions, dangling vines over the house enhance the effect of Audrey II menacing the audience.
Amateur productions of Little Shop of Horrors receive designs for building the puppets from MTI, as part of the rental scripts and scores, based on the original Martin P. Robinson designs. Some companies who have produced the show in the past and built their own puppets rent them out to other companies to recoup some of their construction costs.[38]
Adaptations[edit]
1986 feature film[edit]
Main article: Little Shop of Horrors (film)
A film version of the musical was made in 1986. Directed by Frank Oz and noted as the only film written by Howard Ashman, it starred Rick Moranis as Seymour, Ellen Greene as Audrey, Vincent Gardenia as Mr. Mushnik, Steve Martin as Orin Scrivello, DDS, and the voice of Levi Stubbs as Audrey II. Bill Murray played the small comic role of the masochist, Arthur Denton. The 1986 film follows the plot of the musical closely but omits the songs "Ya Never Know" (rewritten as "Some Fun Now," a trio for Crystal, Ronette and Chiffon), "Mushnik and Son", "Now (It's Just the Gas)", "Sudden Changes," "Closed for Renovation" and "Call Back in the Morning"; the final cut ending also omits "Finale Ultimo (Don't Feed The Plants)". Other changes include the removal of Mr. Mushnik's adoption proposition and a new ending, in which Seymour is able to save Audrey from Audrey II and then electrocutes the plant after it has destroyed the shop. Seymour and Audrey marry and move to the tract home of her dreams, but a small Audrey II-type bud is seen in their garden, which portends a possible spread of the alien plants. An ending more faithful to the stage version was filmed, in which the plant eats Audrey and Seymour and then, having grown to massive size and reproduced, goes on a King Kong-style rampage through New York City. It was received poorly by test audiences, and the upbeat alternate ending was used for the theatrical cut. In October 2012, the original ending was restored and released with the film as "The Director's Cut" on DVD and Blu-ray. A new song for Audrey II, "Mean Green Mother from Outer Space", was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.
1991 animated series[edit]
Main article: Little Shop
A Saturday morning animated cartoon version, titled Little Shop, ran for one season on Fox Kids in 1991. Seymour and Audrey were depicted as pre-teens, and the plant, "Audrey Junior", was not man-eating or evil, but had a huge appetite for meat and retained its catchphrase, "Feed me!" Each episode also featured two stylish music video sequences, many of which were raps by the plant. IMDb credits Frank Oz with the inspiration for turning the film/musical into a cartoon.[39]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ TIME magazine reported in its May 26, 2008 issue, p. 51, that this musical ranked as the most frequently produced musical by U.S. high schools in 2007.
Jump up ^ "Theater: Little Shop of Horrors", Howard Ashman website, accessed April 21, 2014
Jump up ^ "Lortel Archive for Little Shop of Horrors". Lortel Archives. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Ashman, Howard. Introductory notes, Little Shop of Horrors acting edition (1982)
Jump up ^ Sedore, Clair. "Long Runs in the Theatre" Archived 2010-04-02 at the Wayback Machine., World-theatres.com. Retrieved on April 20, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gordon, James. "Plymouth-Whitemarsh: ‘Little Shop of Horrors’", philly.com, 30 March 2009, Accessed 13 August 2009
^ Jump up to: a b Pogrebin, Robin (2003-10-20). "The Show That Ate the Original Cast". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ castalbumscollector.com listing
Jump up ^ Audrey II was created as a series of elaborate puppets, some of which were large enough to be operated by an actor from the inside.
Jump up ^ Lewis, David. "Little Shop of Horrors", The Guide to Musical Theatre
Jump up ^ "History and Awards", Lyric Opera musicals site
Jump up ^ Jensen, Marc. ["Feed me!": Power struggles and the portrayal of race in Little Shop of Horrors.] Cinema Journal 48, no. 1 (2008): 51-67
Jump up ^ Leigh, Mary K., and Kevin K. Durand, eds. Marxism and the Movies: Critical Essays on Class Struggle in the Cinema. McFarland, 2013
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew (2003-05-16). "Florida Engagement of Little Shop of Horrors Opens May 16". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ "Did FL Critics Eat Up B'way-Bound Little Shop?". Broadway.com. 2003-05-20. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ Simonson, Robert (2003-06-02). "Little Shop of Horrors Cancels Broadway Engagement". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Gans, Andrew (2003-07-14). "Complete Casting Announced for Broadway's Little Shop of Horrors". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Gans, Andrew (2003-08-13). "Little Shop of Horrors Cast Previews Broadway Revival". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Suskin, Steven (2003-11-16). "On the Record: Little Shop, Albertine and Zanna". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ Finn, Robin (2003-10-14). "Public Lives; A Hot, Sweaty Job in a Plant, Eating People". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Kenneth (2003-09-03). "Little Shop Cast Album Due Oct. 21, With Bonus Tracks". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ Phares, Heather. "Little Shop of Horrors (New Broadway Cast Recording)", Allmusic.com, accessed June 13, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Gans, Andrew (2004-08-22). "Broadway's Little Shop of Horrors Closes Its Doors Aug. 22". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ Hernandez, Ernio and Andrew Gans. "Anthony Rapp is Suddenly Seymour as Little Shop of Horrors Starts in Los Angeles, Aug. 24", Playbill, August 24, 2004, accessed October 11, 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Nathan, John (2007-08-16). "London's Little Shop of Horrors to Close in September". Playbill. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
Jump up ^ "Little Shop of Horrors", This Is Theatre, 10 November 2008
Jump up ^ 2008 Olivier Award nominations
Jump up ^ Roberts, John. "Little Shop of Horrors – Theatre Royal Brighton," February 17, 2009
Jump up ^ Viagas, Robert. "The Verdict. Reviews for Encores! 'Little Shop of Horrors'", Playbill.com, July 2, 2015
Jump up ^ Brantley, Ben. "Review: Jake Gyllenhaal Sings in Little Shop of Horrors", The New York Times, July 2, 2015
Jump up ^ Official Australian tour website, LittleShopTour.com.au, accessed August 24, 2017
Jump up ^ "2016 – Nominations and Winners", Sydney Theatre Awards, accessed August 24, 2017
Jump up ^ "Past nominees and winners: 2016", HelpmannAwards.com, accessed 27 August 2017
Jump up ^ Tongue, Cassie. "Little Shop of Horrors review – black comedy triumph thrusts cult classic into contemporary Australia", The Guardian, February 24, 2016
Jump up ^ Hewis, Ben. "In rehearsals with Rhydian and the cast of Little Shop of Horrors", 29 July 2016
Jump up ^ Little Shop of Horrors, LittleshopUKtour.com, accessed September 16, 2016
^ Jump up to: a b c Music Theatre International. ""Little Shop of Horrors", Casting – Character Breakdown". Retrieved 25 December 2008.
Jump up ^ See, for example, "Prattsburgh Central School, Audrey II Rental"
Jump up ^ Little Shop on IMDb
References[edit]
Ganzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre: 2nd Edition. Schirmer Books, 2001
Kennedy P., Michael & John Muir. Musicals. Harper Collins Publishers, 1997.
External links[edit]
United States portal
1980s portal
Theatre portal
Little Shop of Horrors original production site
Little Shop of Horrors at the Internet Broadway Database
Little Shop of Horrors on IMDb
Little Shop of Horrors at the Music Theatre International website
[show]
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A Bronx Tale (2016)
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The Little Mermaid (1989)
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[show]
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Musicals
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Smile (1986)
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Aladdin (2014)
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The Little Mermaid (1989)
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The Wiz (1975)
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Sweeney Todd (1979)
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The Pirates of Penzance (1981)
Nine (1982)
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Sunday in the Park with George (1984)
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Into the Woods (1988)
Jerome Robbins' Broadway (1989)
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A Gentleman's Guide to Love and Murder (2014)
Hamilton (2015)
Shuffle Along (2016)
Come From Away (2017)
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Theory of constraints
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The theory of constraints (TOC) is a management paradigm that views any manageable system as being limited in achieving more of its goals by a very small number of constraints. There is always at least one constraint, and TOC uses a focusing process to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it. TOC adopts the common idiom "a chain is no stronger than its weakest link". This means that processes, organizations, etc., are vulnerable because the weakest person or part can always damage or break them or at least adversely affect the outcome.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Key assumption
1.2 The five focusing steps
1.3 Constraints
1.4 Breaking a constraint
1.5 Buffers
1.6 Plant types
2 Applications
2.1 Operations
2.2 High-speed automated production lines
2.3 Supply chain and logistics
2.4 Finance and accounting
2.5 Project management
2.6 Marketing and sales
3 Thinking processes
4 Development and practice
5 Criticism
5.1 Claimed suboptimality of drum-buffer-rope
5.2 Unacknowledged debt
6 Certification and education
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
The theory of constraints (TOC) is an overall management philosophy introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his 1984 book titled The Goal, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals.[1] Goldratt adapted the concept to project management with his book Critical Chain, published in 1997.
An earlier propagator of a similar concept was Wolfgang Mewes[2] in Germany with publications on power-oriented management theory (Machtorientierte Führungstheorie, 1963) and following with his Energo-Kybernetic System (EKS, 1971), later renamed Engpasskonzentrierte Strategie (Bottleneck-focused Strategy) as a more advanced theory of bottlenecks. The publications of Wolfgang Mewes are marketed through the FAZ Verlag, publishing house of the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper). However, the paradigm Theory of constraints was first used by Goldratt.
Key assumption[edit]
The underlying premise of the theory of constraints is that organizations can be measured and controlled by variations on three measures: throughput, operational expense, and inventory. Inventory is all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things which it intends to sell. Operational expense is all the money the system spends in order to turn inventory into throughput. Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money through sales.[3]
Before the goal itself can be reached, necessary conditions must first be met. These typically include safety, quality, legal obligations, etc. For most businesses, the goal itself is to make money. However, for many organizations and non-profit businesses, making money is a necessary condition for pursuing the goal. Whether it is the goal or a necessary condition, understanding how to make sound financial decisions based on throughput, inventory, and operating expense is a critical requirement.[3]
The five focusing steps[edit]
Theory of constraints is based on the premise that the rate of goal achievement by a goal-oriented system (i.e., the system's throughput) is limited by at least one constraint.
The argument by reductio ad absurdum is as follows: If there was nothing preventing a system from achieving higher throughput (i.e., more goal units in a unit of time), its throughput would be infinite — which is impossible in a real-life system.
Only by increasing flow through the constraint can overall throughput be increased.[1]
Assuming the goal of a system has been articulated and its measurements defined, the steps are:
Identify the system's constraint(s).
Decide how to exploit the system's constraint(s).
Subordinate everything else to the above decision(s).
Elevate the system's constraint(s).
Warning! If in the previous steps a constraint has been broken, go back to step 1, but do not allow inertia to cause a system's constraint.[4]
The goal of a commercial organization is: "Make more money now and in the future",[5] and its measurements are given by throughput accounting as: throughput, inventory, and operating expenses.
The five focusing steps aim to ensure ongoing improvement efforts are centered on the organization's constraint(s). In the TOC literature, this is referred to as the process of ongoing improvement (POOGI).
These focusing steps are the key steps to developing the specific applications mentioned below.
Constraints[edit]
A constraint is anything that prevents the system from achieving its goal. There are many ways that constraints can show up, but a core principle within TOC is that there are not tens or hundreds of constraints. There is at least one but at most only a few in any given system. Constraints can be internal or external to the system. An internal constraint is in evidence when the market demands more from the system than it can deliver. If this is the case, then the focus of the organization should be on discovering that constraint and following the five focusing steps to open it up (and potentially remove it). An external constraint exists when the system can produce more than the market will bear. If this is the case, then the organization should focus on mechanisms to create more demand for its products or services.
Types of (internal) constraints
Equipment: The way equipment is currently used limits the ability of the system to produce more salable goods/services.
People: Lack of skilled people limits the system. Mental models held by people can cause behaviour that becomes a constraint.
Policy: A written or unwritten policy prevents the system from making more.
The concept of the constraint in Theory of Constraints is analogous to but differs from the constraint that shows up in mathematical optimization. In TOC, the constraint is used as a focusing mechanism for management of the system. In optimization, the constraint is written into the mathematical expressions to limit the scope of the solution (X can be no greater than 5).
Please note: organizations have many problems with equipment, people, policies, etc. (A breakdown is just that – a breakdown – and is not a constraint in the true sense of the TOC concept) The constraint is the limiting factor that is preventing the organization from getting more throughput (typically, revenue through sales) even when nothing goes wrong.
Breaking a constraint[edit]
If a constraint's throughput capacity is elevated to the point where it is no longer the system's limiting factor, this is said to "break" the constraint. The limiting factor is now some other part of the system, or may be external to the system (an external constraint). This is not to be confused with a breakdown.
Buffers[edit]
Buffers are used throughout the theory of constraints. They often result as part of the exploit and subordinate steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the constraint to prevent downstream failure from blocking the constraint's output. Buffers used in this way protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal variation of processing time and the occasional upset (Murphy) before and behind the constraint.
Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive) work in the time queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint.
Buffers are not the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a Kanban system although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite in the theory is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time was lost. In a balanced line, as espoused by Kanban, when one work center goes down for a period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger is if the constraint is unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole" in the buffer – if something goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect).
Buffer management, therefore, represents a crucial attribute of the theory of constraints. There are many ways to apply buffers, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in three colors: green (okay), yellow (caution) and red (action required). Creating this kind of visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to everybody.
Plant types[edit]
There are four primary types of plants in the TOC lexicon. Draw the flow of material from the bottom of a page to the top, and you get the four types. They specify the general flow of materials through a system, and they provide some hints about where to look for typical problems. This type of analysis is known as VATI analysis[6] as it uses the bottom-up shapes of the letters V, A, T, and I to describe the types of plants. The four types can be combined in many ways in larger facilities, e.g. "an A plant feeding a V plant".
V-plant: The general flow of material is one-to-many, such as a plant that takes one raw material and can make many final products. Classic examples are meat rendering plants or a steel manufacturer. The primary problem in V-plants is "robbing" where one operation (A) immediately after a diverging point "steals" materials meant for the other operation (B). Once the material has been processed by A, it cannot come back and be run through B without significant rework.
A-plant: The general flow of material is many-to-one, such as in a plant where many sub-assemblies converge for a final assembly. The primary problem in A-plants is in synchronizing the converging lines so that each supplies the final assembly point at the right time.
T-plant: The general flow is that of an I-plant (or has multiple lines), which then splits into many assemblies (many-to-many). Most manufactured parts are used in multiple assemblies and nearly all assemblies use multiple parts. Customized devices, such as computers, are good examples. T-plants suffer from both synchronization problems of A-plants (parts aren't all available for an assembly) and the robbing problems of V-plants (one assembly steals parts that could have been used in another).
I-plant: Material flows in a sequence, such as in an assembly line. The primary work is done in a straight sequence of events (one-to-one). The constraint is the slowest operation.
From the above list, one can deduce that for non-material systems one could draw the flow of work or the flow of processes, instead of physical flows, and arrive at similar basic V, A, T, or I structures. A project, for example, is an A-shaped sequence of work, culminating in a delivered project.
Applications[edit]
The focusing steps, this process of ongoing improvement, have been applied to manufacturing, project management, supply chain/distribution generated specific solutions. Other tools (mainly the "thinking process") also led to TOC applications in the fields of marketing and sales, and finance. The solution as applied to each of these areas are listed below.
Operations[edit]
Within manufacturing operations and operations management, the solution seeks to pull materials through the system, rather than push them into the system. The primary methodology used is drum-buffer-rope (DBR)[7] and a variation called simplified drum-buffer-rope (S-DBR).[8]
Drum-buffer-rope is a manufacturing execution methodology based on the fact the output of a system can only be the same as the output at the constraint of the system. Any attempt to produce more than what the constraint can process just leads to excess inventory piling up.[9] The method is named for its three components. The drum is the rate at which the physical constraint of the plant can work: the work center or machine or operation that limits the ability of the entire system to produce more. The rest of the plant follows the beat of the drum. Schedule at the drum decides what the system should produce, in what sequence to produce and how much to produce.[10] They make sure the drum has work and that anything the drum has processed does not get wasted.
The buffer protects the drum, so that it always has work flowing to it. Buffers in DBR provide the additional lead time beyond the required set up and process times, for materials in the product flow. Since these buffers have time as their unit of measure, rather than quantity of material, this makes the priority system operate strictly based on the time an order is expected to be at the drum. Each work order will have a remaining buffer status that can be calculated. Based on this buffer status work orders can be color coded into Red, Yellow and Green. The red orders have the highest priority and must worked on first since they have penetrated most into their buffers followed by yellow and green. As time evolves this buffer status might change and the color assigned to the particular work order change with it.[11][12]
Traditional DBR usually calls for buffers at several points in the system: the constraint, synchronization points and at shipping. S-DBR has a buffer at shipping and manages the flow of work across the drum through a load planning mechanism.[13]
The rope is the work release mechanism for the plant. Orders are released to the shop floor at one "buffer time" before they are due to be processed by the constraint. In other words, if the buffer is 5 days, the order is released 5 days before it is due at the constraint. Putting work into the system earlier than this buffer time is likely to generate too-high work-in-process and slow down the entire system.[14]
High-speed automated production lines[edit]
Automated production lines that are used in the beverage industry to fill containers usually have several machines executing parts of the complete process, from filling primary containers to secondary packaging and palletisation. These machines operate at different speeds and capacities and have varying efficiency levels.
To be able to maximize the throughput, the production line usually has a designed constraint. This constraint is typically the slowest and often the most expensive machine on the line. The overall throughput of the line is determined by this machine. All other machines can operate faster and are connected by conveyors.
The conveyors usually have the ability to buffer product. In the event of a stoppage at a machine other than the constraint, the conveyor can buffer the product enabling the constraint machine to keep on running.
A typical line setup is such that in normal operation the upstream conveyors from the constraint machine are always run full to prevent starvation at the constraint and the downstream conveyors are run empty to prevent a back up at the constraint. The overall aim is to prevent minor stoppages at the machines from impacting the constraint.
For this reason as the machines get further from the constraint, they have the ability to run faster than the previous machine and this creates a V curve.[citation needed]
Supply chain and logistics[edit]
In general, the solution for supply chains is to create flow of inventory so as to ensure greater availability and to eliminate surpluses.
The TOC distribution solution is effective when used to address a single link in the supply chain and more so across the entire system, even if that system comprises many different companies. The purpose of the TOC distribution solution is to establish a decisive competitive edge based on extraordinary availability by dramatically reducing the damages caused when the flow of goods is interrupted by shortages and surpluses.
This approach uses several new rules to protect availability with less inventory than is conventionally required. Before explaining these new rules, the term Replenishment Time must be defined. Replenishment Time (RT) is the sum of the delay, after the first consumption following a delivery, before an order is placed plus the delay after the order is placed until the ordered goods arrive at the ordering location.
Inventory is held at an aggregation point(s) as close as possible to the source. This approach ensures smoothed demand at the aggregation point, requiring proportionally less inventory. The distribution centers holding the aggregated stock are able to ship goods downstream to the next link in the supply chain much more quickly than a make-to-order manufacturer can.
Following this rule may result in a make-to-order manufacturer converting to make-to-stock. The inventory added at the aggregation point is significantly less than the inventory reduction downstream.
In all stocking locations, initial inventory buffers are set which effectively create an upper limit of the inventory at that location. The buffer size is equal to the maximum expected consumption within the average RT, plus additional stock to protect in case a delivery is late. In other words, there is no advantage in holding more inventory in a location than the amount that might be consumed before more could be ordered and received. Typically, the sum of the on hand value of such buffers are 25–75% less than currently observed average inventory levels.
Once buffers have been established, no replenishment orders are placed as long as the quantity inbound (already ordered but not yet received) plus the quantity on hand are equal to or greater than the buffer size. Following this rule causes surplus inventory to be bled off as it is consumed.
For any reason, when on hand plus inbound inventory is less than the buffer, orders are placed as soon as practical to increase the inbound inventory so that the relationship On Hand + Inbound = Buffer is maintained.
To ensure buffers remain correctly sized even with changes in the rates of demand and replenishment, a simple recursive algorithm called Buffer Management is used. When the on hand inventory level is in the upper third of the buffer for a full RT, the buffer is reduced by one third (and don’t forget rule 3). Alternatively, when the on hand inventory is in the bottom one third of the buffer for too long, the buffer is increased by one third (and don’t forget rule 4). The definition of “too long” may be changed depending on required service levels, however, a rule of thumb is 20% of the RT. Moving buffers up more readily than down is supported by the usually greater damage caused by shortages as compared to the damage caused by surpluses.
Once inventory is managed as described above, continuous efforts should be undertaken to reduce RT, late deliveries, supplier minimum order quantities (both per SKU and per order) and customer order batching. Any improvements in these areas will automatically improve both availability and inventory turns, thanks to the adaptive nature of Buffer Management.
A stocking location that manages inventory according to the TOC should help a non-TOC customer (downstream link in a supply chain, whether internal or external) manage their inventory according to the TOC process. This type of help can take the form of a vendor managed inventory (VMI). The TOC distribution link simply extends its buffer sizing and management techniques to its customers’ inventories. Doing so has the effect of smoothing the demand from the customer and reducing order sizes per SKU. VMI results in better availability and inventory turns for both supplier and customer. More than that, the benefits to the non-TOC customers are sufficient to meet the purpose of capitalizing on the decisive competitive edge by giving the customer a powerful reason to be more loyal and give more business to the upstream link. When the end consumers buy more the whole supply chain sells more.
One caveat should be considered. Initially and only temporarily, the supply chain or a specific link may sell less as the surplus inventory in the system is sold. However, the sales lift due to improved availability is a countervailing factor. The current levels of surpluses and shortages make each case different.
Finance and accounting[edit]
The solution for finance and accounting is to apply holistic thinking to the finance application. This has been termed throughput accounting.[15] Throughput accounting suggests that one examine the impact of investments and operational changes in terms of the impact on the throughput of the business. It is an alternative to cost accounting.
The primary measures for a TOC view of finance and accounting are: throughput, operating expense and investment. Throughput is calculated from sales minus "totally variable cost", where totally variable cost is usually calculated as the cost of raw materials that go into creating the item sold.[16](pp13–14)
Project management[edit]
Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) are utilized in this area.[17] CCPM is based on the idea that all projects look like A-plants: all activities converge to a final deliverable. As such, to protect the project, there must be internal buffers to protect synchronization points and a final project buffer to protect the overall project.
Marketing and sales[edit]
While originally focused on manufacturing and logistics, TOC has expanded lately into sales management and marketing. Its role is explicitly acknowledged in the field of sales process engineering.[18] For effective sales management one can apply Drum Buffer Rope to the sales process similar to the way it is applied to operations (see Reengineering the Sales Process book reference below). This technique is appropriate when your constraint is in the sales process itself or you just want an effective sales management technique and includes the topics of funnel management and conversion rates.[citation needed]
Thinking processes[edit]
Main article: Thinking processes (theory of constraints)
The thinking processes are a set of tools to help managers walk through the steps of initiating and implementing a project. When used in a logical flow, the thinking processes help walk through a buy-in process:
Gain agreement on the problem
Gain agreement on the direction for a solution
Gain agreement that the solution solves the problem
Agree to overcome any potential negative ramifications
Agree to overcome any obstacles to implementation
TOC practitioners sometimes refer to these in the negative as working through layers of resistance to a change.
Recently, the current reality tree (CRT) and future reality tree (FRT) have been applied to an argumentative academic paper.[19]
Despite its origins as a manufacturing approach (Goldratt & Cox, The Goal: A process of Ongoing Improvement, 1992), Goldratt's Theory of Constraints (TOC) methodology is now regarded as a systems methodology with strong foundations in the hard sciences (Mabin, 1999). Through its tools for convergent thinking and synthesis, the “Thinking processes”, which underpin the entire TOC methodology, help identify and manage constraints and guide continuous improvement and change in organizations (Dettmer H. , 1998).
The process of change requires the identification and acceptance of core issues; the goal and the means to the goal. This comprehensive set of logical tools can be used for exploration, solution development and solution implementation for individuals, groups or organizations. Each tool has a purpose and nearly all tools can be used independently (Cox & Spencer, 1998). Since these thinking tools are designed to address successive “layers of resistance” and enable communication, it expedites securing “buy in” of groups. While CRT (current reality tree) represents the undesirable effects of the current situation, the FRT (the future reality tree), NBR (negative branch) help people plan and understand the possible results of their actions. The PRT (prerequisite tree) and TRT (transition tree) are designed to build collective buy in and aid in the Implementation phase. The logical constructs of these tools or diagrams are the necessary condition logic, the sufficient cause logic and the strict logic rules that are used to validate cause-effect relationships which are modelled with these tools (Dettmer W. , 2006).
A summary of these tools, the questions they help answer and the associated logical constructs used is presented in the table below.
Sufficient thinking
“If……. then”
Necessary Thinking
“In order to…we must”
What to change? Current Reality Tree
What to change to? Future Reality Tree
Negative Branch Reservations
Evaporating cloud
How to change? Transition Tree Prerequisite Tree
TOC Thinking Process Tools: Use of these tools are based on the fundamental beliefs of TOC that organizations a) are inherently simple (interdependencies exist in organizations) b) desire inherent harmony (win – win solutions are possible) c) are inherently good (people are good) and have inherent potential (people and organizations have potential to do better) (Goldratt E. , 2009). In the book “Through the clouds to solutions” Jelena Fedurko (Fedurko, 2013) states that the major areas for application of TP tools as:
To create and enhance thinking and learning skills
To make better decisions
To develop responsibility for one’s own actions through understanding their consequences
To handle conflicts with more confidence and win-win outcomes
To correct behavior with undesirable consequences
Assist in evaluating conditions for achieving a desired outcome
To assist in peer mediation
To assist in relationship between subordinates and bosses[citation needed]
Development and practice[edit]
TOC was initiated by Goldratt, who until his recent death was still the main driving force behind the development and practice of TOC. There is a network of individuals and small companies loosely coupled as practitioners around the world. TOC is sometimes referred to as "constraint management". TOC is a large body of knowledge with a strong guiding philosophy of growth.
Criticism[edit]
Criticisms that have been leveled against TOC include:
Claimed suboptimality of drum-buffer-rope[edit]
While TOC has been compared favorably to linear programming techniques,[20] D. Trietsch from University of Auckland argues that DBR methodology is inferior to competing methodologies.[21][22] Linhares, from the Getulio Vargas Foundation, has shown that the TOC approach to establishing an optimal product mix is unlikely to yield optimum results, as it would imply that P=NP.[23]
Unacknowledged debt[edit]
Duncan (as cited by Steyn)[24] says that TOC borrows heavily from systems dynamics developed by Forrester in the 1950s and from statistical process control which dates back to World War II. And Noreen Smith and Mackey, in their independent report on TOC, point out that several key concepts in TOC "have been topics in management accounting textbooks for decades."[16](p149)
People claim[citation needed] Goldratt's books fail to acknowledge that TOC borrows from more than 40 years of previous management science research and practice, particularly from program evaluation and review technique/critical path method (PERT/CPM) and the just in time strategy. A rebuttal to these criticisms is offered in Goldratt's "What is the Theory of Constraints and How Should it be Implemented?", and in his audio program, "Beyond The Goal". In these, Goldratt discusses the history of disciplinary sciences, compares the strengths and weaknesses of the various disciplines, and acknowledges the sources of information and inspiration for the thinking processes and critical chain methodologies. Articles published in the now-defunct Journal of Theory of Constraints referenced foundational materials. Goldratt published an article[25] and gave talks[26] with the title "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants" in which he gives credit for many of the core ideas of Theory of Constraints. Goldratt has sought many times to show the correlation between various improvement methods.
Goldratt has been criticized on lack of openness in his theories, an example being him not releasing the algorithm he used for the Optimum Performance Training system.[27] Some view him as unscientific with many of his theories, tools and techniques not being a part of the public domain, rather a part of his own framework of profiting on his ideas. According to Gupta and Snyder (2009), despite being recognized as a genuine management philosophy nowadays, TOC has yet failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in the academic literature and as such cannot be considered academically worthy enough to be called a widely recognized theory. TOC needs more case studies that prove a connection between implementation and improved financial performance.[28] Nave (2002) argues that TOC does not take employees into account and fails to empower them in the production process. He also states that TOC fails to address unsuccessful policies as constraints.[29] In contrast, Mukherjee and Chatterjee (2007) state that much of the criticism of Goldratt’s work has been focused on the lack of rigour in his work, but not of the bottleneck approach, which are two different aspects of the issue.[30]
Certification and education[edit]
The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO) is an independent not-for-profit incorporated society that sets exams to ensure a consistent standard of competence. It is overseen by a board[31][non-primary source needed] of academic and industrial experts. It also hosts an annual international conference. The work presented at these conferences constitutes a core repository of the current knowledge.
See also[edit]
Linear programming
List of Theory of Constraints topics
Industrial engineering
Systems thinking — Critical systems thinking — Joint decision traps
Twelve leverage points by Donella Meadows
Constraint (disambiguation)
Thinklets
Throughput
Rate-determining step
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). The goal: a process of ongoing improvement. [Croton-on-Hudson, NY]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-061-0.
Jump up ^ CV Wolfgang Mewes
^ Jump up to: a b Goldratt, Eliyahu M. Essays on the Theory of Constraints. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-159-5.
Jump up ^ Eliyahu M. Goldratt. 2004. _The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement, ISBN 978-0-88427-178-9.
Jump up ^ Theory of Constraints Handbook, ISBN 978-0-07-166554-4, p. 8
Jump up ^ Blackstone, Jr., editor, John H. (2013). APICS Dictionary, 13th Edition. Chicago: APICS self-published. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-9882146-1-3. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Goldratt, Eliyahu; Fox, Robert (1986). The Race. [Croton-on-Hudson, NY]: North River Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-88427-062-1.
Jump up ^ Eli Schragenheim & H. William Dettmer (2000). "Simplified Drum-Buffer-Rope: A Whole System Approach to High Velocity Manufacturing" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-08.
Jump up ^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). The Race. Croton-on Hudson, New York: North River Press. pp. 77–97. ISBN 9780884270621.
Jump up ^ Goldratt, Eliyahu (1990). The Haystack Syndrome:: Sifting Information out of the Data Ocean. New York: New York: North River Press.
Jump up ^ Shri Shrikanth, M (2010). DBR, Buffer Management, and VATI flow classification.
Jump up ^ J. F. Cox III & J. J. Schleier. Theory of Constraints Handbook. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 175–210.
Jump up ^ Schragenheim, e; Dettmer, H. W; Patterson, J. W. (2009). Supply Chain Management at Warp Speed. Boca Raton: Auerbach publications.
Jump up ^ Russell, G. R.; Fry, T. D (1997). Order review/release and lot splitting in drum-buffer-rope. pp. 35:827–845.
Jump up ^ Corbett, Thomas (1998). Throughput Accounting. North River Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-88427-158-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Eric Noreen; Debra Smith; James T. Mackey (1995). The Theory of Constraints and its implications for Management Accounting. North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-116-1.
Jump up ^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). Critical Chain. Great Barrington, MA: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-153-6.
Jump up ^ Paul H. Selden (1997). Sales Process Engineering: A Personal Workshop. Milwaukee, WI: ASQ Quality Press. pp. 33–35, 264–268. ISBN 0-87389-418-9.
Jump up ^ See the annex of: Vidal, C. 2008.The Future of Scientific Simulations: from Artificial Life to Artificial Cosmogenesis. In Death And Anti-Death , ed. Charles Tandy, 6: Thirty Years After Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) pp. 285-318. Ria University Press.)
Jump up ^ Qui, Mabel; Fredendall, Lawrence; Zhu, Zhiwei (2002). "TOC or LP? [production control]". Manufacturing Engineer. 81 (4): 190–195. doi:10.1049/me:20020411.
Jump up ^ Trietsch, D. (2005). "From Management by Constraints (MBC) to Management By Criticalities (MBC II)" (PDF). Human Systems Management. 24: 105–115.
Jump up ^ http://ac.aua.am/trietsch/web/WorkingPaper281.pdf D. Trietsch, From the Flawed "Theory of Constraints" to Hierarchically Balancing Criticalities (HBC), Department of Information Systems and Operations Management, University of Auckland, Working Paper No. 281, May 2004.
Jump up ^ Linhares, Alexandre (2009). "Theory of constraints and the combinatorial complexity of the product-mix decision". International Journal of Production Economics. 121 (1): 121–129. doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2009.04.023.
Jump up ^ Steyn, Herman (2000). "An Investigation Into the Fundamentals of Critical Chain Project Scheduling.". International Journal of Project Management (19): 363–369.
Jump up ^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (2009). "Standing on the shoulders of giants: production concepts versus production applications. The Hitachi Tool Engineering example.". Gestão & produção. 16 (3): 333–343. Retrieved 2015-12-19.
Jump up ^ Eliyahu Goldratt. Standing on the Shoulders of Giants.
Jump up ^ Rahman, Shams-ur. "Theory of constraints: a review of the philosophy and its applications." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 18.4 (1998): 336-355.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Mahesh, and Doug Snyder. "Comparing TOC with MRP and JIT: a literature review." International Journal of Production Research 47.13 (2009): 3705-3739
Jump up ^ Nave, Dave. "How to compare six sigma, lean and the theory of constraints." Quality Progress 35.3 (2002): 73-80.
Jump up ^ Mukherjee, S.M. and Chatterjee, A.K. (2007). The concept of bottleneck. Working Paper No. 2006-05-01, IIM Ahmedabad
Jump up ^ [1]
Further reading[edit]
Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). The goal: a process of ongoing improvement. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-061-0.
Dettmer, H. William. (2003). Strategic Navigation: A Systems Approach to Business Strategy. [Milwaukee, WI]: ASQ Quality Press. p. 302. ISBN 0-87389-603-3.
Dettmer, H. William. (2007). The Logical Thinking Process: A Systems Approach to Complex Problem Solving. [Milwaukee, WI]: ASQ Quality Press. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-87389-723-5.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1994). It's not luck. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-115-3.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). Critical chain. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-153-6.
Carol A. Ptak; Goldratt, Eliyahu M.; Eli Schragenheim. Necessary But Not Sufficient. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-170-6.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. Essays on the Theory of Constraints. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-159-5.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. Theory of Constraints. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-166-8.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. Beyond the Goal : Eliyahu Goldratt Speaks on the Theory of Constraints (Your Coach in a Box). Coach Series. ISBN 1-59659-023-8.
Lisa Lang. Achieving a Viable Vision: The Theory of Constraints Strategic Approach to Rapid Sustainable Growth. Throughput Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-9777604-1-3.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1990). The haystack syndrome: sifting information out of the data ocean. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-089-0.
Fox, Robert; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). The race. [Great Barrington, MA]: North River Press. ISBN 0-88427-062-9.
Schragenheim, Eli. (1999). Management dilemmas. [Boca Raton, FL]: St. Lucie Press. p. 209. ISBN 1-57444-222-8.
Schragenheim, Eli & Dettmer, H. William. (2000). Manufacturing at warp speed: optimizing supply chain financial performance. [Boca Raton, FL]: St. Lucie Press. p. 342. ISBN 1-57444-293-7.
Schragenheim, Eli, Dettmer, H. William, and Patterson, J. Wayne. (2009). Supply chain management at warp speed: integrating the system from end to end. [Boca Raton, FL]: CRC Press. p. 220. ISBN 1-42007-335-4. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
John Tripp TOC Executive Challenge A Goal Game . ISBN 0-88427-186-2
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. Production the TOC Way with Simulator. North River Press, Great Barrington, MA. ISBN 0-88427-175-7.
Stein, Robert E. Re-Engineering The Manufacturing System. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-4265-6.
Stein, Robert E. The Theory Of Constraints. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-0064-3.
Jacob, Dee; Bergland, Suzan; Cox, Jeff. Velocity: Combining Lean, Six Sigma and the Theory of Constraints to Achieve Breakthrough Performance. Free Pre. p. 320. ISBN 978-1439158920.
Raton, Boca. The TOC handbook. FL: St. Lucie press.
Dettmer, H (1998). Constraint Theory A Logic-Based Approach to System Improvement (PDF).
Fedurko, J. Through Clouds to Solutions: Working with UDEs and UDE clouds. Estonia: Ou Vali Press.
Vector Consulting Group (2015). Apparent in Hindsight. [India]: TV 18 Broadcast Limited (CNBC TV 18). ISBN 978-9384061340.
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