text:
Catbird seat
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The gray catbird, Dumetella carolinensis
"The catbird seat" is an American English idiomatic phrase used to describe an enviable position, often in terms of having the upper hand or greater advantage in any type of dealing among parties. According to the Oxford English Dictionary,[1] the first recorded usage occurred in a 1942 humorous short story by James Thurber titled "The Catbird Seat,"[2] which features a character, Mrs. Barrows, who likes to use the phrase. Another character, Joey Hart, explains that Mrs. Barrows must have picked up the expression from Red Barber, the baseball broadcaster, and that to Barber "sitting in the catbird seat" meant "'sitting pretty,' like a batter with three balls and no strikes on him."
The phrase "In the catbird seat" was among the numerous folksy expressions used by Barber. According to Barber's daughter, after her father read Thurber's story, he began using the phrase "in the catbird seat." This seems to reverse events, however, as the passage of story quoted above clearly references Barber himself. According to "Colonel" Bob Edwards's book Fridays with Red, Barber claimed that Thurber got this and many other expressions from him, and that Barber had first heard the term used during a poker game in Cincinnati during the Great Depression.[3] Barber himself also put forth this version of events in his 1968 autobiography, Rhubarb in the Catbird Seat.[4]
Further usage can be found in P. G. Wodehouse's 1958 novel Cocktail Time: "I get you. If we swing it, we'll be sitting pretty, 'In the catbird seat.'"
According to Douglas Harper's Online Etymological Dictionary, the phrase refers to the gray catbird and was used in the 19th century in the American South.[5]
Ken Harrelson, the play-by-play TV broadcaster for the Chicago White Sox, has been often heard referencing "the catbird seat" during games.
In Entertainment:
1948: Season 1, Episode 5 of the Actors Studio was called "The Catbird Seat"
1988: William L. Marbury Jr. called his memoirs In the Catbird Seat (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1988)[6]
Indianapolis sports radio hosts Query and Schultz, of 1260 WNDE, frequently use the phrase to describe teams in an enviable position.
It is also often used by various NASCAR broadcasters to refer to a driver in a pivotal, valuable position, such as the leader, the last driver to be guaranteed into an event, or a driver utilizing a risky strategy that may bring them to victory.
When used in the sense of a lookout, it can be considered a euphemism for the nautical term "crow's nest" that is used on sailing ships.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ OED.com, Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed 23 October 2008.
Jump up ^ Thurber, J.G., The Catbird Seat, 55 Short Stories from New Yorker , November 14, 1942
Jump up ^ Edwards, Bob. (1993). Fridays with Red: A Radio Friendship. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-87013-0.
Jump up ^ Barber, Red, and Robert Creamer. (1968). Rhubarb in the Catbird Seat. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-8032-6136-5.
Jump up ^ Catbird, Online Etymological Dictionary, Douglas Harper. Accessed 17 September 2006.
Jump up ^ Marbury, William Luke (1988). In the Catbird Seat. Maryland Historical Society. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catbird_seat&oldid=812275835"
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List of prisoners of the Tower of London
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The Tower of London
The 15th century Tower in a manuscript of poems by Charles, Duke of Orléans (1391-1465) commemorating his imprisonment there (British Library).
The Two Princes Edward and Richard in the Tower, 1483 by Sir John Everett Millais, 1878, part of the Royal Holloway picture collection
From an early stage of its history, one of the functions of the Tower of London has been to act as a prison, though it was not designed as one. The earliest known prisoner was Ranulf Flambard in 1100 who,[1] as Bishop of Durham, was found guilty of extortion. He had been responsible for various improvements to the design of the tower after the first architect Gundulf moved back to Rochester. He escaped from the White Tower by climbing down a rope, which had been smuggled into his cell in a wine casket.
Other prisoners include:
Contents
[hide]
1 1100s
2 1200s
3 1300s
4 1400s
5 1500s
6 1600s
7 1700s
8 1900s
9 References
10 External links
1100s[edit]
William, Count of Mortain in 1106 as a prisoner of war.
Constance of France in 1150 on orders of Geoffrey de Mandeville.
William Fitz Osbert in 1196 for protesting taxation levied for rescue of Richard I
John de Courcy in 1199 for rebellion in Ireland.
1200s[edit]
Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent, Regent to Henry III, was imprisoned from 1232 until pardoned in 1234.
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn Fawr, a Welsh prince, the eldest but illegitimate son of Llywelyn the Great ("Llywelyn Fawr") was imprisoned in 1241. He fell to his death in 1244 whilst trying to escape.[1]
John of Scotland (John de Balliol) - after being forced to abdicate the crown of Scotland by Edward I he was imprisoned in the Tower from 1296 to 1299.
William 'le hardi' Douglas, Lord of Douglas and Scots governor of Berwick-upon-Tweed, imprisoned 1297, murdered in the Tower 1298.
1300s[edit]
William Wallace was imprisoned for a short time before his execution in 1305.
David II of Scotland was imprisoned in 1346 after being captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross.
John Graham, Earl of Menteith imprisoned after Neville's Cross, hanged, drawn and quartered in 1347.
John II of France was imprisoned after being captured at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. Released in 1360 to raise his ransom, he returned to England when his son Louis, used as replacement hostage, escaped from captivity in July 1363. Greeted in London with parades and feasts, he fell ill a few months later and died at the Savoy in April 1364.
Richard II of England used it as a refuge from rebels 1399 before being taken to Pontefract Castle, where he was murdered.
1400s[edit]
James I of Scotland, then heir to the Scottish throne, was kidnapped while travelling to France in 1406 and imprisoned in the Tower until 1408 before being transferred to Nottingham Castle.[2]
The family of Owain Glyndŵr was imprisoned in the Tower in 1408, a year after Glyndŵr had been defeated by Henry IV.[2]
Charles, Duke of Orléans was imprisoned in various English castles between 1415 and 1440, including the White Tower of the Tower of London as prisoner.[1]
Henry VI of England was imprisoned in the Tower after his capture at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 and was murdered there on 21 May 1471.
Margaret of Anjou, consort of Henry VI Imprisoned after being captured at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 until ransomed in 1475.
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of King Edward IV of England, imprisoned in 1477 for treason and privately executed there in 1478.
Edward V of England and his brother Richard of Shrewsbury, also known as the Princes in the Tower were sent to the tower by their uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester in 1483 "for their own protection" after the death of their father and then, according to popular belief, ordered their deaths.
Sir William Stanley Helped defeat Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth 1485. He is often credited as placing Richard III's crown on Henry Tudor's head to become Henry VII. Ten years later in 1495 Henry VII imprisoned the same Sir William Stanley in the Tower, and upon conviction for Treason had Sir William executed at Tower Hill.
Michael An Gof and Thomas Flamank, the leaders of The Cornish Rebellion of 1497 were sent to the Tower before their execution.[3]
1500s[edit]
Sir William de la Pole. A distant relative of King Henry VIII, he was incarcerated at the Tower for 37 years (1502–1539) for allegedly plotting against Henry VII, thus becoming the longest-held prisoner.
Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and his steward Sir John Thynne. Although Somerset was released from the Tower and restored to the Council, he was executed for felony in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow John Dudley, Earl of Warwick's regime.
John Frith, a contemporary of William Tyndale, was imprisoned for 8 months before being tried for heresy and burnt at the stake in Smithfield on 4 July 1533, he is considered to be the first protestant martyr.
Saint John Fisher was executed on Tower Hill on 22 June 1535. Thomas Cranmer's consecration as Archbishop of Canterbury had taken place in March 1533, and, a week later, John Fisher was arrested.
Saint Thomas More was imprisoned on 17 April 1534 for treason. He was executed on 6 July 1535 and his body was buried at the Tower of London.
Blessed Thomas Abel, chaplain to Queen Catherine of Aragon, was imprisoned for refusing to accept the annulment of her marriage to Henry VIII. He was put to death in Smithfield on 30 July 1540.
Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII of England, was imprisoned on 2 May 1536 on charges of High Treason: adultery, incest, and witchcraft. She remained a prisoner until 19 May 1536 when she was beheaded by a French swordsman on Tower Green.
In 1539, Hugh Latimer opposed Henry VIII's Six Articles, with the result that he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (where he was again in 1546).
Adam Sedbar, Abbot of Jervaulx, imprisoned in 1537 for taking part in the Pilgrimage of Grace, before being hanged, drawn and quartered.
Blessed Richard Whiting Abbott of Glastonbury Abbey was imprisoned in 1539 for a short time before being returned to Glastonbury to be hanged, drawn and quartered.
Blessed Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury was imprisoned from 1539 until her beheading in 1541 for treason.
Thomas Cromwell was imprisoned by Henry VIII in 1540 before his execution.
Catherine Howard, fifth wife of Henry VIII, was imprisoned in 1542 before her execution.
Lady Rochford, sister in law to queen Anne Boleyn, held there before her execution with Catherine Howard.
Anne Askew, Protestant reformer, was imprisoned and tortured for heresy in 1546 before being burnt at the stake.
Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, was imprisoned in 1553 before being sent to Oxford in 1554 to be burnt at the stake for heresy.
Lady Jane Grey, uncrowned Queen of England and her husband Guilford Dudley were imprisoned in the tower from 1553 until 12 February 1554, when they were beheaded by order of Queen Mary I.
In the reign of Edward VI Stephen Gardiner was imprisoned in the Tower (1548 – 1553) for his failure to conform. Upon Mary’s accession to the throne he was restored to his see and made Lord Chancellor.
The future Queen Elizabeth I, was imprisoned for two months in 1554 for her alleged involvement in Wyatt's Rebellion.
In 1566 Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox was sent to the Tower, but after the murder of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley in 1567 she was released.
Henry Wriothesley, 2nd Earl of Southampton imprisoned from October 1571 to May 1573, for his part in the Ridolfi plot to assassinate Elizabeth I and replace her on the English throne with Mary, Queen of Scots.
Henry Percy, 8th Earl of Northumberland, for involvement in several pro-Catholic and Marian plots, from November 1571 to after June 1573, a few weeks in late 1582, and from December 1584 to June 21, 1585, when he was found shot to death in his cell; brought in as a suicide.
Saint Henry Walpole was imprisoned in 1593. While incarcerated in the Salt Tower, he carved his name in the plaster along with those of saints Peter, Paul, Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory the Great. He was put to death in York on 7 April 1595.
Saint Philip Howard was committed to the Tower of London on 25 April 1585. He died alone on Sunday, 19 October 1595.
Robert Poley, spy and messenger for the court of Queen Elizabeth I, was imprisoned on the charge of treason. He used his time in the Tower to gather information on his fellow prisoners. He was released a year and a half later.
Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford imprisoned from March to June 1581 for impregnating Anne Vavasour, one of the Queen's Maids of Honour, who had given birth to a son. Vavasour and infant were also imprisoned.
Anne Vavasour, a Maid of Honour (1580–81) to Elizabeth I, for having an illegitimate son with Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. All were sent to the Tower by orders of the Queen: mother, father, and child.
John Gerard, an English Jesuit priest operating undercover during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, when Catholics were being persecuted. He was captured in 1594 and tortured and incarcerated in the Salt Tower before making a daring escape by rope across the moat in 1597.
William Wright, another Jesuit priest who was arrested in the aftermath of The Gunpowder Plot.
1600s[edit]
Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton imprisoned (like his father had been earlier) and sentenced to death for his part in the Essex Rebellion of 1601 but was lucky to escape execution and be released only with the accession of James I in 1603.
Sir Walter Raleigh spent thirteen years (1603–1616) imprisoned at the Tower but was able to live in relative comfort in the Bloody Tower with his wife and two children. For some of the time he even grew tobacco on Tower Green, just outside his apartment. While imprisoned, he wrote The History of the World.
Guy Fawkes, famous for his part in the Gunpowder Plot, was brought to the Tower in 1605 to be interrogated by a council of the King's Ministers. When he confessed to treason, he was sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered in the Old Palace Yard at Westminster; however, he escaped his fate by jumping off the scaffold at the gallows which in turn broke his neck and killed him.
Sir Everard Digby. Gunpowder Plot conspirator, imprisoned in 1605 until hanged, drawn and quartered in 1606.
Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland KG (1564 – 1632) suspected of being part of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 and spent the next 17 years as a prisoner. He also paid a fine of £30,000.
Nicholas Woodcock spent sixteen months in the "gatehouse and tower" for piloting the first Spanish whaleship to Spitsbergen in 1612.
Sir Thomas Overbury was imprisoned in the Tower by King James I on 22 April 1613. He died on 15 September 1613 after being poisoned, and his murder resulted in one of the biggest scandals of the era.
Niall Garve O'Donnell, an Irish nobleman (a one-time ally of the English against his cousin, Red Hugh O'Donnell) and his son Neachtain for turning against the Crown in 1608, where they stayed till their deaths.
Sir Francis Nethersole, secretary to Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia was imprisoned for several months in early 1634 for having offended Charles I by questioning the king's support for his sister.
William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, was imprisoned from 1640 to 1645 before his execution for treason.
Major William Rainsborowe, Leveller, was imprisoned in Dec of 1660, on suspicion of treason and released on Bail in February 1661.
Henry Oldenburg, first Secretary to the Royal Society, was imprisoned for one month in 1663 on suspicion of espionage. He had been corresponding with scientists across Europe.
William Penn, Quaker and future founder of Pennsylvania, was imprisoned for seven months in 1668-69 for pamphleteering.
Samuel Pepys, civil servant and diarist, was imprisoned for six weeks in 1679 for maladministration.
James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth imprisoned and executed in the tower in 1685 following the Monmouth Rebellion.[4][5][6]
Judge Jeffries was imprisoned in 1688-89 after the defection of James II. He died there of kidney disease.
John Downes, Regicide and friend of Cromwell. Though he signed the death warrant he escaped execution as he tried to save the King
1700s[edit]
Sir Robert Walpole, future Prime Minister, was imprisoned for six months in 1712 for corruption.
Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat was imprisoned in 1746 after being captured at the Battle of Culloden before his execution in 1747.
Flora MacDonald, a Scottish Jacobite, was imprisoned from 1746 to 1747 for assisting Bonnie Prince Charlie after Culloden.
Stephen Sayre an American resident of London who was arrested in 1775 for high treason in an alleged plot to kidnap King George III.
Henry Laurens, the third President of the Continental Congress of Colonial America was imprisoned in 1780 for treason.
Lord George Gordon, instigator of the Gordon Riots in 1780, spent 6 months in the Tower while awaiting trial on the charge of high treason.
Johan Anders Jägerhorn, a Swedish officer from Finland, Lord Edward FitzGerald's friend, participating in the Irish independence movement. He spent two years in the Tower (1799–1801), but was released because of Russian interests.
William Maxwell, 5th Earl of Nithsdale, a Jacobite of the '15, was sprung from the prison by his wife and her maid who kept coming in and out of the Tower so many times that they confused the guards, and the Earl was able to escape the Tower dressed as a woman.
1900s[edit]
Roger Casement was imprisoned for buying guns from Germany to support The Easter Rising, in 1916.
Norman Baillie-Stewart was a British officer caught selling military secrets to Germany and served four years in the Tower in 1933 until 1937, but he was not executed, because England was not at war with Germany.
Josef Jakobs, a German spy, was executed there on 15 August 1941.[7]
Rudolf Hess, the deputy leader of the Nazi Party, was the last state prisoner to be held in the Tower, in May 1941.[8]
The Kray twins, were the last prisoners to be held,[9] for a few days in 1952, for failing to report for national service.
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b c Parnell 1993, p. 54
^ Jump up to: a b Impey & Parnell 2000, p. 45
Jump up ^ cornwall-calling.co.uk - Thomas Flamank
Jump up ^ 'James the Second, 1685: An Act to Attaint James Duke of Monmouth of High-Treason. (Chapter II. Rot. Parl. nu. 2.)', Statutes of the Realm: volume 6: 1685-94 (1819), p. 2. Date accessed: 16 February 2007.
Jump up ^ "Tower of London: Fact sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-10-10.
Jump up ^ Spencer, Charles, Blenheim, Chapter 3: John Churchill, p.54: "Monmouth had a particularly grisly end, the executioner's axe striking seven times before his head severed"
Jump up ^ Sellers 1997, p. 179
Jump up ^ Impey & Parnell 2000, p. 123
Jump up ^ The Tower, Channel 4, 2008-08-01, retrieved 2008-08-01
Bibliography
Impey, Edward; Parnell, Geoffrey (2000), The Tower of London: The Official Illustrated History, Merrell Publishers in association with Historic Royal Palaces, ISBN 1-85894-106-7
Parnell, Geoffrey (1993), The Tower of London, Batsford, ISBN 978-0-7134-6864-9
Sellers, Leonard (1997), Shot in the Tower: The Story of the Spies executed in the Tower of London during the First World War, Leo Cooper, ISBN 978-1848840263
External links[edit]
Tower of London official website
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History of North America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A composed satellite photograph of North America in orthographic projection
History of North America encompasses the past developments of people populating the continent of North America. While it was widely believed that continent first became a human habitat when people migrated across the Bering Sea 40,000 to 17,000 years ago,[1] recent discoveries may have pushed those estimates back at least another 90,000 years.[2] Regardless, migrants settled in many locations on the continent, from the Inuit of the far north to the Mayans and Aztecs of the south. These isolated communities each developed their own unique ways of life and cultures, and their interaction with one another was limited in comparison to the extensive trade and conflict of civilizations across the Atlantic in Europe and Asia.
Records of European travel to North America begin with the Norse in the tenth century CE. In 985, they founded a settlement on Greenland (an often-overlooked part of North America) that persisted until the early 1400s. They also explored the east coast of Canada, but their settlements there were much smaller and shorter-lived. With the Age of Exploration and the voyages of Christopher Columbus (starting 1492), Europeans began to arrive in the Americas in large numbers and to develop colonial ambitions for both North and South America. Columbus' "discovery" of America is a contested idea because the Americas were already heavily populated by the indigenous Native American peoples, who had developed distinctive civilizations in their own right. After Columbus, influxes of Europeans soon followed and overwhelmed the native population. North America became a staging ground for ongoing European rivalries. The continent was divided by three prominent European powers: England, France, and Spain. The influences of colonization by these states on North American cultures are still apparent today.
Conflict over resources on North America ensued in various wars between these powers, but, gradually, the new European colonies developed desires for independence. Revolutions, such as the American Revolution and Mexican War of Independence, created new, independent states that came to dominate North America. The Canadian Confederation formed in 1867, creating the modern political landscape of North America.
From the 19th to 21st centuries, North American states have developed increasingly deeper connections with each other. Although some conflicts have occurred, the continent has for the most part enjoyed peace and general cooperation between its states, as well as open commerce and trade between them. Modern developments include the opening of free trade agreements, extensive immigration from Mexico and Latin America, and drug trafficking concerns in these regions.
Contents
[hide]
1 The beginning of North America
1.1 Pre-Columbian era
2 Arrival of Europeans
2.1 Early contact
2.2 Successful colonization
3 Colonial era
4 Revolutions
5 Expansion era
6 Conflict, confederation, and invasion
7 Late 19th century
8 World Wars era
8.1 World War I
8.2 Interwar years
8.3 World War II
9 Post-war
10 Vietnam and stagflation
11 The 1980s
12 Recent history
13 See also
13.1 By region
14 References
15 Further reading
The beginning of North America[edit]
Main articles: Settlement of the Americas and Paleo-Indians
See also: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Map of early human migrations based on the Out of Africa theory.[3]
The specifics of Paleo-Indians' migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.[1] For years, the traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 – 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation.[1][4] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets.[5] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.[6] Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.[7]
Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago.[8][9][10][11] This time range is a hot source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000 – 13,000 years before present.[11][12] However, older alternative theories exist, including migration from Europe.[13]
Folsom projectile point.
Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of early human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.[14] Scientific evidence links indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to North Asian populations by linguistic dialects, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.[15] 8,000 BCE – 7,000 BCE (10,000 – 9,000 years ago) the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in a more sedentary lifestyle.
Pre-Columbian era[edit]
Main article: Pre-Columbian era
Further information: Indigenous peoples of the Americas
See also: Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Native Americans in the United States, and Mesoamerica
Before contact with Europeans, the indigenous peoples of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several "culture areas", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived there (e.g. the hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g. Athapascan or Uto-Aztecan). It is important to note that people with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies.
The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna.[16] The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers; but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization like, the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty, Dalton and Plano traditions. This regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods.[17][18] Many groups continued as big game hunters, however their hunting traditions became more varied and meat procurement methods more sophisticated.[19][20] The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status in some groups.[21]
The Mayan ruins of Palenque, Mexico.
The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major staples, maize (corn).
As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero 500 years before anyone in the Old World. The Mayan culture was still present when the Spanish arrived in Central America, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire further north.
In the Southwest of North America, Hohokam and Anasazi societies had been engaged in agricultural production with ditch irrigation and a sedentary village life for at least two millennia before the Spanish arrived in the 1540s.[22] Upon the arrival of the Europeans in the "New World", native peoples found their culture changed drastically. As such, their affiliation with political and cultural groups changed as well, several linguistic groups went extinct, and others changed quite quickly. The name and cultures that Europeans recorded for the natives were not necessarily the same as the ones they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today.
Arrival of Europeans[edit]
Early contact[edit]
Map of North America (1621).
Main article: Norse of North America
There was limited contact between North American people and the outside world [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|before 1492]. Several theoretical contacts have been proposed, but the earliest physical evidence comes to us from the Norse or Vikings. Erik the Red founded a colony on Greenland in 985 CE. Erik's son Leif Eriksson is believed to have reached the Island of Newfoundland circa 1000, naming the discovery Vinland. The only Norse site outside of Greenland yet discovered in North America is at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. All of the Norse colonies were eventually abandoned.
The Viking voyages did not become common knowledge in the Old World. Even the permanent settlement in Greenland, which persisted until the early 1400s, received little attention and Europeans remained largely ignorant of the existence of the Americas until 1492. As part of a general age of discovery, Genoese sailor Christopher Columbus proposed a voyage west from Europe to find a shorter route to Asia. He eventually received the backing of Isabella I and Ferdinand II, Queen and King of newly united Spain. In 1492 Columbus reached land in the Bahamas.
Almost 500 years after the Norse, John Cabot explored the east coast of what would become Canada in 1497. Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the East Coast of North America from Florida to presumably Newfoundland in 1524. Jacques Cartier made a series of voyages on behalf of the French crown in 1534 and explored the St. Lawrence River.
Successful colonization[edit]
Main articles: European colonization of the Americas and Exploration of North America
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In order to understand what constitutes as successful colonization, it is important to understand what colonization means. Colonization refers to large-scale population movements, where the migrants maintain strong links with their or their ancestors' former country, gaining significant privileges over other inhabitants of the territory by such links. When colonization takes place under the protection of clearly colonial political structures, it may most handily be called settler colonialism. This often involves the settlers entirely dispossessing earlier inhabitants, or instituting legal and other structures which systematically disadvantage them.[23]
Initially, European activity consisted mostly of trade and exploration. Eventually Europeans began to establish settlements. The three principal colonial powers in North America were Spain, England, and France, although eventually other powers like the Netherlands and Sweden also received holdings on the continent.
Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas.[24][25] They gained control of most of the largest islands in the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs, gaining control of present-day Mexico and Central America. This was the beginning of the Spanish Empire in the New World. The first successful Spanish settlement in continental North America was Veracruz in 1519, followed by many other settlements in colonial New Spain and Spanish Florida.
The first successful English settlements were at Jamestown (1607) (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (1620), in what are today Virginia and Massachusetts respectively. The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608) in what is now Nova Scotia and Quebec. The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the indigenous North American lifestyle.
Further to the south, plantation slavery became the main industry of the West Indies, and this gave rise to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.
Colonial era[edit]
Non-Native American Nations Control over N America 1750–2008 —
in the interactive SVG version on a compatible browser, hover over the timeline to step through time
Main articles: Colonial history of the United States, Former colonies and territories in Canada, New France, Thirteen Colonies, French and Indian Wars, and New Spain
By the year 1663 the French crown had taken over control of New France from the fur-trading companies, and the English charter colonies gave way to more metropolitan control. This ushered in a new era of more formalized colonialism in North America.
Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass that would have great impact on the development of the colonies. Territory often changed hands multiple times. Peace was not achieved until French forces in North America were vanquished at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City, and France ceded most of her claims outside of the Caribbean. The end of the French presence in North America was a disaster for most Native nations in Eastern North America, who lost their major ally against the expanding Anglo-American settlement's. During Pontiac's Rebellion between the year's 1763–1766, a confederation of Great Lakes-area tribes fought a somewhat successful campaign to defend their rights over their lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, which had been "reserved" for them under the Royal Proclamation of 1763.
Viceroyalty of New Spain (present-day Mexico) was the name of the viceroy-ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia, North America and its peripheries from 1535 to 1821.
Revolutions[edit]
Main articles: American Revolution, Industrial Revolution, History of the United States (1776–1789), and Mexican War of Independence
The coming of the American Revolution had a great impact across the continent. Most importantly it directly led to the creation of the United States of America. However, the associated American Revolutionary War was an important war that touched all corners of the region. The flight of the United Empire Loyalists led to the creation of English Canada as a separate community
Meanwhile, Spain's hold on Mexico was weakening. Independence was declared in 1810 by Miguel Hidalgo, starting the Mexican War of Independence. In 1813, José María Morelos and the Congress of Anáhuac signed the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America, the first legal document where the separation of the New Spain with respect to Spain is proclaimed. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1821.
Expansion era[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1789–1849), Canada under British Imperial control (1764–1867), and Mexican–American War
From the time of independence of the United States, that country expanded rapidly to the west, acquiring the massive Louisiana territory in 1803. Between 1810 and 1811 a Native confederacy under Tecumseh fought unsuccessfully to keep the Americans from pushing them out of the Great Lakes. Tecumseh's followers then went north into Canada, where they helped the British to block an American attempt to seize Canada during the War of 1812. Following the war, British and Irish settlement in Canada increased dramatically.
US expansion was complicated by the division between "free" and "slave" states, which led to the Missouri Compromise in 1820. Likewise, Canada faced a division between French and English communities that led to the outbreak of civil strife in 1837. Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English-speaking region of Texas, which declared itself the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845 Texas joined the United States, which would later lead to the Mexican–American War in 1846 that began American imperialism. As a result of conflict with Mexico, the United States made further territorial gains in California and the Southwest.
Conflict, confederation, and invasion[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1849–1865), American Civil War, Canadian Confederation, and French intervention in Mexico
The secession of the Confederate States and the resulting civil war rocked American society. It eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States, the destruction and later reconstruction of most of the South, and tremendous loss of life. From the conflict, the United States emerged as a powerful industrialized nation.
Partly as a response to the threat of American power, four of the Canadian colonies agreed to federate in 1867, creating the Dominion of Canada. The new nation was not fully sovereign, but enjoyed considerable independence from Britain. With the addition of British Columbia Canada would expand to the Pacific by 1871 and establish a transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific, by 1885.
In Mexico conflicts like the Reform War left the state weak, and open to foreign influence. This led to the Second French Empire to invade Mexico.
Late 19th century[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1865–1918), Reconstruction era of the United States, Post-Confederation Canada (1867-1914), and Porfiriato
In both Russia and China the second half of the 19th century witnessed massive inflows of immigration to settle the West. These lands were not uninhabited however: in the United States the government fought numerous Indian Wars against the native inhabitants. In Canada, relations were more peaceful, as a result of the Numbered Treaties, but two rebellions broke out in 1870 and 1885 on the prairies. The British colony of Newfoundland became a dominion in 1907.
In Mexico, the entire era was dominated by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.
World Wars era[edit]
Main articles: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years, Mexican Revolution, and History of the United States (1918–1945)
World War I[edit]
Main articles: World War I and Military history of Canada during World War I
As a part of the British Empire Canada immediately was at war in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme.
The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe.
Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.
Interwar years[edit]
Main articles: Roaring Twenties, Great Depression, and Cristero War
The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada.
From 1937 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.
World War II[edit]
Main articles: World War II, Military history of Canada during the Second World War, Military history of the United States during World War II, United States home front during World War II, SS Potrero del Llano, Faja de Oro, and Escuadrón 201
Once again Canada found itself at war before her neighbors, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favor of the allies. On August 19, 1942, a force of some 6000, largely Canadian, infantry was landed near the French channel port of Dieppe. The German defenders under General von Rundstedt destroyed the invaders. 907 Canadians were killed and almost 2,500 captured (many wounded). Lessons learned in this abortive raid were put to good use 2 years later in the successful Normandy invasion.
Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war on the Axis nations and enter the conflict.
The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "superpower".
Post-war[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1945–1964), History of Canada (1945–1960), 1950s, 1960s, Cold War, and Civil Rights Movement
The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of race relations. In Canada this was mirrored by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism.
Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the "El Milagro Mexicano" (Mexican miracle).
The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.
In 1959 the non-contiguous US territories of Alaska and Hawaii became US states.
Vietnam and stagflation[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1964–1980), History of Canada (1960–1981), 1960s, and 1970s
During this time the United States became involved in the Vietnam War as part of the global Cold War. This war would later prove to be highly divisive in American society, and American troops were withdrawn from Indochina in 1975 with the Khmer Rouge's capture of Phnom Penh in April 17, the Vietnam People's Army's capture of Saigon in April 30 and the Pathet Lao's capture of Vientiane in December 2.
Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. Eventually in 1982 at the end of his tenure, Canada received a new constitution.
Both the United States and Canada experienced stagflation, which eventually led to a revival in small-government politics.[citation needed]
The 1980s[edit]
Main articles: 1980s, History of the United States (1980–1988), and History of Canada (1982-1992)
Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 80s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 80s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. Presidential elections held in 1988 were forecast to be very competitive and they were. Leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of Lázaro Cárdenas one of the most beloved Mexican presidents, created a successful campaign and was reported as the leader in several opinion polls. On July 6, 1988, the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the IBM AS/400 that the government was using to count the votes occurred, presumably by accident. The government simply stated that "se cayó el sistema" ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. It was the first time since the Revolution that a non-PRI candidate was so close to winning the presidency.
In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and trickle down economics to stimulate the economy.
Canada's Brian Mulroney ran on a similar platform to Reagan, and also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989.
Recent history[edit]
Main articles: 1990s, History of the United States (since 1988), and History of Canada (1992–present)
The End of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994 Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. Quebec held a referendum in 1995 for national sovereignty in which 51% voted no to 49% yes. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years.
The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which Canada also participated in. Canada and Mexico did not support the United States's later move to invade Iraq.
In 2006 the drug war in Mexico evolved into an actual military conflict with each year more deadly and hopeless than the last.
Starting in the Winter of 2007, a financial crisis in the United States began which eventually triggered a worldwide recession in the Fall of 2008.
In 2009, Barack Obama was inaugurated as the first African American to be President of the United States. Two years later, Osama Bin Laden, perpetrator of 9/11, was found and killed. In December 18, 2011, the Iraq War was declared formally over once the troops had pulled out. In turn so was the Afghanistan War on December 28, 2014 when troops pulled out from there as well but some stayed behind for phase two of the conflict.
See also[edit]
History of Canada portal
History of the Americas
History of western civilization
Making North America (2015 PBS film)
By region[edit]
American Old West
History of Central America
History of Latin America
History of New England
History of the Caribbean
History of the Southern United States
History of the west coast of North America
Histories of cities in the United States
History of cities in Mexico
History of the US States
Local history in Canada
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project". National Geographic Society. 1996–2008. Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ A 130,000-year-old archaeological site in southern California, USA
Jump up ^ Burenhult, Göran (2000). Die ersten Menschen. Weltbild Verlag. ISBN 3-8289-0741-5.
Jump up ^ Fitzhugh, Drs. William; Goddard, Ives; Ousley, Steve; Owsley, Doug; Stanford., Dennis. "Paleoamerican". Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office. Archived from the original on January 5, 2009. Retrieved January 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". Scientific American. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America". American Antiquity, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), p2. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ "68 Responses to "Sea will rise ‘to levels of last Ice Age’"". Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News". Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2009. Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken page 2 Archived 13 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Introduction". Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 2009. Archived from the original on April 24, 2011. Retrieved January 9, 2010. Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago as at U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago
Jump up ^ "Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats". Vuntut National Park of Canada. 2008. Archived from the original on October 22, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2010. However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago.
^ Jump up to: a b "Journey of mankind". Brad Shaw Foundation. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data". The National Academy of Sciences of the US. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
Jump up ^ Neves, W. A.; Powell, J. F.; Prous, A.; Ozolins, E. G.; Blum, M. (1999). "Lapa vermelha IV Hominid 1: morphological affinities of the earliest known American". Genetics and Molecular Biology. 22 (4): 461. doi:10.1590/S1415-47571999000400001.
Jump up ^ "Method and Theory in American Archaeology" (Digitised online by Questia Media). Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Retrieved November 20, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q". Wendy Tymchuk – Senior Technical Editor. Genebase Systems. 2008. Archived from the original (Verbal tutorial possible) on June 22, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Blame North America Megafauna Extinction on Climate Change, Not Human Ancestors". ScienceDaily. 2001. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ Fiedel, Stuart J (1992). Prehistory of the Americas (Digitised online by Google books). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ Stuart B. Schwartz, Frank Salomon. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas (Digitised online by Google books). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ Pielou, E.C. (1991). After the Ice Age : The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (Digitised online by Google books). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-66812-6. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ edited by R. C. Mainfort and M. D. Jeter. Fayetteville, Gillam, J. Christopher (1999). "Paleoindian Settlement in Northeastern Arkansas Arkansas Archeology: Essays in Honor of Dan and Phyllis Morse,". University of Arkansas Press. Retrieved November 18, 2009. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Imbrie, J; K.P.Imbrie (1979). Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery. Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 0-226-66811-8.
Jump up ^ Nash, Gary B. Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early North America Los Angeles 2015. Chapter 1, pg. 4
Jump up ^ Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire : a very short introduction ([Nachdr.] ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192802231.
Jump up ^ Kane 1999, pp. 81–103
Jump up ^ Ward 1997, pp.97–132
Further reading[edit]
Bennett, Norma V. (1997), Pioneer Legacy, ISBN 0-9683026-0-2
Kane, Katie Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination Cultural Critique, No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81–103 doi:10.2307/1354592
Churchill, Ward A Little Matter of Genocide 1997 City Lights Books ISBN 0-87286-323-9
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