text:
War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)
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War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)
Studio album by Ice Cube
Released
March 21, 2000
Recorded
1999-2000
Genre
West Coast hip hop
Gangsta rap
Length
55:29
Label
Lench Mob
Priority
Producer
Ice Cube (exec.)
DJ Joe Rodriquez
Dr. Dre
Carl "Chucky" Thompson
One Eye
T-Bone
Ice Cube chronology
War & Peace Vol. 1 (The War Disc)
(1998)War & Peace Vol. 1 (The War Disc)1998 War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)
(2000) Greatest Hits
(2001)Greatest Hits2001
Singles from War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)
"You Can Do It"
Released: November 16, 1999
"Hello"
Released: January 15, 2000
"Until We Rich"
Released: April 4, 2000
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [1]
Entertainment Weekly B−[2]
Robert Christgau C+[3]
RapReviews (7/10)[4]
Rolling Stone [5]
The Source [6]
USA Today [7]
Vibe (favorable)[8]
War & Peace Volume 2 (The Peace Disc) is the sixth studio album by American rapper Ice Cube, released March 21, 2000 on his own label Lench Mob Records with distribution by Priority Records. It is the second part from the two-album project War & Peace; the previous volume, War & Peace Vol. 1 (The War Disc) was released in 1998. War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 and at number 1 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, selling 190,000 copies in its first week of release.
The album starts off with "Hello", which features former N.W.A bandmates Dr. Dre and MC Ren. The club song "You Can Do It", which then later re-released in 2004, was a UK #2 for Cube.
Even with the success of Ice Cube's film Next Friday, the album's promotion was unsuccessful, and other new artists such as Eminem, Xzibit and Dr. Dre's 2001 were on top of the charts. This was Ice Cube's final album under Priority Records and his last until the release of Laugh Now, Cry Later in 2006. The album has been certified platinum.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reception
2 Track listing
3 Samples
4 Charts
4.1 Weekly charts
4.2 Year-end charts
5 Certifications
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Reception[edit]
The album debuted on #3 on the Billboard 200 with 1st week sales of 190,000 copies. It has since been certified Gold selling over 500,000 copies
Track listing[edit]
No.
Title
Producer(s)
Length
1. "Hello" (featuring MC Ren and Dr. Dre) Dr. Dre 3:52
2. "Pimp Homeo (skit)" 0:35
3. "You Ain't Gotta Lie (Ta Kick It)" (featuring Chris Rock) Chucky Thompson Kevin "Big Kev" Veney, Rich "Nieze" Shelton, Loren "Chief" Hill 4:06
4. "The Gutter Shit" (featuring Jayo Felony, Gangsta and Squeak Ru) Ice Cube, T-Bone 4:29
5. "Supreme Hustle" Chucky Thompson, Kevin "Big Kev" Veney, Rich "Nieze" Shelton, Loren "Chief" Hill 4:22
6. "Mental Warfare (skit)" 1:01
7. "24 Mo' Hours" DJ Battlecat 3:27
8. "Until We Rich" (featuring Krayzie Bone) Chucky Thompson, Kevin "Big Kev" Veney, Rich "Nieze" Shelton, Loren "Chief" Hill 4:14
9. "You Can Do It" (featuring Mack 10 and Ms. Toi) One Eye 4:19
10. "Mackin' & Driving (skit)" 0:27
11. "Gotta Be Insanity" Mario Winans 4:00
12. "Roll All Day" One Eye 3:15
13. "Can You Bounce?" Richard Frierson 3:53
14. "Dinner With the CEO (skit)" 0:49
15. "Record Company Pimpin'" Bud'da 4:46
16. "Waitin' ta Hate" DJ Joe Rodriguez, One Eye 3:38
17. "Nigga of the Century" Charley Chap 4:14
18. "You Can Do It (Instrumental)" (Bonus track) One Eye 4:20
Samples[edit]
Until We Rich
"Show Me" by Glenn Jones
Record Company Pimpin
"Riding High" by Faze-O
"Please Listen to My Demo" by EPMD
Hello
"The Watcher" by Dr. Dre
Waitin' Ta Hate
"Public Enemy No. 1" by Public Enemy
"So Wat Cha Sayin'" by EPMD
You Can Do It
"I Dream of Jeannie" by Hugo Montenegro
"Rapper's Delight" by Sugarhill Gang
"The Breaks" by Kurtis Blow
"Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Soulsonic Force
"I Wanna Rock" by Luke
Gotta Be Insanity
"Keep It Hot" by Cameo
"The What" by The Notorious B.I.G.
Mackin' & Driving
"Pushin' Weight" by Ice Cube
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2000)
Peak
position
Australian Albums (ARIA)[9]
24
Canadian Albums (Billboard)[10]
7
Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[11]
4
UK Albums (OCC)[12]
56
US Billboard 200[13]
3
US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)[14] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2000)
Position
US Billboard 200[15]
99
US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard)[16]
44
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Canada (Music Canada)[17]
Gold 50,000^
United Kingdom (BPI)[18]
Silver 60,000^
United States (RIAA)[19]
Gold 500,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
See also[edit]
List of number-one R&B albums of 2000 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Allmusic review
Jump up ^ "War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) - EW.com". Entertainment Weekly's EW.com.
Jump up ^ "Robert Christgau: CG: Ice Cube".
Jump up ^ "Ice Cube :: War & Peace Vol. 2 :: Priority".
Jump up ^ "Ice Cube". Archived from the original on 23 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Music: War & Peace, Vol.2 (The Peace Disc) (CD) by Ice Cube". Tower.com.
Jump up ^ "Chilled-out Ice gives 'Peace' a chance".
Jump up ^ "Music: War & Peace, Vol.2 (The Peace Disc) (CD) by Ice Cube". Tower.com.
Jump up ^ "Australiancharts.com – Ice Cube – War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)". Hung Medien. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ice Cube Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Ice Cube – War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ice Cube Chart History (Billboard 200)". Billboard. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ice Cube Chart History (Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "2000 Year-End Charts – Billboard 200 Albums". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "2000 Year-End Charts - R&B/Hip-Hop Albums". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Canadian album certifications – Ice Cube – War & Peace Vol. 2". Music Canada.
Jump up ^ "British album certifications – Ice Cube – War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved November 9, 2013. Select albums in the Format field. Select Silver in the Certification field. Enter War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ "American album certifications – Ice Cube – War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc)". Recording Industry Association of America. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Album, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) at Discogs
War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) at MusicBrainz
War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) at Tower Records
hide
v
t
e
Ice Cube
Studio albums
AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
Death Certificate
The Predator
Lethal Injection
War & Peace Vol. 1
War & Peace Vol. 2
Laugh Now, Cry Later
Raw Footage
I Am the West
Extended plays
Kill at Will
Compilations
Bootlegs & B-Sides
Featuring...Ice Cube
Greatest Hits
In the Movies
The Essentials
Singles
"Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)"
"Steady Mobbin'"
"True to the Game"
"Wicked"
"It Was a Good Day"
"Check Yo Self"
"Really Doe"
"You Know How We Do It"
"Bop Gun (One Nation)"
"The World Is Mine"
"We Be Clubbin'"
"Men of Steel"
"Pushin' Weight"
"Hello"
"You Can Do It"
"Until We Rich"
"$100 Bill Y'all"
"Why We Thugs"
"Go to Church"
"Gangsta Rap Made Me Do It"
"Do Ya Thang"
"I Rep That West"
"Sic Them Youngins On 'Em"
Other songs
"No Vaseline"
Related articles
Discography
N.W.A
Westside Connection
C.I.A.
Da Lench Mob
Lench Mob Records
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Football derbies in France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In many countries the term local derby, or simply just derby (pronounced 'dar-bee' after the English town) means a sporting fixture between two (generally local) rivals, particularly in Association Football. In North America, crosstown rivalry is a more common term.
Although there are no strict rules, derby games in France are commonly divided into three categories - derbies, local derbies and classicos (originally a Spanish expression).
A derby is a game involving two teams from the same city, a local derby would involve two teams from two neighbouring cities and a classico involves two teams from two cities quite far apart geographically which have developed a great rivalry along the years - such as PSG and Marseille in football for example.
Contents
1 Local derbies
2 Regional derbies
3 Nationwide derbies
4 Mini classicos
5 References
Local derbies[edit]
Local derbies are extremely rare in France, especially in football. There are two main reasons for this.
Before WW2 derbies were quite common but they disappeared when new national leagues were artificially created - by the Vichy regime - involving only one team from each region. This fateful decision caused a lot of clubs to merge or temporarily disappear and even though some clubs were relaunched after the war the damage had already been done.
The other reason is purely financial. Because clubs in France rely heavily on public subsidies from local and regional councils, they have to share these monies with other clubs from the same region or town. As a result of this, it is usually more economically sensible for two clubs from the same area to merge rather than to compete against each other in the same league.
The last derby proper in French top-flight football, Paris derby took place during the Ligue 1 1989-90 season between Paris Saint-Germain and Racing Paris
Prior to this, derby games were more common, particularly in the 1930s. For example, Lille was the home of SC Fives and Olympique Lillois (both merged in 1944 and became Lille OSC). Another example was Roubaix, home of Excelsior and RC Roubaix who even met in the 1933 final of the Coupe de France, Excelsior being the winner (both merged with Tourcoing in 1945, RCR unmerged in 1963 and Excelsior in 1970).
Clubs from the same city but playing in different leagues can meet in the Coupe de France however, even if this rarely happens.
The only regularly occurring city derbies and which uphold their rivalries in recent years in France are the Parisian derbies between Red Star, US Créteil and Paris FC[1] in the second and third tiers, and the Ajaccio derby between AC Ajaccio and GFCO Ajaccio.
Ajaccio - AC Ajaccio (L2) vs Gazélec Ajaccio (L2).[2]
Paris - Paris Saint-Germain (L1) vs Paris FC (L2) vs Racing Paris (N3) vs Red Star (L2) vs US Créteil (N).‡
‡ Originally both founded in Paris, Racing and Red Star have moved out to the suburbs since then. However, back in the 1990s Racing did share PSG's Parisian stadium during their brief spell in Ligue 1. US Créteil was founded in the southern suburbs of Paris and had remained in the same suburb throughout its history.
Taking into account all the clubs playing at at least semi-professional level, the top four divisions; Ligue 1, Ligue 2, National, National 2 and National 3, additionally the following derbies could occur, although they do not evoke any emotion among fans:
Bastia - SC Bastia (N3) vs. CA Bastia (N2) vs. ÉF Bastia (N3)
Bordeaux - Girondins Bordeaux (L1) vs. Stade Bordelais (N2).
Lyon - Olympique Lyonnais (L1) vs. AS Lyon-Duchère (N).
Marseille - Olympique de Marseille (L1) vs. Endoume Marseille (N3) vs. Consolat Marseille (N).
Reims - Stade de Reims (L2) vs. Reims Sainte-Anne (R1).
Strasbourg - RC Strasbourg (L1) vs. Vauban Strasbourg (R1).
Toulouse - Toulouse FC (L1) vs. Toulouse Fontaines (R1).
Regional derbies[edit]

Hauts-de-
France

Normandy

Île-de-
France

Grand Est

Bourgogne-
Franche-
Comté

Centre-
Val de Loire

Pays de
la Loire

Brittany

Nouvelle-
Aquitaine

Auvergne-
Rhône-Alpes

Occitanie

Provence-
Alpes-
Côte d'Azur

Corsica
French Guiana
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Mayotte
Réunion
Belgium
Luxembourg
Germany
Switzerland
Italy
United Kingdom
Andorra
Brazil
Suriname
Spain
Channel
Bay of
Biscay
Ligurian
Sea
Mediterranean
Sea
Whereas city derbies are quite rare in France, local regional derbies on the other hand are very common. And because French people usually identify primarily with their town or region (Esprit de clocher), these local derbies do attract a lot of attention.
The atmosphere surrounding local derbies can be electric, while remaining relatively good humoured most of the time. On a national level some derbies are considered more important than others - games between Saint-Étienne and Lyon or Lille and Lens are eagerly awaited affairs, whereas a game between Rouen and Le Havre for example, wouldn't get so much national coverage.
Notable local derbies include:
Derby de la N77: AJ Auxerre vs Troyes AC[3]
Derby de la Garonne: Toulouse FC vs. FC Girondins de Bordeaux
Derby Lorrain: AS Nancy Lorraine vs. FC Metz[4]
Derby du Nord: RC Lens vs. Lille OSC; can also include Valenciennes FC
Derby Corse: SC Bastia vs. AC Ajaccio vs. Gazélec Ajaccio vs CA Bastia
Derby Rhônalpin: Olympique Lyonnais vs. AS Saint-Étienne
Derby Breton: Stade Rennais vs FC Nantes vs. EA Guingamp vs. FC Lorient vs. Stade Brestois vs. Quimper vs. US Saint-Malo vs. Vannes OC
Derby de l'ouest: FC Nantes vs SCO Angers.[5]
Derby de la Côte d'Opale: US Boulogne vs. US Dunkerque[6][7][8]
Derby de l'Atlantique: FC Nantes vs. Girondins de Bordeaux.[9]
Derby de l'Anjou: SCO Angers vs. Stade Lavallois.[10]
Derby Provençal: Olympique de Marseille vs. Sporting Toulon Var.[11][12]
Derby de la Provence: AC Arles-Avignon vs. FC Istres.[13]
Derby du Languedoc/Derby de l'Hérault - Montpellier HSC vs. Nîmes Olympique.[14]
Derby des Ardennes: CS Sedan Ardennes vs. Troyes AC.[15]
Derby de la Côte d'Azur: AS Monaco vs. OGC Nice, can also less commonly refer to games including Olympique de Marseille and AS Cannes
Derby des Alpes-Maritimes - OGC Nice vs AS Cannes.[16]
Derby Normand: SM Caen vs. Le Havre AC.[17]
Derby de l'Est: FC Metz vs. RC Strasbourg.[18]
Derby de la Mediterranée - OGC Nice vs. SC Bastia
Derby du Alsace: FC Mulhouse vs. RC Strasbourg vs. SR Colmar[19]
Derby de la Normandie: Le Havre AC vs. SM Caen can also include AS Cherbourg and US Quevilly (use to include FC Rouen, which merged with US Quevilly)[20]
Derby de Champagne-Ardenne - Stade Reims vs. CS Sedan Ardennes or Troyes AC[21]
Derby de Bourgogne: Dijon FCO vs. AJ Auxerre can also include FC Gueugnon[22]
Derby du Maine: Stade Lavallois vs. Le Mans[23]
Derby du Centre: Tours FC vs. Châteauroux[24] vs. US Orléans[25][26][27]
Derby des rillettes: Tours FC vs. Le Mans Union Club 72[28]
Derby de l'Etang de Berre: FC Istres vs. FC Martigues[29][30]
Nationwide derbies[edit]
While the attribution of the classico moniker can be pretty straight forward in countries such as Spain, things are not as clear cut in France. There are two schools of thoughts as to which game qualifies as the French classico.
Le Classique - Olympique de Marseille vs Paris Saint-Germain
Most people would consider OM vs PSG to be the French classico. However, some might argue that this is only a geopolitical choice as Paris and Marseille are respectively the 1st and 2nd most populated cities in France and the rivalry between both cities originally had nothing to do with football. Others would argue that because PSG and OM usually have the two biggest budgets in French football the game between the two deserved to be labelled the French classico. Infamously heated until the mid-2000s, with a lot of tension and aggressive behaviour by supporters of both teams, the rivalry is softening, as Paris has seen its financial abilities skyrocket.
Choc des Olympiques - Olympique Lyonnais vs Olympique de Marseille
The French major football broadcaster Canal+ calls this game "Olympico" referring also to El Clásico. It specifically refers to individual matches between the teams. Unlike Le Classique, the rivalry has no bad blood within it and, instead, stems from the competitiveness of the each club's players, managers, supporters, and presidential hierarchy. The rivalry is often cited as being particularly important as both clubs are of high standard in French football and the championship is regularly decided between the two. Marseille and Lyon (along with Saint-Étienne) are the only French clubs to have won the French first division four straight times with Marseille doing it on two occasions.
Olympique de Marseille vs AS Saint-Étienne
Because Paris Saint-Germain have only won six Ligue 1 titles, which is less than five other French clubs have won, most purists think the classico should not be the game between the two teams with the biggest budget but rather the game between the two teams with the most titles. This, without a doubt, would be Marseille vs Saint-Étienne. Both teams have dominated French football in the 1960s and 1970s and, even though they have had different fortunes since then, the rivalry between the two is still going strong.
FC Nantes vs AS Saint-Étienne
These two teams are amongst the most successful in French football, having won an aggregate 18 championships since 1932 - 8 for Nantes, 10 for Saint-Etienne. They dominated the French First Division from 1963 to 1983, with only 5 crowns not being awarded to one of the two. During that period, the clashes between the two clubs were the climax of the season and were eagerly anticipated by national networks, as they would be crucial to the final classification. More than just a clash of ambitions, the rivalry was also built on a clash of styles. Helped by the establishment of the French First two modern football academies, each team developed a specific identity: "Les Verts", representing the Working-Class mining and industrial city of Saint-Etienne played tough and very intense football, somewhat similar to the English "kick-n-rush", whereas the players of Nantes, "Les Canaris", created a distinctive football called "jeu à la nantaise" based on technical abilities, ball possession and a very strong tactical cohesion, a style that would please the merchant and elegant city of Nantes. That style of play remains iconic of Nantes to this day. Notable players to have played for the two teams during this period were Henri Michel, Maxime Bossis, Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes, Loïc Amisse, Vahid Halilhodžić under the directing of José Arribas, Jean Vincent, Jean-Claude Suaudeau for Nantes, and Jean-Michel Larqué, Hervé Revelli, Johnny Rep and Michel Platini for Saint-Etienne, coached by Robert Herbin.
This period of dominance ended with the relegation of Saint-Etienne in 1983. Nantes won another two championships in 1995 and 2001 heralding the same identity of play, but has declined since. As a consequence, this match is not a French crunch any more, as Saint-Etienne and Nantes don't contend for the crown. Nevertheless, this match still is regarded by French football connoisseurs as one of the most iconic clashes in French football, and receives lot of interest from both Nantes and Saint-Etienne fans.
Mini classicos[edit]
Along the years some clubs have developed deep rivalries with others but because they're quite distant geographically speaking, these matches are not considered derbies, however they are sometimes referred to as "mini classicos" in the French media. Whether the terminology will stay or not remains to be seen.
FC Girondins de Bordeaux vs Olympique de Marseille
Olympique Lyonnais vs Lille OSC
Paris Saint-Germain vs Olympique Lyonnais
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.whatsthefoot.com/le-red-star-remporte-le-derby-capital/
Jump up ^ http://www.corsematin.com/article/ac-ajaccio/football-derby-gfc-ajaccio-ac-ajaccio-ce-lundi.1489841.html
Jump up ^ http://www.foot-national.com/foot-auxerre-troyes-le-derby-de-la-confirmation-56054.html
Jump up ^ http://www.sofoot.com/metz-nancy-analyse-et-cotes-du-derby-lorrain-de-ligue-2-208367.html
Jump up ^ http://www.presseocean.fr/actualite/fc-nantes-angers-sco-le-derby-de-louest-a-deja-commence-sur-la-toile-11-08-2015-166664
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObbCniQwb3s
Jump up ^ https://www.deltafm.fr/sport/football/derby-de-cote-dopale-cest-dunkerque-gagne/
Jump up ^ https://www.fff.fr/actualites/171375-578404-boulogne-dunkerque-au-coeur-du-derby-de-la-cote-dopale
Jump up ^ http://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/pays-de-la-loire/loire-atlantique/nantes/bordeaux-fc-nantes-le-point-avant-le-derby-de-l-atlantique-chaud-bouillant-795267.html
Jump up ^ http://www.courrierdelouest.fr/actualite/football-angers-sco-un-derby-face-a-laval-en-ouverture-samedi-10-07-2015-227511
Jump up ^ http://www.nicematin.com/football/rixe-avant-sporting-toulon-om-pas-de-blesse-deux-interpelles.1996239.html
Jump up ^ http://www.lamarseillaise.fr/sports/football/33435-toulon-vs-om-un-derby-pour-le-sporting
Jump up ^ http://www.foot-national.com/foot-istres-arles-avignon-a-qui-le-derby-de-la-provence-40359.html
Jump up ^ http://www.lfp.fr/ligue2/article/grande-premiere-pour-le-fc-metz.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.cd08.fr/articles/report-du-derby-sedan-troyes
Jump up ^ http://www.nicematin.com/ogc-nice/cfa-pas-de-derby-mardi-entre-las-cannes-et-logc-nice.1527665.html
Jump up ^ http://www.ouest-france.fr/sport/football/sm-caen/football-caen-remporte-le-derby-normand-3560704
Jump up ^ http://www.foot-national.com/foot-strasbourg-metz-le-derby-de-la-peur-1777.html
Jump up ^ http://www.ultras-tifo.net/photo-news/3221-strasbourg-colmar-13022015.html
Jump up ^ http://smcaen.net/article/malherbe_conserve_le_trophee_des_normands/630
Jump up ^ http://www.wat.tv/video/derby-champagne-troyes-domine-4mgp1_3ksaf_.html
Jump up ^ https://www.francebleu.fr/loisirs/evenements/vivez-le-derby-dijon-auxerre-au-coeur-des-rouges
Jump up ^ https://www.francebleu.fr/loisirs/evenements/vivez-le-derby-dijon-auxerre-au-coeur-des-rouges
Jump up ^ https://www.francebleu.fr/sports/football/un-tours-fc-reaction-remporte-le-derby-face-chateauroux-1390677693
Jump up ^ http://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/centre-val-de-loire/touraine/indre-loire/tours/coupe-ligue-derby-orleans-tours-au-premier-tour-771219.html
Jump up ^ http://www.larep.fr/orleans/2014/08/29/chateauroux-orleans-un-nouveau-derby-de-ligue-2-pour-entretenir-la-flamme_11123565.html
Jump up ^ http://www.larep.fr/orleans/sports/football/2016/10/14/us-orleans-tours-fc-beaucoup-plus-quun-simple-derby_12112413.html
Jump up ^ http://www.moustachefootballclub.com/article/2012/3/une-cartographie-des-rivalites-du-football-francais
Jump up ^ http://www.fcmartigues.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/derby-istres-0-1-fcm-08051993.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.laprovence.com/actu/region-en-direct/2245754/fusion-istres-martigues.html
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Functional specialization (brain)
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This article is about specialization of function among regions of the brain generally. For the particular topic of left-right brain specialization, see Lateralization of brain function.
Functional specialization suggests that different areas in the brain are specialized for different functions.[1][2]
Contents
1 Historical origins
2 Major theories of the brain
2.1 Modularity
2.1.1 Areas representing modularity in the brain
2.1.1.1 Fusiform face area
2.1.1.2 Visual area V4 and V5
2.1.1.3 Frontal lobes
2.1.1.4 Right and left hemispheres
2.1.1.5 Parahippocampal place area
2.1.1.6 Extrastriate body area
2.2 Distributive processing
2.3 Collaboration
3 See also
4 References
Historical origins[edit]
See also: History of neuroscience
1848 edition of American Phrenological Journal published by Fowlers & Wells, New York City
Phrenology, created by Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) and Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832) and best known for the idea that one's personality could be determined by the variation of bumps on their skull, proposed that different regions in one's brain have different functions and may very well be associated with different behaviours.[1][2] Gall and Spurzheim were the first to observe the crossing of pyramidal tracts, thus explaining why lesions in one hemisphere are manifested in the opposite side of the body. However, Gall and Spurzheim did not attempt to justify phrenology on anatomical grounds. It has been argued that phrenology was fundamentally a science of race. Gall considered the most compelling argument in favor of phrenology the differences in skull shape found in sub-Saharan Africans and the anecdotal evidence (due to scientific travelers and colonists) of their intellectual inferiority and emotional volatility. In Italy, Luigi Rolando carried out lesion experiments and performed electrical stimulation of the brain, including the Rolandic area.
Phineas Gage's accident
Phineas Gage became one of the first lesion case studies in 1848 when an explosion drove a large iron rod completely through his head, destroying his left frontal lobe. He recovered with no apparent sensory, motor, or gross cognitive deficits, but with behaviour so altered that friends described him as "no longer being Gage," suggesting that the damaged areas are involved in "higher functions" such as personality.[3] However, Gage's mental changes are usually grossly exaggerated in modern presentations.
Subsequent cases (such as Broca's patient Tan) gave further support to the doctrine of specialization.
Major theories of the brain[edit]
Currently, there are two major theories of the brain's cognitive function. The first is the theory of modularity. Stemming from phrenology, this theory supports functional specialization, suggesting the brain has different modules that are domain specific in function. The second theory, distributive processing, proposes that the brain is more interactive and its regions are functionally interconnected rather than specialized. Each orientation plays a role within certain aims and tend to complement each other (see below section `Collaboration´).
Modularity[edit]
The theory of modularity suggests that there are functionally specialized regions in the brain that are domain specific for different cognitive processes.[4] Jerry Fodor expanded the initial notion of phrenology by creating his Modularity of the Mind theory. The Modularity of the Mind theory indicates that distinct neurological regions called modules are defined by their functional roles in cognition. He also rooted many of his concepts on modularity back to philosophers like Descartes, who wrote about the mind being composed of "organs" or "psychological faculties". An example of Fodor's concept of modules is seen in cognitive processes such as vision, which have many separate mechanisms for colour, shape and spatial perception.[5]
One of the fundamental beliefs of domain specificity and the theory of modularity suggests that it is a consequence of natural selection and is a feature of our cognitive architecture. Researchers Hirschfeld and Gelman propose that because the human mind has evolved by natural selection, it implies that enhanced functionality would develop if it produced an increase in "fit" behaviour. Research on this evolutionary perspective suggests that domain specificity is involved in the development of cognition because it allows one to pinpoint adaptive problems.[6]
An issue for the modular theory of cognitive neuroscience is that there are cortical anatomical differences from person to person. Although many studies of modularity are undertaken from very specific lesion case studies, the idea is to create a neurological function map that applies to people in general. To extrapolate from lesion studies and other case studies this requires adherence to the universality assumption, that there is no difference, in a qualitative sense, between subjects who are intact neurologically. For example, two subjects would fundamentally be the same neurologically before their lesions, and after have distinctly different cognitive deficits. Subject 1 with a lesion in the "A" region of the brain may show impaired functioning in cognitive ability "X" but not "Y", while subject 2 with a lesion in area "B" demonstrates reduced "Y" ability but "X" is unaffected; results like these allow inferences to be made about brain specialization and localization, also known as using a double dissociation.[4]
The difficulty with this theory is that in typical non-lesioned subjects, locations within the brain anatomy are similar but not completely identical. There is a strong defense for this inherent deficit in our ability to generalize when using functional localizing techniques (fMRI, PET etc.). To account for this problem, the coordinate-based Talairach and Tournoux stereotaxic system is widely used to compare subjects' results to a standard brain using an algorithm. Another solution using coordinates involves comparing brains using sulcal reference points. A slightly newer technique is to use functional landmarks, which combines sulcal and gyral landmarks (the groves and folds of the cortex) and then finding an area well known for its modularity such as the fusiform face area. This landmark area then serves to orient the researcher to the neighboring cortex.[7]
Future developments for modular theories of neuropsychology may lie in "modular psychiatry". The concept is that a modular understanding of the brain and advanced neuro-imaging techniques will allow for a more empirical diagnosis of mental and emotional disorders. There has been some work done towards this extension of the modularity theory with regards to the physical neurological differences in subjects with depression and schizophrenia, for example. Zielasek and Gaeble have set out a list of requirements in the field of neuropsychology in order to move towards neuropsychiatry:
To assemble a complete overview of putative modules of the human mind
To establish module-specific diagnostic tests (specificity, sensitivity, reliability)
To assess how far individual modules, sets of modules or their connections are affected in certain psychopathological situations
To probe novel module-specific therapies like the facial affect recognition training or to retrain access to context information in the case of delusions and hallucinations, in which "hyper-modularity" may play a role [8]
Research in the study of brain function can also be applied to cognitive behaviour therapy. As therapy becomes increasingly refined, it is important to differentiate cognitive processes in order to discover their relevance towards different patient treatments. An example comes specifically from studies on lateral specialization between the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The functional specialization of these hemispheres are offering insight on different forms of cognitive behaviour therapy methods, one focusing on verbal cognition (the main function of the left hemisphere) and the other emphasizing imagery or spatial cognition (the main function of the right hemisphere).[9] Examples of therapies that involve imagery, requiring right hemisphere activity in the brain, include systematic desensitization[10] and anxiety management training.[11] Both of these therapy techniques rely on the patient's ability to use visual imagery to cope with or replace patients symptoms, such as anxiety. Examples of cognitive behaviour therapies that involve verbal cognition, requiring left hemisphere activity in the brain, include self-instructional training[9] and stress inoculation.[12] Both of these therapy techniques focus on patients' internal self-statements, requiring them to use vocal cognition. When deciding which cognitive therapy to employ, it is important to consider the primary cognitive style of the patient. Many individuals have a tendency to prefer visual imagery over verbalization and vice versa. One way of figuring out which hemisphere a patient favours is by observing their lateral eye movements. Studies suggest that eye gaze reflects the activation of cerebral hemisphere contralateral to the direction. Thus, when asking questions that require spatial thinking, individuals tend to move their eyes to the left, whereas when asked questions that require verbal thinking, individuals usually move their eyes to the right.[13] In conclusion, this information allows one to choose the optimal cognitive behaviour therapeutic technique, thereby enhancing the treatment of many patients.
Areas representing modularity in the brain[edit]
Fusiform face area[edit]
One of the most well known examples of functional specialization is the fusiform face area (FFA). Justine Sergent was one of the first researchers that brought forth evidence towards the functional neuroanatomy of face processing. Using positron emission tomography (PET), Sergent found that there were different patterns of activation in response to the two different required tasks, face processing verses object processing.[14] These results can be linked with her studies of brain-damaged patients with lesions in the occipital and temporal lobes. Patients revealed that there was an impairment of face processing but no difficulty recognizing everyday objects, a disorder also known as prosopagnosia.[14] Later research by Nancy Kanwisher using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), found specifically that the region of the inferior temporal cortex, known as the fusiform gyrus, was significantly more active when subjects viewed, recognized and categorized faces in comparison to other regions of the brain. Lesion studies also supported this finding where patients were able to recognize objects but unable to recognize faces. This provided evidence towards domain specificity in the visual system, as Kanwisher acknowledges the Fusiform Face Area as a module in the brain, specifically the extrastriate cortex, that is specialized for face perception.[15]
Visual area V4 and V5[edit]
While looking at the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), using PET, researcher Semir Zeki directly demonstrated functional specialization within the visual cortex known as visual modularity. He localized regions involved specifically in the perception of colour and vision motion. For colour, visual area V4 was located when subjects were shown two identical displays, one being multicoloured and the other shades of grey.[16] This was further supported from lesion studies where individuals were unable to see colours after damage, a disorder known as achromatopsia.[17] Combining PET and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), subjects viewing a moving checker board pattern verses a stationary checker board pattern located visual area V5, which is now considered to be specialized for vision motion. (Watson et al., 1993) This area of functional specialization was also supported by lesion study patients who's damage caused cerebral motion blindness.[18]
Frontal lobes[edit]
Studies have found the frontal lobes to be involved in the executive functions of the brain, which are higher level cognitive processes.[19] This control process is involved in the coordination, planning and organizing of actions towards an individual's goals. It contributes to such things as one's behaviour, language and reasoning. More specifically, it was found to be the function of the prefrontal cortex,[20] and evidence suggest that these executive functions control processes such as planning and decision making, error correction and assisting overcoming habitual responses. Miller and Cummings used PET and functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) to further support functional specialization of the frontal cortex. They found lateralization of verbal working memory in the left frontal cortex and visuospatial working memory in the right frontal cortex. Lesion studies support these findings where left frontal lobe patients exhibited problems in controlling executive functions such as creating strategies.[21] The dorsolateral, ventrolateral and anterior cingulate regions within the prefrontal cortex are proposed to work together in different cognitive tasks, which is related to interaction theories. However, there has also been evidence suggesting strong individual specializations within this network.[19] For instance, Miller and Cummings found that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is specifically involved in the manipulation and monitoring of sensorimotor information within working memory.[21]
Right and left hemispheres[edit]
During the 1960s, Roger Sperry conducted a natural experiment on epileptic patients who had previously had their corpora callosa cut. The corpus callosum is the area of the brain dedicated to linking both the right and left hemisphere together. Sperry et al.'s experiment was based on flashing images in the right and left visual fields of his participants. Because the participant's corpus callosum was cut, the information processed by each visual field could not be transmitted to the other hemisphere. In one experiment, Sperry flashed images in the right visual field (RVF), which would subsequently be transmitted to the left hemisphere (LH) of the brain. When asked to repeat what they had previously seen, participants were fully capable of remembering the image flashed. However, when the participants were then asked to draw what they had seen, they were unable to. When Sperry et al. flashed images in the left visual field (LVF), the information processed would be sent to the right hemisphere (RH) of the brain. When asked to repeat what they had previously seen, participants were unable to recall the image flashed, but were very successful in drawing the image. Therefore, Sperry concluded that the left hemisphere of the brain was dedicated to language as the participants could clearly speak the image flashed. On the other hand, Sperry concluded that the right hemisphere of the brain was involved in more creative activities such as drawing.[22]
Parahippocampal place area[edit]
Located in the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal place area (PPA) was coined by Nancy Kanwisher and Russell Epstein after an fMRI study showed that the PPA responds optimally to scenes presented containing a spatial layout, minimally to single objects and not at all to faces.[23] It was also noted in this experiment that activity remains the same in the PPA when viewing a scene with an empty room or a room filled with meaningful objects. Kanwisher and Epstein proposed "that the PPA represents places by encoding the geometry of the local environment".[23] In addition, Soojin Park and Marvin Chun posited that activation in the PPA is viewpoint specific, and so responds to changes in the angle of the scene. In contrast, another special mapping area, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), is viewpoint invariant or does not change response levels when views change.[24] This perhaps indicates a complementary arrangement of functionally and anatomically separate visual processing brain areas.
Extrastriate body area[edit]
Located in the lateral occipitotemporal cortex, fMRI studies have shown the extrastriate body area (EBA) to have selective responding when subjects see human bodies or body parts, implying that it has functional specialization. The EBA does not optimally respond to objects or parts of objects but to human bodies and body parts, a hand for example. In fMRI experiments conducted by Downing et al. participants were asked to look at a series of pictures. These stimuli includes objects, parts of objects (for example just the head of a hammer), figures of the human body in all sorts of positions and types of detail (including line drawings or stick men), and body parts (hands or feet) without any body attached. There was significantly more blood flow (and thus activation) to human bodies, no matter how detailed, and body parts than to objects or object parts.[25]
Distributive processing[edit]
The cognitive theory of distributed processing suggests that brain areas are highly interconnected and process information in a distributed manner.
A remarkable precedent of this orientation is the research of Justo Gonzalo on brain dynamics [26] where several phenomena that he observed could not be explained by the traditional theory of localizations. From the gradation he observed between different syndromes in patients with different cortical lesions, this author proposed in 1952 a functional gradients model,[27] which permits an ordering and an interpretation of multiple phenomena and syndromes. The functional gradients are continuous functions through the cortex describing a distributed specificity, so that, for a given sensory system, the specific gradient, of contralateral character, is maximum in the corresponding projection area and decreases in gradation towards more "central" zone and beyond so that the final decline reaches other primary areas. As a consequence of the crossing and overlapping of the specific gradients, in the central zone where the overlap is greater, there would be an action of mutual integration, rather nonspecific (or multisensory) with bilateral character due to the corpus callosum. This action would be maximum in the central zone and minimal towards the projection areas. As the author stated (p. 20 of the English translation[27]) "a functional continuity with regional variation is then offered, each point of the cortex acquiring different properties but with certain unity with the rest of the cortex. It is a dynamic conception of quantitative localizations". A very similar gradients scheme was proposed by Elkhonon Goldberg in 1989 [28]
Other researchers who provide evidence to support the theory of distributive processing include Anthony McIntosh and William Uttal, who question and debate localization and modality specialization within the brain. McIntosh's research suggests that human cognition involves interactions between the brain regions responsible for processes sensory information, such as vision, audition, and other mediating areas like the prefrontal cortex. McIntosh explains that modularity is mainly observed in sensory and motor systems, however, beyond these very receptors, modularity becomes "fuzzier" and you see the cross connections between systems increase.[29] He also illustrates that there is an overlapping of functional characteristics between the sensory and motor systems, where these regions are close to one another. These different neural interactions influence each other, where activity changes in one area influence other connected areas. With this, McIntosh suggest that if you only focus on activity in one area, you may miss the changes in other integrative areas.[29] Neural interactions can be measured using analysis of covariance in neuroimaging. McIntosh used this analysis to convey a clear example of the interaction theory of distributive processing. In this study, subjects learned that an auditory stimulus signalled a visual event. McIntosh found activation (an increase blood flow), in an area of the occipital cortex, a region of the brain involved in visual processing,[30] when the auditory stimulus was presented alone. Correlations between the occipital cortex and different areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex and superior temporal cortex showed a pattern of co-variation and functional connectivity.[31]
Uttal focusses on the limits of localizing cognitive processes in the brain. One of his main arguments is that since the late 90's, research in cognitive neuroscience has forgotten about conventional psychophysical studies based on behavioural observation. He believes that current research focusses on the technological advances of brain imaging techniques such as MRI and PET scans. Thus, he further suggest that this research is dependent on the assumptions of localization and hypothetical cognitive modules that use such imaging techniques to pursuit these assumptions. Uttal's major concern incorporates many controversies with the validly, over-assumptions and strong inferences some of these images are trying to illustrate. For instance, there is concern over the proper utilization of control images in an experiment. Most of the cerebrum is active during cognitive activity, therefore the amount of increased activity in a region must be greater when compared to a controlled area. In general, this may produce false or exaggerated findings and may increase potential tendency to ignore regions of diminished activity which may be crucial to the particular cognitive process being studied.[32] Moreover, Uttal believes that localization researchers tend to ignore the complexity of the nervous system. Many regions in the brain are physically interconnected in a nonlinear system, hence, Uttal believes that behaviour is produced by a variety of system organizations.[32]
Collaboration[edit]
The two theories, modularity and distributive processing, can also be combined. By operating simultaneously, these principles may interact with each other in a collaborative effort to characterize the functioning of the brain. Fodor himself, one of the major contributors to the modularity theory, appears to have this sentiment. He noted that modularity is a matter of degrees, and that the brain is modular to the extent that it warrants studying it in regards to its functional specialization.[5] Although there are areas in the brain that are more specialized for cognitive processes than others, the nervous system also integrates and connects the information produced in these regions. In fact, the proposed distributive scheme of the functional cortical gradientes by J. Gonzalo[27] already tries to join both concepts modular and distributive: regional heterogeneity should be a definitive acquisition (maximum specificity in the projection paths and primary areas), but the rigid separation between projection and association areas would be erased through the continuous functions of gradient.
The collaboration between the two theories not only would provide a more unified perception and understanding of the world but also make available the ability to learn from it.
See also[edit]
Grandmother cell
Modularity of mind
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Flourens, M. J. P. (1824) Recherces experimentales sur les propretes et les fonctions du systeme nerveux dans les animaux vertebres. Paris: J.B. Balliere.
^ Jump up to: a b Lashley, K. S. (1929) Brain mechanisms and intelligence. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Jump up ^ Blair., R. (2004) The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behaviour Brain and Cognition 55 pp. 198–208
^ Jump up to: a b Caramazza, A., Coltheart, M. Cognitive Neuropsychology twenty years on. Cognitive Neuropsychology. Psychology Press. 23(1), 3–12. (2006)
^ Jump up to: a b Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of the Mind. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (pg 2–47)
Jump up ^ Hirschfeld, L. A., Gelman, S. A. (1994) Mapping the Mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press pg 37–169
Jump up ^ Saxe, R., Brett, M., Kanwisher, N. Divide and conquer: A defense of functional localizers. Neuroimage. 2006.
Jump up ^ Zielasek, J., Gaeble W. (2008) Modern modularity and the road towards modular psychiatry. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 258, 60–65.
^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, D.M., Shearer, S.L., and Murray, J.D. (1977). Hemispheric Specialization and Cognitive Behavior Therapy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, VoL 1, pp. 263–273
Jump up ^ Goldfried, M. R. Systematic desensitization as training in self-control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971, 37, 228–234.
Jump up ^ Suinn, R. M., & Richardson, F. Anxiety management training: A nonspecific behavior therapy program for anxiety control. Behavior Therapy, 1971, 2, 498–510
Jump up ^ Novaco, R. W. (1977). Stress inoculation: A cognitive therapy for anger and its application to a case of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Vol 45(4), 600–608.
Jump up ^ Kocel, K., Galin, D., Ornstein, R., & Merrin, E. L. Lateral eye movements and cognitive mode. Psychonomic Science, 1972, 27, 223–224.
^ Jump up to: a b Sergent, J., Signoret, J.L. (1992) Functional and anatomical decomposition of face processing: evidence from prosopagnosia and PET study of normal subject. The Royal Society. 335, 55–62
Jump up ^ Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., Chun, M. (1997). The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(11):4302–4311
Jump up ^ Zeki, S., et al. (1991). A direct demonstration of functional specialization in human visual cortex. United Kingdom, London. Journal of Neuroscience, Vol 11, 641–649
Jump up ^ Pearlman AL, Birch J, Meadows JC (1979) Cerebral color blindness: an acquired defect in hue discrimination. Ann Neurol 5:253–261.
Jump up ^ Zihl J, von Cramon D, Mai N (1983) Selective disturbance of movement vision after bilateral brain damage. Brain 106:3 13–340.
^ Jump up to: a b Duncan, J., & Owen, A. (2000). Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Elsevier Science.
Jump up ^ Fuster, J. (2008). The Prefrontal Cortex. Elsevier. (pg 178–353)
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, B., Cummings, J. (2007) The Human Frontal Lobes: Functions and Disorders. The Guilford Press, New York and London.(pg 68–77)
Jump up ^ "The Split Brain Experiments". Nobelprize.org. 4 Oct 2011 http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/split-brain/background.html
^ Jump up to: a b Epstien, R., & Kanwisher, N. (1998). A cortical representation of the local visual environment. Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Amherst Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Jump up ^ Park, S., Chun, M. (2009) Different roles of the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and retrosplenial cortex (RSC)in panoramic scene perception. NeuroImage 47, 1747–1756.
Jump up ^ Downing, P., Jiang, Y., Shuman, M., Kanwisher, N. (2001) A cortical area selective for visual processing of the human body. Science, 293.
Jump up ^ Gonzalo, J. (1945, 1950, 1952, 2010). Dinámica Cerebral. Facsimil edition of Volumen I 1945 and Volumen II 1950 (Madrid: Inst. S. Ramón y Cajal, CSIC), Suplemento I 1952 (Trab. Inst. Cajal Invest. Biol.), first ed. Suplemento II 2010. Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Red Temática en Tecnologías de Computación Artificial/Natural (RTNAC) and Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (USC). ISBN 978-84-9887-458-7. Open Access. For a recent review in English see this article (Open Access).English translation of Article of 1952 and Indexes of Vol. I (1945) and Vol. II (1950), Open Access.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gonzalo, J. (1952). "Las funciones cerebrales humanas según nuevos datos y bases fisiológicas. Una introducción a los estudios de Dinámica Cerebral". Trabajos del Inst. Cajal de Investigaciones Biológicas XLIV: pp. 95–157. Complete English translation, Open Access.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, E. (1989). "Gradiental approach to neocortical functional organization". J. Clinical and Experimental Neurophysiology 11 489-517.
^ Jump up to: a b McIntosh, A. R. (1999). Mapping Cognition to the Brain Through Neural Interactions. University of Toronto, Canada. Psychology Press, 523–548
Jump up ^ Zeki, S. (1993). A vision of the brain. Cambridge, MA, US: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Jump up ^ McIntosh, A. R., Cabeza, R. E., and Lobaugh, N., J. (1998). Analysis of Neural Interactions Explains the Activation of Occipital Cortex by an Auditory Stimulus. The Journal of Neurophysiology Vol. 80 No. 5, pp. 2790–2796
^ Jump up to: a b Uttal, W. R. (2002). Précis of The New Phrenology: The Limits of Localizing Cognitive Processes in the Brain. Department of Industrial Engineering, Arizona State University, USA.
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Baja 500
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The SCORE[1] Baja 500 is an off-road race that takes place in Mexico's Baja California Peninsula. The course has remained relatively the same over the years with the majority of events being a loop race starting and finishing in Ensenada. Race course mileage varies and is usually slightly under 500 miles.
The 2016 round will be the 48th SCORE Baja 500 and occurring from June 1–5. The 2016 SCORE Baja 500 is the third round of a four-race series, including the SCORE Desert Challenge, the SCORE San Felipe 250 & the SCORE Baja 1000. The event includes various types of vehicle classes such as small and large bore motorcycles, stock Volkswagen, production vehicles, buggies, trucks, and custom fabricated race vehicles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current and past classes
1.1 Cars and Trucks
1.2 Motorcycles
1.3 ATVs
2 Overall winners
3 References
4 External links
5 See also
Current and past classes[edit]
Cars and Trucks[edit]
SCORE Trophy Truck: Open Production Unlimited Trucks.
SCORE Class 1: Unlimited open-wheel single-or two-seaters.
SCORE Class 1/2-1600: Limited suspension. open-wheel single-or two-seaters. (1600cc)
SCORE Class 2: Limited 2.2 liter buggy.
SCORE Class 3: Production short wheelbase 4x4 Jeeps.
SCORE Class 4: Unlimited 2.2 liter open wheel.
SCORE Class 5: Unlimited Baja Bugs.
SCORE Class 5-1600: Baja Bugs. (1600cc)
SCORE Class 6: V6 powered tube chassis trucks
SCORE Class 7: Open mini trucks.
SCORE Class 7S: Stock mini trucks. (3000cc)
SCORE Class 7SX: Modified mini trucks. (4000cc)
SCORE Class 8: Full-sized two-wheel drive trucks.
SCORE Class 9: Short wheelbase, open-wheel. single-or two-seaters. (1600cc)
SCORE Class 10: Open-wheel single or two-seaters. (2000cc)
SCORE Class 11: Stock VW Sedans. (1600cc)
SCORE Lites Class 12: VW limited open-wheel. single seat (1776cc) or two-seaters (1835cc).
SCORE Class 17: Production short wheelbase 4x4 Modified Jeeps.
SCORE Stock Full: Stock full-sized trucks.
SCORE Stock Mini: Stock mini trucks. (4300cc)
SCORE Baja Challenge: Limited, identical open-wheel Baja touring cars.
SCORE Sportsman Buggy:
SCORE Sportsman Truck:
SCORE Sportsman UTV: 660cc, 4-wheel utility vehicle.
ProTruck: Limited Production Trucks governed by the Baja ProTruck Off-Road Race Series
Motorcycles[edit]
SCORE Class 20: 125cc or smaller two-stroke and 250cc or smaller four-stroke motorcycles.
SCORE Class 21: 126cc to 250cc.
SCORE Class 22: 250cc or more.
SCORE Class 30: Riders over 30 years old.
SCORE Class 40: Riders over 40 years old.
SCORE Class 50: Riders over 50 years old.
SCORE Class 60: Riders over 60 years old.
ATVs[edit]
SCORE Class 24: 250cc or less.
SCORE Class 25: 251cc or more.
Overall winners[edit]
Year
Cars & Trucks
Motorcycle
Drivers
Vehicle
Riders
Vehicle
1969 Bud Ekins, Guy Jones Baja Boot Olds Doug Douglas, Jim McClurg Ducati
1970 Parnelli Jones Ford Bill Silverthorn, Gene Fetty Husqvarna
1971 Bobby Ferro Funco VW Malcolm Smith, J.N. Roberts Husqvarna
1972 Bobby Ferro Sandmaster VW Gene Fetty, Bill Silverthorn Honda
1973 Parnelli Jones, Ethan Hair Ford Howard Utsey, Mickey Quade Husqvarna
1974 Bobby Ferro, Spencer Cookson Sandmaster VW Mitch Mayes, A.C. Bakken Husqvarna
1975 Ivan Stewart Funco VW Larry Roeseler, Bruce Ogilvie Harley-Davidson
1976 Bobby Ferro, Ivan Stewart Funco VW Larry Roeseler, A.C. Bakken Husqvarna
1977 Ivan Stewart Chenowth VW Larry Roeseler, Jack Johnson Husqvarna
1978 Bud Feldkamp, Malcolm Smith Funco VW Brent Wallingsford, Scot Harden Husqvarna
1979 Malcolm Smith, Bud Feldkamp Funco VW Jack Johnson Husqvarna
1980 Bob Gordon Chenowth Chevy Bruce Ogilvie, Chuck Miller Yamaha
1981 Malcolm Smith, Bill Newbury Chenowth Chevy Larry Roeseler, Bruce Ogilvie Yamaha
1982 Larry Ragland Funco VW Larry Roeseler, Chuck Miller Yamaha
1983 Corky McMillin, Scott McMillin Chenowth VW Dan Ashcraft Husqvarna
1984 Larry Ragland Chaparral VW Dan Smith, Dan Ashcraft Husqvarna
1985 Ron Gardner, Bud Feldkamp Funco VW Kurt Pfeiffer, Scot Harden Husqvarna
1986 Corky McMillin, Scott McMillin Chenowth Porsche Garth Sweetland, Scot Harden Husqvarna
1987 Bob Gordon, Tim Crabtree Chenowth Porsche Larry Roeseler, Ted Hunnicutt Jr. Kawasaki
1988 Mark McMillin Chenowth Porsche Dan Ashcraft, Kurt Pfeiffer Yamaha
1989 Robby Gordon Ford - -
1990 Robby Gordon Ford Larry Roeseler, Danny LaPorte Kawasaki
1991 Ivan Stewart Toyota Garth Sweetland, Paul Krause Kawasaki
1992 Ivan Stewart Toyota Larry Roeseler, Ted Hunnicutt Jr., Paul Krause Kawasaki
1993 Ivan Stewart Toyota Danny Hamel, Larry Roeseler, Ted Hunnicutt Jr. Kawasaki
1994 Dave Ashley, Dan Smith Ford Paul Krause, Ted Hunnicutt Jr. Kawasaki
Ivan Stewart Toyota Trophy Truck
1995 Mike Julson, Bob Lofton Jimco VW Paul Krause, Craig Smith Kawasaki
Curt LeDuc Jeep Trophy Truck
1996 Troy Herbst Smithbuilt Porsche Paul Krause, Ty Davis Kawasaki
Rob MacCachren Ford Trophy Truck
1997 Mark McMillin Jimco Porsche Johnny Campbell, Bruce Ogilvie Honda
Ivan Stewart Toyota Trophy Truck
1998 Ivan Stewart Toyota Johnny Campbell, Bruce Ogilvie Honda
1999 Ivan Stewart Toyota Jonah Street, Torsten Borstrom Honda
2000 Larry Ragland Chevy Jonah Street, Steve Hengeveld Honda
2001 Mark McMillin Jimco Chevy Steve Hengeveld, Jonah Street Honda
2002 Troy Herbst, Larry Roeseler Smithbuilt Ford Steve Hengeveld, Johnny Campbell Honda
2003 Troy Herbst, Larry Roeseler Smithbuilt Ford Steve Hengeveld, Johnny Campbell Honda
2004 Alan Pflueger Chevy Steve Hengeveld, Johnny Campbell Honda
2005 Robby Gordon Chevy Mike Childress, Mouse McCoy Honda
2006 Larry Ragland, Brian Collins Chevy Robby Bell, Kendall Norman Honda
2007 Larry Ragland, Brian Collins Chevy Robby Bell, Kendall Norman, Steve Hengeveld Honda
2008 B.J. Baldwin Chevy Robby Bell, Kendall Norman Honda
2009 Rick D. Johnson Ford Bill Boyer, Donnie De Arman, Nicholas Blais, Rudy Iribe Honda
2010 Andy McMillin, Scott McMillin Ford Kendall Norman, Quinn Cody Honda
2011 Bryce Menzies Ford Kendall Norman, Quinn Cody Honda
2012 Bryce Menzies Ford Robby Bell, David Pearson, Steve Hengeveld Kawasaki
2013 Robby Gordon Chevy Timmy Weigand, Colton Udall, David Kamo Honda
2014 Bryce Menzies Ford Ricky Brabec, David Pearson, Max Eddy Jr. Kawasaki
2015 Apdaly Lopez, Aaron Ampudia Ford Justin Morgan, Max Eddy, Ian Young Kawasaki
2016 Tavo Vildósola, Aaron Ampudia Ford Udall/Slamuels Honda CRF450X
2017 Andy McMillin Gei Francisco Arredondo, Justin Morgan, Shane Esposito, Roberto Viallobos Honda CRF450X
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "SCORE OFF-ROAD RACING – SCORE-International.com". www.score-international.com. Retrieved 2015-12-31.
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
SCORE International (2011). "2011-2015 Off-Road Racing Rules and Regulations".
SCORE International. "2009 New Classes & Existing Class Rule Amendments"
External links[edit]
Official SCORE International website
Official SCORE International Journal
Official SCORE International Carbon TV channel
See also[edit]
SCORE International
Dust to Glory, the documentary about the 2003 Baja 1000 race
Baja 1000
San Felipe 250
[hide]
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t
e
North American off-road truck racing
Types
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This page was last edited on 7 September 2017, at 23:27.
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