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Saul
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This article is about King Saul, the biblical figure. For other uses, see Saul (disambiguation).
Saul
King of Israel (united monarchy)
David Plays the Harp for Saul, by Rembrandt van Rijn, c. 1650 and 1670.
Reign
c. 1050 – 1012 BCE
Successor
Ish-bosheth
Born
c. 1080 BCE
Died
c. 1012 BCE
Jezreel Valley, United Monarchy of Israel
Full name
Saul bar Kish
Kings of Ancient Israel
United Monarchy of Israel
Saul · Ish-bosheth
David · Solomon · Rehoboam
Northern Kingdom of Israel
Jeroboam I · Nadab
Baasha · Elah
Zimri
Omri · Ahab · Ahaziah · Joram/Jehoram
Jehu · Jehoahaz · Joash/Jehoash · Jeroboam II · Zechariah
Shallum
Menahem · Pekahiah
Pekah
Hoshea
v
t
e
Saul (/sɔːl/; Hebrew: שָׁאוּל, Šāʼûl; "asked for, prayed for"; Latin: Saul; Arabic: طالوت, Ṭālūt or Arabic: شاؤل, Sha'ūl), according to the Hebrew Bible, was the first king of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah. His reign, traditionally placed in the late 11th century BCE,[1] marked a transition from a tribal society to statehood.[2]
Saul's life and reign are described in the Hebrew Bible. He was anointed by the prophet Samuel and reigned from Gibeah. He fell on his sword (committing suicide) to avoid capture in the battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, during which three of his sons were also killed. The succession to his throne was contested by Ish-bosheth, his only surviving son, and his son-in-law David, who eventually prevailed. A similar yet different account of Saul's life may be given in the Quran. Neither the length of Saul's reign, nor the extent of his territory are given in the Hebrew Bible; the former is traditionally fixed at forty or forty-two years, but there is no reliable evidence for these numbers.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical account
1.1 House of King Saul
1.2 Anointed as king
1.3 Saul among the prophets
1.4 Military victories
1.5 Rejection
1.6 Saul and David
1.7 Battle of Gilboa and the death of King Saul
2 Biblical criticism
3 Classical rabbinical views
4 In Islam
4.1 Name
4.2 Saul as the King of Israel
5 Historicity
6 Psychological analyses
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Biblical account[edit]
The biblical accounts of Saul's life are found in the Books of Samuel.
House of King Saul[edit]
According to the Tanakh, Saul was the son of Kish, of the family of the Matrites, and a member of the tribe of Benjamin, one of the twelve Tribes of Israel. It appears that he came from Gibeah.[3]
David and Saul (1885) by Julius Kronberg.
Saul married Ahinoam, daughter of Ahimaaz. They had four sons and two daughters. The sons were Jonathan, Abinadab, Malchishua and Ish-bosheth. Their daughters were named Merab and Michal.[4] Saul also had a concubine named Rizpah, daughter of Aiah, who bore him two sons, Armoni and Mephibosheth. (2 Samuel 21:8).
Saul died at the Battle of Mount Gilboa (1 Samuel 31:3–6; 1 Chronicles 10:3–6), and was buried in Zelah, in the region of Benjamin. (2 Samuel 21:14) Three of Saul's sons – Jonathan, and Abinadab, and Malchishua – died with him at Mount Gilboa (1 Samuel 31:2; 1 Chronicles 10:2). Ish-bosheth became king of Israel, at the age of forty. At David's request Abner had Michal returned to David. Ish-bosheth reigned for two years, but after the death of Abner, was killed by two of his own captains. (2 Samuel 4:5).
Armoni and Mephibosheth (Saul's sons with his concubine, Rizpah) were given by David along with the five sons of Merab (Saul's daughter)[5] to the Gibeonites, who killed them. (2 Samuel 21:8–9) Michal was childless. (2 Samuel 6:23).
The only male descendant of Saul to survive was Mephibosheth, Jonathan's lame son, (2 Samuel 4:4) who had been five when his father and grandfather Saul had died in battle. In time, he came under the protection of David. (2 Samuel 9:7–13) Mephibosheth had a young son, Micah, (2 Samuel 9:12) who had four sons and descendants named until the ninth generation (1 Chronicles 8:35–38).
Anointed as king[edit]
"Death of King Saul", 1848 by Elie Marcuse (Germany and France, 1817–1902)
The First Book of Samuel gives three accounts of Saul's rise to the throne in three successive chapters:
Saul is sent with a servant to look for his father's strayed donkeys. Leaving his home at Gibeah, they eventually arrive at the district of Zuph, at which point Saul suggests abandoning their search. Saul's servant tells him that they happen to be near the town of Ramah, where a famous seer is located, and suggests that they should consult him first. The seer (later identified by the text as Samuel) offers hospitality to Saul and later anoints him in private (1 Samuel 9).[6]
A popular movement having arisen to establish a centralized monarchy like other nations, Samuel assembles the people at Mizpah in Benjamin to appoint a king. Samuel organises the people by tribe and by clan. Using the Urim and Thummim,[7] he selects the tribe of Benjamin, from within the tribe selecting the clan of Matri, and from them selecting Saul. After having been chosen as monarch, Saul returns to his home in Gibeah, along with a number of followers (1 Samuel 10:17-24).[8]
The Ammonites, led by Nahash, lay siege to Jabesh-Gilead. Under the terms of surrender, the occupants of the city are to be forced into slavery and have their right eyes removed. Instead they send word of this to the other tribes of Israel, and the tribes west of the Jordan assemble an army under Saul. Saul leads the army to victory over the Ammonites, and the people congregate at Gilgal where they acclaim Saul as king and he is crowned (1 Samuel 11).[6]
André Lemaire finds the third account probably the most reliable tradition.[9] The Pulpit Commentary distinguishes between a private and a public selection process.[10] It is possible that all three events occurred chronologically as 1 Samuel is written in chronological order.[11]
Saul among the prophets[edit]
Having been anointed by Samuel, Saul is told of signs indicating that he has been divinely appointed. The last of these is that Saul will be met by an ecstatic group of prophets leaving a high place and playing the lyre, tambourine, and flutes. Saul encounters the ecstatic prophets and joins them.[8] Later, Saul sends men to pursue David, but when they meet a group of ecstatic prophets playing music, they become possessed by a prophetic state and join in. Saul sends more men, but they too join the prophets. Eventually Saul himself goes, and also joins the prophets. (1 Samuel 19:24).
Military victories[edit]
After relieving the siege of Jabesh-Gilead, Saul conducts military campaigns against the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Aram Rehob and the kings of Zobah, the Philistines, and the Amalekites (1 Samuel 14:47).[3] A biblical summary states that "wherever he turned, he was victorious".[12]
In his continuing battles with Philistines, Saul instructs his armies, by a rash oath, to fast. Methodist commentator Joseph Benson suggests that "Saul’s intention in putting this oath was undoubtedly to save time, lest the Philistines should gain ground of them in their flight. But the event showed it was a false policy; for the people were so faint and weak for want of food, that they were less able to follow and slay the Philistines than if they had stopped to take a moderate refreshment".[13] Jonathan's party were not aware of the oath and ate honey, resulting in Jonathan realising that he had broken an oath of which he was not aware, but was nevertheless liable for its breach, until popular intervention allowed Jonathan to be saved from death on account of his victory over the Philistines.[14]
Rejection[edit]
Saul and the Witch of Endor by Gustave Dore.
Saul planned a military action against the Philistines. Samuel said that he would arrive in seven days to perform the requisite rites. When a week passed with no word of Samuel, and with the Israelites growing restless, Saul prepares for battle by offering sacrifices. Samuel arrives just as Saul is finishing sacrificing and reprimands Saul for not obeying his instructions.
Later Samuel instructs Saul to make war on the Amalekites and to "utterly destroy" them,[15] in fulfilment of a mandate set out Deuteronomy 25:19:
When the Lord your God has given you rest from all your enemies on every hand, in the land that the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance to possess, you shall blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven; do not forget.
Having forewarned the Kenites who were living among the Amalekites to leave, Saul goes to war and defeats the Amalekites. Saul kills all the men, women, children and poor quality livestock, but leaves alive the king and best livestock. When Samuel learns that Saul has not obeyed his instructions in full, he informs Saul that God has rejected him as king due to his disobedience. As Samuel turns to go, Saul seizes hold of his garments and tears off a piece; Samuel prophecies that the kingdom will likewise be torn from Saul. Samuel then kills the Amalekite king himself. Samuel and Saul each return home and never meet again after these events (1 Samuel 15:33-35).
Saul and David[edit]
David and Saul, by Ernst Josephson
After Samuel tells Saul that God has rejected him as king, David, a son of Jesse, from the tribe of Judah, enters the story: from this point on Saul's story is largely the account of his increasingly troubled relationship with David.
Samuel heads to Bethlehem, ostensibly to offer sacrifice and invited Jesse and his sons. Dining together, Jesse's sons are brought one by one to Samuel, each being rejected; at last, Jesse sends for David, the youngest, who is tending sheep. When brought to Samuel, David is anointed by him in front of his other brothers.
In 1 Samuel 16:14–23, Saul is troubled by a mental disorder described as an evil spirit sent by God.[16] He requests soothing music, and a servant recommends David the son of Jesse, who is renowned for his skills as a harpist and other talents:
a son of Jesse the Bethlehemite, who is skillful in playing, a mighty man of valor, a man of war, prudent in speech, and a handsome person; and the Lord is with him
When word of Saul's needs reaches Jesse, he sends David, who had been looking after Jesse's flock, with gifts as a tribute,[17] and David is appointed as Saul's armor bearer. With Jesse's permission he remains at court, playing the harp as needed to calm Saul during his troubled spells. (1 Samuel 17:15 suggests David only attended court periodically).
(1 Samuel 17:1–18:5) The Philistines return with an army to attack Israel, and the Philistine and Israelite forces gather on opposite sides of a valley. The Philistine's champion Goliath issues a challenge for single combat, but none of the Israelite accept. David is described as a young shepherd who happens to be delivering food to his three eldest brothers in the army, and he hears Goliath's challenge. David speaks mockingly of the Philistines to some soldiers; his speech is overheard and reported to Saul, who summons David and appoints David as his champion. David easily defeats Goliath with a single shot from a sling. At the end of the passage, Saul asks his general, Abner, who David is.
Saul offered his elder daughter Merab as a wife to the now popular David, after his victory over Goliath, but David demurred. David distinguishes himself in the Philistine wars. Upon David's return from battle, the women praise him in song:
Saul has slain his thousands and David his tens of thousands [18]
implying that David is the greater warrior. Saul fears David's growing popularity and henceforth views him as a rival to the throne.
Saul's son Jonathan and David become close friends. Jonathan recognizes David as the rightful king, and "made a covenant with David, because he loved him as his own soul."[19] Jonathan even gives David his military clothes, symbolizing David's position as successor to Saul.
Saul threatening David, by José Leonardo.
On two occasions, Saul threw a spear at David as he played the harp for Saul. David becomes increasingly successful and Saul becomes increasingly resentful. Now Saul actively plots against David. Saul offered his other daughter, Michal in marriage to David. David initially rejects this offer also, claiming he is too poor. Saul offers to accept a bride price of 100 Philistine foreskins, intending that David die in the attempt. Instead, David obtains 200 foreskins and is consequently married to Michal. Jonathan arranges a short-lived reconciliation between Saul and David and for a while David served Saul "as in times past" (1 Samuel 19:1-7) until "the distressing spirit from the Lord" re-appeared. Saul sends assassins in the night, but Michal helps him escape, tricking them by placing a household idol in his bed. David flees to Jonathan, who arranges a meeting with his father. While dining with Saul, Jonathan explains David's absence, saying he has been called away to his brothers. But Saul sees through the ruse and reprimands Jonathan for protecting David, warning him that his love of David will cost him the kingdom, furiously throwing a spear at him. The next day, Jonathan meets with David and tells him Saul's intent. The two friends say their goodbyes, and David flees into the countryside. Saul later marries Michal to another man.
Saul is later informed by his head shepherd, Doeg the Edomite, that high priest Ahimelech assisted David, giving him the sword of Goliath, which had been kept at the temple at Nob. Doeg kills Ahimelech and eighty-five other priests and Saul orders the death of the entire population of Nob.
David had left Nob by this point and had amassed some 300 disaffected men including some outlaws. With these men David rescues the town of Keilah from a Philistine attack. Saul realises he could trap David and his men by laying the city to siege. David realizes that the citizens of Keilah will betray him to Saul. He flees to Ziph pursued by Saul. Saul hunts David in the vicinity of Ziph on two occasions:
Some of the inhabitants of Ziph betray David's location to Saul, but David hears about it and flees with his men to Maon. Saul follows David, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade. After dealing with that threat Saul tracks David to the caves at Engedi. As he searches the cave David manages to cut off a piece of Saul's robe without being discovered, yet David restrains his men from harming the king. David then leaves the cave, revealing himself to Saul, and gives a speech that persuades Saul to reconcile.
On the second occasion, Saul returns to Ziph with his men. When David hears of this, he slips into Saul's camp by night, and again restrains his men from killing the king; instead he steals Saul's spear and water jug, leaving his own spear thrust into the ground by Saul's side. The next day, David reveals himself to Saul, showing the jug and spear as proof that he could have slain him. David then persuades Saul to reconcile with him; the two swear never to harm each other. After this they never see each other again.
Battle of Gilboa and the death of King Saul[edit]
The Battle of Gilboa, by Jean Fouquet, the protagonists depicted anachronistically with 15th Century armour
The Philistines make war again, assembling at Shunem, and Saul leads his army to face them at Mount Gilboa. Before the battle he goes to consult a medium or witch at Endor. The medium, unaware of his identity, reminds him that the king has made witchcraft a capital offence, but he assures her that Saul will not harm her. She conjures the spirit of the prophet Samuel, who before his death had prophesied that he would lose the kingdom. Samuel tells him that God has fully rejected him, will no longer hear his prayers, has given the kingdom to David and that the next day he will lose both the battle and his life. Saul collapses in fear, and the medium restores him with food in anticipation of the next day's battle.
1 Samuel and 2 Samuel give differing accounts of Saul's death. In 1 Samuel, and in a parallel account in 1 Chronicles 10, as the defeated Israelites flee, Saul asks his armour bearer to kill him, but he refuses, and so Saul falls upon his own sword. In 2 Samuel, an Amalekite tells David he found Saul leaning on his spear after the battle and delivered the coup de grâce. David has the Amalekite put to death for rejoicing in the death of the anointed king.
The victorious Philistines recover Saul's body as well as those of his three sons who also died in the battle, decapitated them and displayed them on the wall of Beth-shan. They display Saul's armour in the temple of Ashtaroth (an Ascalonian temple of the Canaanites). But at night the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead retrieve the bodies for cremation and burial.(1 Samuel 31:8–13, 1 Chronicles 10:12)). Later on, David takes the bones of Saul together and of his son Jonathan and buries them in Zela, in the tomb of his father (2 Samuel 21:12–14).[20]
The account in 1 Chronicles summarises by stating that:
Saul died for his unfaithfulness which he had committed against the Lord, because he did not keep the word of the Lord, and also because he consulted a medium for guidance.[21]
Biblical criticism[edit]
There are several textual or narrative issues in the text, including the aforementioned differing accounts of Saul's rise to kingship and his death, as well as plays on words, that biblical scholars have discussed.
The birth-narrative of the prophet Samuel is found at 1 Samuel 1–28. It describes how Samuel's mother Hannah requests a son from Yahweh, and dedicates the child to God at the shrine of Shiloh. The passage makes extensive play with the root-elements of Saul's name, and ends with the phrase hu sa'ul le-Yahweh, "he is dedicated to Yahweh." Hannah names the resulting son Samuel, giving as her explanation, "because from God I requested him." Samuel's name, however, can mean "name of God," (or "Heard of God" or "Told of God") and the etymology and multiple references to the root of the name seems to fit Saul instead. The majority explanation for the discrepancy is that the narrative originally described the birth of Saul, and was given to Samuel in order to enhance the position of David and Samuel at the former king's expense.[22]
The Bible's tone with regard to Saul changes over the course of the narrative, especially around the passage where David appears, midway through 1 Samuel. Before, Saul is presented in positive terms, but afterward his mode of ecstatic prophecy is suddenly described as fits of madness, his errors and disobedience to Samuel's instructions are stressed and he becomes a paranoiac. This may indicate that the David story is inserted from a source loyal to the House of David; David's lament over Saul in 2 Samuel 1 then serves an apologetic purpose, clearing David of the blame for Saul's death.[23]
God's apparent change of mind in rejecting Saul as king has raised questions about God's "repentance", which could be considered as inconsistent with God's immutability. In the King James Version, God's word to Samuel states "It repenteth me that I have set up Saul to be king". Samuel's words later clarify that God's repentance is not like human regret or reconsideration:
The Strength of Israel will not lie nor relent. For He is not a man, that He should relent.[24]
Methodist biblical commentator Joseph Benson writes that "Repentance, properly speaking, implies grief of heart, and a change of counsels. Understood in which sense, it can have no place in God. But it is often ascribed to him in the Scriptures when he alters his method of dealing with persons, and treats them as if he did indeed repent of the kindness he had shown them."[25]
In the Books of Samuel, Saul is not referred to as a king (melech), but rather as a "leader" or "commander" (nagid) (1 Samuel 9:16; 1 Samuel 10:1).[26] However, Saul is also said to be made a "king" (melech) at Gilgal (1 Samuel 11:15).
Various authors have attempted to harmonize the two narratives regarding Saul's death. Josephus writes that Saul's attempted suicide was stalled because he was not able to run the sword through himself, and that he therefore asked the Amalekite to finish it.[27] Later biblical criticism has posited that the story of Saul's death was redacted from various sources, although this view in turn has been criticized because it does not explain why the contradiction was left in by the redactors.[27] But since 2 Samuel records only the Amalekite's report, and not the report of any other eye-witness, some scholars theorize that the Amalekite may have been lying to try to gain favor with David. On this view, 1 Samuel records what actually happened, while 2 Samuel records what the Amalekite claims happened.[28]
Classical rabbinical views[edit]
Two opposing views of Saul are found in classical rabbinical literature. One is based on the reverse logic that punishment is a proof of guilt, and therefore seeks to rob Saul of any halo which might surround him; typically this view is similar to the republican source. The passage referring to Saul as a choice young man, and goodly (1 Samuel 9:2) is in this view interpreted as meaning that Saul was not good in every respect, but goodly only with respect to his personal appearance (Num. Rashi 9:28). According to this view, Saul is only a weak branch (Gen. Rashi 25:3), owing his kingship not to his own merits, but rather to his grandfather, who had been accustomed to light the streets for those who went to the bet ha-midrash, and had received as his reward the promise that one of his grandsons should sit upon the throne (Lev. Rashi 9:2).
The second view of Saul makes him appear in the most favourable light as man, as hero, and as king. This view is similar to that of the monarchical source. In this view it was on account of his modesty that he did not reveal the fact that he had been anointed king (1 Samuel 10:16; Meg. 13b); and he was extraordinarily upright as well as perfectly just. Nor was there any one more pious than he (M. Q. 16b; Ex. Rashi 30:12); for when he ascended the throne he was as pure as a child, and had never committed sin (Yoma 22b). He was marvelously handsome; and the maidens who told him concerning Samuel (cf 1 Samuel 9:11–13) talked so long with him that they might observe his beauty the more (Ber. 48b). In war he was able to march 120 miles without rest. When he received the command to smite Amalek (1 Samuel 15:3), Saul said: For one found slain the Torah requires a sin offering [Deuteronomy 21:1–9]; and here so many shall be slain. If the old have sinned, why should the young suffer; and if men have been guilty, why should the cattle be destroyed? It was this mildness that cost him his crown. And while Saul was merciful to his enemies, he was strict with his own people; when he found out that Ahimelech, a kohen, had assisted David with finding food, Saul, in retaliation, killed the rest of the 85 kohanim of the family of Ahimelech and the rest of his hometown, Nov. (Yoma 22b; Num. Rashi 1:10) The fact that he was merciful even to his enemies, being indulgent to rebels themselves, and frequently waiving the homage due to him, was incredible as well as deceiving. But if his mercy toward a foe was a sin, it was his only one; and it was his misfortune that it was reckoned against him, while David, although he had committed much iniquity, was so favored that it was not remembered to his injury (Yoma 22b; M. Q. 16b, and Rashi ad loc.). In some respects Saul was superior to David, e.g., in having only one concubine {Rizpah}, while David had many. Saul expended his own substance for the war, and although he knew that he and his sons would fall in battle, he nevertheless went forward, while David heeded the wish of his soldiers not to go to war in person (2 Samuel 21:17; Lev. Rashi 26:7; Yalq., Sam. 138).
According to the Rabbis, Saul ate his food with due regard for the rules of ceremonial purity prescribed for the sacrifice (Yalq., l.c.), and taught the people how they should slay cattle (cf 1 Samuel 14:34). As a reward for this, God himself gave Saul a sword on the day of battle, since no other sword suitable for him was found (ibid 13:22). Saul's attitude toward David finds its excuse in the fact that his courtiers were all tale-bearers, and slandered David to him (Deut. Rashi 5:10); and in like manner he was incited by Doeg against the priests of Nob (1 Samuel 22:16–19; Yalq., Sam. 131)—this act was forgiven him, however, and a heavenly voice (bat qol) was heard, proclaiming: Saul is the chosen one of God (Ber. 12b). His anger at the Gibeonites (2 Samuel 21:2) was not personal hatred, but was induced by zeal for the welfare of Israel (Num. Rashi 8:4). The fact that he made his daughter remarry (1 Samuel 25:44), finds its explanation in his (Saul's) view that her betrothal to David had been gained by false pretenses, and was therefore invalid (Sanhedrin 19b). During the lifetime of Saul there was no idolatry in Israel. The famine in the reign of David (cf 2 Samuel 21:1) was to punish the people, because they had not accorded Saul the proper honours at his burial (Num. Rashi 8:4). In Sheol, Samuel reveals to Saul that in the next world, Saul would dwell with Samuel, which is a proof that all has been forgiven him by God ('Er. 53ba).
In Islam[edit]
Some Muslims refer to Saul as Tālūt (Arabic: طالوت), and believe that (as in the Bible) he was the commander of Israel. Other scholars, however, have identified Talut as Gideon[29] with the reasoning that the Qur'an references the same incident of the drinking from the river as that found in Judges 7:5–7 and other factors associated with Gideon. According to the Qur'an, Talut was chosen by the Prophet Samuel (not mentioned by name explicitly, but rather as "a Prophet" of the Israelites) after being asked by the people of Israel for a Malik (Arabic: مَـلِـك, King) to lead them into war. The Israelites criticized Samuel for appointing Talut, lacking respect for Talut because he was not wealthy. Samuel rebuked the people for this and told them that Talut was more favored than they were. Talut led the Israelites to victory over the army of Goliath, who was killed by Dawud (David). Talut is not considered a Nabi (Arabic: نَـبِي, Prophet), but a Divinely appointed King.[30]
Name[edit]
The name 'Tālūt' has uncertain etymology. Unlike some other Qur'anic figures, the Arabic name is not similar to the Hebrew name (Sha'ul). According to Muslim exegetes, the name 'Tālūt' means 'Tall' (from the Arabic "tūl") and refers to the extraordinary stature of Saul, which would be consistent with the Biblical account.[31] In explanation of the name, exegetes such as Tha'labi hold that at this time, the future King of Israel was to be recognised by his height; Samuel set up a measure, but no one in Israel reached its height except Tālūt (Saul).
Saul as the King of Israel[edit]
In the Qur'an, Israelites demanded a King after the time of Musa (Moses). God appointed Talut as their King. Saul was distinguished by the greatness of his knowledge and of his physique; it was a sign of his role as King that God brought back the Ark of the Covenant for Israel. Talut tested his people at a river; whoever drank from it would not follow him in battle excepting one who takes [from it] in the hollow of his hand. Many drank but only the faithful ventured on. In the battle, however, David slew Goliath and was made the subsequent King of Israel.[30]
The Qur'anic account[30] differs from the Biblical account (if Saul is assumed to be Talut) in that in the Bible the sacred Ark was returned to Israel before Saul's accession, and the test by drinking water is made in the Hebrew Bible not by Saul but by Gideon.[32]
Historicity[edit]
The historicity of Saul's kingdom is not universally accepted[1][33] and there is insufficient extrabiblical evidence to verify if the biblical account reflects historical reality.[34]:50ff The notion of a United Monarchy of Israel and Judah is believed by some scholars to be a later ideological construct; statehood in Judah is thought, on the basis of archaeological evidence, to have emerged no earlier than the 8th century BCE.[1]
Saul’s kingdom was not very large. It probably included Mt. Ephraim, Benjamin and Gilead. He also exerted some influence in the northern mountains in Judah and beyond the Jezreel Valley. His capital appears to have been basically a military camp near Gibeah. Archeology seems to confirm that until about 1000 BCE, the end of Iron Age I, Israelite society was essentially a society of farmers and stockbreeders without any truly centralized organization and administration.[9]
Psychological analyses[edit]
Accounts of Saul's behavior have made him a popular subject for speculation among modern psychiatrists. George Stein views the passages depicting Saul's ecstatic episodes as suggesting that Saul may have suffered from mania.[35] Martin Huisman sees the story of Saul as illustrative of the role of stress as a factor in depression.[36] Liubov Ben-Noun of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, believes that passages referring to King Saul's disturbed behavior indicate he was afflicted by a mental disorder, and lists a number of possible conditions.[37] However, Christopher C. H. Cook of the Department of Theology and Religion, Durham University, UK recommends caution in offering any diagnoses in relation to people who lived millennia ago.[38]
See also[edit]
David in Islam
Kings of Israel and Judah
Midrash Samuel
Paul the Apostle
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Finkelstein, Israel (2006). "The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity". In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Israel; et al. Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. pp. 171 ff. ISBN 9781575061283. Retrieved 2016-03-02.
Jump up ^ Van der Toorn, Karel (1993). "Saul and the rise of Israelite state religion". Vetus Testamentum. XLIII (4). JSTOR 1518499.
^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, Joseph; Price, Ira Maurice; Singer, Isidore; Lauterbach, Jacob Zallel (1906). "Saul". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 14:51 lists three sons – Jonathan, and Ishvi, and Malchi-shua – and the two daughters. But see also 2 Samuel 2:8 and 1 Chronicles 8:33.
Jump up ^ Some Hebrew versions say that the five sons were Michal's – e.g., 2 Samuel 21:8–9
^ Jump up to: a b Driscoll, James F. (1912). "Saul". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 13. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges on 1 Samuel 10, accessed 1 May 2017
^ Jump up to: a b "Saul, First King of Israel", Chabad.org
^ Jump up to: a b "King Saul", Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple, (Hershel Shanks, ed.), Biblical Archaeology Society
Jump up ^ Pulpit Commentary on 1 Samuel 10, accessed 1 May 2017
Jump up ^ [McFall, Leslie. "The Chronology of David and Saul." JETS, Sept. 2010. Web. 8 July 2017. http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/53/53-3/McFall_JETS_53-3_pp_475-533.pdf], accessed 8 July 2017
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 14:47: New Living Translation; other translations vary
Jump up ^ Benson Commentary on 1 Samuel 14, accessed 7 May 2017
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 14:24-45
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 15:3
Jump up ^ Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges on 1 Samuel 16, accessed 12 May 2017
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 16:20: a donkey loaded with bread, a skin of wine, and a young goat
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 18:7, recurring in 1 Samuel 21:11 and 1 Samuel 29:5
Jump up ^ "1 Samuel 18 ; ESV – David and Jonathan's Friendship". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ G. Darshan, "The Reinterment of Saul and Jonathan's Bones (II Sam 21, 12–14) in Light of Ancient Greek Hero-Cult Stories", ZAW, 125,4 (2013), 640–645.
Jump up ^ 1 Chronicles 10:13-14
Jump up ^ The idea was originally advanced in the 19th century, and has most recently been elaborated in Kyle McCarter's influential commentary on I Samuel (P. Kyle McCarter, "I Samuel: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes and Commentary", Anchor Bible Series, 1980)
Jump up ^ Hayes, Christine. "Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible): Lecture 13 – The Deuteronomistic History: Prophets and Kings (1 and 2 Samuel)". Yale Open Courses. Yale University. Retrieved 2016-03-02.
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 15:29
Jump up ^ Benson, J., Benson Commentary on 1 Samuel 15, accessed 10 May 2017
Jump up ^ Bright, John, A History of Israel, The Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1972, p. 185.
^ Jump up to: a b Bill T. Arnold (1989). "The Amalekite report of Saul's death: political intrigue or incompatible sources?" (PDF). J. Evangelical Theological Society. 32 (3): 289–298.
Jump up ^ Life Application Study Bible: Note on 2 Samuel 1:13
Jump up ^ http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=315&region=E1&CR=EN,E2. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c Quran %3Averse%3D246 2 :246–252
Jump up ^ Leaman, Oliver, The Quran, An Encyclopedia, 2006, p. 638.
Jump up ^ Judges vii. 5–7
Jump up ^ Baruch Halpern (2003). David's Secret Demons: Messiah, Murderer, Traitor, King. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 208–211.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Richard D. Historical Roots of the Old Testament (1200–63 BCE). Volume 13 of Biblical Encyclopedia. Society of Biblical Lit, 2014 ISBN 9781628370065
Jump up ^ "Stein, George. "The case of King Saul: did he have recurrent unipolar depression or bipolar affective disorder? – psychiatry in the Old Testament", The British Journal of Psychiatry (2011), 198: p.212". Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Huisman, M (2007). "King Saul, work-related stress and depression". J Epidemiol Community Health. 61 (10): 890. PMC 2652967  . PMID 17873225. doi:10.1136/jech.2007.066522.
Jump up ^ "Ben-Noun, Liubov. "What was the Mental Disease that Afflicted King Saul?", Clinical Case Studies, October 2003 vol. 2 no. 4 pp. 270–282". Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cook, Christopher C.H., "Psychiatry in scripture: sacred texts and psychopathology", The Psychiatrist (2012) 36: pp. 225–229". Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Wellhausen, Julius, Der Text der Bücher Samuelis
Budde, Die Bücher Richter und Samuel, 1890, pp. 167–276
Driver, S. R., Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, 1890
Cheyne, T. K., Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism, 1892, pp. 1–126
Smith, H. P., Old Testament History, 1903, ch. vii.
Cheyne, T. K., and Black, (eds.) Encyclopedia Biblica
SAMUEL AND SAUL: A NEGATIVE SYMBIOSIS by Rabbi Moshe Reiss
Hudson, J. Francis, 'Rabshakeh' [Lion Publishing 1992] is a fictionalisation of Saul's tragedy.
Green, A., 'King Saul, The True History of the First Messiah' [Lutterworth Press 2007]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Joseph Jacobs, Ira Maurice Price, Isidore Singer, and Jacob Zallel Lauterbach (1901–1906). "Saul". In Singer, Isidore; et al. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saul&oldid=804476592"
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text:
Coxey's Army
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Cox's Army, a 1932 protest march to Washington, D.C.
Coxey's Army marchers leaving their camp.
Coxey's Army was a protest march by unemployed workers from the United States, led by Ohio businessman Jacob Coxey. They marched on Washington D.C. in 1894, the second year of a four-year economic depression that was the worst in United States history to that time. Officially named the Army of the Commonwealth in Christ, its nickname came from its leader and was more enduring. It was the first significant popular protest march on Washington, and the expression "Enough food to feed Coxey's Army" originates from this march.
Contents
1 First march
2 Second march
3 Coxey's Army in culture
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 Further reading
7 External links
First march[edit]
The purpose of the march was to protest the unemployment caused by the Panic of 1893 and to lobby for the government to create jobs which would involve building roads and other public works improvements, with workers paid in paper currency which would expand the currency in circulation, consistent with populist ideology. The march originated with 100 men in Massillon, Ohio, on March 25, 1894,[1] passing through Pittsburgh, Becks Run and Homestead, Pennsylvania, in April.[2]
Sign marking Coxey's Army 1894 encampment in Bladensburg, Maryland
The Army's western section received the nickname Kelly's Army, after California leader "General" Charles T. Kelly. Although larger at its beginning, Kelly's Army lost members on its long journey; few made it past the Ohio River. Various groups from around the country gathered to join the march, and its number had grown to 500 with more on the way from further west when it reached Washington on April 30, 1894. The 260-acre (1.1 km2) Shreve farm site at current day Colmar Manor, Maryland, was used by the 6,000 jobless men as a camp site.[3] Coxey and other leaders of the movement were arrested the next day for walking on the grass of the United States Capitol. Interest in the march and protest rapidly dwindled.[4]
Some of the most militant Coxeyites were those who formed their own "armies" in Pacific Northwest centers such as Butte, Tacoma, Spokane, and Portland. Many of these protesters were unemployed railroad workers who blamed railroad companies, President Cleveland's monetary policies, and excessive freight rates for their plight. The climax of this movement was perhaps on April 21, 1894, when William Hogan and approximately 500 followers commandeered a Northern Pacific Railway train for their trek to Washington, D.C. They enjoyed support along the way, which enabled them to fight off the federal marshals attempting to stop them. Federal troops finally apprehended the Hoganites near Forsyth, Montana. While the protesters never made it to the capital, the military intervention they provoked proved to be a rehearsal for the federal force that broke the Pullman Strike later that year.[5]
Second march[edit]
A second march was organized in 1914.[6] A portion of the march reached Monessen, Pennsylvania, on April 30.[7] Another contingent from New York City merged with the march.[8] When the march reached Washington D.C., Coxey addressed a crowd of supporters from the steps of the United States Capitol.[citation needed]
Coxey's Army in culture[edit]
Among the people observing the march was L. Frank Baum, before he gained fame. There are political interpretations of his book, the Wonderful Wizard of Oz, which have often been related to Coxey's Army. In the novel, Dorothy, the Scarecrow (the American farmer), Tin Woodman (the industrial worker), and Cowardly Lion (William Jennings Bryan), march on the yellow brick road to the Emerald City, the Capital (or Washington, D.C.), demanding relief from the Wizard, who is interpreted to be the President. Dorothy's shoes (made of silver in the book, not the familiar ruby that is depicted in the movie) are interpreted to symbolize using free silver instead of the gold standard (the road of yellow brick) because the shortage of gold precipitated the Panic of 1893. In the film adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, the silver shoes were turned into ruby for the cinematic effect of color, as Technicolor was still in its early years when the movie was produced. However, this theory was not advanced until many decades after the book was written.[9]
The phrase Coxey's Army has also come to refer to a ragtag band, possibly due to an incident during the second march in 1914.[10]
Coxey's Army also plays a prominent role in Garet Garrett's The Driver, in which the main character is a journalist following the march.
In his story "Two Thousand Stiffs" (published in hardcover as part of the 1907 collection The Road), Jack London describes his experiences as a member of Kelly's Army. The story gives a vivid account on a personal level of the motivations of the unemployed "stiffs", the military style organization of their army, and the more and less willing support given them by more fortunate Americans who were still sympathetic to their cause. In London's description, he joined Kelly's Army at Council Bluffs, Iowa, and remained with it until its dissolution at the Mississippi River, a dissolution caused primarily by the inability to capture trains for transportation from an alerted railroad industry.[11]
In the 1955 play Inherit the Wind, Meeker (the jailer/bailiff) mentions Coxey's Army when talking to Rachel Brown in an early scene.
Coxey's Army's arrival in Washington D.C. sets the backdrop of the 2016 historical murder mystery, A March To Remember, by Anna Loan-Wilsey (ISBN 978-1617737282).
The expression "Enough food to feed Coxey's Army" signifies that the person commenting believes there is a great deal more food being prepared or presented than is actually required for the persons to be fed.[12]
See also[edit]
Carl Browne
List of protest marches on Washington, DC
Fry's Army
James Renshaw Cox for a later march on Washington
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "In Dreams He Sees An Army" (PDF). New York Times (March 25). 1894. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
Jump up ^ "Coxey has a new commissary" (PDF). New York Times (April 6). 1894. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
Jump up ^ "R.A. Shreve, Of Old Md. Family, Dies," The Washington Post May 8, 1951, pg. B2.
Jump up ^ "Coxey's Army Dwindling Away" (PDF). New York Times (May 11). 1894. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
Jump up ^ White, W. Thomas (July 1985). "Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in the Railroad Work Force: The Case of the Far Northwest, 1883-1918". The Western Historical Quarterly. The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 3. 16 (3): 269–271. doi:10.2307/969128. JSTOR 969128.
Jump up ^ "Gen. Coxey to Lead Unemployed Army" (PDF). New York Times (February 26). 1914. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
Jump up ^ "Chronology of Monessen 1907-1920". Archived from the original on 2007-04-02. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Tramps to March on May 1; J. Eads Howe's Contingent Plans to Join Coxey's Army" (PDF). New York Times (April 13). 1914. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
Jump up ^ Jahangir, Rumeana (2009-03-17). "Secrets of the Wizard of Oz". BBC. Retrieved 18 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Trade Fifes for Beer. Coxey's Army Bandsmen Then Go To Jail For Intoxication" (PDF). New York Times (April 19). 1914. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
Jump up ^ Jack London, The Road, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006
Jump up ^ Anders, Smiley (November 20, 2016). "Smiley: Thoughts on a draining experience". The Advocate. Retrieved April 28, 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Benjamin F. Alexander, Coxey's Army: Popular Protest in the Gilded Age, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015
Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1991.
Donald L. McMurry, Coxey's Army: A Study of the Industrial Army Movement of 1894. [1929] Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1968.
Jerry Prout, Coxey’s Crusade for Jobs: Unemployment in the Gilded Age (Northern Illinois University Press, 2016). 152 pp.
Carlos A. Schwantes, Coxey's Army: An American Odyssey. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985.
Henry Vincent, The Story of the Commonweal: Complete and Graphic Narrative of the Origin and Growth of the Movement: Similar Movements in History — The March — Portraits of the Leaders — Other Pictures — The Objects Sought. Chicago: W.B. Conkey Co., 1894.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coxey's Army.
Daily Bleed Calendar: March 25, 1894
"Recollections of a contingent of Coxey's Army passing through Straughn, Indiana, in April of 1894," poem by Jared Carter.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coxey%27s_Army&oldid=865997757"
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