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Buses in London
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This article is about London buses in general. For the organisation responsible for running most buses in London, see London Buses.
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East London bus 18500.
The London Bus is one of London's principal icons, the archetypal red rear-entrance AEC Routemaster being recognized worldwide. Although the Routemaster has been phased out of regular service, with only one route still using the vehicles (15H),[1] the majority of buses in London are still red and therefore the red double-decker bus remains a widely recognised symbol of the city.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Organisation
1.1.1 LPTB to LRT
1.1.2 Privatisation
1.2 Vehicles
1.2.1 New Routemaster and bendy bus withdrawal
2 Operation
2.1 Local buses
2.2 Night buses
2.3 Heritage routes
2.4 Tour buses
2.5 Long distance coaches
2.6 Airport buses
2.7 Electric Buses
3 Major accidents
4 Terrorist incidents
5 Media
6 Facts and figures
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Management of London Transport 1933-2000
Dates
Organisation
Overseen by
1933-1947 London Passenger Transport Board London County Council
1948-1962 London Transport Executive British Transport Commission
1963-1969 London Transport Board Minister of Transport
1970-1984 London Transport Executive (Greater London only) Greater London Council
London Country Bus Services (Green Line only) National Bus Company
1984-2000 London Regional Transport Secretary of State for Transport
2000- Transport for London Mayor of London
Organisation[edit]
Early days: London General omnibuses in 1927
The London Transport brand continued on buses until 1986
A post-privatisation London bus bearing private operator branding
Buses have been used on the streets of London since 1829, when George Shillibeer started operating his horse drawn omnibus service from Paddington to the city. In 1850 Thomas Tilling started horse bus services,[2] and in 1855 the London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) was founded to amalgamate and regulate the horse-drawn omnibus services then operating in London.[3]
LGOC began using motor omnibuses in 1902, and manufactured them itself from 1909. In 1904 Thomas Tilling started its first motor bus service. The last LGOC horse-drawn bus ran on 25 October 1911, although independent operators used them until 1914.[4]
In 1909 Thomas Tilling and LGOC entered into an agreement to pool their resources. The agreement restricted the expansion of Thomas Tilling in London, and allowed the LGOC to lead an amalgamation of most of London's bus services. However, also in 1909 Thomas Clarkson started the National Steam Car Company to run steam buses in London in competition with the LGOC. In 1919 the National company reached agreement with the LGOC to withdraw from bus operation in London, and steam bus services ceased later that year.[5]
LPTB to LRT[edit]
Cover
Map
Zoom of central area
May 1912 London General Omnibus Company route map, showing the first 50 or so bus routes, many of which are broadly unchanged to the present day
In 1912 the Underground Group, which at that time owned most of the London Underground, bought the LGOC. In 1933 the LGOC, along with the rest of the Underground Group, became part of the new London Passenger Transport Board. The name London General was replaced by London Transport, which became synonymous with the red London bus.[6]
Bus numbers were first used in 1906. When the independent firms started in 1922, they used General route numbers, along with suffixes from the alphabet to denote branch routes. In 1924, under the London Traffic Act, the Metropolitan Police was given the authority of allocating route numbers, which all buses had to carry. This ultimately led to chaos and in the London Passenger Transport Act of 1933 the powers of allocating route numbers was taken away from the police and handed once again to professional busmen.[7] Suffixes were gradually abolished over the decades, the last such route in London being the 77A, which became the 87 in June 2006.
The LPTB, under Lord Ashfield, assumed responsibility for all bus services in the London Passenger Transport Area, an area with a radius of about 30 miles of central London. This included the London General country buses (later to be London Transport's green buses), Green Line Coaches and the services of several Tilling Group and independent companies.
London buses continued to operate under the London Transport name from 1933 to 2000, although the political management of transport services changed several times. The LPTB oversaw transport from 1933 to 1947 until it was re-organised into the London Transport Executive (1948 to 1962). Responsibility for London Transport was subsequently taken over to the London Transport Board (1963 to 1969), the Greater London Council (1970 to 1984) and London Regional Transport (1984 to 2000).
However, in 1969 legislation was passed to transfer the green country services, outside the area of the Greater London Council, to the recently formed National Bus Company. Trading under the name London Country the green buses and Green Line Coaches became the responsibility of a new NBC subsidiary, London Country Bus Services, on 1 January 1970.
A former network of express buses operated by London Transport in central London was the Red Arrows. The routes, all numbered in the 500s, ran from main line stations to various locations in the West End and City. They were introduced in 1966 and expanded in 1968, but in the 1990s they were gradually phased out and only two former routes, 507 and 521, remain.[8]
In 1974 Jill Viner became the first female bus driver for London Transport.[9][10]
In 1979 the operation of London's buses under the GLC was divided among eight areas or districts, as described in the table below:
District
Area
Logo (positioned above LT roundel)
Abbey West central Coronet
Cardinal West and Southwest Bust of Thomas Wolsey
Forest East and Northeast (after Epping Forest) Squirrel
Leaside North (after River Lea) Swan
Selkent Southeast Hops
Tower East central White Tower
Wandle South (after River Wandle) Water wheel
Watling Northwest Bust of Roman soldier[11]
The districts were later reorganised and reduced to six (with the abolition of Tower and Watling), and, following the Transport Act of 1985, were done away with in 1989 with privatisation imminent.
Privatisation[edit]
In the 1980s the government of Margaret Thatcher decided to privatise the bus operating industry in the Great Britain. At the time, local bus transport was dominated by London Transport in London, and in other major cities by large municipally owned operators, as well as by the government-owned National Bus Company and Scottish Bus Group elsewhere. The Transport Act 1985 brought about bus deregulation throughout Great Britain which opened up local bus operation to private operators and required municipal companies to operate independently of local government on a commercial basis.[12]
In London a completely different model was used from the rest of the country; the Transport Act brought about the privatisation of London bus services, which required an arms-length subsidiary company of London Transport called London Buses to be set up with the remit to contract out the operation of services, but to determine service levels, routes, frequencies and fares within the public sector.[13]
This regime is still in place today, and bus operations in London must be put out to competitive tendering so that routes are operated by a number of private companies. In 2000, as part of the formation of the new Greater London Authority, the ownership of London Buses moved from the central (UK) government-controlled London Regional Transport to the Mayor of London's transport organisation, Transport for London (TfL).[13]
Vehicles[edit]
Main article: List of bus types used in London
A 2005 Alexander ALX400 model passing a 1963 AEC Routemaster
From the early days of motor bus operation by the London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) in the 1900s (decade) until the 1960s, London went its own way, designing its own vehicles specially for London use rather than using the bus manufacturers' standard products used elsewhere. The Associated Equipment Company (AEC) was created as a subsidiary of the LGOC in 1912 to build buses and other equipment for its parent company, and continued in the ownership of LGOC and its successors until 1962. Many of London's local service buses over this period were built by AEC, although other manufacturers also built buses to London designs, or modified their own designs for use in London.[4]
The last bus specifically designed for London was the AEC Routemaster, built between 1956 and 1968. Since then, buses built for London's local services have all been variants of models built for general use elsewhere, although bus manufacturers would routinely offer a 'London specification' to meet specific London requirements. Some manufacturers even went so far as to build new models with London in mind such as the Daimler Fleetline and Leyland Titan.
London did see the introduction of several of the newly emerging minibus and midibus models in the 1980s and 1990s, in a bid to up the frequency on routes, although the use of these buses dropped off to the level of niche operation on routes not suitable for full size buses.
With the move to tendered contracts for TfL routes, the 'London specification' was further enforced as being part of tender proposals, invariably specifying new buses. The major difference for London is the usage of dual doors on central routes.
London was one of the earliest major users of low-floor buses. From 2000, the mainstay of fleet, double-decker buses, were augmented with a fleet of articulated buses, rising to a peak fleet size of 393 Mercedes-Benz Citaros.[14] These were introduced to help replace the AEC Routemaster, as well as to cope with an increased capacity.[15] A small fleet of hybrid buses was also introduced.[16]
New Routemaster and bendy bus withdrawal[edit]
See also: New Routemaster and Articulated buses in London
A London General Red Arrow articulated bus
In the 2008 London mayoral election campaign, prospective mayor Boris Johnson made several commitments to change the London Buses vehicle policy, namely to introduce a new Routemaster, and remove the bendy buses. Johnson was elected to office on 4 May 2008, and on 4 July 2008 Transport for London announced the New Bus for London Competition,[17] in which conceptual and detailed design proposals would be sought for a new hybrid Routemaster, with development of a design that could be put into production hoped for completion by 2012 (the expected date of the next mayoral election).[14]
In August 2008, the London Transport Commissioner Peter Hendy announced that the withdrawal of the bendy buses would take place, starting in 2009. So as to reduce additional costs to TfL, the buses would be withdrawn as their 5-year operating contracts came up for renewal, with the replacement types being decided by operators. Options for replacement would not preclude such measures as tri-axle buses. However, research has indicated that removing articulated vehicles may not be without cost; London Travel Watch undertook a study in September 2008 which found that to replace articulated vehicles on three bus routes, and maintain overall route capacity, would cost an additional £12.6m per annum, due to the additional vehicles necessitated.[18]
On 7 December 2008 Boris Johnson appeared as the "Star In a Reasonably Priced Car" on BBC2's Top Gear in which Jeremy Clarkson questioned him about his plans to withdraw bendy buses, which, as he pointed out, Johnson had announced he planned to do many months prior to this and asked when he actually planned to put this into practice, to which Johnson replied they would be off the road "by around 2010".
The first buses to be withdrawn would be the Red Arrow fleet on routes 507 and 521 (although the latter route requires single deckers as it runs through the Strand Underpass), in May 2009.[19] The last were withdrawn on 9 December 2011.[20]
In May 2010 Mayor of London Boris Johnson unveiled the design of the New Routemaster, the proposed replacement for the Routemaster as an iconic standard bus for exclusive use in London.[21] The buses, designed by Heatherwick Studio and built by Wrightbus[22] feature two staircases, three doors and an open platform allowing passengers to hop on and off, and commenced operating in 2012.
In December 2011 the British car magazine Autocar road-tested the New Routemaster. It said it had "brilliant economy and an interior to die for. The best in public transport".[23] It rated it ahead of the Wright Gemini Hybrid 2 , Mercedes-Benz Citaro and AEC Routemaster.
However, in December 2016 the new Mayor of London Sadiq Khan decided that no more orders would be placed for the bus after only 1,000 of Boris Johnson's evisaged fleet of 2,000 had been procured.[24]
Operation[edit]
Local buses[edit]
Main article: List of bus routes in London
A representation of the standard London bus stop (although completely fictional in the place names, and route numbers)—yellow squares mean "buy tickets before boarding"; blue squares denote a night bus; the "S" at the top of the pole identifies a particular bus stand at a location with many stands
Most local buses within London form a network managed by London Buses, an arm of Transport for London. Services are operated by private sector companies under contract to London Buses. With the introduction of the London congestion charge in central London and because at peak times the Underground is operating at maximum capacity, many bus service improvements have been undertaken, and central bus services are currently enjoying something of a resurgence.[13]
Although the rear-entrance double-deck AEC Routemaster is the archetypal London bus, their numbers have dwindled quite quickly owing to their age (the oldest are now more than 60 years old), their inability to accept wheelchairs or pushchairs, and their requirement for a two-person crew. As described below, Routemasters are now restricted to one heritage route.[25]
All other local bus services are now operated by modern low-floor buses, which may be single-deck or double-deck. Most buses operating in London have two sets of doors, and passengers board the bus using the front door and alight using the rear door, whilst some buses on less busy routes have only one door. All these buses conform to the Disability discrimination act, and can accept passengers in wheelchairs and other mobility impaired passengers.
Some local bus routes in the outer areas of London cross the London boundary. London Buses services that cross the boundary have standard red buses, and charge London fares, at least within the boundary. Buses from outside London that cross into London are in their operators' own colour schemes, and may not accept the London fares even within the boundary.
A Metroline Alexander Dennis Enviro400 on route 139.
A London General Mercedes-Benz Citaro articulated bus on route 521 operated by London General (withdrawn in 2009).
The Red Arrow articulated bus fleet at Waterloo Bus Garage
A London United bus bearing the logo of the RATP Group
Because the operating contracts for local buses in London are subject to a system of competitive tender, a wide range of companies now operate bus routes across London. Many services have been contracted out to leading transport groups such as Abellio, Arriva, ComfortDelGro, Go-Ahead Group, RATP Group, Stagecoach and Transit Systems. Connex, FirstGroup, National Express and Transdev previously operated services in London.[26][27][28]
Privately run bus services may also be operated independently of the regulated London bus network, but still require a permit from TfL. This permit applies to any service which has a stop in London and another within 15 miles of Greater London, such as commuter coaches, school buses or supermarket shuttle buses.[29]
Company
Routes
Service area
Parent company
Abellio London London & Surrey Abellio
Abellio Surrey London & Surrey Abellio
Arriva London London Arriva
Carousel Buses Buckinghamshire Go-Ahead Group
CT Plus Greater London HCT Group
First Berkshire & The Thames Valley Berkshire FirstGroup
Go-Ahead London London Go-Ahead Group
Green Line Coaches Express services to Berkshire & Hertfordshire Arriva
London Sovereign North London RATP Group
London United West & Central London RATP Group
Metrobus South and South-east London, and parts of Surrey, Kent, West and East Sussex. Go-Ahead Group
Metroline North & West London ComfortDelGro
Quality Line South London & Surrey RATP Group
Stagecoach London South and East London Stagecoach Group
Sullivan Buses Hertfordshire & North London -
Tower Transit East, West & Central London Transit Systems
Uno Hertfordshire & North London University of Hertfordshire
Night buses[edit]
Night buses began running as early as 1913, and they form part of the London Buses network. Originally all the routes were distinguished by an N prefixed route number and had their own (premium) fare structure, in part because the routes are greatly extended from their daytime equivalents. For example, while route 9 travels from Aldwych to Hammersmith, route N9 continues 16 miles on from Hammersmith to Heathrow Airport Terminal 5.
There are also 24-hour routes, which run at both day- and night-times. Some of these only run at night during weekends, whereas others run it every day.
Heritage routes[edit]
A First London AEC Routemaster on heritage route 9
The rear-entrance double-deck AEC Routemaster has been withdrawn from all regular service routes, a small fleet are retained to operate on Heritage route 15. Route 9H was withdrawn on 26 July 2014.[1][25][30]
AEC Routemaster buses are not accessible to passengers in wheelchairs and other mobility impaired passengers. Because of this, the heritage route is operated as a short-working of a regular service route bearing the same route number, thus ensuring that passengers unable to board the heritage buses are offered equivalent alternative transport arrangements.[1]
Tour buses[edit]
See also: Open top buses in the United Kingdom
A partial open Big Bus Company top tour bus
A common sight in central London are tour buses, the majority being open-top buses. These are double-decker buses with a fully or partially open upper deck, which provide tourist services with either live or recorded commentary. Most of these services allow passengers to embark and disembark at any of the company's stops, continuing their journey on a later bus.
There are several competing operators of such services which do not form part of the London Buses network and do not issue or accept London Buses tickets, although at least one paints its buses in the same red as London's local buses.
Other tours use coaches and generally need to be booked in advance through travel agents.
Long distance coaches[edit]
A typical National Express coach on a route serving London
Long-distance coaches link London with the rest of the United Kingdom and with other cities in Europe. Most of these services are run by National Express and their European affiliate Eurolines. National Express' predominantly white vehicles are common on the roads of central London, on their way to and from their terminus at Victoria Coach Station.
In 2006, competition for long distance traffic was introduced by Megabus, a subsidiary of the large UK bus operating company Stagecoach. This company operates cheap services aimed at students and the like, which must be booked in advance on the internet.
Other coach services link London to medium-distance destinations, and unlike National Express or Megabus provide walk-on fares. Good examples of this are the Green Line services to the Home Counties, mainly operated by Arriva, the service to the city of Oxford, where Stagecoach's frequent Oxford Tube service competes with Go-Ahead's similar Oxford Express service, and the many commuter services to medium-distance destinations operated by individual coach companies during peak times.
Airport buses[edit]
See also: Airport bus
National Express is also the principal airport bus operator, serving Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted with its National Express Airport brand. Unlike their longer distance cousins, these are walk-on services, which serve stops throughout central London rather than running to Victoria Coach Station.
London City Airport used to provide express shuttle bus services to connect the airport to rail and underground stations at Canning Town, Canary Wharf and Liverpool Street. These operated at a premium fare (compared with the parallel but slower London Buses services) but did not survive the extension of the Docklands Light Railway to the airport in late 2005.
Electric Buses[edit]
See also: Low emission buses in London
Currently, London has 73 electric busses.[31] In June 2018, Sadiq Khan, the mayor of London announced that 68 electric double-decker buses will be added to the London bus fleet.[32]
Major accidents[edit]
13 June 1957: RTL 780, operating on route 7 collided with a queue of people at a bus stop in Oxford Street, resulting in eight deaths. The driver had collapsed with heat exhaustion.[33]
Terrorist incidents[edit]
18 February 1996: An explosive device detonated prematurely on a route 171 Catford to Holborn double-decker bus, operated by London Central, in Aldwych. The bomb killed Edward O'Brien, the IRA terrorist transporting the device, and injuring eight others including the driver. The force ripped the bus apart, destroying its front.[34]
7 July 2005: An explosion occurred as part of a coordinated attack on London on a route 30 Hackney Wick to Marble Arch double-decker bus, operated by Stagecoach London, in Tavistock Square. The force ripped the roof off the top deck and destroyed the back of the bus, killing thirteen passengers and the suicide bomber.[35]
21 July 2005: A suicide bomber attempted to explode a bomb as part of a second coordinated attack on London on a route 26 Waterloo station to Hackney Wick double-decker bus, operated by Stagecoach Group, in Shoreditch. The device failed to detonate properly and there were no injuries.[36]
Media[edit]
A revamped London bus has been used to promote the work of British artist Sir Peter Blake. An anthropomorphic Routemaster named Topper Deckington III is a fictional character in the Pixar movie Cars 2.
Facts and figures[edit]
Note that these figures only take Transport for London services into consideration, and exclude school and other bus services.
Route 25, running between Oxford Circus and Ilford, is the busiest bus route. The service carried over 19 million passengers in 2015/16. The next busiest routes (over 10 million) are: 18, 29, 149, 207, 83, 38, 5, 86, 140, 279, 73, 243, 109, 43, and 36.[37]
Route U9 has the highest mean observed speed of daytime routes, at 18.8 mph. The slowest was 15H at 3.8 mph.[38]
Route X26, running from Croydon to Heathrow Airport, is the longest daytime route at 24 miles. The next longest are routes 166, 358 and 465 (all 17 miles), 111 and 246 (16 miles) and 492 (15 miles).[39]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Heritage routes for Routemaster". BBC. 9 September 2005. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Thomas Tilling by Peter Gould
Jump up ^ "From omnibus to ecobus, 1829-1850". London Transport Museum. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "From omnibus to ecobus, 1901-1913, 3rd page". London Transport Museum. Archived from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
Jump up ^ The Steam Bus 1833-1923 by Peter Gould
Jump up ^ "From omnibus to ecobus, 1919-1938, 3rd page". London Transport Museum. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Marshall, Prince (1972). Wheels of London. The Sunday Times Magazine ISBN 0-7230-0068-9. pp. 55–56. templatestyles stripmarker in |publisher= at position 27 (help)
Jump up ^ Marshall, Prince (1972). Wheels of London. The Sunday Times Magazine ISBN 0-7230-0068-9. p. 114. templatestyles stripmarker in |publisher= at position 27 (help)
Jump up ^ https://www.standard.co.uk/news/transport/the-incredible-women-who-changed-the-face-of-londons-famous-transport-network-a3784931.html
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bci3pyiQz2s
Jump up ^ "London Transport - Local Bus Maps". eplates.info. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Parker, David (2009). The official history of privatisation. London: Routledge. p. 232. ISBN 9780203881521.
^ Jump up to: a b c "History". Transport for London. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Buses Magazine, August 2008 issue, page 5, Ian Allen Publishing
Jump up ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1587406.stm
Jump up ^ "Hybrid buses". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 August 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "Consultation on Articulated Bus Routes 38, 507 and 521 (sec. 4.8.1)". London Travel Watch. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
Jump up ^ The beginning of the end for the bendy bus Mayor of London 5 December 2008
Jump up ^ Bendy bus makes final journey for Transport for London BBC News 10 November 2011
Jump up ^ Return of the Routemaster: Boris Johnson unveils new version of classic double-decker bus that lets you hop on and off
Jump up ^ £7.8m London bus contract for Ballymena firm
Jump up ^ New Bus for London driven
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/dec/31/boris-bus-london-transport-sadiq-khan-end
^ Jump up to: a b "End of the road for an icon". BBC. 20 May 2004. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
Jump up ^ "The French connection: What's a picture of the River Seine doing on our iconic London buses?". Daily Mail. 25 April 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Brummer, Alex (2012). "7. the Export of Transport". Britain for Sale: British Companies in Foreign Hands. Random House. ISBN 1448136814.
Jump up ^ Macalister, Terry; Milmo,Dan (22 April 2010). "Arriva takeover bid revives foreign takeover row". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "London Service Permits". TfL. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Travelling around London" (PDF). Transport for London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
Jump up ^ "Bus fleet audit—30 September 2017" (PDF). Transport for London. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
Jump up ^ "London to have Europe's largest double-decker electric bus fleet". Greater London Authority. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
Jump up ^ Marshall, Prince (1972). Wheels of London. The Sunday Times Magazine ISBN 0-7230-0068-9. p. 124. templatestyles stripmarker in |publisher= at position 27 (help)
Jump up ^ "1996: Bomb blast destroys London bus". BBC. 18 February 1996. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
Jump up ^ "London Attacks - Tavistock Square". BBC. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
Jump up ^ "'Bus bomb bid' CCTV shown to jury". BBC. 29 January 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
Jump up ^ https://tfl.gov.uk/cdn/static/cms/documents/bus-service-usage.xlsx
Jump up ^ http://content.tfl.gov.uk/route-all-bus-speeds.xls
Jump up ^ https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/218189/response/539748/attach/3/09%2015062014%20sched%20mileage%20by%20route%20direction%20final.xls
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Carbohydrate digestion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For a fuller description of human digestion, see Gastrointestinal physiology.
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All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is taken up much faster than fructose. Monosaccharide transport saturates with D-glucose at 30 mM.[1]
Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine.
Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple diffusion of substances, but is active and requires energy use by the epithelial cells.
During the phase of carbohydrate absorption, fructose is transported into the intestinal cell's cytosol, glucose and galactose competes with other [|Na|] transporter required for operation. From the cytosol, monosaccharides pass into the capillaries by simple or facilitated diffusion.
Carbohydrates not digested in the small intestine, including resistant starch foods such as potato, bean, oat, wheat flour, and several monosaccharide oligosaccharides and starch, are digested in a variable when they reach the large intestine. The bacterial flora metabolize these compounds anaerobically in the absence of oxygen. This produces gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane) and short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate). The gases are absorbed and excreted by breathing or through the anus (flatulence). Fatty acids are rapidly metabolized. Butyrate is used mainly by cells in the colon and acetate is absorbed into the blood and taken up by the liver, muscle and other tissue. Propionate is an important precursor of glucose in some animals, but not humans.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alvarado, F; Lherminier, M; Phan, HH (October 1984). "Hamster intestinal disaccharide absorption: extracellular hydrolysis precedes transport of the monosaccharide products". The Journal of Physiology. 355: 493–507. PMC 1193506  . PMID 6492000. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1984.sp015434.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate_digestion&oldid=785909523"
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Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium
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Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium
Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium Front Entrance
Date opened
1 November 2002
Location
Motobu, Okinawa, Japan
Coordinates
26°41′40″N 127°52′41″E / 26.69439°N 127.87794°E / 26.69439; 127.87794Coordinates: 26°41′40″N 127°52′41″E / 26.69439°N 127.87794°E / 26.69439; 127.87794
No. of animals
26,000
No. of species
740
Volume of largest tank
7,500 cubic metres (1,981,000 US gal) [1]
Total volume of tanks
10,000 cubic metres (2,642,000 US gal)
Memberships
JAZA [2]
Major exhibits
77
Website
oki-churaumi.jp/en/index.html
The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (沖縄美ら海水族館, Okinawa Churaumi Suizokukan) is located within the Ocean Expo Park in Okinawa, Japan. It welcomed its 20 millionth visitor on 30 March 2010[3] and is a member of the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums (JAZA). It was the largest aquarium in the world until it was surpassed by the Georgia Aquarium in 2005. The aquarium has the theme of “Encounter the Okinawan Sea”.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Aquarium
3 Other activities
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
In 1975, the World's Exposition or World's Fair was held in Okinawa, Japan at the Ocean Expo Park. Afterward, the park began to lose tourism and it was believed that a new aquarium would help revive the area and celebrate Okinawa's marine tradition. The aquarium was designed by Yukifusa Kokuba and was opened on 1 November 2002.
"Churaumi" was selected as the name of the aquarium by public vote amongst Japanese people. "Chura" means "beautiful" or "graceful" in the Okinawan Japanese dialect, and "umi" means "ocean" in Japanese.
Aquarium[edit]
Visitors at the Kuroshio Sea main tank
Play media
Rays and sharks at the Churaumi Aquarium
The aquarium is a part of the Ocean Expo Park located in Motobu, Okinawa. The aquarium is made up of four floors, with tanks containing deep sea creatures, sharks, coral and tropical fish. The aquarium is set on 19,000 m2 of land, with a total of 77 tanks containing 10,000 m3 of water. Water for the saltwater exhibits is pumped into the aquarium from a source 350 m offshore, 24 hours a day.[5]
The main tank, called the Kuroshio Sea, is 35 metres (115 ft) long, 27 metres (89 ft) wide and 10 metres (33 ft) deep.[6] It holds 7,500 cubic metres (1,981,000 US gal) of water and features an acrylic glass panel measuring 8.2 by 22.5 metres (27 by 74 ft) with a thickness of 60 centimetres (2 ft),[7] the largest such panel in the world when the aquarium was opened.[1][8]
Whale sharks and manta rays are kept alongside many other fish species in the main tank.[1] The first manta ray birth at the aquarium was in 2007.[9] As of July 2010, there have been a total of four manta rays born in the aquarium.[10]
The aquarium holds 80 species of coral. It is one of only a few aquariums that keeps whale sharks in captivity, and is currently trying to breed them.[1]
Other activities[edit]
A traditional Okinawan house
Close to the Aquarium there are two different dolphin shows in which viewers can touch them and watch them perform in a show. They are bottlenose dolphin and false killer whale. There is also a manatee exhibit featuring manatees presented to the aquarium by the Mexican government. A recently closed exhibit featured assorted sharks. There is also Emerald Beach which is accessible by the 200 yen tram.[citation needed]
Ocean Expo Park which holds the aquarium also has a selection of other activities. A native Okinawan Museum, Oceanic Culture Museum, Tropical Dream Center, and a Tropical & Subtropical Arboretum to a historic village.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Amazing Engineering: the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium". wayfaring.info. Wayfaring Travel Guide. 21 June 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "List of Aquariums" (PDF). jazga.or.jp. Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "We are pleased to have received the 20 millionth visitor!!". oki-churaumi.jp. Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "About Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium - Okinawa Travel Guide | Planetyze". Planetyze. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
Jump up ^ "Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium". oki-churaumi.jp. Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ http://oki-churaumi.jp/en/area/kuroshio.html
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium". oki-churaumi.jp. Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ The size of this panel was surpassed in 2008 when a larger panel was installed in the Dubai Mall Aquarium
Jump up ^ "3 Years in a row! This year too, a baby Manta was born in the Oki". oki-churaumi.jp. Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. 6 July 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "We have just recently had our 4th successful manta ray (Manta birostris) birth in captivity at Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium". oki-churaumi.jp. Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. 6 July 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium.
Official website (English)
Ocean Park Homepage in English
Bus Timetable from Asahibashi Sta. to the Aquarium
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Okinawa_Churaumi_Aquarium&oldid=801771014"
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Philamlife Tower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Philamlife Tower
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
General information
Status
Complete
Type
Office
Location
8767 Paseo de Roxas, Makati, Philippines
Coordinates
14°33′26.37″N 121°1′19.11″E / 14.5573250°N 121.0219750°E / 14.5573250; 121.0219750Coordinates: 14°33′26.37″N 121°1′19.11″E / 14.5573250°N 121.0219750°E / 14.5573250; 121.0219750
Construction started
1996
Opening
2000
Owner
Philippine American Life and General Insurance Company, Philam Properties Corporation, PERF Realty Corporation, and Social Security System
Management
Philam Properties Corporation
Height
Roof
200 m (656.17 ft)
Technical details
Floor count
48 aboveground, 5 belowground
Floor area
900,000 sq ft (83,612.74 m2)
Lifts/elevators
21
Design and construction
Architect
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP - New York, in cooperation with W.V. Coscolluela & Associates
Developer
Philam Properties Corporation
Structural engineer
Aromin & Sy + Associates, Inc.
Main contractor
E.E. Black, Ltd. / EEI Corporation J.V.
References
[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
The Philamlife Tower is an office skyscraper located in Makati, Philippines. It is owned and developed by Philam Properties Corporation, the real estate arm of the Philippine American Life and General Insurance Company (Philamlife).[6] Standing at 200 metres (656 feet), it is currently the 7th-tallest building in Makati, and is the 14th-tallest building in the country and Metro Manila as well. The building has 48 floors above ground, and 5 basement levels for parking.[2]
Contents
1 Location
2 Design
3 Amenities
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Location[edit]
The building is located inside the Makati Central Business District along Paseo de Roxas in Makati, just a few meters away from its intersection with Ayala Avenue. The building is directly across the Ayala Triangle. It is a walk away from most of Makati's other major office buildings including the current tallest building in the country, the PBCom Tower, and entertainment centers like Glorietta, Greenbelt and Ayala Center.[6]
Design[edit]
The Philamlife Tower was designed by international architectural firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLPin association with local architecture firm W.V. Coscolluela & Associates as Architect of Record. Project and construction management works was provided by American firm Turner International and local company Jose Aliling & Associates,[8][10] while construction of the building was made by the general contractor company EEI Corporation.[9][3]
The 48-storey office building has large column-free floor plates,[7] and uses fully unitized curtain wall of glass, aluminium panel and granite. The tower proper is incorporated into the system horizontal sunscreens, vertical fins, light bullnoses, crown lighting and balcony trellises. Shallow and deep-set cladding was used extensively on the building envelope.[1] The entrance facades employed mirror stainless steel shopfronts, capped with functional sculpted canopies in hairline finish.[11]
Amenities[edit]
Among its many features include: 100% raised flooring, which provides space beneath the floor for cabling and wiring, advanced structured cabling systems, automatic parking sensor system, double paned curtain wall, fully integrated building management and proximity card access system, provision for 24-hour air conditioning, 16 high speed elevators, and a helipad.[6][7] It also has eight corner offices per floor to a private club facility, as well as, a cafeteria for tenants.[10]
The Philamlife building incorporates 60,000 m2 of prime leasable office space, a private club facility, two major banking halls and required support services.[3]
It also has The Tower Club, a private business club for corporate executives at the 33rd and 34th floor. The Club has an executive boardroom, six function or private dining rooms, two restaurants and a bar. The Club also houses a fitness center. [7][12]
See also[edit]
List of tallest buildings in the Philippines
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Emporis.com Philamlife Tower, Makati
^ Jump up to: a b Skyscraperpage.com Philamlife Tower
^ Jump up to: a b c Manila Office Space Philamlife Tower Archived 2008-10-08 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Aromin & Sy + Associates Our Projects Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Tallest Buildings in the Philippines (as of April 2008)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Philam Properties Corporation Philam Properties Archived 2007-06-04 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Philippine Business Magazine Philippine Business Magazine: Volume 9 No. 1 "Towers of Power"
^ Jump up to: a b Jose Aliling & Associates Projects - Office Buildings Archived 2008-08-11 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b EEI Corporation List of Completed Projects - Building Projects - Office Archived 2010-08-15 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Turner Construction Company Projects - Philamlife Tower Archived 2011-07-17 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Builders Federal Group Philamlife Tower Archived 2007-08-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The Tower Club About Tower Club
External links[edit]
Philamlife Tower at Emporis
Philamlife Tower at Skyscraperpage.com
Philamlife Tower at Builder Federal
show
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e
Makati CBD
Towers
Office
Ayala Tower One
Exportbank Plaza
G.T. International Tower
Lepanto Building
LKG Tower
L. V. Locsin Building
Makati Sky Plaza
Pacific Star Building
PBCom Tower
Petron Megaplaza
Philamlife Tower
RCBC Plaza
Robinsons Summit Center
Rufino Pacific Tower
Smart Tower
The Enterprise Center Tower 1
The World Centre
Tower 6789
V Corporate Center
Zuellig Building
Residential
Discovery Primea
Grand Soho Makati
Makati Diamond Residences
Makati Tuscany
One Roxas Triangle
Salcedo Park Twin Towers
The Residences at Greenbelt
The Shang Grand Tower
Ayala Center
Ayala Museum
Glorietta
Greenbelt
Holiday Inn & Suites Makati
InterContinental Manila
Makati Shangri-La, Manila
Other landmarks
Ayala Triangle Gardens
Makati Medical Center
Mandarin Oriental Manila
Salcedo Park
The Peninsula Manila
Washington SyCip Park
Education
Asian Institute for Distance Education
Asian Institute of Management
CAP College Foundation
Centro Escolar University Makati
Far Eastern University Makati
iAcademy
Mapúa University Makati
Transportation
Roads
Amorsolo Street
Arnaiz Avenue
Ayala Avenue
Chino Roces Avenue
Gil Puyat Avenue
Makati Avenue
Paseo de Roxas
Rail
Ayala station
Buendia station (Line 3)
Dela Rosa railway station
Pasay Road railway station
SkyTrain
Italics denote buildings under construction or planned.
show
v
t
e
Skyscrapers and towers in Metro Manila
Completed
Over 250 m
Grand Hyatt Manila (282m, 2017)
PBCom Tower (259 m, 2000)
The Gramercy Residences (250 m, 2013)
Discovery Primea (250 m, 2013)
200–249 m
Grand Riviera Suites (230 m, 2014)
Shangri-La at the Fort, Manila (229 m, 2016)
One Shangri-La Place Towers (227 m, 2014)
BSA Twin Towers (221 m, 2000)
G.T. International Tower (217 m, 2001)
Alphaland Makati Place (215 m, 2016)
The St. Francis Shangri-La Place Towers (213 m, 2009)
BDO Corporate Center (210 m, 2015)
One Rockwell West Tower (210 m, 2010)
Petron Megaplaza (210 m, 1998)
The Knightsbridge Residences (210 m, 2013)
UnionBank Plaza (206 m, 2004)
Greenbelt San Lorenzo Tower (205 m, 2009)
Edades Tower (205 m, 2014)
Net Park (205 m, 2015)
Golden Empire Tower (203 m, 2002)
One Corporate Centre (202 m, 2009)
Milano Residences (200 m, 2016)
Philamlife Tower (200 m, 2000)
Summit One Tower (200 m, 1998)
150–199 m
One Central Makati (195 m, 2013)
8 Forbestown Road (194 m, 2013)
Anchor Skysuites (193 m, 2013)
RCBC Plaza Towers (192 m, 2001)
The Infinity Fort Bonifacio (190 m, 2011)
Tower 6789 (185 m, 2013)
One San Miguel Avenue (183 m, 2001)
LKG Tower (180 m, 2000)
Marco Polo Ortigas Manila (180 m, 2014)
The Shang Grand Tower (180 m, 2005)
Pacific Plaza Towers (179 m, 2001)
Atlanta Centre (179 m, 1998)
Birch Tower (178 m, 2012)
Aspire Tower (175 m, 2012)
Robinsons Equitable Tower (175 m, 1997)
One Roxas Triangle (174 m, 2000)
Robinsons Summit Center (174 m, 2001)
Paragon Plaza (174 m, 1998)
The Enterprise Center Tower 1 (172 m, 1999)
Greenbelt Laguna Tower (171 m, 2008)
Greenbelt Manila Tower (171 m, 2010)
The Beaufort (170 m, 2013)
The Beacon Arnaiz Tower (170 m, 2012)
Pearl of the Orient Tower (168 m, 2004)
Discovery Suites (167 m, 1999)
GA Towers (165 m, 2005)
One Rockwell East Tower (165 m, 2011)
Rufino Pacific Tower (161 m, 1994)
Ayala Tower One (160 m, 1996)
The Orient Square (160 m, 1999)
Lancaster Suites One (158 m, 2007)
Bellagio Golfview (156 m, 2010)
Exportbank Plaza (155 m, 1998)
Rizal Tower (155 m, 2000)
Wharton Parksuites (154 m, 2012)
BSA Grand Tower (154 m, 1998)
Belton Place (153 m, 2012)
The World Centre (152 m, 1996)
Salcedo Park Twin Towers (151 m, 1996)
Pacific Plaza Condominium (150 m, 1992)
One Legazpi Park (150 m, 2006)
Joy-Nostalg Center (150 m, 2009)
Forbes Tower West (150 m, 2011)
One McKinley Place (150 m, 2004)
Zuellig Building (150 m, 2012)
The Columns (150 m, 2009)
Under
construction
The Stratford Residences (312 m, 2017)
Trump Tower Manila (280 m, 2017)
Century Spire (245 m, 2018)
The Skysuites Tower (220 m, 2018)
UNTV Broadcast Center (200 m, 2017)
Torre de Manila (165 m, 2018)
Alveo Financial Tower (185.9 m, 2020)
Proposed
One Galleon Place (400 m)
Skycity (335 m)
Lopez Center (320 m)
Icone Tower (275 m)
Unbuilt
Centennial Tower (390 m)
PAGCOR Tower (665 m)
Philippine Diamond Tower (612 m)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philamlife_Tower&oldid=835921769"
Categories:
Skyscrapers in Makati
Skyscraper office buildings in Metro Manila
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
Office buildings completed in 2000
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text:
Harvard Mark I
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The left end consisted of electromechanical computing components
The right end included data and program readers, and automatic typewriters
Closeup of input/output and control readers
The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called Mark I by Harvard University’s staff,[1] was a general purpose electromechanical computer that was used in the war effort during the last part of World War II.
One of the first programs to run on the Mark I was initiated on 29 March 1944[2] by John von Neumann. At that time, von Neumann was working on the Manhattan project, and needed to determine whether implosion was a viable choice to detonate the atomic bomb that would be used a year later. The Mark I also computed and printed mathematical tables, which had been the initial goal of British inventor Charles Babbage for his "analytical engine".
The Mark I was disassembled in 1959, but portions of it are displayed in the Science Center as part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments. Other sections of the original machine were transferred to IBM and the Smithsonian Institution.
Contents
1 Origins
2 Design and construction
3 Operation
4 Instruction format
5 Contribution to the Manhattan project
6 Aiken and IBM
7 Successors
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Origins[edit]
The original concept was presented to IBM by Howard Aiken in November 1937.[3] After a feasibility study by IBM engineers, the company chairman Thomas Watson Sr. personally approved the project and its funding in February 1939.
Howard Aiken had started to look for a company to design and build his calculator in early 1937. After two rejections,[4] he was shown a demonstration set that Charles Babbage’s son had given to Harvard university 70 years earlier. This led him to study Babbage and to add references of the Analytical Engine to his proposal; the resulting machine "brought Babbage’s principles of the Analytical Engine almost to full realization, while adding important new features."[5]
The ASCC was developed and built by IBM at their Endicott plant and shipped to Harvard in February 1944. It began computations for the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships in May and was officially presented to the university on August 7, 1944.[6]
Design and construction[edit]
The ASCC was built from switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. It used 765,000 electromechanical components and hundreds of miles of wire, comprising a volume of 816 cubic feet (23 m3) - 51 feet (16 m) in length, 8 feet (2.4 m) in height, and 2 feet (0.61 m) deep. It weighed about 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg). The basic calculating units had to be synchronized and powered mechanically, so they were operated by a 50-foot (15 m) drive shaft coupled to a 5 horsepower (3.7 kW) electric motor, which served as the main power source and system clock. From the IBM Archives:
The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I) was the first operating machine that could execute long computations automatically. A project conceived by Harvard University’s Dr. Howard Aiken, the Mark I was built by IBM engineers in Endicott, N.Y. A steel frame 51 feet long and 8 feet high held the calculator, which consisted of an interlocking panel of small gears, counters, switches and control circuits, all only a few inches in depth. The ASCC used 500 miles (800 km) of wire with three million connections, 3,500 multipole relays with 35,000 contacts, 2,225 counters, 1,464 tenpole switches and tiers of 72 adding machines, each with 23 significant numbers. It was the industry’s largest electromechanical calculator.[7]
The enclosure for the Mark I was designed by futuristic American industrial designer Norman Bel Geddes. Aiken considered the elaborate casing to be a waste of resources, since computing power was in high demand during the war and the funds ($50,000 or more according to Grace Hopper) could have been used to build additional computer equipment.[8]
Operation[edit]
The Mark I had 60 sets of 24 switches for manual data entry and could store 72 numbers, each 23 decimal digits long.[9] It could do 3 additions or subtractions in a second. A multiplication took 6 seconds, a division took 15.3 seconds, and a logarithm or a trigonometric function took over one minute.[10]
The Mark I read its instructions from a 24-channel punched paper tape. It executed the current instruction and then read in the next one. A separate tape could contain numbers for input, but the tape formats were not interchangeable. Instructions could not be executed from the storage registers. This separation of data and instructions is known as the Harvard architecture (although the exact nature of this separation that makes a machine Harvard, rather than Von Neumann, has been obscured with the passage of time; see Modified Harvard architecture).
At first, the Mark I had no conditional branch instruction. This meant that complex programs had to be physically lengthy. A program loop was accomplished by joining the end of the paper tape containing the program back to the beginning of the tape (literally creating a loop). Later modifications introduced program branching.[11][12][13] The first programmers of the Mark I were computing pioneers Richard Milton Bloch, Robert Campbell, and Grace Hopper.[14]
Tape punch used to prepare programs
Program tape with visible programming patches
Rotary switches used to enter program data constants
Sequence indicators and switches
Rear view of computing section
Instruction format[edit]
The 24 channels of the input tape were divided into three fields of eight channels. Each accumulator, each set of switches, and the registers associated with the input, output, and arithmetic units were assigned a unique identifying index number. These numbers were represented in binary on the control tape. The first field was the binary index of the result of the operation, the second was the source datum for the operation and the third field was a code for the operation to be performed.[9]
Contribution to the Manhattan project[edit]
In 1928 L.J. Comrie was the first to turn IBM “punched-card equipment to scientific use: computation of astronomical tables by the method of finite differences, as envisioned by Babbage 100 years earlier for his Difference Engine”.[15] Very soon after, IBM started to modify its tabulators to facilitate this kind of computation. One of these tabulators, built in 1931, was The Columbia Difference Tabulator[16]
John von Neumann had a team at Los Alamos that used “modified IBM punched-card machines”[17] to determine the effects of implosion. On 29 March 1944, he demanded to run certain problems regarding implosion on the Mark I. In early August 1944 he arrived with two mathematicians to write a simulation program to study the implosion of the first atomic bomb.[18]
The Los Alamos group completed its work in a much shorter time than the Cambridge group. However, the punched-card machine operation computed values to six decimal places, whereas the Mark I computed values to eighteen decimal places. Additionally, Mark I integrated the partial differential equation at a much smaller interval size [or smaller mesh] and so...achieved far greater precision.[17]
“Von Neumann joined the Manhattan Project in 1943, working on the immense number of calculations needed to build the atomic bomb. He showed that the implosion design, which would later be used in the Trinity and Fat Man bombs, was likely faster and more efficient than the gun design.”[19]
Aiken and IBM[edit]
Aiken published a press release announcing the Mark I listing himself as the sole “inventor”. James W. Bryce was the only IBM person mentioned, even though several IBM engineers including Clair Lake and Frank Hamilton had helped to build various elements. IBM chairman Thomas J. Watson was enraged, and only reluctantly attended the dedication ceremony on August 7, 1944.[20][21] Aiken, in turn, decided to build further machines without IBM’s help, and the ASCC came to be generally known as the "Harvard Mark I". IBM went on to build its Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) to both test new technology and provide more publicity for the company's own efforts.[20]
Successors[edit]
The Mark I was followed by the Harvard Mark II (1947 or 1948), Mark III/ADEC (September 1949), and Harvard Mark IV (1952) – all the work of Aiken. The Mark II was an improvement over the Mark I, although it still was based on electromechanical relays. The Mark III used mostly electronic components—vacuum tubes and crystal diodes—but also included mechanical components: rotating magnetic drums for storage, plus relays for transferring data between drums. The Mark IV was all-electronic, replacing the remaining mechanical components with magnetic core memory. The Mark II and Mark III were delivered to the US Navy base at Dahlgren, Virginia. The Mark IV was built for the US Air Force, but it stayed at Harvard.
The Mark I was disassembled in 1959, but portions of it are displayed in the Science Center, as part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments. Other sections of the original machine were transferred to IBM and to the Smithsonian Institution.[22]
See also[edit]
Difference engine, a pioneering 19th-century mechanical computer
History of computing hardware
Other early computers:
Zuse Z3 (Germany)
Atanasoff–Berry Computer (US)
Colossus (UK)
ENIAC (US)
EDSAC (UK)
Manchester Mark 1 (UK)
CSIRAC (Australia)
MESM (USSR)
WEIZAC (Israel)
IBM SSEC (US)
ARRA (Netherlands)
DASK (Denmark)
BESK (Sweden)
AKAT-1 (Poland)
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ The machine’s name as actually displayed on the hardware itself is "Aiken-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator Mark I". An early photograph (Wilkes 1956:16 figure 1-7) displays the name as "IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator".
Jump up ^ Bernard Cohen, p.164 (2000)
Jump up ^ Bernard Cohen, p. 53 (2000)
Jump up ^ Bernard Cohen, p.39 (2000) It was first rejected by the Monroe Calculator Company and then by Harvard University.
Jump up ^ "IBM's ASCC introduction 2". Retrieved 14 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Proposed automatic calculating machine (Abstract)". IEEE Spectrum. IEEE Xplore. 1 (8): 62–69. August 1964. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.1964.6500770. ISSN 0018-9235. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
Jump up ^ IBM Archives: FAQ / Products and Services
Jump up ^ Computer Oral History Collection, 1969-1973, 1977 Grace Murray Hopper Interview, January 7, 1969, Archives Center, National Museum of American History "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-23. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Maurice Vincent Wilkes (1956). Automatic Digital Computers. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 16–20.
Jump up ^ Campbell, 1999, p.43
Jump up ^ Campbell, 1999, p.53
Jump up ^ Bloch, Richard (1984-02-22). "Oral history interview with Richard M. Bloch": 9–10.
Jump up ^ "The Erwin Tomash Library on the History of Computing: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalog". www.cbi.umn.edu. CBI Hosted Publications. 2008. Harvard.Vol 16.1948.subsiderary sequence mechanism, source description: H Chapter, p. 577-578. Retrieved 2018-05-08.
Jump up ^ Wexelblat, Richard L. (Ed.) (1981). History of Programming Languages, p. 20. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-745040-8
Jump up ^ "Columbia University Computing History: L.J. Comrie". Retrieved 15 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Columbia Difference Tabulator - 1931". Retrieved 15 December 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b #AIKEN, Bernard Cohen p.166 (2000)
Jump up ^ Bernard Cohen, p. 164 (2000)
Jump up ^ "Atomic Heritage Foundation: John von Neumann". Retrieved 15 December 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Emerson W. Pugh (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
Jump up ^ Martin Campbell-Kelly; William Aspray, (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine. Basic Books. p. 74. ISBN 0-465-02989-2.
Jump up ^ "Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments Mark I". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
Publications
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-2625317-9-5.
Cohen, Bernard, ed. (1999). Makin' Numbers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03263-5.
Campbell, Robert (1999), Aiken's First Machine in Cohen 1999, pp. 31-63
Copeland, Jack (2006), Machine against Machine in Copeland 2006, pp. 64–77
Copeland, B. Jack, ed. (2006), Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-284055-4
Zuse, Konrad (1993). The Computer - My life. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-56453-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harvard Mark I.
Cruz, Frank da (August 2004). "The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
Oral history interview with Robert Hawkins at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Hawkins discusses the Harvard-IBM Mark I project that he worked on at Harvard University as a technician as well as Howard Aiken’s leadership of the project.
Oral history interview with Richard M. Bloch at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Bloch describes his work at the Harvard Computation Laboratory for Howard Aiken on the Mark I.
Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Campbell discusses the contributions of Harvard and IBM to the Mark I project.
IBM Archive: IBM ASCC Reference Room
[1], book excerpt web page, with illustrations, by Herb Grosch, from Grosch, Herbert R.J. (1991). Computer: Bit Slices From a Life. Third Millennium Books. ISBN 0-88733-085-1. (Third edition online in 2003)
[2] Popular Science, October 1944, Page 86.
ASCC operational manual (PDF)
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