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Ganymede (moon)
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Ganymede
Image of Ganymede's anti-Jovian hemisphere taken by the Galileo orbiter (contrast is enhanced). Lighter surfaces, such as in recent impacts, grooved terrain and the whitish north polar cap at upper right, are enriched in water ice.
Discovery
Discovered by
Galileo Galilei
Discovery date
January 7, 1610[1][2]
Designations
Alternative names
Jupiter III
Adjectives
Ganymedian, Ganymedean
Orbital characteristics
Periapsis
7009106920000000000♠1069200 km[a]
Apoapsis
7009107160000000000♠1071600 km[b]
Semi-major axis
7009107040000000000♠1070400 km[3]
Eccentricity
6997130000000000000♠0.0013[3]
Orbital period
7005618153375744000♠7.15455296 d[3]
Average orbital speed
7004108800000000000♠10.880 km/s
Inclination
2.214° (to the ecliptic)
0.20° (to Jupiter's equator)[3]
Satellite of
Jupiter
Physical characteristics
Mean radius
7006263410000000000♠2634.1±0.3 km (0.413 Earths)[4]
Surface area
7013872000000000000♠8.72×107 km2 (0.171 Earths)[c]
Volume
7019760000000000000♠7.6×1010 km3 (0.0704 Earths)[d]
Mass
7023148190000000000♠1.4819×1023 kg (0.025 Earths)[4]
Mean density
7003193600000000000♠1.936 g/cm3[4]
Surface gravity
7000142800000000000♠1.428 m/s2 (0.146 g)[e]
Moment of inertia factor
6999310500000000000♠0.3105±0.0028[4] (estimate)
Escape velocity
7003274100000000000♠2.741 km/s[f]
Rotation period
synchronous
Axial tilt
0–0.33°[5]
Albedo
6999430000000000000♠0.43±0.02[6]
Surface temp.
min
mean
max
K
70[8] 110[8] 152[9]
Apparent magnitude
4.61 (opposition)[6]
4.38 (in 1951)[7]
Atmosphere
Surface pressure
Trace
Composition by volume
Oxygen[10]
Ganymede /ˈɡænɪmiːd/[11] (Jupiter III) is the largest and most massive moon of Jupiter and in the Solar System. The ninth largest object in the Solar System, it is the largest without a substantial atmosphere. It has a diameter of 5,268 km (3,273 mi) and is 8% larger than the planet Mercury, although only 45% as massive.[12] Possessing a metallic core, it has the lowest moment of inertia factor of any solid body in the Solar System and is the only moon known to have a magnetic field. It is the third of the Galilean moons, the first group of objects discovered orbiting another planet, and the seventh satellite outward from Jupiter,[13] Ganymede orbits Jupiter in roughly seven days and is in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance with the moons Europa and Io, respectively.
Ganymede is composed of approximately equal amounts of silicate rock and water ice.[14] It is a fully differentiated body with an iron-rich, liquid core, and an internal ocean that may contain more water than all of Earth's oceans combined.[15][16][17][18][19] Its surface is composed of two main types of terrain. Dark regions, saturated with impact craters and dated to four billion years ago, cover about a third of the satellite. Lighter regions, crosscut by extensive grooves and ridges and only slightly less ancient, cover the remainder. The cause of the light terrain's disrupted geology is not fully known, but was likely the result of tectonic activity due to tidal heating.[4]
Ganymede's magnetic field is probably created by convection within its liquid iron core.[20] The meager magnetic field is buried within Jupiter's much larger magnetic field and would show only as a local perturbation of the field lines. The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3 (ozone).[10] Atomic hydrogen is a minor atmospheric constituent. Whether the satellite has an ionosphere associated with its atmosphere is unresolved.[21]
Ganymede's discovery is credited to Galileo Galilei, who was the first to observe it on January 7, 1610.[1] The satellite's name was soon suggested by astronomer Simon Marius, after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's lover.[22] Beginning with Pioneer 10, several spacecraft have explored Ganymede.[23] The Voyager probes refined measurements of its size, while Galileo discovered its underground ocean and magnetic field. The next planned mission to the Jovian system is the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2022. After flybys of all three icy Galilean moons, the probe is planned to enter orbit around Ganymede.[24]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Orbit and rotation
3 Physical characteristics
3.1 Size
3.2 Composition
3.3 Surface features
3.4 Internal structure
3.4.1 Subsurface oceans
3.4.2 Core
3.5 Atmosphere and ionosphere
3.6 Magnetosphere
4 Origin and evolution
5 Exploration
5.1 Completed missions
5.2 Mission concepts
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Chinese astronomical records report that in 365 BC, Gan De detected what appears to have been a moon of Jupiter, probably Ganymede, with the naked eye.[25][26] However, Gan De reported the color of the companion as reddish, which is puzzling since the moons are too faint for their color to be perceived with the naked eye.[27] Shi Shen and Gan De together made fairly accurate observations of the five major planets.[28][29]
On January 7, 1610, Galileo Galilei observed what he thought were three stars near Jupiter, including what turned out to be Ganymede, Callisto, and one body that turned out to be the combined light from Io and Europa; the next night he noticed that they had moved. On January 13, he saw all four at once for the first time, but had seen each of the moons before this date at least once. By January 15, Galileo came to the conclusion that the stars were actually bodies orbiting Jupiter.[1][2] He claimed the right to name the moons; he considered "Cosmian Stars" and settled on "Medicean Stars".[22]
Size comparison of Earth, the Moon, and Ganymede.
The French astronomer Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc suggested individual names from the Medici family for the moons, but his proposal was not taken up.[22] Simon Marius, who had originally claimed to have found the Galilean satellites,[30] tried to name the moons the "Saturn of Jupiter", the "Jupiter of Jupiter" (this was Ganymede), the "Venus of Jupiter", and the "Mercury of Jupiter", another nomenclature that never caught on. From a suggestion by Johannes Kepler, Marius once again tried to name the moons:[22]
“[…] Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell […] the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede […]”[31]
This name and those of the other Galilean satellites fell into disfavor for a considerable time, and were not in common use until the mid-20th century. In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Ganymede is referred to instead by its Roman numeral designation, Jupiter III (a system introduced by Galileo), in other words "the third satellite of Jupiter". Following the discovery of moons of Saturn, a naming system based on that of Kepler and Marius was used for Jupiter's moons.[22] Ganymede is the only Galilean moon of Jupiter named after a male figure—like Io, Europa, and Callisto, he was a lover of Zeus.
Orbit and rotation[edit]
Laplace resonances of Ganymede, Europa, and Io
Ganymede orbits Jupiter at a distance of 1,070,400 km, third among the Galilean satellites,[13] and completes a revolution every seven days and three hours. Like most known moons, Ganymede is tidally locked, with one side always facing toward the planet, hence its day is seven days and three hours.[32] Its orbit is very slightly eccentric and inclined to the Jovian equator, with the eccentricity and inclination changing quasi-periodically due to solar and planetary gravitational perturbations on a timescale of centuries. The ranges of change are 0.0009–0.0022 and 0.05–0.32°, respectively.[33] These orbital variations cause the axial tilt (the angle between rotational and orbital axes) to vary between 0 and 0.33°.[5]
Ganymede participates in orbital resonances with Europa and Io: for every orbit of Ganymede, Europa orbits twice and Io orbits four times.[33][34] The superior conjunction between Io and Europa always occurs when Io is at periapsis and Europa at apoapsis. The superior conjunction between Europa and Ganymede occurs when Europa is at periapsis.[33] The longitudes of the Io–Europa and Europa–Ganymede conjunctions change with the same rate, making triple conjunctions impossible. Such a complicated resonance is called the Laplace resonance.[35]
Jupiter's Great Red Spot and Ganymede's shadow[36]
The current Laplace resonance is unable to pump the orbital eccentricity of Ganymede to a higher value.[35] The value of about 0.0013 is probably a remnant from a previous epoch, when such pumping was possible.[34] The Ganymedian orbital eccentricity is somewhat puzzling; if it is not pumped now it should have decayed long ago due to the tidal dissipation in the interior of Ganymede.[35] This means that the last episode of the eccentricity excitation happened only several hundred million years ago.[35] Because Ganymede's orbital eccentricity is relatively low—on average 0.0015[34]—tidal heating is negligible now.[35] However, in the past Ganymede may have passed through one or more Laplace-like resonances[g] that were able to pump the orbital eccentricity to a value as high as 0.01–0.02.[4][35] This probably caused a significant tidal heating of the interior of Ganymede; the formation of the grooved terrain may be a result of one or more heating episodes.[4][35]
There are two hypotheses for the origin of the Laplace resonance among Io, Europa, and Ganymede: that it is primordial and has existed from the beginning of the Solar System;[37] or that it developed after the formation of the Solar System. A possible sequence of events for the latter scenario is as follows: Io raised tides on Jupiter, causing Io's orbit to expand (due to conservation of momentum) until it encountered the 2:1 resonance with Europa; after that the expansion continued, but some of the angular moment was transferred to Europa as the resonance caused its orbit to expand as well; the process continued until Europa encountered the 2:1 resonance with Ganymede.[35] Eventually the drift rates of conjunctions between all three moons were synchronized and locked in the Laplace resonance.[35]
Physical characteristics[edit]
Depiction of Ganymede centered over 45° W. longitude; dark areas are Perrine (upper) and Nicholson (lower) regiones; prominent craters are Tros (upper right) and Cisti (lower left).
Size[edit]
Ganymede is the largest and most massive moon in the Solar System. Its diameter of 5,268 km is 0.41 times that of Earth, 2% larger than that of Saturn's Titan (the second-largest moon), 1.08 times Mercury's, 1.09 times Callisto's, 1.45 times Io's and 1.51 times the Moon's. Its mass is 10% greater than Titan's, 38% greater than Callisto's, 66% greater than Io's and 2.02 times that of the Moon.[38]
Composition[edit]
The average density of Ganymede, 1.936 g/cm3, suggests a composition of about equal parts rocky material and mostly water-ices.[4] The mass fraction of ices is between 46–50 %, which is slightly lower than that in Callisto.[39] Some additional volatile ices such as ammonia may also be present.[39][40] The exact composition of Ganymede's rock is not known, but is probably close to the composition of L/LL type ordinary chondrites, which are characterized by less total iron, less metallic iron and more iron oxide than H chondrites. The weight ratio of iron to silicon ranges between 1.05 and 1.27 in Ganymede, whereas the solar ratio is around 1.8.[39]
Voyager 2 view of Ganymede's anti-Jovian hemisphere; Uruk Sulcus separates dark areas Galileo Regio (right) and Marius Regio (center left). Bright rays of recent crater Osiris (bottom) are ejected ice.
Surface features[edit]
Ganymede's surface has an albedo of about 43%.[41] Water ice seems to be ubiquitous on its surface, with a mass fraction of 50–90 %,[4] significantly more than in Ganymede as a whole. Near-infrared spectroscopy has revealed the presence of strong water ice absorption bands at wavelengths of 1.04, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 μm.[41] The grooved terrain is brighter and has a more icy composition than the dark terrain.[42] The analysis of high-resolution, near-infrared and UV spectra obtained by the Galileo spacecraft and from Earth observations has revealed various non-water materials: carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and, possibly, cyanogen, hydrogen sulfate and various organic compounds.[4][43] Galileo results have also shown magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and, possibly, sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) on Ganymede's surface.[32][44] These salts may originate from the subsurface ocean.[44]
The Ganymedian surface albedo is very asymmetric; the leading hemisphere[h] is brighter than the trailing one.[41] This is similar to Europa, but the reverse for Callisto.[41] The trailing hemisphere of Ganymede appears to be enriched in sulfur dioxide.[45][46] The distribution of carbon dioxide does not demonstrate any hemispheric asymmetry, although it is not observed near the poles.[43][47] Impact craters on Ganymede (except one) do not show any enrichment in carbon dioxide, which also distinguishes it from Callisto. Ganymede's carbon dioxide gas was probably depleted in the past.[47]
See also: List of geological features on Ganymede
A sharp boundary divides the ancient dark terrain of Nicholson Regio from the younger, finely striated bright terrain of Harpagia Sulcus.
Enhanced-color Galileo spacecraft image of Ganymede's trailing hemisphere.[48] The crater Tashmetum's prominent rays are at lower right, and the large ejecta field of Hershef at upper right. Part of dark Nicholson Regio is at lower left, bounded on its upper right by Harpagia Sulcus.
The craters Gula and Achelous (bottom), in the grooved terrain of Ganymede, with ejecta "pedestals" and ramparts.
Ganymede's surface is a mix of two types of terrain: very old, highly cratered, dark regions and somewhat younger (but still ancient), lighter regions marked with an extensive array of grooves and ridges. The dark terrain, which comprises about one-third of the surface,[49] contains clays and organic materials that could indicate the composition of the impactors from which Jovian satellites accreted.[50]
The heating mechanism required for the formation of the grooved terrain on Ganymede is an unsolved problem in the planetary sciences. The modern view is that the grooved terrain is mainly tectonic in nature.[4] Cryovolcanism is thought to have played only a minor role, if any.[4] The forces that caused the strong stresses in the Ganymedian ice lithosphere necessary to initiate the tectonic activity may be connected to the tidal heating events in the past, possibly caused when the satellite passed through unstable orbital resonances.[4][51] The tidal flexing of the ice may have heated the interior and strained the lithosphere, leading to the development of cracks and horst and graben faulting, which erased the old, dark terrain on 70% of the surface.[4][52] The formation of the grooved terrain may also be connected with the early core formation and subsequent tidal heating of Ganymede's interior, which may have caused a slight expansion of Ganymede by 1–6 % due to phase transitions in ice and thermal expansion.[4] During subsequent evolution deep, hot water plumes may have risen from the core to the surface, leading to the tectonic deformation of the lithosphere.[53] Radiogenic heating within the satellite is the most relevant current heat source, contributing, for instance, to ocean depth. Research models have found that if the orbital eccentricity were an order of magnitude greater than currently (as it may have been in the past), tidal heating would be a more substantial heat source than radiogenic heating.[54]
Cratering is seen on both types of terrain, but is especially extensive on the dark terrain: it appears to be saturated with impact craters and has evolved largely through impact events.[4] The brighter, grooved terrain contains many fewer impact features, which have been only of a minor importance to its tectonic evolution.[4] The density of cratering indicates an age of 4 billion years for the dark terrain, similar to the highlands of the Moon, and a somewhat younger age for the grooved terrain (but how much younger is uncertain).[55] Ganymede may have experienced a period of heavy cratering 3.5 to 4 billion years ago similar to that of the Moon.[55] If true, the vast majority of impacts happened in that epoch, whereas the cratering rate has been much smaller since.[38] Craters both overlay and are crosscut by the groove systems, indicating that some of the grooves are quite ancient. Relatively young craters with rays of ejecta are also visible.[38][56] Ganymedian craters are flatter than those on the Moon and Mercury. This is probably due to the relatively weak nature of Ganymede's icy crust, which can (or could) flow and thereby soften the relief. Ancient craters whose relief has disappeared leave only a "ghost" of a crater known as a palimpsest.[38]
One significant feature on Ganymede is a dark plain named Galileo Regio, which contains a series of concentric grooves, or furrows, likely created during a period of geologic activity.[57]
Ganymede also has polar caps, likely composed of water frost. The frost extends to 40° latitude.[32] These polar caps were first seen by the Voyager spacecraft. Theories on the formation of the caps include the migration of water to higher latitudes and bombardment of the ice by plasma. Data from Galileo suggests the latter is correct.[58] The presence of a magnetic field on Ganymede results in more intense charged particle bombardment of its surface in the unprotected polar regions; sputtering then leads to redistribution of water molecules, with frost migrating to locally colder areas within the polar terrain.[58]
Geologic map of Ganymede (February 2014). The oldest, low-albedo, cratered units are reddish brown; younger, higher-albedo units are blue if grooved and blue-green if smooth (purple is a mix of grooved and smooth).
A crater named Anat provides the reference point for measuring longitude on Ganymede. By definition, Anat is at 128° longitude.[59] The 0° longitude directly faces Jupiter, and unless stated otherwise longitude increases toward the west.[60]
Internal structure[edit]
Ganymede appears to be fully differentiated, with an internal structure consisting of an iron-sulfide–iron core, a silicate mantle and outer layers of water ice and liquid water.[4][61][62]. The precise thicknesses of the different layers in the interior of Ganymede depend on the assumed composition of silicates (fraction of olivine and pyroxene) and amount of sulfur in the core.[39][61][63] Ganymede has the lowest moment of inertia factor, 0.31,[4] among the solid Solar System bodies. This is a consequence of its substantial water content and fully differentiated interior
Subsurface oceans[edit]
Artist's cut-away representation of the internal structure of Ganymede. Layers drawn to scale.
In the 1970s, NASA scientists first suspected that Ganymede has a thick ocean between two layers of ice, one on the surface and one beneath a liquid ocean and atop the rocky mantle.[4][17][61][64][65] In the 1990s, NASA's Galileo mission flew by Ganymede, confirming the moon's sub-surface ocean. An analysis published in 2014, taking into account the realistic thermodynamics for water and effects of salt, suggests that Ganymede might have a stack of several ocean layers separated by different phases of ice, with the lowest liquid layer adjacent to the rocky mantle.[17][18][19][66] Water–rock contact may be an important factor in the origin of life.[17] The analysis also notes that the extreme depths involved (~800 km to the rocky "seafloor") mean that temperatures at the bottom of a convective (adiabatic) ocean can be up to 40 K higher than those at the ice–water interface. In March 2015, scientists reported that measurements with the Hubble Space Telescope of how the aurorae moved over Ganymede's surface suggest it has a subsurface ocean. A large salt-water ocean affects Ganymede's magnetic field, and consequently, its aurora.[15][66][67][68] The evidence suggests that Ganymede's oceans might be the largest in the entire Solar System.[69]
There is some speculation on the potential habitability of Ganymede's ocean.[65][70]
Core[edit]
The existence of a liquid, iron–nickel-rich core[62] provides a natural explanation for the intrinsic magnetic field of Ganymede detected by Galileo spacecraft.[71] The convection in the liquid iron, which has high electrical conductivity, is the most reasonable model of magnetic field generation.[20] The density of the core is 5.5–6 g/cm3 and the silicate mantle is 3.4–3.6 g/cm3.[39][61][63][71] The radius of this core may be up to 500 km.[71] The temperature in the core of Ganymede is probably 1500–1700 K and pressure up to 10 GPa (99,000 atm).[61][71]
Atmosphere and ionosphere[edit]
In 1972, a team of Indian, British and American astronomers working in Java (Indonesia) and Kavalur (India) claimed that they had detected a thin atmosphere during an occultation, when it and Jupiter passed in front of a star.[72] They estimated that the surface pressure was around 0.1 Pa.[72] However, in 1979, Voyager 1 observed an occultation of the star κ Centauri during its flyby of Jupiter, with differing results.[73] The occultation measurements were conducted in the far-ultraviolet spectrum at wavelengths shorter than 200 nm, which were much more sensitive to the presence of gases than the 1972 measurements made in the visible spectrum. No atmosphere was revealed by the Voyager data. The upper limit on the surface particle number density was found to be 1.5×109 cm−3, which corresponds to a surface pressure of less than 2.5 µPa.[73] The latter value is almost five orders of magnitude less than the 1972 estimate.[73]
False-color temperature map of Ganymede
Despite the Voyager data, evidence for a tenuous oxygen atmosphere (exosphere) on Ganymede, very similar to the one found on Europa, was found by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in 1995.[10][74] HST actually observed airglow of atomic oxygen in the far-ultraviolet at the wavelengths 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm. Such an airglow is excited when molecular oxygen is dissociated by electron impacts,[10] which is evidence of a significant neutral atmosphere composed predominantly of O2 molecules. The surface number density probably lies in the (1.2–7)×108 cm−3 range, corresponding to the surface pressure of 0.2–1.2 µPa.[10][i] These values are in agreement with the Voyager's upper limit set in 1981. The oxygen is not evidence of life; it is thought to be produced when water ice on Ganymede's surface is split into hydrogen and oxygen by radiation, with the hydrogen then being more rapidly lost due to its low atomic mass.[74] The airglow observed over Ganymede is not spatially homogeneous like that over Europa. HST observed two bright spots located in the northern and southern hemispheres, near ± 50° latitude, which is exactly the boundary between the open and closed field lines of the Ganymedian magnetosphere (see below).[75] The bright spots are probably polar auroras, caused by plasma precipitation along the open field lines.[76]
The existence of a neutral atmosphere implies that an ionosphere should exist, because oxygen molecules are ionized by the impacts of the energetic electrons coming from the magnetosphere[77] and by solar EUV radiation.[21] However, the nature of the Ganymedian ionosphere is as controversial as the nature of the atmosphere. Some Galileo measurements found an elevated electron density near Ganymede, suggesting an ionosphere, whereas others failed to detect anything.[21] The electron density near the surface is estimated by different sources to lie in the range 400–2,500 cm−3.[21] As of 2008, the parameters of the ionosphere of Ganymede are not well constrained.
Additional evidence of the oxygen atmosphere comes from spectral detection of gases trapped in the ice at the surface of Ganymede. The detection of ozone (O3) bands was announced in 1996.[78] In 1997 spectroscopic analysis revealed the dimer (or diatomic) absorption features of molecular oxygen. Such an absorption can arise only if the oxygen is in a dense phase. The best candidate is molecular oxygen trapped in ice. The depth of the dimer absorption bands depends on latitude and longitude, rather than on surface albedo—they tend to decrease with increasing latitude on Ganymede, whereas O3 shows an opposite trend.[79] Laboratory work has found that O2 would not cluster or bubble but dissolve in ice at Ganymede's relatively warm surface temperature of 100 K (−173.15 °C).[80]
A search for sodium in the atmosphere, just after such a finding on Europa, turned up nothing in 1997. Sodium is at least 13 times less abundant around Ganymede than around Europa, possibly because of a relative deficiency at the surface or because the magnetosphere fends off energetic particles.[81] Another minor constituent of the Ganymedian atmosphere is atomic hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms were observed as far as 3,000 km from Ganymede's surface. Their density on the surface is about 1.5×104 cm−3.[82]
Magnetosphere[edit]
Magnetic field of the Jovian satellite Ganymede, which is embedded into the magnetosphere of Jupiter. Closed field lines are marked with green color.
The Galileo craft made six close flybys of Ganymede from 1995–2000 (G1, G2, G7, G8, G28 and G29)[20] and discovered that Ganymede has a permanent (intrinsic) magnetic moment independent of the Jovian magnetic field.[83] The value of the moment is about 1.3 × 1013 T·m3,[20] which is three times larger than the magnetic moment of Mercury. The magnetic dipole is tilted with respect to the rotational axis of Ganymede by 176°, which means that it is directed against the Jovian magnetic moment.[20] Its north pole lies below the orbital plane. The dipole magnetic field created by this permanent moment has a strength of 719 ± 2 nT at Ganymede's equator,[20] which should be compared with the Jovian magnetic field at the distance of Ganymede—about 120 nT.[83] The equatorial field of Ganymede is directed against the Jovian field, meaning reconnection is possible. The intrinsic field strength at the poles is two times that at the equator—1440 nT.[20]
Aurorae on Ganymede—auroral belt shifting may indicate a subsurface saline ocean.
The permanent magnetic moment carves a part of space around Ganymede, creating a tiny magnetosphere embedded inside that of Jupiter; it is the only moon in the Solar System known to possess the feature.[83] Its diameter is 4–5 RG (RG = 2,631.2 km).[84] The Ganymedian magnetosphere has a region of closed field lines located below 30° latitude, where charged particles (electrons and ions) are trapped, creating a kind of radiation belt.[84] The main ion species in the magnetosphere is single ionized oxygen—O+[21]—which fits well with Ganymede's tenuous oxygen atmosphere. In the polar cap regions, at latitudes higher than 30°, magnetic field lines are open, connecting Ganymede with Jupiter's ionosphere.[84] In these areas, the energetic (tens and hundreds of kiloelectronvolt) electrons and ions have been detected,[77] which may cause the auroras observed around the Ganymedian poles.[75] In addition, heavy ions precipitate continuously on Ganymede's polar surface, sputtering and darkening the ice.[77]
The interaction between the Ganymedian magnetosphere and Jovian plasma is in many respects similar to that of the solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere.[84][85] The plasma co-rotating with Jupiter impinges on the trailing side of the Ganymedian magnetosphere much like the solar wind impinges on the Earth's magnetosphere. The main difference is the speed of plasma flow—supersonic in the case of Earth and subsonic in the case of Ganymede. Because of the subsonic flow, there is no bow shock off the trailing hemisphere of Ganymede.[85]
In addition to the intrinsic magnetic moment, Ganymede has an induced dipole magnetic field.[20] Its existence is connected with the variation of the Jovian magnetic field near Ganymede. The induced moment is directed radially to or from Jupiter following the direction of the varying part of the planetary magnetic field. The induced magnetic moment is an order of magnitude weaker than the intrinsic one. The field strength of the induced field at the magnetic equator is about 60 nT—half of that of the ambient Jovian field.[20] The induced magnetic field of Ganymede is similar to those of Callisto and Europa, indicating that Ganymede also has a subsurface water ocean with a high electrical conductivity.[20]
Given that Ganymede is completely differentiated and has a metallic core,[4][71] its intrinsic magnetic field is probably generated in a similar fashion to the Earth's: as a result of conducting material moving in the interior.[20][71] The magnetic field detected around Ganymede is likely to be caused by compositional convection in the core,[71] if the magnetic field is the product of dynamo action, or magnetoconvection.[20][86]
Despite the presence of an iron core, Ganymede's magnetosphere remains enigmatic, particularly given that similar bodies lack the feature.[4] Some research has suggested that, given its relatively small size, the core ought to have sufficiently cooled to the point where fluid motions, hence a magnetic field would not be sustained. One explanation is that the same orbital resonances proposed to have disrupted the surface also allowed the magnetic field to persist: with Ganymede's eccentricity pumped and tidal heating of the mantle increased during such resonances, reducing heat flow from the core, leaving it fluid and convective.[52] Another explanation is a remnant magnetization of silicate rocks in the mantle, which is possible if the satellite had a more significant dynamo-generated field in the past.[4]
Origin and evolution[edit]
Ganymede probably formed by an accretion in Jupiter's subnebula, a disk of gas and dust surrounding Jupiter after its formation.[87] The accretion of Ganymede probably took about 10,000 years,[88] much shorter than the 100,000 years estimated for Callisto. The Jovian subnebula may have been relatively "gas-starved" when the Galilean satellites formed; this would have allowed for the lengthy accretion times required for Callisto.[87] In contrast Ganymede formed closer to Jupiter, where the subnebula was denser, which explains its shorter formation timescale.[88] This relatively fast formation prevented the escape of accretional heat, which may have led to ice melt and differentiation: the separation of the rocks and ice. The rocks settled to the center, forming the core [62]. In this respect, Ganymede is different from Callisto, which apparently failed to melt and differentiate early due to loss of the accretional heat during its slower formation.[89] This hypothesis explains why the two Jovian moons look so dissimilar, despite their similar mass and composition.[64][89] Alternative theories explain Ganymede's greater internal heating on the basis of tidal flexing[90] or more intense pummeling by impactors during the Late Heavy Bombardment.[91][92][93][94] In the latter case, modeling suggests that differentiation would become a runaway process at Ganymede but not Callisto.[93][94]
After formation, Ganymede's core largely retained the heat accumulated during accretion and differentiation, only slowly releasing it to the ice mantle [89]. The mantle, in turn, transported it to the surface by convection.[64] The decay of radioactive elements within rocks further heated the core, causing increased differentiation: an inner, iron–iron-sulfide core and a silicate mantle formed.[71][89] With this, Ganymede became a fully differentiated body [62]. By comparison, the radioactive heating of undifferentiated Callisto caused convection in its icy interior, which effectively cooled it and prevented large-scale melting of ice and rapid differentiation.[95] The convective motions in Callisto have caused only a partial separation of rock and ice.[95] Today, Ganymede continues to cool slowly.[71] The heat being released from its core and silicate mantle enables the subsurface ocean to exist,[40] whereas the slow cooling of the liquid Fe–FeS core causes convection and supports magnetic field generation.[71] The current heat flux out of Ganymede is probably higher than that out of Callisto.[89]
Exploration[edit]
Completed missions[edit]
Ganymede from Pioneer 10 (1973)
Several probes flying by or orbiting Jupiter have explored Ganymede more closely, including four flybys in the 1970s, and multiple passes in the 1990s to 2000s.
Pioneer 10 approached in 1973 and Pioneer 11 in 1974,[23] and they returned information about the satellite.[96] This included more specific determination on physical characteristics and resolving features to 400 km (250 mi) on its surface.[97] Pioneer 10's closest approach was 446,250 km.[98]
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were next, passing by Ganymede in 1979. They refined its size, revealing it was larger than Saturn's moon Titan, which was previously thought to have been bigger.[99] The grooved terrain was also seen.[100]
In 1995, the Galileo spacecraft entered orbit around Jupiter and between 1996 and 2000 made six close flybys to explore Ganymede.[32] These flybys are G1, G2, G7, G8, G28 and G29.[20] During the closest flyby—G2—Galileo passed just 264 km from the surface of Ganymede.[20] During a G1 flyby in 1996, the Ganymedian magnetic field was discovered,[101] while the discovery of the ocean was announced in 2001.[20][32] Galileo transmitted a large number of spectral images and discovered several non-ice compounds on the surface of Ganymede.[43] The most recent close observations of Ganymede were made by New Horizons, which recorded topographic and compositional mapping data of Europa and Ganymede during its flyby of Jupiter in 2007 en route to Pluto.[102][103]
Mission concepts[edit]
The Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) had a proposed launch date in 2020, and was a joint NASA and ESA proposal for exploration of many of Jupiter's moons including Ganymede. In February 2009 it was announced that ESA and NASA had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission.[104] EJSM consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter, and possibly a JAXA-led Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter. ESA's contribution faced funding competition from other ESA projects,[105] but on 2 May 2012 the European part of the mission, renamed Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), obtained a L1 launch slot in 2022 with an Ariane 5 in the ESA's Cosmic Vision science programme.[106] The spacecraft will orbit Ganymede and conduct multiple flyby investigations of Callisto and Europa.[107]
A Voyager spaceprobe
The Russian Space Research Institute is currently evaluating the Ganymede Lander (GL) mission, with emphasis on astrobiology.[108] The Ganymede Lander would be a partner mission for JUpiter ICy moon Explorer (JUICE).[108][109] If selected, it would be launched in 2024, though this schedule might be revised and aligned with JUICE.[108]
A Ganymede orbiter based on the Juno probe was proposed in 2010 for the Planetary Science Decadal Survey.[110] Possible instruments include Medium Resolution Camera, Flux Gate Magnetometer, Visible/NIR Imaging Spectrometer, Laser Altimeter, Low and High Energy Plasma Packages, Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer, UV Imaging Spectrometer, Radio and Plasma Wave sensor, Narrow Angle Camera, and a Sub-Surface Radar.[110]
Another canceled proposal to orbit Ganymede was the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter. It was designed to use nuclear fission for power, ion engine propulsion, and would have studied Ganymede in greater detail than previously.[111] However, the mission was canceled in 2005 because of budget cuts.[112] Another old proposal was called The Grandeur of Ganymede.[50]
See also[edit]
Solar System portal
Astronomy portal
Jupiter's moons in fiction
List of craters on Ganymede
List of geological features on Ganymede
List of natural satellites
Lunar and Planetary Institute
Cold trap (astronomy)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Periapsis is derived from the semimajor axis (a) and eccentricity (e): a ⋅ ( 1 − e ) {\displaystyle a\cdot (1-e)} .
Jump up ^ Apoapsis is derived from the semimajor axis (a) and eccentricity (e): a ⋅ ( 1 + e ) {\displaystyle a\cdot (1+e)} .
Jump up ^ Surface area derived from the radius (r): 4 π r 2 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}} .
Jump up ^ Volume derived from the radius (r): 4 π r 3 / 3 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{3}/3} .
Jump up ^ Surface gravity derived from the mass (m), the gravitational constant (G) and the radius (r): G m / r 2 {\displaystyle Gm/r^{2}} .
Jump up ^ Escape velocity derived from the mass (m), the gravitational constant (G) and the radius (r): 2 G m / r {\displaystyle \textstyle {\sqrt {2Gm/r}}} .
Jump up ^ A Laplace-like resonance is similar to the current Laplace resonance among the Galilean moons with the only difference being that longitudes of the Io–Europa and Europa–Ganymede conjunctions change with rates whose ratio is a non-unity rational number. If the ratio is unity, then the resonance is the Laplace resonance.
Jump up ^ The leading hemisphere is the hemisphere facing the direction of orbital motion; the trailing hemisphere faces the reverse direction.
Jump up ^ The surface number density and pressure were calculated from the column densities reported in Hall, et al. 1998, assuming a scale height of 20 km and temperature 120 K.
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Jump up ^ Rincon, Paul (2009-02-20). "Jupiter in space agencies' sights". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
Jump up ^ "Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Proposals". ESA. 2007-07-21. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
Jump up ^ "ESA - Selection of the L1 mission" (PDF). ESA. 17 April 2012. Retrieved 2014-04-15.
Jump up ^ Dougherty; Grasset (2011). Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (PDF). Parent page: OPAG October 2011 Presentations
^ Jump up to: a b c "International Colloquium and Workshop - "Ganymede Lander: scientific goals and experiments"". Russia Space Research Institute (IKI). Roscosmos. November 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
Jump up ^ Amos, Jonathan (20 November 2012). "Russia and Europe joint Mars bid agreement approved". BBC News.
^ Jump up to: a b "Planetary Science Decadal Survey Mission & Technology Studies". Space Studies Board. "Ganymede Orbiter" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ Peplow, M. (2005-02-08). "NASA budget kills Hubble telescope". Nature. doi:10.1038/news050207-4. Retrieved 2011-12-24.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ganymede (moon).
Ganymede Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Ganymede page at The Nine Planets
Ganymede page at Views of the Solar System
Ganymede Crater Database from the Lunar and Planetary Institute
Images of Ganymede at JPL's Planetary Photojournal
Movie of Ganymede's rotation from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Ganymede map from Scientific American article
Ganymede map with feature names from Planetary Photojournal
Ganymede nomenclature and Ganymede map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Ganymede and other outer solar system satellites
"Terraforming Ganymede with Robert A. Heinlein" (part 1), article by Gregory Benford, 2011
Part 2
Ganymede Orbiter Concept
Global Geologic Map of Ganymede (USGS)
Google Ganymede 3D, interactive map of the moon
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Dad's Army (2016 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dad's Army (2016 film)
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Oliver Parker
Produced by
Damian Jones
Screenplay by
Hamish McColl
Based on
Dad's Army
by David Croft
and Jimmy Perry
Starring
Bill Nighy
Catherine Zeta-Jones
Toby Jones
Tom Courtenay
Michael Gambon
Blake Harrison
Daniel Mays
Bill Paterson
Music by
Charlie Mole
Cinematography
Christopher Ross
Edited by
Guy Bensley
Production
company
DJ Films
Distributed by
Universal Pictures
Release date
5 February 2016 (2016-02-05) (United Kingdom)
Running time
100 minutes[1]
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Box office
$12.8 million[2]
Dad's Army is a 2016 British war comedy film, based on the BBC television sitcom Dad's Army. Directed by Oliver Parker, set in 1944, after the events depicted in the television series. The story sees Catherine Zeta-Jones play an elegant journalist, reporting on the Walmington-on-Sea Home Guard platoon. MI5 then detects a German spy hiding in the fictional British town.
The production design was by Simon Bowles, and the cinematography by Christopher Ross. The film was released on 5 February 2016 in the United Kingdom by Universal Pictures. DVD and Blu-ray released in the United Kingdom on 13 June 2016. It received mostly negative reviews from critics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
It is summer, 1944 and the invasion of Normandy is approaching. Nazi forces in France, seeking intelligence on the invasion location, send their best spy to a town on England's channel coastline, Walmington-on-Sea. In the town, Captain Mainwaring's Home Guard is suffering from a lack of luck and appreciation. This is until an elegant journalist, Rose Winters, arrives to report on the platoon's motives and activities, allegedly for The Lady magazine. The platoon are charmed by her presence, especially Captain Mainwaring and Sergeant Wilson, causing feuds with the townsfolk, especially the platoon's wives. Adding to tensions it emerges Sergeant Wilson and Rose Winters shared a past dalliance at Oxford University.
Meanwhile, MI5 detect a radio signal transmitted from Walmington-on-Sea towards Berlin, believed to be from the Nazi spy. MI5's Major Cunningham and Captain Meeks locate Captain Mainwaring and inform him of the enemy presence, stating "it could be anyone". This news gives the Home Guard a chance to locate the spy and make a real difference in the war. They meet Ms. Winters who poses as a journalist while they are practicing a routine of catch the Nazi after Wilson is chosen to play the Nazi.
While accompanying the platoon on a patrol, designated Top Secret by the British Army, Winters discovers the Dover base is intended to deceive German air reconnaissance, part of the (real) Operation Bodyguard. Winters now knows the invasion will target Normandy. As the platoon searches for the spy, Rose claims it is Sergeant Wilson. Captain Mainwaring believes Rose and arrests Wilson. However, Private Godfrey's sisters investigate Rose and find evidence questioning her journalist credentials and that Rose has a home address in Berlin. The platoon and their wives rally to stop Winters and exchange fire with a German U-boat and a Wehrmacht landing party who are helping Winters escape.
The U-boat flees without Winters boarding. Mainwaring arrests Winters and hands her over to MI5. The troop then parade through Walmington, having fought off the Nazis, and are congratulated by Colonel Theakes. Mainwaring and Wilson reconcile. Theakes underlines the platoon success by telling them they have played a prominent part in the war effort.
Cast[edit]
Toby Jones as Captain Mainwaring
Bill Nighy as Sergeant Wilson
Catherine Zeta-Jones as Rose Winters
Tom Courtenay as Lance Corporal Jones
Blake Harrison as Private Pike
Michael Gambon as Private Godfrey
Bill Paterson as Private Frazer
Daniel Mays as Private Walker
Sarah Lancashire as Mrs Pike
Mark Gatiss as Colonel Theakes
Mark Tandy as Major Cunningham, MI5
Andrew Havill as Captain Meeks, MI5
Emily Atack as Daphne
Alison Steadman as Mrs Fox
Holli Dempsey as Vera Shilton
Annette Crosbie as Cissy Godfrey
Ian Lavender as Brigadier Pritchard
Frank Williams as The Reverend Timothy Farthing (Credited only as 'The Vicar')
Felicity Montagu as Mrs Mainwaring
Martin Savage as Warden Hodges
Oliver Tobias as Admiral Canaris
Julia Foster as Dolly Godfrey
Jacqueline Tong as Mrs Todd
Ian Lavender makes a cameo as Brigadier Pritchard, providing a link with the original series,[3] Frank Williams reprises his role as the Vicar.[4] The regular series character of the Verger Maurice Yeatman was not recreated for the film.[citation needed] Mrs. Mainwaring, who was a completely unseen character for the whole of the original series, now has a prominently visible role in the film, where she is portrayed as a Chief Volunteer of the local Auxiliary Territorial Service, and is even more pompous, domineering and vociferous than her husband.[5]
Production[edit]
Filming began in Yorkshire in October 2014.[6][7] Principal photography took place at North Landing, Flamborough Head and Bridlington. The East Riding Theatre in Beverley was used for Church Hall/Parade room and Captain Mainwaring's office. Sections of the film were also captured in Leeds and Pickering.[8] Jones' van from the original television series, on loan from the Dad's Army Museum, was used in the film.
Location filming for the film, at North Landing, Flamborough Head, Yorkshire. The scene involved German soldiers shooting with rifles and machine gun from behind their landing craft, at some of Captain Mainwaring's platoon. These are taking shelter behind "concrete" anti-tank emplacements.
Michael Gambon as Private Godfrey, on the set of Dad's Army in October 2014. Filming took place on the beach at North Landing, Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, and at nearby Bridlington.
Reception[edit]
Dad's Army has received generally negative reviews from critics, though Toby Jones' performance was praised. The film currently has a 31% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9.[9] On Metacritic, it has a score of 38 out of 100, based on 7 critics, which indicates "generally unfavourable reviews".[10]
Sean O'Grady, of The Independent, gave the film a five star review, remarking that rather than threatening the series' legacy, it "surpasses the original", calling it a "well-crafted reproduction" containing all the elements that made the original so clever, durable and loveable.[11]
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was slightly less convinced, giving it two stars, stating that "it’s hard to escape the sinking feeling that this is a waste of talent—that this is a good-natured, well-meaning but pointless kind of Brit-comedy ancestor worship; paying elaborate homage to a TV show that got it right the first time."[12]
Empire rated it two stars describing the plot as "moderately entertaining bunkum" and that "as a whole it's an inessential oddity—amiable enough but also over-reverential and unlikely to leave a lasting impression".[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "DAD'S ARMY (PG)". British Board of Film Classification. 22 January 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dad's Army". Box Office Mojo.
Jump up ^ "Pictured: Ian Lavender plays cameo role in new Dad's Army film". The Telegraph. 21 November 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Boudicca Fox-Leonard (26 January 2016). "Dad's Army star Frank Williams: It was extraordinary playing scenes with the characters again". Mirror. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Owens, Mike (July 2016). "Dad's Army - wartime sitcom given modern makeover". Soldier Magazine. Vol. 72 no. 07. pp. 70–71. ISSN 1462-1509.
Jump up ^ Amy Murphy (26 October 2014). "Dad's Army film: First photos of Catherine Zeta Jones, Toby Jones and Bill Nighy released". The Independent. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gambon and Courtenay to star in Dad's Army film". BBC News. 8 October 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Clayton, Emma (9 February 2016). "Bradford youngsters step back in time to join star-studded cast in new Dad's Army film". Telegraph and Argus. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Dad's Army at Rotten Tomatoes
Jump up ^ Dad's Army at Metacritic
Jump up ^ O'Grady, Sean. "Dad's Army review: Mainwaring's men are back. And better than ever". The Independent. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Bradshaw, Peter (26 January 2016). "Dad's Army review: who don't you think you are kidding?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Semlyen, Nick (2 February 2016). "Dad's Army Review". Empire Online. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dad's Army (2016 film).
Dad's Army on IMDb
Dad's Army at Rotten Tomatoes
Dad's Army at Box Office Mojo
Dad's Army at British Comedy Guide
[show]
v
t
e
Dad's Army by Jimmy Perry & David Croft
Characters
Captain Mainwaring
Sergeant Wilson
Lance Corporal Jones
Private Walker
Private Pike
Private Frazer
Private Godfrey
Episodes
Episode list
Missing episodes
Radio episodes
Adaptations
1971 film
2016 film
Stage show
The Rear Guard
It Sticks Out Half a Mile
Merchandise
Home video
Audio releases
Books and memorabilia
Other articles
Blitz and Pieces
Dad's Army Appreciation Society
Dad's Army Museum
Jones' van
Walmington-on-Sea
Bressingham Steam and Gardens
Episodes
Series 1
The Man and the Hour
Museum Piece
Command Decision
The Enemy Within the Gates
The Showing Up of Corporal Jones
Shooting Pains
Series 2
Operation Kilt
The Battle of Godfrey's Cottage
The Loneliness of the Long Distance Walker
Sgt. Wilson's Little Secret
A Stripe for Frazer†
Under Fire
Series 3
The Armoured Might of Lance Corporal Jones
Battle School
The Lion Has Phones
The Bullet is Not for Firing
Something Nasty in the Vault
Room at the Bottom
Big Guns
The Day the Balloon Went Up
War Dance
Menace from the Deep
Branded
Man Hunt
No Spring for Frazer
Sons of the Sea
Series 4
The Big Parade
Don't Forget the Diver
Boots, Boots, Boots
Sgt – Save My Boy!
Don't Fence Me In
Absent Friends
Put That Light Out!
The Two and a Half Feathers
Mum's Army
The Test
A. Wilson (Manager)?
Uninvited Guests
Fallen Idol
Series 5
Asleep in the Deep
Keep Young and Beautiful
A Soldier's Farewell
Getting the Bird
The Desperate Drive of Corporal Jones
If the Cap Fits...
The King was in his Counting House
All is Safely Gathered In
When Did You Last See Your Money?
Brain Versus Brawn
A Brush with the Law
Round and Round Went the Great Big Wheel
Time on My Hands
Series 6
The Deadly Attachment
My British Buddy
The Royal Train
We Know Our Onions
The Honourable Man
Things that Go Bump in the Night
The Recruit
Series 7
Everybody's Trucking
A Man of Action
Gorilla Warfare
The Godiva Affair
The Captain's Car
Turkey Dinner
Series 8
Ring Dem Bells
When You've Got to Go
Is There Honey Still for Tea?
Come In, Your Time Is Up
High Finance
The Face on the Poster
Series 9
Wake Up Walmington
The Making of Private Pike
Knights of Madness
The Miser's Hoard
Number Engaged
Never Too Old
000!!Specials
Santa on Patrol
Resisting the Aggressor Down the Ages
Cornish Floral Dance
Battle of the Giants!
Broadcast to the Empire
My Brother and I
The Love of Three Oranges
Episodes in italics are missing
† Episode has been reconstructed for release using animation.
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Oliver Parker
Othello (1995)
An Ideal Husband (1999)
The Importance of Being Earnest (2002)
Fade to Black (2006)
I Really Hate My Job (2007)
St Trinian's (2007)
Dorian Gray (2009)
St Trinian's 2: The Legend of Fritton's Gold (2009)
Johnny English Reborn (2011)
Dad's Army (2016)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dad%27s_Army_(2016_film)&oldid=820084252"
Categories:
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Films shot in England
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World War II films
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