text:
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: United States Bill of Rights
Constitutional Law
of the United States
Overview
Articles
Amendments
History
Judicial review
Principles
Separation of powers
Individual rights
Rule of law
Federalism
Republicanism
Government structure
Legislative branch
Executive branch
Judicial branch
State government
Local government
Individual rights
Freedom of religion
Freedom of speech
Freedom of the press
Freedom of assembly
Right to petition
Freedom of association
Right to keep and bear arms
Right to trial by jury
Criminal procedural rights
Right to privacy
Freedom from slavery
Due process
Equal protection
Citizenship
Voting rights
Theory
Living Constitution
Originalism
Purposivism
Textualism
Strict constructionism
v
t
e
Incorporation, in U.S. law, is the process by which American courts have applied portions of the U.S. Bill of Rights to the states. When it was first ratified, the Bill of Rights only protected the rights it enumerated from federal infringement, allowing states and local governments to abridge them. However, beginning in 1897 with Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad v. City of Chicago, various portions have been held to be incorporated against state and local government through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Prior to the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and the development of the incorporation doctrine, the Supreme Court in 1833 held in Barron v. Baltimore that the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal, but not any state governments. Even years after the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court in United States v. Cruikshank (1876) still held that the First and Second Amendment did not apply to state governments. However, beginning in the 1920s, a series of United States Supreme Court decisions interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment to "incorporate" most portions of the Bill of Rights, making these portions, for the first time, enforceable against the state governments.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Background
1.2 Incorporation
1.3 Selective versus total incorporation
1.4 Due process interpretation
1.5 Incorporation under privileges or immunities
2 Specific amendments
2.1 Amendment I
2.2 Amendment II
2.3 Amendment III
2.4 Amendment IV
2.5 Amendment V
2.6 Amendment VI
2.7 Amendment VII
2.8 Amendment VIII
3 Reverse incorporation
4 References
5 Further reading
History[edit]
Background[edit]
No person shall ... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ...
— Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment (1791)
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution.[1] Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787–88 battle over ratification of the United States Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). Although James Madison's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government.
[N]or shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ...
— Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
In the 1833 case of Barron v. Baltimore, the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments; such protections were instead provided by the constitutions of each state. After the Civil War, Congress and the states ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, which included the Due Process Clause and the Privileges or Immunities Clause. While the Fifth Amendment had included a due process clause, the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment crucially differed from the Fifth Amendment in that it explicitly applied to the states. The Privileges or Immunities Clause also explicitly applied to the states, unlike the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV of the Constitution. In the Slaughter-House Cases (1873), the Supreme Court ruled that the Privileges or Immunities Clause was not designed to protected individuals from the actions of state governments. In Twining v. New Jersey (1908), the Supreme Court acknowledged that the Due Process Clause might incorporate some of the Bill of Rights, but continued to reject any incorporation under the Privileges or Immunities Clause.[2]
Incorporation[edit]
The doctrine of incorporation has been traced back to either Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad v. City of Chicago (1897) in which the Supreme Court appeared to require some form of just compensation for property appropriated by state or local authorities (although there was a state statute on the books that provided the same guarantee) or, more commonly, to Gitlow v. New York (1925), in which the Court expressly held that States were bound to protect freedom of speech. Since that time, the Court has steadily incorporated most of the significant provisions of the Bill of Rights.[3] Provisions that the Supreme Court either has refused to incorporate, or whose possible incorporation has not yet been addressed include the Fifth Amendment right to an indictment by a grand jury, and the Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial in civil lawsuits.
Incorporation applies both procedurally and substantively to the guarantees of the states. Thus, procedurally, only a jury can convict a defendant of a serious crime, since the Sixth Amendment jury-trial right has been incorporated against the states; substantively, for example, states must recognize the First Amendment prohibition against a state-established religion, regardless of whether state laws and constitutions offer such a prohibition. The Supreme Court has declined, however, to apply new procedural constitutional rights retroactively against the states in criminal cases (Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288 (1989)) with limited exceptions, and it has waived constitutional requirements if the states can prove that a constitutional violation was "harmless beyond a reasonable doubt."[citation needed]
Rep. John Bingham, the principal framer of the Fourteenth Amendment, advocated that the Fourteenth applied the first eight Amendments of the Bill of Rights to the States.[4] The U.S. Supreme Court subsequently declined to interpret it that way, despite the dissenting argument in the 1947 case of Adamson v. California by Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black that the framers' intent should control the Court's interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment (he included a lengthy appendix that quoted extensively from Bingham's congressional testimony).[5] Although the Adamson Court declined to adopt Black's interpretation, the Court during the following twenty-five years employed a doctrine of selective incorporation that succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights.[6] The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian/minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights.[7][8][9] The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities.[7][8][9][10] As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights “was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts.”[10][11] This is why “fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections.”[10][11] The 14th Amendment has vastly expanded civil rights protections and is cited in more litigation than any other amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[12]
Selective versus total incorporation[edit]
In the 1940s and 1960s the Supreme Court gradually issued a series of decisions incorporating several of the specific rights from the Bill of Rights, so as to be binding upon the States.[13] A dissenting school of thought championed by Justice Hugo Black supported that incorporation of specific rights, but urged incorporation of all specific rights instead of just some of them. Black was for so-called mechanical incorporation, or total incorporation, of Amendments 1 through 8 of the Bill of Rights (Amendments 9 and 10 being patently connected to the powers of the state governments).[14] Black felt that the Fourteenth Amendment required the States to respect all of the enumerated rights set forth in the first eight amendments, but he did not wish to see the doctrine expanded to include other, unenumerated "fundamental rights" that might be based on the Ninth Amendment. Black felt that his formulation eliminated any arbitrariness or caprice in deciding what the Fourteenth Amendment ought to protect, by sticking to words already found in the Constitution. Although Black was willing to invalidate federal statutes on federalism grounds, he was not inclined to read any of the first eight amendments as states' rights provisions as opposed to individual rights provisions.[14] Justice Black felt that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to apply the first eight amendments from the Bill of Rights to the states, as he expressed in his dissenting opinion in Adamson v. California.[15] This view was again expressed by Black in his concurrence in Duncan v. Louisiana citing the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause: "'No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States' seem to me an eminently reasonable way of expressing the idea that henceforth the Bill of Rights shall apply to the States."[16]
Due process interpretation[edit]
Justice Felix Frankfurter, however, felt that the incorporation process ought to be incremental, and that the federal courts should only apply those sections of the Bill of Rights whose abridgment would "shock the conscience," as he put it in Rochin v. California (1952). Such a selective incorporation approach followed that of Justice Moody, who wrote in Twining v. New Jersey (1908) that "It is possible that some of the personal rights safeguarded by the first eight Amendments against National action may also be safeguarded against state action, because a denial of them would be a denial of due process of law. If this is so, it is not because those rights are enumerated in the first eight Amendments, but because they are of such a nature that they are included in the conception of due process of law." The due process approach thus considers a right to be incorporated not because it was listed in the Bill of Rights, but only because it is required by the definition of due process, which may change over time. For example, Moody's decision in Twining stated that the 5th Amendment right against self-incrimination was not inherent in a conception of due process and so did not apply to states, but was overruled in Malloy v. Hogan (1964). Similarly, Justice Cardozo stated in Palko v. Connecticut (1937) that the right against double jeopardy was not inherent to due process and so does not apply to the states, but that was overruled in Benton v. Maryland (1969). Frankfurter's incrementalist approach did carry the day, but the end result is very nearly what Justice Black advocated, with the exceptions noted below.
Incorporation under privileges or immunities[edit]
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States....
— Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Some have suggested that the Privileges or Immunities Clause would be a more appropriate textual basis than the due process clause for incorporation of the Bill of Rights.[17] It is often said that the Slaughter-House Cases "gutted the privileges or immunities clause" and thus prevented its use for applying the Bill of Rights against the states.[18] In his dissent to Adamson v. California, however, Justice Hugo Black pointed out that the Slaughter-House Cases did not directly involve any right enumerated in the Constitution:
[T]he state law under consideration in the Slaughter-House cases was only challenged as one which authorized a monopoly, and the brief for the challenger properly conceded that there was "no direct constitutional provision against a monopoly." The argument did not invoke any specific provision of the Bill of Rights, but urged that the state monopoly statute violated "the natural right of a person" to do business and engage in his trade or vocation.[19]
Thus, in Black's view, the Slaughterhouse Cases should not impede incorporation of the Bill of Rights against the states, via the Privileges or Immunities Clause. Some scholars go even further, and argue that the Slaughterhouse Cases affirmatively supported incorporation of the Bill of Rights against the states.[20] In dicta, Justice Miller's opinion in Slaughterhouse went so far as to acknowledge that the "right to peaceably assemble and petition for redress of grievances ... are rights of the citizen guaranteed by the Federal Constitution," although in context Miller may have only been referring to assemblies for petitioning the federal government.[21]
In the 2010 landmark case McDonald v. Chicago, the Supreme Court declared the Second Amendment is incorporated through the Due Process Clause. However, Justice Thomas, the fifth justice in the majority, criticized substantive due process and declared instead that he reached the same incorporation only through the Privileges or Immunities Clause. No other justice attempted to question his rationale. This is considered by some as a "revival" of the Privileges or Immunities Clause,[22] however as it is a concurring opinion and not the majority opinion in the case, it holds no legal weight in lower courts; it is merely an indication that SCOTUS may be inclined, given the proper question, to reconsider and ultimately reverse the Slaughterhouse Cases.
Specific amendments[edit]
Many of the provisions of the First Amendment were applied to the States in the 1930s and 1940s, but most of the procedural protections provided to criminal defendants were not enforced against the States until the Warren Court of the 1960s, famous for its concern for the rights of those accused of crimes, brought state standards in line with federal requirements. The following list enumerates, by amendment and individual clause, the Supreme Court cases that have incorporated the rights contained in the Bill of Rights. (The Ninth Amendment is not listed; its wording indicates that it "is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution."[23] The Tenth Amendment is also not listed; by its wording, it is a reservation of powers to the states and to the people.)
Amendment I[edit]
Guarantee against establishment of religion
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947).[24]
Guarantee of free exercise of religion
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940).
Guarantee of freedom of speech
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925)(dicta).
Guarantee of freedom of the press
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931).
Guarantee of freedom of assembly
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See DeJonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 (1937).
Guarantee of the right to petition for redress of grievances
This provision has been incorporated against the states. See Edwards v. South Carolina, 372 U.S. 229 (1963).[25][26]
Guarantee of freedom of expressive association
This right, though not in the words of the first amendment, was first mentioned in the case NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449 (1958)[27] and was at that time applied to the states. See also Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609 (1984), where the U.S. Supreme Court held that "implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment" is "a corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends."
Amendment II[edit]
Right to keep and bear arms
This right has been incorporated against the states. Described as a fundamental and individual right that will necessarily be subject to strict scrutiny by the courts, see McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010). Self Defense is described as "the central component" of the Second Amendment in McDonald, supra., and upheld District of Columbia v. Heller 554 U.S (2008) concluding the Fourteenth Amendment incorporates the Second Amendment right, recognized in Heller, to keep and bear arms for the purpose of self-defense. The 14th Amendment makes the 2nd Amendment right to keep and bear arms fully applicable to the States, see, McDonald vs. City of Chicago (2010). "The right to keep and bear arms must be regarded as a substantive guarantee, not a prohibition that could be ignored as long as the States legislated in an evenhanded manner," McDonald, supra..
Amendment III[edit]
Freedom from quartering of soldiers
This provision has been incorporated against the states within the jurisdiction of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, but has not been incorporated against the states elsewhere.
In 1982, the Second Circuit applied the Third Amendment to the states in Engblom v. Carey. This is a binding authority over Connecticut, New York, and Vermont, but is only a persuasive authority over the remainder of the United States.
The Tenth Circuit has suggested that the right is incorporated because the Bill of Rights explicitly codifies the "fee ownership system developed in English law" through the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Amendments, and the Fourteenth Amendment likewise forbids the states from depriving citizens of their property without due process of law. See United States v. Nichols, 841 F.2d 1485, 1510 n.1 (10th Cir. 1988).
The "problem" is that the third amendment, by and large, is the only one that is almost never violated by the states and Federal government, almost nobody is suing over the issue, so very few cases are being heard. The U.S. Supreme Court has never had a third amendment case appealed to it.
Amendment IV[edit]
Unreasonable search and seizure
This right has been incorporated against the states by the Supreme Court's decision in Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961), although there is dicta in Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), saying the "core" of the Fourth Amendment applied to the States.
The remedy of exclusion of unlawfully seized evidence, the exclusionary rule, has been incorporated against the states. See Mapp v. Ohio. In Mapp, the Court overruled Wolf v. Colorado in which the Court had ruled that the exclusionary rule did not apply to the states.
Warrant requirements
The various warrant requirements have been incorporated against the states. See Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108 (1964).
The standards for judging whether a search or seizure undertaken without a warrant was "unreasonable" also have been incorporated against the states. See Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963).
Amendment V[edit]
Right to indictment by a grand jury
This right has been held not to be incorporated against the states. See Hurtado v. California, 110 U.S. 516 (1884).
Protection against double jeopardy
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Benton v. Maryland, 395 U.S. 784 (1969).
Constitutional privilege against self-incrimination
This right has been incorporated against the states.[28][29]
Self Incrimination in Court See Griffin v. California, 380 U.S. 609 (1965), Malloy v. Hogan , 378 U.S. 1 (1964).
Miranda See Miranda v. Arizona, 348 U.S. 436 (1966).
A note about the Miranda warnings: The text of the Fifth Amendment does not require that the police, before interrogating a suspect whom they have in custody, give him or her the now-famous Miranda warnings. Nevertheless, the Court has held that these warnings are a necessary prophylactic device, and thus required by the Fifth Amendment by police who interrogate any criminal suspect in custody, regardless of whether he or she is ultimately prosecuted in state or federal court.
Protection against taking of private property without just compensation
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago, 166 U.S. 226 (1897).
Amendment VI[edit]
Right to a speedy trial
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Klopfer v. North Carolina, 386 U.S. 213 (1967).
Right to a public trial
This right has been incorporated against the states. See In re Oliver, 333 U.S. 257 (1948).
Right to trial by impartial jury
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145 (1968), which guarantees the right to a jury trial in non-petty cases.[30] See also Parker v. Gladden, 385 U.S. 363 (1966), where the Supreme Court ruled "that the statements of the bailiff to the jurors are controlled by the command of the Sixth Amendment, made applicable to the States through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It guarantees that 'the accused shall enjoy the right to a trial, by an impartial jury [...].'"[30][dead link] However, the size of the jury, as well as the requirement that it unanimously reach its verdict, vary between federal and state courts. Even so, the Supreme Court has ruled that a jury in a criminal case may have as few as six members. Williams v. Florida, 399 U.S. 78 (1970). If there are twelve, only nine jurors need agree on a verdict. Furthermore, there is no right to a jury trial in juvenile delinquency proceedings held in state court. See McKeiver v. Pennsylvania, 403 U.S. 528 (1971).
Right to a jury selected from residents of the state and district where the crime occurred
This right has not been incorporated against the states. See Caudill v. Scott, 857 F.2d 344 (6th Cir. 1988); Cook v. Morrill, 783 F.2d 593 (5th Cir. 1986); Zicarelli v. Dietz, 633 F.2d 312 (3d Cir. 1980).
Right to notice of accusations
This right has been incorporated against the states. See In re Oliver, 333 U.S. 257 (1948). See also Rabe v. Washington, 405 U.S. 313 (1972).[30]
Right to confront adverse witnesses
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Pointer v. Texas, 380 U.S. 400 (1965).
Right to compulsory process (subpoenas) to obtain witness testimony
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Washington v. Texas, 388 U.S. 14 (1967).
Right to assistance of counsel
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Powell v. Alabama 287 U.S. 45 (1932), for capital cases, see Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963) for all felony cases, and see Argersinger v. Hamlin, 407 U.S. 25 (1972) for imprisonable misdemeanors.[30] In subsequent decisions, the Court extended the right to counsel to any case in which a jail sentence is imposed.
Amendment VII[edit]
Right to jury trial in civil cases
This right has not been incorporated against the states. See Minneapolis & St. Louis R. Co. v. Bombolis, 241 U.S. 211 (1916) and Pearson v. Yewdall, 95 U.S. 294 (1877)
Re-Examination Clause
This right has not been incorporated against the states. See Minneapolis & St. Louis R. Co. v. Bombolis, 241 U.S. 211 (1916)[31]
Amendment VIII[edit]
Protection against excessive bail
This right may have been incorporated against the states. In Schilb v. Kuebel, 404 U.S. 357 (1971), the Court stated in dicta: "Bail, of course, is basic to our system of law, and the Eighth Amendment's proscription of excessive bail has been assumed to have application to the States through the Fourteenth Amendment." In Murphy v. Hunt, 455 U.S. 478 (1982), the Court did not reach the issue because the case was dismissed as moot. Bail was included in the list of incorporated rights in McDonald footnote 12, citing Schilb.
Protection against excessive fines
This right has not been incorporated. See McDonald v. City of Chicago, footnote 13 (2010).
Protection against cruel and unusual punishments
This right has been incorporated against the states. See Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962). This holding has led the Court to suggest, in dicta, that the excessive bail and excessive fines protections have also been incorporated. See Baze v. Rees, 128 S. Ct. 1520, 1529 (2008).
Reverse incorporation[edit]
A similar legal doctrine to incorporation is that of reverse incorporation. Whereas incorporation applies the Bill of Rights to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, in reverse incorporation, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has been held to apply to the federal government through the Due Process Clause located in the Fifth Amendment.[32] For example, in Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954), which was a companion case to Brown v. Board of Education, the schools of the District of Columbia were desegregated even though Washington is federal. Likewise, in Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña 515 U.S. 200 (1995), an affirmative action program by the federal government was subjected to strict scrutiny based on equal protection.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Charters of Freedom: The Bill of Rights". Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Chu, Vivian (21 September 2009). "The Second Amendment and Incorporation: An Overview of Recent Appellate Cases" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
Jump up ^ See, e.g., Constitutional Rights Foundation discussion, giving summary, extensive WWW links and timeline; JRank Law Library; Encyclopedia.com Article;BYU Law Review Article
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe: Debates and Proceedings, 1833–1873
Jump up ^ Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46, 92-118 (1947)
Jump up ^ "Primary Documents in American History", Library of Congress
^ Jump up to: a b Jeffrey Jowell and Jonathan Cooper (2002). Understanding Human Rights Principles. Oxford and Portland, Oregon: Hart Publishing. p. 180. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Loveland, Ian (2002). "Chapter 18 - Human Rights I: Traditional Perspectives". Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, and Human Rights: A Critical Introduction (Seventh ed.). London: Oxford University Press. p. 559. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jayawickrama, Nihal (2002). The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional and International Jurisprudence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 98. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette , 319 U.S. 624, Majority Opinion, item 3 (US 1943) (“"The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. One's right to life, liberty, and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental rights may not be submitted to vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections."”).
^ Jump up to: a b Obergefell v. Hodges, No. 14-556, slip op. at 24 (U.S. June 26, 2015).
Jump up ^ "Primary Documents in American History", Library of Congress
Jump up ^ Steffen W. Schmidt, Mack C. Shelley, Barbara A. Bardes: American Government and Politics Today, Page 71. Thomson Wadsworth, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Amar, Akhil Reed: The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction , Page 234. Yale University Press, 1998
Jump up ^ Curtis, Michael Kent (1994) [1986]. No State Shall Abridge (Second printing in paperback ed.). Duke University Press. pp. 5, 202. ISBN 0-8223-0599-2.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Michael Kent (1994) [1986]. No State Shall Abridge (Second printing in paperback ed.). Duke University Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-8223-0599-2.
Jump up ^ See Doherty, Brian. "Killing Slaughterhouse: Understanding the controversial 1873 decision at the center of the Supreme Court's upcoming gun rights fight," Reason Magazine Retrieved 2010-01-26.
Jump up ^ See Pilon, Roger. "Lawless Judges: Refocusing the Issue for Conservatives," Georgetown Journal of Law and Public Policy Volume II, page 21 (2000).
Jump up ^ Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46 (1947) (Black, J., dissenting).
Jump up ^ See Wildenthal, Bryan. “The Lost Compromise: Reassessing the Early Understanding in Court and Congress on Incorporation of the Bill of Rights in the Fourteenth Amendment". Ohio State Law Journal, Vol. 61 (2000).
Jump up ^ Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873).
Jump up ^ Privileges or Immunities Clause alive again
Jump up ^ Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law 776 n. 14 (2nd ed. 1998)
Jump up ^ Justice Thomas, in a concurring opinion in Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, expressed his view that Everson was wrongly decided and that incorporation of the Establishment Clause is not justified under the Constitution. See Nussbaum, Martha Craven (2008). Liberty of conscience: in defense of America's tradition of religious equality. Basic Books. pp. 105 et seq. and Chapter 4. ISBN 0-465-05164-2. Nebraska Law Review Article.
Jump up ^ Hartman, Gary, Roy M. Mersky, and Cindy L. Tate (2004). "Landmark Supreme Court Cases: "Edwards v. South Carolina."". New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004. American History Online. Retrieved 15 August 2013. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Pearson Prentice Hall: Supreme Court Cases - Edwards v. South Carolina, 1963". Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education, Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Vance, Laurence M. "Does the First Amendment Protect the Freedom of Association? The Future of Freedom Foundation". The Future of Freedom Foundation.
Jump up ^ Akhil Reed Amar and Renee Lettow Lerner, "Fifth Amendment First Principles: The Self- Incrimination Clause", Michigan Law Review 93 (1995): 857, accessed February 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert L. Cord, "Neo-Incorporation: The Burger Court and the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment," Fordham Law Review 44, no. 2 (1975): 215-230, accessed February 13, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Bill of Rights Institute: Incorporation". Bill of Rights Center. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis, and Interpretation - 1992 Edition --> Amendments to the Constitution --> Seventh Amendment - Civil Trials". U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1992. p. 1453. Retrieved 4 July 2013. The Amendment governs only courts which sit under the authority of the United States, including courts in the territories and the District of Columbia, and does not apply generally to state courts.
Jump up ^ Columbia Law Review, May 2004
Further reading[edit]
J. Lieberman (1999). A Practical Companion to the Constitution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Regina McClendon, Public Law Research Institute (1994) (stating that "[t]he almost total incorporation of the Bill of Rights lends support to the theory that incorporation of the Second Amendment is inevitable"). "Limits On The Power Of States To Regulate Firearms". W3.uchastings.edu. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
American Jurisprudence, 2d ed., "Constitutional Law" § 405.
Ernest H. Schopler, Comment Note—What Provisions of the Federal Constitution's Bill of Rights Are Applicable to the States, 23 L. Ed. 2d 985 (Lexis).
[hide]
v
t
e
United States Constitution
Text
(via Wikisource)
Preamble and Articles I–VII
Amendments 1–10
Amendments 11–27
Unsuccessful Proposed Amendments
Debates in State Conventions on the Adoption of the Constitution
Preamble
and articles
Preamble
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Amendments
Ratified
Bill of Rights
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Others
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Pending
Congressional Apportionment
Titles of Nobility
Corwin Amendment
Child Labor
Repealed
Eighteenth Amendment
Unsuccessful
Equal Rights
District of Columbia Voting Rights
List of Amendments
Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10)
Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15)
Amendment proposals in Congress
Convention to propose amendments
State ratifying conventions
Formation
History
Articles of Confederation
Mount Vernon Conference
Annapolis Convention
Philadelphia Convention
Virginia Plan
New Jersey Plan
Connecticut Compromise
Three-Fifths Compromise
Committee of Detail
Signing
Independence Hall
Syng inkstand
The Federalist Papers
Anti-Federalist Papers
Massachusetts Compromise
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Hillsborough Convention
Rhode Island ratification
Drafting and ratification timeline
Clauses
Appointments
Appropriations
Assistance of Counsel
Bills of credit
Case or Controversy
Citizenship
Commerce
Compact
Compulsory Process
Confrontation
Contract
Copyright and Patent
Double Jeopardy
Due Process
Equal Protection
Establishment
Exceptions
Excessive Bail
Ex post facto
Extradition
Free Exercise
Free Speech
Fugitive Slave
Full Faith and Credit
General Welfare
Guarantee
Impeachment
Import-Export
Ineligibility
Militia
Natural-born citizen
Necessary and Proper
New States
No Religious Test
Oath or Affirmation
Origination
Petition
Postal
Presentment
Privileges and Immunities
Privileges or Immunities
Recommendation
Self-Incrimination
Speech or Debate
Speedy Trial
State of the Union
Supremacy
Suspension
Take Care
Takings
Taxing and Spending
Territorial
Title of Nobility
Treaty
Trial by Jury
Vesting
Vicinage
War Powers
List of clauses
Interpretation
Concurrent powers
Congressional enforcement
Constitutional law
Criminal procedure
Criminal sentencing
Dormant Commerce Clause
Enumerated powers
Equal footing
Executive privilege
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
Judicial review
Nondelegation doctrine
Preemption
Saxbe fix
Separation of church and state
Separation of powers
Taxation power
Unitary executive theory
Display
and legacy
National Archives
Charters of Freedom Rotunda
Independence Mall
Constitution Day
Constitution Gardens
National Constitution Center
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting)
A More Perfect Union (film)
Worldwide influence
US Government Portal • Law Portal • Wikipedia book
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights&oldid=815267477"
Categories:
United States constitutional law
Legal history of the United States
Incorporation case law
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from May 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Français
Português
Simple English
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 13 December 2017, at 20:39.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: li

values: List of amendments to the United States Constitution

value: ul

values: History of the United States Constitution

values: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

values: Freedom of religion in the United States

values: Freedom of the press in the United States

values: Right to keep and bear arms in the United States

values: United States constitutional criminal procedure

values: Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Template:United States constitutional law

values: Template talk:United States constitutional law

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: First Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Second Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: float: right; clear: right; margin: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; width:25%; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa; font-size: 88%; background-color: #F9F9F9;

values: Article Four of the United States Constitution

values: Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 489

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court
mw-redirect
U.S. Supreme Court

values: West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette

values:
/wiki/Civil_rights
mw-redirect
Civil rights

values: Edit section: Selective versus total incorporation

values: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States

values: Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Edit section: Due process interpretation

values:
/wiki/Benjamin_Cardozo
mw-redirect
Benjamin Cardozo

values: Edit section: Incorporation under privileges or immunities

values:
/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago
mw-redirect
McDonald v. Chicago

values: Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Establishment Clause of the First Amendment

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 330

values: Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 310

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 283

values:
/wiki/DeJonge_v._Oregon
mw-redirect
DeJonge v. Oregon

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 299

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 357

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 468

values: Third Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit

values: Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 367

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 338

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 378

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 374

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 395

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 348

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 386

values:
/wiki/Public_trial_clause
mw-redirect
Public trial clause

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 333

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 391

values: s:Parker v. Gladden/Opinion of the Court

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 385

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 399

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403

values: Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 405

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 380

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 287

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 407

values: Minneapolis & St. Louis R. Co. v. Bombolis (page does not exist)

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 241

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 95

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 455

values: Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values:
/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishments
mw-redirect
Cruel and unusual punishments

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 370

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515

values: National Archives and Records Administration

values:
nofollow
external text
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40820.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://laws.findlaw.com/us/319/624.html

values: Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow

values:
/wiki/Martha_Craven_Nussbaum
mw-redirect
Martha Craven Nussbaum

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: s:Constitution of the United States of America

values: s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution

values: s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution

values: s:Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution

values: Preamble to the United States Constitution

values: Article One of the United States Constitution

values: Article Two of the United States Constitution

values: Article Three of the United States Constitution

values: Article Five of the United States Constitution

values: Article Six of the United States Constitution

values: Article Seven of the United States Constitution

values: Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment

values: List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution

values: Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution

values: Constitutional Convention (United States)

values: Signing of the United States Constitution

values: Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island

values: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

values:
/wiki/Guarantee_Clause
mw-redirect
Guarantee Clause

values: Oath of office of the President of the United States

values: List of clauses of the United States Constitution

values: United States constitutional sentencing law

values: Separation of church and state in the United States

values: Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States

values: United States Constitution and worldwide influence

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:United States constitutional law

values: Category:Legal history of the United States

values: Category:Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from May 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Incorporation (Déclaration des droits) – French

values: Incorporação da Carta dos Direitos – Portuguese

values: Incorporation of the Bill of Rights – Simple English

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights rootpage-Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights skin-vector action-view


text:
Climate of the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For change, see Climate change in the United States.
Köppen climate types of the US
The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude, and a range of geographic features, including mountains and deserts. West of the 100th meridian, much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US, and Mediterranean along the California coast. East of the 100th meridian, the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England, to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions. Southern Florida is tropical, as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains, the Wasatch, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Range are alpine. The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate. The state of Alaska, on the northwestern corner of the North American continent, is largely subarctic climate, but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast (Alaska Panhandle), southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands.
The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle, the migration north/south of the subtropical highs, and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream.
In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland. In the Atlantic Ocean, the "Bermuda High" creates a south-southwest flow of warm, humid air over the eastern, southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures, high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity. In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny, dry, and stable weather conditions along the West Coast.
In the Northern Hemisphere winter, the subtropical highs retreat southward. The polar jet stream (and associated conflict zone between cold, dry air masses from Canada and warm, moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather, as well as colder or mild air masses. Areas in the southern US (Florida, the Gulf Coast, the Desert Southwest, and southern California) however, often have more stable weather, as the polar jet stream's impact does not usually reach that far south. Weather systems, be they high-pressure systems (anticyclones), low-pressure systems (cyclones) or fronts (boundaries between air masses of differing temperature, humidity and most commonly, both) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months, when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada.
The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States. Such "North Pacific lows" enter the US through the Pacific Northwest, then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains, northern Great Plains, upper Midwest, Great Lakes and New England states. Across the central states from late fall to spring, "Panhandle hook" storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas, then northeast toward the Great Lakes. They generate unusually large temperature contrasts, and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward, resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track, and warm conditions, heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously. Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward, "Alberta clipper" storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England, and often, windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them. When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward, "Gulf lows" can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico, then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states, or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters. They often bring rain, but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states.
In the cold season (generally November to March), most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts. In the summer, storms are much more localized, with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian. In the warm season, storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent, and weather conditions are more solar {sun} controlled, with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours, mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time. From May to August especially, often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system (MCS) thunderstorm complexes, usually associated with frontal activity, can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states. From late summer into fall (mostly August to October), tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states, bringing high winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges (often topped with battering waves) to coastal areas.
Record one day precipitation by county between 1979 and 2011.
A map of the average annual high temperatures in the United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Regional overview
1.1 Southwest
1.2 Gulf Coast/Lower Mississippi Valley/South Atlantic states
1.3 Southern Plains/Lower Midwest/Middle East Coast
1.4 Northern Great Plains/North-Central/Great Lakes/New England
1.5 Pacific Northwest
2 Precipitation
3 Extremes
4 Overall average(s)
5 Natural disasters and effects
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Regional overview[edit]
Southwest[edit]
The Southwest has a hot desert climate, at lower elevations. Cities like Phoenix, Las Vegas, Yuma, and Palm Springs have average highs over 100 °F (38 °C) during the summer months and lows in the 60s. In winter, daily temperatures in the southwest are cooler with highs in the 50s and 60s F, and lows in the 40s F. Northern Arizona and New Mexico, central and northern Nevada and most of Utah (outside higher mountain areas) have a semi-desert climate, but with colder and snowier winters than points south due to higher elevations. As in other desert climates, the dry air results in large differences (sometimes over 40 F ) between daytime high and nighttime low temperatures.
The coast of California has a Mediterranean climate. Daily high temperatures range from 70 to 80 °F (21 to 27 °C) in the summer to 50 to 65 °F (10 to 16 °C) in winter, with low temperatures from the 60 °F (16 °C)s in summer to the mid 40s F in winter. [citation needed]. Like most Mediterranean climates, much of coastal California has a wet winter and dry summer. Early summers can often bring cool, overcast weather (fog and low stratus clouds) to coastal California. As such, the warmest summer weather is delayed until August, even September in many areas of the California coast; on average, September is the warmest month in San Francisco, CA. Upwelling of cold Pacific waters also contributes to the frequent cool spring and early summer weather in coastal California. In California's inland river valleys (Bakersfield, Sacramento areas), the wet-winter, dry-summer pattern remains, but winters are cooler and more prone to occasional frost or freeze, while summers are much hotter, with blazing sunshine and daytime high temperatures not uncommonly in the 90s °F to over 100 °F (38 °C).
Gulf Coast/Lower Mississippi Valley/South Atlantic states[edit]
The Gulf and South Atlantic states have a humid subtropical climate with mostly mild winters and hot, humid summers. Most of the Florida peninsula including Miami and Jacksonville, along with other coastal cities like Houston, New Orleans, Savannah, Charleston and Wilmington all have average summer highs in the lower 90s F, and lows generally from 70 to 75 °F (21 to 24 °C); combined with moist tropical air, this creates the sultry summer weather conditions typical found here. In the interior South, in cities like Raleigh, NC, Atlanta, Birmingham, AL, Nashville TN, San Antonio, TX, and Jackson, average summer highs and lows are similar to coastal areas, white some areas of interior eastern Texas having highs in the upper 90s F. In winter, average daily high temperatures range from the 40 °F (4 °C)s (upper South: northern Arkansas, Kentucky and Virginia), to the 60 °F (16 °C)s along the Gulf Coast and South Atlantic coast (Charleston southward), with 70 °F (21 °C)s in central and southern Florida and far southern Texas. Average daily lows in winter range from 20 °F (−7 °C)s north to 40 °F (4 °C)s along the Gulf and far South Atlantic coasts, with 50 °F (10 °C)s in Florida and coastal south Texas.
Southern Florida has a tropical climate, with all months having a mean temperature of higher than 65 °F (18 °C), a wet season from May through October, and a dry season from November through April. In cities like Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Key West, Naples, and Palm Beach average daily highs range from the mid 70 °F (21 °C)s in winter to the upper 80 °F (32 °C)s in summer. Average overnight lows range from the upper 50 °F (10 °C)s in winter to the mid and upper 70 °F (21 °C)s in summer. Southern Florida is the warmest region of the US mainland in winter.
Southern Plains/Lower Midwest/Middle East Coast[edit]
The region from the southern Plains, to the lower Midwest, eastward to the central East Coast (the New York City/coastal Connecticut region southward to Virginia) has a temperate climate, with cool to cold winters and long hot summers. Daytime highs range from 80 to 90 °F (27 to 32 °C) in summer to 35 to 50 °F (2 to 10 °C) in winter. Lows range from the 60 °F (16 °C)s in summer to 25 to 35 °F (−4 to 2 °C) in winter. Cities in this region include Wichita, Kansas, St. Louis, Springfield, Illinois, Indianapolis, Indiana, Columbus, Ohio, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Richmond, Virginia, New York City, New Haven, Connecticut, and Atlantic City, New Jersey. Precipitation is spread fairly evenly throughout the year, though as one travels from Indiana westward there is an increasingly prominent early-summer concentration, with a May maximum in northern Texas and Oklahoma, and a June maximum increasingly evident from (central/northern) Indiana westward to Kansas. As one travels from east to west across Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, average annual precipitation steadily decreases. Far western Texas (El Paso area) is desert, and average annual precipitation is less than twenty inches (510 mm) in westernmost Kansas and the Oklahoma Panhandle, where the climate qualifies as semi-arid.
In the lower Midwest (and southern Plains states, especially), temperatures can rise or drop rapidly; winds can be extreme; and clashing air masses, including hot, dry air of Mexican and/or Southwestern origin, warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air from Canada can spawn severe thunderstorms and tornadoes, particularly from April to June. The "dryline," separating hot, dry air of Mexican/Southwestern U.S. origin from warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, often causes severe, occasionally violent, thunderstorms to fire in central and eastern Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas; these sometimes contribute toward the hailstorms and tornado outbreaks that the Southern Plains are well known for. Reflecting these air-mass conflicts, central Oklahoma, including the Oklahoma City and Moore-Norman areas, has the highest frequency of tornadoes per unit land area on planet Earth, with May the highest-risk month for tornadoes throughout "Tornado Alley," from northern Texas north-northeastward toward western and central Iowa.
Northern Great Plains/North-Central/Great Lakes/New England[edit]
The northern half of the Great Plains (Nebraska northward), northern Midwest, Great Lakes, and New England states have a humid continental climate. Here there are four distinct seasons, with warm to hot summers, and cold and often-snowy winters. Average daily high temperatures range from 10 °F (−12 °C)s (in North Dakota, and central and northern Minnesota) to 30 °F (−1 °C)s in winter to 70 to 80 °F (21 to 27 °C)s in summer, while overnight lows range from below 0 °F (−18 °C) in winter (in North Dakota and much of Minnesota) to 50 to 60 °F (10 to 16 °C)s in summer. In the New England states, precipitation is evenly distributed around the year, with a slight late fall-early winter (November–December) maximum along the New England coast from Boston, MA northward due to intense early-winter storms. In the Great Lakes states, cold Arctic air in winter crossing the relatively warmer lake waters can result in frequent and sometimes very heavy "lake effect" snow, especially on the eastern and southern shores of the Great Lakes (for example, in western Michigan's Lower Peninsula and in the Buffalo, NY area). Cities in this area include Minneapolis, MN, Omaha, NE, Sioux Falls, SD, Fargo, Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, Concord, Augusta, Maine. As one travels from east to west across Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota, average annual precipitation steadily decreases, and the westernmost counties of these states have a semi-arid climate, with about or just over 15 inches of precipitation per year, on average (see climate data for Williston, ND, Rapid City, SD and Scottsbluff, NE).
In the upper Midwest and northern Plains states, temperatures may rise or fall rapidly, and winds (from warm-season thunderstorms or larger-scale low-pressure systems) can be strong to extreme. Here, air-mass conflicts primarily involve warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, clashing with cool to cold, dry air from Canada, with only occasional intrusions of hot, dry air from the southwest. The conflicts between Canadian and Gulf air commonly produce severe thunderstorms (including hailstorms, especially on the western Plains) and tornadoes, particularly in May and June. In the northern Plains and North Central states generally, June is the year's wettest month on average, owing to maximum shower and thunderstorm activity. Also, June is the highest-risk month for severe weather throughout North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin and northern Illinois.[citation needed]
Pacific Northwest[edit]
The Pacific Northwest has a oceanic climate. The climate is wet and cool in autumn, winter, and spring, and stable and drier in the summer months, especially July and August. On average, the wettest month is typically November or December; the driest, July. In the summer months, average highs in cities like Seattle and Portland are from 70 to 79 °F (21 to 26 °C) with lows from 50 to 59 °F (10 to 15 °C), while in winter daily highs are from 40 to 49 °F (4 to 9 °C) and overnight lows from 30 to 39 °F (−1 to 4 °C).[citation needed]
In winter, the Pacific Northwest (especially coastal districts and other areas west, i.e. on the prevailing windward side, of the Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges), experiences a mostly overcast, wet and cool climate, but without severe cold like that found in the interior northern U.S. (i.e. Minnesota/North Dakota). At lower elevations, winter precipitation falls mostly as rain. However, snow does occur even at the lowest elevations, primarily when Pacific moisture interacts with cold air intruding into the Pacific Northwest from western Canada (i.e. Alberta and interior British Columbia). In Seattle, WA and Portland, OR, winter-season snowfall varies greatly from one winter season to the next; in Seattle, the average winter-season snowfall is about 7 inches. In January 1950 (also the coldest January and winter month in Seattle history), Seattle received an unprecedented monthly snowfall of over 57 inches. Summers in the Pacific Northwest are generally cool, especially along the coastline. The Great Basin and Columbia Plateau (the Intermontane Plateaus) are arid or semiarid regions, with high summer temperatures in the 90s to occasionally over 100 at lower elevations (e.g. at Boise, ID), with annual precipitation averaging less than 15 inches (380 mm) as a result of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada and Cascades.[citation needed]. Both coastal and interior areas of Oregon and Washington, and southern Idaho, have a wet-winter, dry-summer precipitation pattern, but traveling eastward into Montana and Wyoming, this transitions progressively toward relatively drier winters and a May and eventually June precipitation maximum, the latter characteristic of the Northern Plains and much of the upper Midwest (i.e. both Dakotas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota).
Precipitation[edit]
Average precipitation
See also: United States rainfall climatology
The characteristics of precipitation across the United States differ significantly across the United States and its possessions. Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Most of Florida has a subtropical monsoon rainfall pattern (wet summer and dry winter). [1]
In the central and upper eastern United States, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, although summer rainfall increases as one moves southeastward. Lake-effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes,[2] as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season. The average snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States is 13:1, meaning 13 inches (330 mm) of snow melts down to 1 inch (25 mm) of water.[3] The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the West, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics.[4][5][6][7]
During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains.[8] Equatorward of the subtropical ridge, tropical cyclones enhance precipitation (mostly from August to October) across southern and eastern sections of the country, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa.[9] Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.[10]
Extremes[edit]
Several different air masses affect the United States.
In northern Alaska, tundra and arctic conditions predominate, and the temperature has fallen as low as −80 °F (−62 °C).[11] On the other end of the spectrum, Death Valley, California once reached 134 °F (56.7 °C), officially the highest temperature ever recorded on Earth.[12]
On average, the mountains of the western states receive the highest levels of snowfall on Earth. The greatest annual snowfall level is at Mount Rainier in Washington, at 692 inches (1,758 cm); the record there was 1,122 inches (2,850 cm) in the winter of 1971–72. This record was broken by the Mt. Baker Ski Area in northwestern Washington which reported 1,140 inches (2,896 cm) of snowfall for the 1998-99 snowfall season. Other places with significant snowfall outside the Cascade Range are the Wasatch Mountains, near the Great Salt Lake and the Sierra Nevada, near Lake Tahoe.
Along the coastal mountain ranges in the Pacific Northwest, rainfall is greater than anywhere else in the continental US, with Quinault Ranger Station in Washington having an average of 137 inches (3,480 mm).[13] Hawaii receives even more, with 460 inches (11,684 mm) measured annually, on average, on Mount Waialeale, in Kauai.[14] The Sonoran Desert in the southwest is home to the driest locale in the US. Yuma, Arizona, has an average of 2.63 inches (67 mm) of precipitation each year.[15]
[hide]Climate data for United States
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
98
(37) 105
(41) 108
(42) 118
(48) 124
(51) 129
(54) 134
(57) 127
(53) 126
(52) 117
(47) 105
(41) 100
(38) 134
(57)
Record low °F (°C)
−80
(−62) −75
(−59) −68
(−56) −50
(−46) −25
(−32) −1
(−18) 10
(−12) 5
(−15) −13
(−25) −48
(−44) −61
(−52) −72
(−58) −80
(−62)
Source: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0762182.html
Overall average(s)[edit]
[hide]Climate data for Contiguous US average[16]
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Daily mean °F (°C)
30.81
(−0.66) 34.65
(1.47) 42.56
(5.87) 52.02
(11.12) 61.04
(16.13) 69.25
(20.69) 74.29
(23.49) 72.77
(22.65) 65.42
(18.57) 54.77
(12.65) 42.51
(5.84) 33.38
(0.77) 52.79
(11.55)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
2.2
(55.88) 2.0102
(51.06) 2.4
(60.96) 2.4402
(61.98) 2.8799
(73.15) 2.9098
(73.91) 2.7701
(70.36) 2.6098
(66.29) 2.4902
(63.25) 2.1598
(54.86) 2.1201
(53.85) 2.2598
(57.40) 29.2299
(742.44)
Source: NOAA (US)[17]
Natural disasters and effects[edit]
A powerful tornado in Texas.
The Great Plains, the Midwest and the southern United States - because of contrasting air masses - have frequent severe thunderstorms and tornado outbreaks during spring and summer. In central portions of the US, tornadoes are more common than anywhere else on Earth[18] and touch down most commonly in the spring and summer. The strip of land from north Texas north to Nebraska and east into Southern Michigan is known as Tornado Alley, where many houses have tornado shelters and many towns have tornado sirens. Stretching across Mississippi and Alabama, Dixie Alley has experienced tornadoes and violent thunderstorms, with peak tornado season coming on as early as February and waning by May. Florida also reports many tornadoes but these are rarely very strong. The southern US has a second tornado season during the Fall. In general, the area at greatest risk for tornadoes migrates northward from February to June, peaking in the Gulf States in February and March, the Ohio Valley and lower Midwest in April, southern and central Plains and central Midwest in May, and Northern Plains and upper Midwest (Dakotas, Minnesota and Wisconsin) in June.
The Appalachian region and the Midwest experience the worst floods. Widespread severe flooding is rare. Some exceptions include the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Great Flood of 1993, and widespread flooding and mudslides caused by the 1982–83 El Niño event in the western United States. Localized flooding can, however, occur anywhere, and mudslides from heavy rain can cause problems in any mountainous area, particularly the Southwest. The narrow canyons of many mountain areas in the west and severe thunderstorm activity during the monsoon season in summer leads to sometimes devastating flash floods as well, while Nor'easter snowstorms can bring activity to a halt in the New England and Great Lakes regions.
In 2013, the US sustains $10 billion annually in damage from floods.[19]
The Southwest has the worst droughts; one is thought to have lasted over 500 years and to have decimated the Anasazi people.[20] Large stretches of desert shrub in the west can fuel the spread of wildfires. Although severe drought is rare, it has occasionally caused major problems, such as during the Dust Bowl (1931–1942), which coincided with the Great Depression. Farmland failed throughout the Plains, entire regions were virtually depopulated, and dust storms ravaged the land. More recently, the western US experienced widespread drought from 1999 to 2004.
In terms of deaths from heatwaves, 7,415 losses occurred from 1999 to 2010, a mean of 618 per year. A disproportionate number of men, a full 68% of deaths, versus women have been affected. The highest yearly total of heat-related deaths in that period was 1999 while the lowest was 2004.[21] In terms of deaths from waves of cold temperatures, the same gender inequality exists (66% of hypothermia-related deaths in 2002 were of males). From 1979 2002, 16,555 deaths occurred due to exposure to excessive cold temperatures, a mean of 689 per year.[22]
See also[edit]
United States portal
Climate change in the United States
Geography of the United States
United States tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
List of wettest tropical cyclones in the United States
Meteorology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Norman W. Junker. West Coast Cold Season Heavy Rainfall Events. Retrieved on 2008-03-01.
Jump up ^ Thomas W. Schmidlin. Climatic Summary of Snowfall and Snow Depth in the Ohio Snowbelt at Chardron. Retrieved on 2008-03-01.
Jump up ^ Martin A. Baxter, Charles E. Graves, and James T. Moore. A Climatology of Snow-to-Liquid Ratio for the Contiguous United States. Retrieved on 2008-03-21.
Jump up ^ John Monteverdi and Jan Null. WESTERN REGION TECHNICAL ATTACHMENT NO. 97-37 NOVEMBER 21, 1997: El Niño and California Precipitation. Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
Jump up ^ Nathan Mantua. La Niña Impacts in the Pacific Northwest. Archived October 22, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
Jump up ^ Southeast Climate Consortium. SECC Winter Climate Outlook. Archived March 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
Jump up ^ Reuters. La Nina could mean dry summer in Midwest and Plains. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Forecast Office Flagstaff, Arizona. The Monsoon. Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
Jump up ^ Roth, David M; Weather Prediction Center (January 7, 2013). "Maximum Rainfall caused by Tropical Cyclones and their Remnants Per State (1950–2012)". Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Walker S. Ashley, Thomas L. Mote, P. Grady Dixon, Sharon L. Trotter, Emily J. Powell, Joshua D. Durkee, and Andrew J. Grundstein. Distribution of Mesoscale Convective Complex Rainfall in the United States. Retrieved on 2008-03-02.
Jump up ^ Williams, Jack Each state's low temperature record, USA Today, URL accessed 13 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "World: Highest Temperature". World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive. Arizona State University. 2012. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ National Atlas. Average Annual Precipitation, 1961-1990. Archived September 28, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2006-06-15.
Jump up ^ Diana Leone. Rain supreme. Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
Jump up ^ Hereford, Richard, et al., Precipitation History of the Mojave Desert Region, 1893–2001, US Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 117-03, URL accessed 13 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "USGS TNM 2.0 Viewer". Viewer.nationalmap.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-24.
Jump up ^ "CONTIGUOUS UNITED STATES Climate Summary".
Jump up ^ NOVA, Tornado Heaven, Hunt for the Supertwister, URL accessed 15 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Baird, Joel Banner (August 4, 2013). "Stream-gage insight at risk from budget cuts". The Burlington Free Press. Burlington, Vermont. pp. 3C.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Jim E. and John E. Costa, Large Floods in the United States: Where They Happen and Why, US Geological Survey Circular 1245, URL accessed 13 June 2006.
Jump up ^ QuickStats: Number of Heat-Related Deaths,* by Sex — National Vital Statistics System, United States,† 1999–2010§. Cdc.gov (2012-09-14). Retrieved on 2013-07-29.
Jump up ^ Hypothermia-Related Deaths - United States, 2003-2004. Cdc.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-29.
External links[edit]
National Weather Service
[show]
v
t
e
Climate of the United States
States
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Federal district
Washington, D.C.
Insular areas
American Samoa
The Marianas
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Associated states
Marshall Islands
FS Micronesia
Palau
[show]
v
t
e
Climate of North America
Sovereign states
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Dependencies and
other territories
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Bonaire
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Curaçao
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Saba
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
Turks and Caicos Islands
United States Virgin Islands
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_of_the_United_States&oldid=804882741"
Categories:
Climate of the United States
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Use American English from May 2015
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
Use mdy dates from May 2015
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Čeština
Deutsch
Français
Italiano
Norsk nynorsk
Русский
Українська
Edit links
This page was last edited on 11 October 2017, at 18:15.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

value: b

values: /wiki/Semi-arid mw-redirect Semi-arid

values:
/wiki/Humid_continental
mw-redirect
Humid continental

values:
/wiki/Humid_subtropical
mw-redirect
Humid subtropical

values:
/wiki/Southern_Florida
mw-redirect
Southern Florida

values:
/wiki/US_Virgin_Islands
mw-redirect
US Virgin Islands

values:
/wiki/Subtropical_high
mw-redirect
Subtropical high

values:
/wiki/Bermuda_High
mw-redirect
Bermuda High

values:
/wiki/Tropical_cyclones
mw-redirect
Tropical cyclones

values: Edit section: Gulf Coast/Lower Mississippi Valley/South Atlantic states

values:
/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale
mw-redirect
Fort Lauderdale

values: Edit section: Southern Plains/Lower Midwest/Middle East Coast

values: Edit section: Northern Great Plains/North-Central/Great Lakes/New England

values:
/wiki/Sioux_Falls
mw-redirect
Sioux Falls

values:
/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation
mw-redirect
El Niño-Southern Oscillation

values:
/wiki/Mesoscale_Convective_Complex
mw-redirect
Mesoscale Convective Complex

values:
/wiki/Wasatch_Mountains
mw-redirect
Wasatch Mountains

values: background: #290000; color:#FFFFFF; border-left-width:medium

values: background: #000097; color:#FFFFFF; border-left-width:medium

values: width:90%; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height: 1.2em; margin:auto;

values: background: #FFCE9D; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium

values: background: #A1A1FF; color:#000000; border-left-width:medium

values: Edit section: Natural disasters and effects

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: United States tropical cyclone rainfall climatology

values: List of wettest tropical cyclones in the United States

values:
nofollow
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs117-03/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2003/circ1245

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.weather.gov

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Arizona
mw-redirect
Climate of Arizona

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Arkansas
mw-redirect
Climate of Arkansas

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Colorado
mw-redirect
Climate of Colorado

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Connecticut
mw-redirect
Climate of Connecticut

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Delaware
mw-redirect
Climate of Delaware

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Idaho
mw-redirect
Climate of Idaho

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Indiana
mw-redirect
Climate of Indiana

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Iowa
mw-redirect
Climate of Iowa

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Kansas
mw-redirect
Climate of Kansas

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Kentucky
mw-redirect
Climate of Kentucky

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Louisiana
mw-redirect
Climate of Louisiana

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Maine
mw-redirect
Climate of Maine

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Maryland
mw-redirect
Climate of Maryland

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Michigan
mw-redirect
Climate of Michigan

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Mississippi
mw-redirect
Climate of Mississippi

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Montana
mw-redirect
Climate of Montana

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Nebraska
mw-redirect
Climate of Nebraska

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Nevada
mw-redirect
Climate of Nevada

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_New_Hampshire
mw-redirect
Climate of New Hampshire

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_New_Jersey
mw-redirect
Climate of New Jersey

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_New_Mexico
mw-redirect
Climate of New Mexico

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Ohio
mw-redirect
Climate of Ohio

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Oklahoma
mw-redirect
Climate of Oklahoma

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Rhode_Island
mw-redirect
Climate of Rhode Island

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_South_Dakota
mw-redirect
Climate of South Dakota

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Tennessee
mw-redirect
Climate of Tennessee

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Utah
mw-redirect
Climate of Utah

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Vermont
mw-redirect
Climate of Vermont

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Washington_(state)
mw-redirect
Climate of Washington (state)

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_West_Virginia
mw-redirect
Climate of West Virginia

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Wisconsin
mw-redirect
Climate of Wisconsin

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Wyoming
mw-redirect
Climate of Wyoming

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Washington,_D.C.
mw-redirect
Climate of Washington, D.C.

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_American_Samoa
mw-redirect
Climate of American Samoa

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Guam
mw-redirect
Climate of Guam

values: Climate of the United States Virgin Islands

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_the_Marshall_Islands
mw-redirect
Climate of the Marshall Islands

values: Climate of the Federated States of Micronesia (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Palau
mw-redirect
Climate of Palau

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_North_America
mw-redirect
Climate of North America

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda
mw-redirect
Climate of Antigua and Barbuda

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_the_Bahamas
mw-redirect
Climate of the Bahamas

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Barbados
mw-redirect
Climate of Barbados

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Belize
mw-redirect
Climate of Belize

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Canada
mw-redirect
Climate of Canada

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Costa_Rica
mw-redirect
Climate of Costa Rica

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Cuba
mw-redirect
Climate of Cuba

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Dominica
mw-redirect
Climate of Dominica

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_the_Dominican_Republic
mw-redirect
Climate of the Dominican Republic

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_El_Salvador
mw-redirect
Climate of El Salvador

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Grenada
mw-redirect
Climate of Grenada

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Guatemala
mw-redirect
Climate of Guatemala

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Haiti
mw-redirect
Climate of Haiti

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Honduras
mw-redirect
Climate of Honduras

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Jamaica
mw-redirect
Climate of Jamaica

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Nicaragua
mw-redirect
Climate of Nicaragua

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Panama
mw-redirect
Climate of Panama

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis
mw-redirect
Climate of Saint Kitts and Nevis

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Saint_Lucia
mw-redirect
Climate of Saint Lucia

values: Climate of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago
mw-redirect
Climate of Trinidad and Tobago

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Anguilla
mw-redirect
Climate of Anguilla

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Aruba
mw-redirect
Climate of Aruba

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Bermuda
mw-redirect
Climate of Bermuda

values: Climate of Bonaire (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_the_Cayman_Islands
mw-redirect
Climate of the Cayman Islands

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Cura%C3%A7ao
mw-redirect
Climate of Curaçao

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Greenland
mw-redirect
Climate of Greenland

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Guadeloupe
mw-redirect
Climate of Guadeloupe

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Martinique
mw-redirect
Climate of Martinique

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Montserrat
mw-redirect
Climate of Montserrat

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy
mw-redirect
Climate of Saint Barthélemy

values: Climate of the Collectivity of Saint Martin

values: Climate of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)

values: Climate of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Use American English from May 2015

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_States
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: Podnebí Spojených států amerických – Czech

values: Clima degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian

values: Климат США – Russian

values: Клімат США – Ukrainian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Climate_of_the_United_States rootpage-Climate_of_the_United_States vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view