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Nubia
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This article is about the region in Africa. For the airport in Mongolia, see New Ulaanbaatar International Airport. For other uses, see Nubia (disambiguation).
Map of Ancient Egypt, with "Nubian Desert" marked
Nubia (/ˈnuːbiə, ˈnjuː-/) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between Aswan in southern Egypt and Khartoum in central Sudan. It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, with a history that can be traced from at least 2500 BC onward (Kerma culture), and was home to several empires, most prominently the kingdom of Kush, which for a while even ruled over Egypt. Its collapse in the 4th century AD after more than 1000 years of existence was precipitated by an invasion by Ethiopia's Kingdom of Aksum and saw the rise of three Christian kingdoms, Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia, the last two again lasting 1000 years. Their eventual decline initiated not only the partition of Nubia into the northern half conquered by the Ottomans and the southern half by the Sennar sultanate in the 16th century, but also a rapid Islamization and partial Arabization of the Nubian people. Nubia was again united under the Khedivate of Egypt in the 19th century. Today, Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan.
Contents
1 Linguistics
2 Geography
3 History
3.1 Prehistory
3.2 Nubia and Ancient Egypt
3.3 Kerma
3.4 Kush
3.4.1 Napatan period
3.4.2 Meroitic period
3.5 Christian Nubia
3.6 Islamic Nubia
4 Contemporary issues
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Linguistics[edit]
The name Nubia is derived from that of the Noba people, nomads who settled the area in the 4th century CE following the collapse of the kingdom of Meroë. The Noba spoke a Nilo-Saharan language, ancestral to Old Nubian. Old Nubian was mostly used in religious texts dating from the 8th and 15th centuries. Before the 4th century, and throughout classical antiquity, Nubia was known as Kush, or, in Classical Greek usage, included under the name Ethiopia (Aithiopia).
Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties of the Nubian language group, a subfamily that includes Nobiin (the descendant of Old Nubian), Kenuzi-Dongola, Midob and several related varieties in the northern part of the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan. Until at least 1970, the Birgid language was spoken north of Nyala in Darfur, but is now extinct. However, linguistic evidence indicates that the languages spoken in the ancient Kerma Culture (present-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan) in Nubia, belonged to the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages.[1][2]
Geography[edit]
Nubia was divided into two major regions: Upper and Lower Nubia, so called because of their location in the Nile river valley, the 'lower' being further downstream than the 'upper'. Lower Nubia lay between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile river, spreading into modern southern Egypt and northern Sudan, while Upper Nubia extended between the Second and Sixth Cataracts, in modern central Sudan.
History[edit]
Prehistory[edit]
Tools, Weapons and adornments from el-Barga (6000-5500 BC)
Early settlements sprouted in both Upper and Lower Nubia. Egyptians referred to Nubia as "Ta-Seti," or "The Land of the Bow," since the Nubians were known to be expert archers.[3] Modern scholars typically refer to the people from this area as the "A-Group" culture. Fertile farmland just south of the Third Cataract is known as the "pre-Kerma" culture in Upper Nubia, as they are the ancestors.
The Neolithic people in the Nile Valley likely came from Sudan, as well as the Sahara, and there was shared culture with the two areas and with that of Egypt during this period.[4] By the 5th millennium BC, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in the Neolithic revolution. Saharan rock reliefs depict scenes that have been thought to be suggestive of a cattle cult, typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day.[5] Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's first astronomical devices, predating Stonehenge by almost 2,000 years.[6] This complexity as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.[7] Around 3500 BC, the second "Nubian" culture, termed the A-Group, arose.[8] It was a contemporary of, and ethnically and culturally very similar to, the polities in predynastic Naqada of Upper Egypt.[9][10] The A-Group people were engaged in trade with the Egyptians. This trade is testified archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the graves of the A-Group people. The imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools, faience amulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots.[11]
Nubian Terracotta Female Figurine, from the Neolithic period ca. 3500-3100 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum
Around 3300 BC, there is evidence of a unified kingdom, as shown by the finds at Qustul, that maintained substantial interactions (both cultural and genetic) with the culture of Naqadan Upper Egypt. The Nubian culture may have even contributed to the unification of the Nile Valley.
Toby Wilkinson, based on work by Bruce Williams in the 1980s, wrote that "The white crown, associated in historic times with Upper Egypt, is first attested later than the red crown, but is directly associated with the ruler somewhat earlier. The earliest known depiction of the white crown is on a ceremonial incense burner from Cemetery at Qustul in Lower Nubia".[12] Based on a 1998 excavation report, Jane Roy has written that "At the time of Williams' argument, the Qustul cemetery and the 'royal' iconography found there was dated to the Naqada IIIA period, thus antedating royal cemeteries in Egypt of the Naqada IIIB phase. New evidence from Abydos, however, particularly the excavation of Cemetery U and the tome U-j, dating to Naqada IIIA has shown that this iconography appears earlier in Egypt."[13]
Pottery of the Nubian A-Group, Musee du Louvre
Around the turn of the protodynastic period, Naqada, in its bid to conquer and unify the whole Nile Valley, seems to have conquered Ta-Seti (the kingdom where Qustul was located) and harmonized it with the Egyptian state. Thus, Nubia became the first nome of Upper Egypt. At the time of the first dynasty, the A-Group area seems to have been entirely depopulated,[3] most likely due to immigration to areas west and south.
This culture began to decline in the early 28th century BC. George Reisner suggested that it was succeeded by a culture that he called the "B-Group", but most archaeologists today believe that this culture never existed and that the area was depopulated from c. 3000 BC to c. 2500, when a-group descendants returned to the area.[14][15] The causes of this are uncertain, but it was perhaps caused by Egyptian invasions and pillaging that began at this time. Nubia is believed to have served as a trade corridor between Egypt and tropical Africa long before 3100 BC. Egyptian craftsmen of the period used ivory and ebony wood from tropical Africa which came through Nubia.
Statue of the King Taharqa, 25th dynasty
In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned in Old Kingdom Egyptian accounts of trade missions. From Aswan, right above the First Cataract, the southern limit of Egyptian control at the time, Egyptians imported gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and exotic animals from tropical Africa through Nubia. As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. By the Egyptian 6th dynasty, Nubia was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether these C-Group peoples,[16] who flourished from c. 2500 BC to c. 1500 BC, were another internal evolution or invaders. There are definite similarities between the pottery of the A-Group and C-Group, so it may be a return of the ousted Group-As, or an internal revival of lost arts. At this time, the Sahara Desert was becoming too arid to support human beings, and it is possible that there was a sudden influx of Saharan nomads. C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry.
During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1640 BC), Egypt began expanding into Nubia to gain more control over the trade routes in Northern Nubia and direct access to trade with Southern Nubia. They erected a chain of forts down the Nile below the Second Cataract. These garrisons seemed to have peaceful relations with the local Nubian people, but little interaction during the period.[17] A contemporaneous but distinct culture from the C-Group was the Pan Grave culture, so called because of their shallow graves. The Pan Graves are associated with the East bank of the Nile, but the Pan Graves and C-Group definitely interacted. Their pottery is characterized by incised lines of a more limited character than those of the C-Group, generally having interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes.
Nubia and Ancient Egypt[edit]
Nubia in hieroglyphs

[18]
Ta-seti
T3-stj
Curved land[18]

[19]
Setiu
Stjw
Curved land of the Nubians[19]

Nehset / Nehsyu / Nehsi
Nḥst / Nḥsyw / Nḥsj
Nubia / Nubians
Nubia
Ramesses II holding a crook and a flail. 19th Dynasty, c. 1240 BC. From Nubia. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich
One interpretation is that Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptian pharaohs used related royal symbols. Similarities in rock art of A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt support this position. Ancient Egypt conquered Nubian territory in various eras, and incorporated parts of the area into its provinces. The Nubians in turn were to conquer Egypt under its 25th Dynasty.[20]
However, relations between the two peoples also show peaceful cultural interchange and cooperation, including mixed marriages. The Medjay (mj3,[21]) represents the name ancient Egypt gave to a region in northern Sudan where an ancient people of Nubia inhabited. They became part of the Egyptian military as scouts and minor workers.
During the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, "Medjay" no longer referred to the district of Medja but to a tribe or clan of people. It is not known what happened to the district, but, after the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, it and other districts in Nubia were no longer mentioned in the written record.[22] Written accounts detail the Medjay as nomadic desert people. Over time, they were incorporated into the Egyptian army. In the army, the Medjay served as garrison troops in Egyptian fortifications in Nubia and patrolled the deserts as a kind of gendarmerie.[23] This was done in the hope of preventing their fellow Medjay tribespeople from further attacking Egyptian assets in the region.[24] Later, they were even used during Kamose's campaign against the Hyksos[25] and became instrumental in making the Egyptian state into a military power.[26]
By the Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom period, the Medjay were an elite paramilitary police force.[24] No longer did the term refer to an ethnic group and, over time, the new meaning became synonymous with the policing occupation in general. Being an elite police force, the Medjay were often used to protect valuable areas, especially royal and religious complexes. Though they are most notable for their protection of the royal palaces and tombs in Thebes and the surrounding areas, the Medjay were known to have been used throughout Upper and Lower Egypt.
Various pharaohs of Nubian origin are held by some Egyptologists to have played an important part towards the area in different eras of Egyptian history, particularly the 12th Dynasty. These rulers handled matters in typical Egyptian fashion, reflecting the close cultural influences between the two regions.
[T]he XIIth Dynasty (1991–1786 B.C.E.) originated from the Aswan region. As expected, strong Nubian features and dark coloring are seen in their sculpture and relief work. This dynasty ranks as among the greatest, whose fame far outlived its actual tenure on the throne. Especially interesting, it was a member of this dynasty that decreed that no Nehsy (riverine Nubian of the principality of Kush), except such as came for trade or diplomatic reasons, should pass by the Egyptian fortress and cops at the southern end of the Second Nile Cataract. Why would this royal family of Nubian ancestry ban other Nubians from coming into Egyptian territory? Because the Egyptian rulers of Nubian ancestry had become Egyptians culturally; as pharaohs, they exhibited typical Egyptian attitudes and adopted typical Egyptian policies. (Yurco 1989) [27]
In the New Kingdom, Nubians became indistinguishable in the archaeological record from Egyptians.
It is an extremely difficult task to attempt to describe the Nubians during the course of Egypt's New Kingdom, because their presence appears to have virtually evaporated from the archaeological record. The result has been described as a wholesale Nubian assimilation into Egyptian society. This assimilation was so complete that it masked all Nubian ethnic identities insofar as archaeological remains are concerned beneath the impenetrable veneer of Egypt's material culture. In the Kushite Period, when Nubians ruled as Pharaohs in their own right, the material culture of Dynasty XXV (about 750–655 B.C.E.) was decidedly Egyptian in character. Nubia's entire landscape up to the region of the Third Cataract was dotted with temples indistinguishable in style and decoration from contemporary temples erected in Egypt. The same observation obtains for the smaller number of typically Egyptian tombs in which these elite Nubian princes were interred.[28]
Kerma[edit]
Main article: Kerma Culture
Kerma city
From the pre-Kerma culture, the first kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Kerma Culture, named for its presumed capital at Kerma, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region and spoke languages of the Cushitic branch.[1][2][29] By 1750 BC, the kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental walls and structures of mud brick. They also had rich tombs, with possessions for the afterlife and large human sacrifices. George Andrew Reisner excavated sites at Kerma and found distinctive Nubian architecture such as large tombs and palace-like structures. At one point, Kerma came very close to conquering Egypt. Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Kingdom of Kush.[30][31]
The Turin Papyrus Map
According to Davies, head of the joint British Museum and Egyptian archaeological team, the attack was so devastating that, if the Kerma forces had chosen to stay and occupy Egypt, they might have eliminated it for good and brought the nation to extinction. When Egyptian power revived under the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1532–1070 BC), Egyptians began to expand further southwards. The Egyptians destroyed Kerma's kingdom and capitol and expanded the Egyptian empire to the Fourth Cataract.
By the end of the reign of Thutmose I (1520 BC), all of northern Nubia had been annexed. The Egyptians built a new administrative center at Napata, and used the area to produce gold and incense.[32][33] The Nubian gold production made Egypt a prime source of the precious metal in the Middle East. The primitive working conditions for the slaves are recorded by Diodorus Siculus, who saw some of the mines at a later time.[34] One of the oldest maps known is of a gold mine in Nubia, the Turin Papyrus Map dating to about 1160 BC; this map is also one of the earliest characterized road maps in existence.[35]
Kush[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Kush
Napatan period[edit]
Figurine of the King Senkamanisken, Napata period ca. 643-623 BC
When the Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region, they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous customs, forming the kingdom of Kush. Archaeologists have found several burials in the area that seem to belong to local leaders. The Kushites were buried there soon after the Egyptians decolonized the Nubian frontier. Kush adopted many Egyptian practices, such as their religion. The Kingdom of Kush survived longer than that of Egypt, invaded Egypt (under the leadership of king Piye), and controlled Egypt during the 8th century BC as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.[36]
Pharaohs of Nubia
The Kushites held sway over their northern neighbors for nearly 100 years, until they were eventually repelled by the invading Assyrians. The Assyrians forced them to move farther south, where they eventually established their capital at Meroë. Of the Nubian kings of this era, Taharqa is perhaps the best known. A son and the third successor of the founding pharaoh, Piye, he was crowned in Memphis, Egypt c. 690.[37] Taharqa ruled over both Nubia and Egypt, restored Egyptian temples at Karnak, and built new temples and pyramids in Nubia before being driven from Egypt by the Assyrians.[38][39][40][41]
Meroitic period[edit]
Main article: Meroë
Aerial view at Nubian pyramids, Meroe
Meroë (800 BC – c. AD 350) in southern Nubia lay on the east bank of the Nile, about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, ca. 200 km north-east of Khartoum. The people there preserved many ancient Egyptian customs, but were unique in many respects. They developed their own form of writing, first utilizing Egyptian hieroglyphs, and later using an alphabetic script with 23 signs.[42] Since king Arakamani the kings were buried in Meroe. Strabo describes a clash with the Romans in which the Romans defeated Nubians. According to Strabo, following the Kushite advance, Gaius Petronius (a Prefect of Egypt at the time) prepared a large army and marched south. The Roman forces clashed with the Kushite armies near Thebes and forced them to retreat to Pselchis (Maharraqa) in Kushite lands. Petronius then sent deputies to the Kushites in an attempt to reach a peace agreement and make certain demands.
Quoting Strabo, the Kushites "desired three days for consideration" in order to make a final decision. However, after the three days, Kush did not respond and Petronius advanced with his armies and took the Kushite city of Premnis (modern Karanog) south of Maharraqa. From there, he advanced all the way south to Napata, the second Capital in Kush after Meroe. Petronius attacked and sacked Napata, causing the son of the Kushite Queen to flee. Strabo describes the defeat of the Kushites at Napata, stating that "He (Petronius) made prisoners of the inhabitants".[43]
During this time, the different parts of the region divided into smaller groups with individual leaders, or generals, each commanding small armies of mercenaries. They fought for control of what is now Nubia and its surrounding territories, leaving the entire region weak and vulnerable to attack. Meroë would eventually meet defeat by the new rising Kingdom of Aksum to their south under King Ezana.
The classification of the Meroitic language is uncertain; it was long assumed to have been one of the Afroasiatic languages like the Egyptian language, but is now considered to have likely been one of the Eastern Sudanic languages.
At some point during the 4th century, the region was conquered by the Noba, from which the name Nubia may derive; another possibility is that it comes from the Egyptian word for gold.[44] From then on, the Romans referred to the area as Nobatia.
Christian Nubia[edit]
Main articles: Makuria, Nobadia, and Alodia
A church mural depicting an elaborate cross, Faras (12th century).
Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the Kingdom of Aksum and the Meroitic kingdom collapsed. Eventually, three smaller Christian kingdoms replaced it: northernmost was Nobatia between the first and second cataract of the Nile River, with its capital at Pachoras (modern-day Faras); in the middle was Makuria, with its capital at Old Dongola; and southernmost was Alodia, with its capital at Soba (near Khartoum). King Silky of Nobatia crushed the Blemmyes, and recorded his victory in a Greek inscription carved in the wall of the temple of Talmis (modern Kalabsha) around AD 500.
Marble portrait of a Nubia denizen ca. 120-100 BC
While bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated one Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373, showing that Christianity had penetrated the region by the 4th century, John of Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545. John of Ephesus also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569. However, John of Biclarum records that the kingdom of Makuria was converted to Catholicism the same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John's testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Eutychius, which states that in 719 the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the Greek to the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Nubians from the early 19th century.
By the 7th century, Makuria expanded becoming the dominant power in the region. It was strong enough to halt the southern expansion of Islam after the Arabs had taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola, called Baqt, allowing for peaceful coexistence and trade. This treaty held for six hundred years. Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity. While there are records of a bishop at Qasr Ibrim in 1372, his see had come to include that located at Faras. It is also clear that the cathedral of Dongola had been converted to a mosque in 1317.[45]
The influx of Arabs and Nubians to Egypt and Sudan had contributed to the suppression of the Nubian identity following the collapse of the last Nubian kingdom around 1504. A vast majority of the Nubian population is currently Muslim, and the Arabic language is their main medium of communication in addition to their indigenous old Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions, and music).
Islamic Nubia[edit]
Main article: Islamization of Sudan
In the 14th century, the Dongolan government collapsed and the region became divided and dominated by Arabs. The next centuries would see several Arab invasions of the region, as well as the establishment of a number of smaller kingdoms. Northern Nubia was brought under Egyptian control, while the south came under the control of the Kingdom of Sennar in the 16th century. The entire region would come under Egyptian control during the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, and later became a joint Anglo-Egyptian condominium.
Further information: Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1820-24 § Invasion of Nubia
Contemporary issues[edit]
Further information: Nubian people
With the end of colonialism and the establishment of the Republic of Egypt (1953), and the secession of the Republic of Sudan from unity with Egypt (1956), Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan.
During the early-1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians were forcibly resettled to make room for Lake Nasser after the construction of the dams at Aswan. Nubian villages can now be found north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and on Elephantine Island; and many Nubians now live in large cities, such as Cairo.
See also[edit]
Aida
Northeast Africa
Nubia (Mesolithic) / Nile boat
Nubian Archaeological Expeditions
Nubian architecture
Nubian Desert
Nubian languages
Nubiology
Pyramids of Nubia
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Bechaus-Gerst, Marianne; Blench, Roger (2014). Kevin MacDonald, ed. The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography - "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000). Routledge. p. 453. ISBN 1135434166. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Behrens, Peter (1986). Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 - "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch". Unesco. p. 30. ISBN 9231023764. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the study of the ancient world. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Jump up ^ "Studies of Ancient Crania From Northern Africa". – S.O.Y. Keita, American Journal of Physical Anthropology (1990)
Jump up ^ "Dr. Stuart Tyson Smith". ucsb.edu.
Jump up ^ PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy – Retrieved on 2007-08-29
Jump up ^ Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa – by Fred Wendorf (1998)
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (2002). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-631-23583-5.
Jump up ^ Hunting for the Elusive Nubian A-Group People – by Maria Gatto, archaeology.org
Jump up ^ "Further Studies of Crania From Ancient Northern Africa: An Analysis of Crania From First Dynasty Egyptian Tombs, using Multiple Discriminant Functions". – American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87: 245–254 (1992)
Jump up ^ "Hierarchy and heterarchy - the earliest cross-cultural trade along the Nile". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ Emberling, Geoff (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 0-415-18633-1.
Jump up ^ Roy, Jane (February 2011). The Politics of Trade:Egypt and Lower Nubia in the 4th Millennium BC. Brill. p. 215. ISBN 9789004196117. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (2002). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-631-23583-5.
Jump up ^ Török, László (2008). Between Two Worlds:The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500AD. Brill. pp. 53–54. ISBN 9789004171978.
Jump up ^ "The C-Group people in Lower Nubia, 2500 - 1500 BC. Cattle pastoralists in a multicultural setting". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ "Between Kush and Egypt: The C-Group people of Lower Nubia during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Elmar Edel: Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre, Teil 2. In: Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Nr. 5. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1964, p. 118–119.
^ Jump up to: a b Christian Leitz et al.: Lexikon der ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen, Bd. 6: H̱-s. Peeters, Leuven 2002, ISBN 90-429-1151-4, p. 697.
Jump up ^ Barbara Watterson, The Egyptians. Blackwell, Oxford. pp. 50–117
Jump up ^ Erman & Grapow, Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, 2, 186.1-2
Jump up ^ Gardiner, op.cit., p. 76*
Jump up ^ Bard, op.cit., p.486
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson, op.cit., p. 147
Jump up ^ Shaw, op.cit., p.201
Jump up ^ Steindorff & Seele, op.cit., p. 28
Jump up ^ F. J. Yurco, "The ancient Egyptians..", Biblical Archaeology Review (Vol 15, no. 5, 1989)
Jump up ^ Bianchi, 2004, Daily Life of the Nubians. p. 99–100
Jump up ^ "The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
Jump up ^ Tomb Reveals Ancient Egypt's Humiliating Secret The Times (London, 2003)
Jump up ^ "Elkab's hidden treasure". Al-Ahram. Archived from the original on 2009-02-15.
Jump up ^ James G. Cusick (5 March 2015). Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change, and Archaeology. SIU Press. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-0-8093-3409-4.
Jump up ^ Richard Bulliet; Pamela Crossley; Daniel Headrick (1 January 2010). The Earth and Its Peoples. Cengage Learning. pp. 66–. ISBN 0-538-74438-3.
Jump up ^ Anne Burton (1973). Diodorus Siculus, Book 1: A Commentary. BRILL. pp. 129–. ISBN 90-04-03514-1.
Jump up ^ James R. Akerman; Robert W. Karrow (2007). Maps: Finding Our Place in the World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01075-5.
Jump up ^ "Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: History: The Kushite Conquest of Egypt". ancientsudan.org.
Jump up ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7.
Jump up ^ Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3.
Jump up ^ Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
Jump up ^ Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
Jump up ^ Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3.
Jump up ^ Meroë: writing – digitalegypt
Jump up ^ Nubian Queens in the Nile Valley and Afro-Asiatic Cultural History – Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Professor of Anthropology, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston U.S.A, August 20–26, 1998
Jump up ^ "Nubia". Catholic Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ Hassan, Arabs, 125.
Further reading[edit]
Adam, William Y. (1977): Nubia: Corridor to Africa, London.
"Black Pharaohs", National Geographic, Feb 2008
Bulliet et al. (2001): Nubia, The Earth and Its Peoples, pp. 70–71, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
Drower M. (1970): Nubia A Drowning Land, London: Longmans.
Emberling, Geoff (2011): Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.
Fisher, Marjorie, et al. (2012): Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. The American University in Cairo Press.
Hassan, Yusuf Fadl (1973): The Arabs and the Sudan, Khartoum.
Jennings, Anne (1995) The Nubians of West Aswan: Village Women in the Midst of Change, Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Thelwall, Robin (1978): "Lexicostatistical relations between Nubian, Daju and Dinka", Études nubiennes: colloque de Chantilly, 2–6 juillet 1975, 265–286.
Thelwall, Robin (1982) 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds.) The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56.
Török, László (1997): The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Brill Academic Publishers.
Valbelle, Dominique, and Bonnet, Charles (2006): The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nubia.
African Kingdoms
Ancient Sudan Website
Racism and the Rediscovery of Ancient Nubia
Medieval Sai Project
"Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia" was written by Pierre Trémaux in 1862-63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.
1960s Nubia Scrapbook
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
GND: 4042734-1
SELIBR: 155387
VIAF: 248963570
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nubia&oldid=853714549"
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Battle of Fallen Timbers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the American Civil War action on April 8, 1862, see Battle of Shiloh.
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Battle of Fallen Timbers
Part of the Northwest Indian War

An 1896 depiction of the battle from Harper's Magazine
Date
August 20, 1794
Location
in present-day Maumee, Ohio near present-day Toledo, Ohio
Result
Decisive American victory
Treaty of Greenville
British forces withdraw completely from the Northwest Territory
End of Northwest Indian War
Belligerents
United States
Western Confederacy
Great Britain
British North America
Commanders and leaders
Anthony Wayne Alexander McKillop
Blue Jacket
Buckongahelas
Strength
2,000
(including native scouts) 2,000
(including 1 British company)
Casualties and losses
33 killed
100 wounded 25–40 killed[1]
Unknown wounded
[hide]
v
t
e
Northwest Indian War
Logan's Raid
Harmar Campaign
Big Bottom
Dunlap's Station
Kenapacomaqua
St. Clair's Defeat
Fort St. Clair
Fort Jefferson
Fort Recovery
Fallen Timbers
Fallen Timbers Battle[2]
The Battle of Fallen Timbers (August 20, 1794) was the final battle of the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between Native American tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy, including support from the British led by Captain Alexander McKillop, against the United States for control of the Northwest Territory (an area north of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and southwest of the Great Lakes). This land had been ceded to the United States in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1783), but the Native Americans (who had not been party to the treaty) refused to comply with the treaty and relinquish control. British army bases were maintained there to support their Native allies. This ultimately led to the American offensive and subsequent British-Indian withdrawal from the territory altogether following the Treaty of Greenville. The battle, which was a decisive victory for the United States, ended major hostilities in the region until Tecumseh's War and the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Battle
3 Aftermath
4 Legacy
5 National Parks
5.1 Fallen Timbers Battlefield
5.2 Fallen Timbers State Monument
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
The Ohio River boundary line established by Britain in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix recognized certain lands as belonging to the Native American nations. After the American Revolution, however, the United States government maintained the Native American nations no longer owned the Ohio lands, since in an article in the Treaty of Paris of 1783 Britain agreed to cede to the United States the lands owned by the indigenous nations. The Native Americans involved rejected the idea of the British or Americans to dispose of their tribal lands without their consent. They had no representation at the Paris Treaty negotiations, had not signed the treaty, and refused to recognize the British give-away of their land. As American settlers began moving into the Ohio Country, the Native Americans viewed them as unwelcome intruders. The United States government, on the other hand, insisted it had the right to occupy the lands, since it had been gained in battle and was agreed to by the treaty with Britain.[3][4]
The Western Confederacy, an alliance of Native American nations, was formed to defend their traditional lands. The confederacy achieved several victories over poorly led United States military forces in 1790 and 1791, alarming the administration of President George Washington. Washington understood that the settlers were to blame for much of the violence. Nevertheless, he took steps to defeat the alliance as the conflict became more serious. In 1792, Washington ordered Revolutionary War hero General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to build and lead a new army to crush resistance to American settlement in the Ohio country.[5] Wayne realized that the previous campaigns had failed because of poor training and a lack of discipline. Peace negotiations were undertaken in the summer of 1793, which meant he had time to build and train his army.
Shawnee war chief Blue Jacket and Delaware (Lenape) leader Buckongahelas, encouraged by their previous victories and hoping for continued British support, argued for a return to the Treaty of Fort Stanwix of 1768. They rejected the subsequent treaties awarding the lands north of the Ohio River to the United States, since they had never signed them. A faction led by the influential Mohawk leader Joseph Brant attempted to negotiate a peaceful compromise, but Blue Jacket would accept nothing less than everything north of the Ohio River, which the United States refused to accept. The American government found itself fighting a war over Ohio under the direction of Secretary of War Henry Knox.
Matters came to a head in what became known as Little Turtle's War (1790–1794). As more American settlers moved into the eastern part of the area following its division under the Land Ordinance of 1785, the Native Americans retreated westward. The Miami chieftain Michikinikwa (Little Turtle) led a confederation of tribes against ill-conceived expeditions led by General Josiah Harmar in 1790 and General Arthur St. Clair in 1791, defeating both incursions. Harmar's and St. Clair's armies consisted mainly of untrained militia, frontiersmen with rifles but little training or discipline. The green soldiers often broke ranks and ran when confronted by Native American warriors.[citation needed]
In late August 1794, Little Turtle and his Shawnee ally, Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket), faced a new U.S. Army, including a core of nearly 5,000 professionals trained and led by General "Mad" Anthony Wayne. Wayne had spent the better part of two years turning his soldiers into professionals.
Battle[edit]
Site of Fort Miami
Wayne's new army, the Legion of the United States, marched north from Fort Washington in Cincinnati in 1793, building a line of forts along the way. Wayne commanded about 2,000 men, with Choctaw and Chickasaw men serving as his scouts.[6]
Blue Jacket took a defensive position along the Maumee River, not far from present-day Toledo, Ohio, where a stand of trees (the "fallen timbers") had been blown down by a recent storm. They thought the trees would slow the advance of Wayne's Legion. Fort Miami, a nearby British outpost on American soil, had supplied the Native American confederacy with provisions. The Native American forces, numbering about 1,500, were composed of Blue Jacket's Shawnees, Buckongahelas's Delawares, Miamis led by Little Turtle, Wyandots led by Roundhead (Wyandot), Ojibwas, Ottawas led by Turkey Foot, Potawatomis, Mingos, and a British company of Canadian militiamen under Captain Alexander McKillop.
The battle ended fairly quickly. Wayne's soldiers closed and pressed the attack with a bayonet charge. His cavalry outflanked Blue Jacket's warriors, who were easily routed. The Indian warriors fled towards Fort Miami, but were surprised to find the gates closed against them. Major William Campbell, the British commander of the fort, refused to assist them, unwilling to start a war with the United States. Wayne's army had won a decisive victory. The soldiers spent several days destroying the nearby Native American villages and crops, then retreated. Wayne's army had lost 33 men and had about 100 wounded. They reported that they had found 30-40 dead warriors.[7] Alexander McKee of the British Indian Department reported that the Indian confederacy lost 19 warriors killed,[7] including Chief Turkey Foot of the Ottawa.[8] 6 white men fighting on the Native American side were also killed and Chiefs Egushaway and Little Otter of the Ottawa were wounded.[9]
Aftermath[edit]
The battle of Fallen Timbers had ramifications that stretched all the way to Europe. News of the American victory helped negotiator John Jay secure a treaty with the British that promised British withdrawal from the frontier forts—securing the area for the Americans. The Treaty of Greenville, negotiated between Wayne and Little Turtle the following year, secured most of what is now Ohio for American settlement. The victory reduced fears of frontiersmen about Native American raids and secured the area's allegiance to the United States. From a long-term perspective, the battle of Fallen Timbers secured American access to the western Great Lakes and the western Ohio River valley, giving farmers in the area access to international markets for their produce. The conclusion of a treaty between the British and Americans also helped to spur the signing of Pinckney's Treaty with Spain, as the Spanish feared that the United States and Great Britain would collude to take Spanish territory. Pinckney's Treaty delineated the United States-Spain border and gave the United States the right to export goods via New Orleans, which controlled the trade of the Mississippi River. Though hostilities with Native Americans would continue in the Old Southwest, the Northwest would remain largely peaceful until the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe.[10]
Before withdrawing from the area, Wayne began the construction of a line of forts along the Maumee River, from its mouth at present-day Toledo, Ohio to its origins in today's Indiana. Wayne then returned to Fort Presque Isle (present day Erie, Pennsylvania), where he died in 1796. The last of these forts along the Maumee was named Fort Wayne in his honor. The fort eventually developed into the modern city of Fort Wayne. Behind this line of forts, white settlers moved into the Ohio country, leading to the admission of the state of Ohio in 1803. Tecumseh, a young Shawnee veteran of Fallen Timbers who refused to sign the Greenville Treaty, would renew American Indian resistance in the years ahead.
Legacy[edit]
On September 14, 1929, the United States Post Office Department issued a stamp commemorating the 135th anniversary of the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The post office issued a series of stamps referred to as the 'Two Cent Reds' by collectors, issued to commemorate the 150th Anniversaries of the many events that occurred during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) and to honor those who were there.
National Parks[edit]
Fallen Timbers Battlefield[edit]
For 200 years, the site of the Battle of Fallen Timbers was thought to be on the floodplain on the banks of the Maumee River, based upon documentation such as the map above and to the right (location of Fallen Timbers Monument). Dr. G. Michael Pratt, an anthropologist and faculty member at Heidelberg University (Ohio), correctly surmised the battlefield was 1/4 mile above the floodplain after considering documentation that described a ravine. The City of Toledo owned the area which was desirable for development. Although the City of Toledo initially refused archaeological exploration, in 1995 and 2001, Pratt was able to conduct archaeological surveys, which relied primarily on metal detection, which revealed musket balls, pieces of muskets, uniform buttons and a bayonet, confirming that major fighting had taken place at the site.[11][12]
Because of Pratt's archaeological work and advocacy the Fallen Timbers Preservation Commission, the land was granted National Historic Site status in 1999.[13] A federal grant allowed the Metroparks of the Toledo Area to purchase the land where the artifacts were found in 2001, and the site was developed into a park in affiliation with the National Park Service.[14][15]
Fallen Timbers State Monument[edit]
Lines of trees at the battlefield park
The Ohio Historical Society maintains a small park at the site originally believed to have the main fighting (similar historic picture above and right). The site that features the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument, honoring both Major General Anthony Wayne and his army and Little Turtle and his warriors. Additionally, there are plaques describing the Battle of Fallen Timbers and honoring the several Indian tribes that participated. The main monument has tributes inscribed on each of its four sides honoring in turn, Wayne, the fallen soldiers, Little Turtle, and his Indian warriors. The park is located near Maumee in Lucas County. Turkey Foot Rock, marking the death place of Turkey Foot, is also at the site.[16][17]
See also[edit]
Battle of Tippecanoe
List of conflicts in the United States
Northwest Indian War
Anthony Wayne
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Gaff, Bayonets in the Wilderness, p. 327, gives the claim of 30–40 bodies found as well as McKee's figure of 19 killed. Sugden, p. 180 mentions 6 whites killed, giving a minimum of 25 dead.
Jump up ^ Loosing, Benson (1868). The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. Harper & Brothers, Publishers. p. 55.
Jump up ^ American Indian Policy in the Old Northwest, 1783-1812 Reginald Horsman, The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Jan. 1961), pp. 35–53
Jump up ^ Handbook of Social Justice in Education eds. William Ayers, Therese Quinn, David Stovall, writer Enora Brown, 2009, Routledge, p. 70
Jump up ^ The American Past: A Survey of American History Joseph Conlin, Vol. I, Cenage Learning Inc., 2010, p. 189–191
Jump up ^ Pratt, G. Michael (1995). "The Battle of Fallen Timbers: An Eyewitness Perspective". Northwest Ohio Quarterly. 67: 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaff, p. 327
Jump up ^ http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Me-sa-sa
Jump up ^ Sugden, p.180
Jump up ^ Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty. Oxford University Press. pp. 130–133.
Jump up ^ Pratt, G. Michael (2004). "Remote Sensing Surveys at the Fallen Timbers Battlefield National Historic Site" (PDF). Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology. 18. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Keller, Christine; Boyd, Colleen; Groover, Mark; Hill, Mark (2011). "2011 Archaeology of the Battles of Fort Recovery, Mercer County, Ohio: Education and Protection". Retrieved 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Library of Congress (2000). "Fallen Timbers Battlefield". Local Legacies. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Battlefield [Fallen Timbers] Today". Metroparks Pamphlet. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Vezner, Tad. "Change Bears Down on Historic Battlefield". The Blade. Toledo Blade. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Turkey Foot Rock". The Historical Marker Database. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "FALLEN TIMBERS BATTLEFIELD AND FORT MIAMIS NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE General Management Plan May 2006" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
References[edit]
Gaff, Allan D. Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest. University of Oklahoma Press, May 2004. ISBN 0-8061-3585-9, ISBN 978-0-8061-3585-4.
Sudgen, John. Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
Sword, Wiley. President Washington's Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985.
Winkler, John F. Fallen Timbers, 1794: The U.S. Army's First Victory (Osprey, 2013). 96 pp
External links[edit]
Battle of Fallen Timbers - Chickasaw.TV
The Fallen Timbers battlefield today
Maumee Valley Heritage Corridor
Ohio History Central
Captain Moses Porter's Company of Artillery of the 3rd Sub-Legion
Battle of Fallen Timbers – The Toledo Metroparks
Coordinates: 41°32′39″N 83°41′51″W / 41.54417°N 83.69750°W / 41.54417; -83.69750
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Fallen_Timbers&oldid=815722570"
Categories:
1794 in the United States
Battles involving Native Americans
Battles of the Northwest Indian War
Conflicts in 1794
Ohio History Connection
Parks in Ohio
Pre-statehood history of Ohio
Protected areas of Lucas County, Ohio
William Henry Harrison
1794 in the Northwest Territory
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Who Moved My Cheese?
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Who Moved My Cheese?
Author
Spencer Johnson
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Self-help / motivational
Publisher
Putnam Adult
Publication date
September 7, 1998 (1998-09-07)
Media type
Print (Paperback)
Pages
32 pp.
ISBN
0-399-14446-3
OCLC
38752984
Dewey Decimal
155.2/4
LC Class
BF637.C4 J64 1998
Who Moved My Cheese? An Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life, published on September 8, 1998, is a motivational business fable. The text describes change in one's work and life, and four typical reactions to those changes by two mice and two "little people," during their hunt for cheese. A New York Times business bestseller upon release, Who Moved My Cheese? remained on the list for almost five years and spent over 200 weeks on Publishers Weekly's hardcover nonfiction list.[1] It has sold more than 26 million copies worldwide in 37 languages and remains one of the best-selling business books.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Story
2 Who Moved My Cheese Inc.
3 Criticism
4 Parodies
5 References
6 External links
Story[edit]
Allegorically, Who Moved My Cheese? features four characters: two mice, "Sniff" and "Scurry," and two little people, human metaphor, "Hem" and "Haw." (The names of the little people are taken from the phrase "hem and haw," a term for indecisiveness.) They live in a maze, a representation of one's environment, and look for cheese, representative of happiness and success. Initially without cheese, each group, the mice and humans, paired off and traveled the lengthy corridors searching for cheese. One day both groups happen upon a cheese-filled corridor at "Cheese Station C." Content with their find, the humans establish routines around their daily intake of cheese, slowly becoming arrogant in the process.
One day Sniff and Scurry arrive at Cheese Station C to find no cheese left, but they are not surprised. Noticing the cheese supply dwindling, they have mentally prepared beforehand for the arduous but inevitable task of finding more cheese. Leaving Cheese Station C behind, they begin their hunt for new cheese together. Later that day, Hem and Haw arrive at Cheese Station C only to find the same thing, no cheese. Angered and annoyed, Hem demands, "Who moved my cheese?" The humans have counted on the cheese supply to be constant, and so are unprepared for this eventuality. After deciding that the cheese is indeed gone they get angry at the unfairness of the situation Haw suggests a search for new cheese, but Hem is dead set in his victimized mindset and dismisses the proposal.
Meanwhile, Sniff and Scurry have found "Cheese Station N," and new cheese. But back at Cheese Station C, Hem and Haw are affected by their lack of cheese and blame each other for their problem. Hoping to change, Haw again proposes a search for new cheese. However, Hem is comforted by his old routine and is frightened about the unknown. He knocks the idea again. After a while of being in denial, the humans remain without cheese. One day, having discovered his debilitating fears, Haw begins to chuckle at the situation and stops taking himself so seriously. Realizing he should simply move on, Haw enters the maze, but not before chiseling "If You Do Not Change, You Can Become Extinct" on the wall of Cheese Station C for his friend to ponder.
Still fearful of his trek, Haw jots "What Would You Do If You Weren't Afraid?" on the wall and, after thinking about that, he begins his venture. Still plagued with worry (perhaps he has waited too long to begin his search...), Haw finds some bits of cheese that nourish him and he is able to continue his search. Haw realizes that the cheese has not suddenly vanished, but has dwindled from continual eating. After a stop at an empty cheese station, Haw begins worrying about the unknown again. Brushing aside his fears, Haw's new mindset allows him to again enjoy life. He has even begun to smile again! He is realizing that "When you move beyond your fear, you feel free." After another empty cheese station, Haw decides to go back for Hem with the few bits of new cheese he has managed to find.
Uncompromising, Hem refuses the new cheese, to his friend's disappointment. With knowledge learned along the way, Haw heads back into the maze. Getting deeper into the maze, inspired by bits of new cheese here and there, Haw leaves a trail of writings on the wall ("The Handwriting On the Wall"). These clarify his own thinking and give him hope that his friend will find aid in them during his search for new cheese. Still traveling, Haw one day comes across Cheese Station N, abundant with cheese, including some varieties that are strange to him, and he realizes he has found what he was looking for. After eating, Haw reflects on his experience. He ponders a return to see his old friend. But Haw decides to let Hem find his own way. Finding the largest wall in Cheese Station N, he writes:
Change Happens
They Keep Moving The Cheese
Anticipate Change
Get Ready For The Cheese To Move
Monitor Change
Smell The Cheese Often So You Know When It Is Getting Old
Adapt To Change Quickly
The Quicker You Let Go Of Old Cheese, The Sooner You Can Enjoy New Cheese
Change
Move With The Cheese
Enjoy Change!
Savor The Adventure And Enjoy The Taste Of New Cheese!
Be Ready To Change Quickly And Enjoy It Again
They Keep Moving The Cheese.
Cautious from past experience, Haw now inspects Cheese Station N daily and explores different parts of the maze regularly to prevent any complacency from setting in. After hearing movement in the maze one day, Haw realizes someone is approaching the station. Unsure, Haw hopes that it is his friend Hem who has found the way.[4]
Who Moved My Cheese Inc.[edit]
In 1999, Who Moved My Cheese Inc was founded to handle the Who Moved My Cheese? book order demands from businesses. For several years, the company worked 24/7 just to keep up with the demand for the book. In 2005, the company was reorganized as Spencer Johnson Partners with the idea of bringing in partners and additional content from Dr. Spencer Johnson, the author. Spencer Johnson Partners focused on creating additional programs and services that would continue to help clients navigate change, including Gaining Change Skills. Then, in 2009, the company was purchased and renamed Red Tree Leadership.
Criticism[edit]
In the corporate environment, management has been known to distribute this book to employees during times of "structural reorganization," or during cost-cutting measures, in an attempt to portray unfavorable or unfair changes in an optimistic or opportunistic way. This has been characterized by Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Bright-sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as an attempt by organizational management to make employees quickly and unconditionally assimilate management ideals, even if they may prove detrimental to them professionally. Ehrenreich summarizes its message as "the dangerous human tendencies to 'overanalyze' and complain must be overcome for a more rodentlike approach to life. When you lose a job, just shut up and scamper along to the next one."[5]
Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams said that patronizing parables are one of the top 10 complaints he receives in his email.[6] Scott Adams' retort to the message in the parable is that it is a "patronizing message for the proletariat to acquiesce."[7]
Three more criticisms can be phrased as:
"The cheese doesn't matter". This view claims that the cheese is a means, not a cause. In the parable, there is a point in which Haw's new mindset allows him to enjoy life, even without cheese. This plot line could lead to Haw's understanding that the cheese is not the ultimate cause, but just some means to gain a deeper cause. However this plot line is quickly averted, without good enough inner-story justification.
"There is no cheese". The former criticism can be developed further along in an Existential/Buddhist manner to claim that we can always develop an infinite chain of causes and means, but ultimately, there isn't any "real cause" - "There is no (real) cheese".
"You're being compared to a rat in a maze". In this view the reader looks beyond the parable's immediate moral to see a larger analogy of employees in the role of mice (or, colloquially, rats) in a maze, while those outside the maze (corporate management) are manipulating the experiment (the work environment) to their own advantage, indifferent to the plight that the rodents faced with life-and-death choices inside the maze.
Parodies[edit]
There are multiple parody works called Who Cut the Cheese?.[8]
Andy Borowitz published a parody, Who moved my soap?: the CEO's guide to surviving prison, Simon & Schuster, c2003.[9]
Darrel Bristow-Bovey published a parody, I Moved Your Cheese, Penguin Random House South Africa, Apr 13, 2012.[10]
The webcomic Abstruse Goose has a strip which is a parody of the book.[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Maryles, Daisy and Dick Donahue. "Behind the Bestsellers." Publishers Weekly 10 December 2001: 18.
Jump up ^ The Global Times Archived 2012-06-30 at Archive.is on Who Moved My Cheese: "Who Moved My Cheese has sold over 26 million copies, staying on the New York Times bestseller list since its release in 1998." (23 November 2009)
Jump up ^ "Who Moved My Cheese?". Time. Dec 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Spencer (1988). Who Moved My Cheese?. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Jump up ^ Barbara Ehrenreich, Bright-sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America. Metropolitan, 2009. Ehrenreich called the book "the classic of downsizing propaganda".
Jump up ^ What moves the 'Cheese' for books, Del Jones, USA Today, 26 December 2002.
Jump up ^ Kreissl, Brian (7 January 2014). "Is Change Management patronizing to Employees?". hrreporter.com. Canadian HR Reporter. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Jim Dawson (2011), Blame It on the Dog, Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony, p. xi, ISBN 9780307778772
Jump up ^ "Nonfiction Book Review: Who Moved My Soap?: The CEO's Guide to Surviving Prison: The Bernie Madoff Edition by Andy Borowitz". PublishersWeekly.com. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ "I Moved Your Cheese". Google Books. Retrieved 2017-08-02.
Jump up ^ Abstruse Goose The Story of the Cheese Maze
External links[edit]
Who Moved My Cheese?
A light-hearted look at some real-life cheese rules.
Who Moved My Cheese? The Movie
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who_Moved_My_Cheese%3F&oldid=830223609"
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