text:
Properties of water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
physical and chemical properties of pure water
"HOH" redirects here. For other uses, see HOH (disambiguation).
For a broader coverage of this topic, see Water.
Water (H
2O)
Names
IUPAC name
water, oxidane
Other names
Hydrogen hydroxide (HH or HOH), hydrogen oxide, dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO), hydrogen monoxide, dihydrogen oxide, hydric acid, hydrohydroxic acid, hydroxic acid, hydrol,[1] μ-oxido dihydrogen
Identifiers
CAS Number
7732-18-5 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
Beilstein Reference
3587155
ChEBI
CHEBI:15377 Y
ChEMBL
ChEMBL1098659 Y
ChemSpider
937 Y
Gmelin Reference
117
PubChem CID
962
RTECS number ZC0110000
UNII
059QF0KO0R Y
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/H2O/h1H2 Y
Key: XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
SMILES[show]
O
Properties
Chemical formula
H
2O
Molar mass 18.01528(33) g/mol
Appearance White crystalline solid, almost colorless liquid with a hint of blue, colorless gas[2]
Odor None
Density Liquid:[3]
0.9998396 g/mL at 0 °C
0.9970474 g/mL at 25 °C
0.961893 g/mL at 95 °C
Solid:[4]
0.9167 g/ml at 0 °C
Melting point 0.00 °C (32.00 °F; 273.15 K) [a]
Boiling point 99.98 °C (211.96 °F; 373.13 K) [5][a]
Solubility Poorly soluble in haloalkanes, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers.[6] Improved solubility in carboxylates, alcohols, ketones, amines. Miscible with methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, acetone, glycerol, 1,4-dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, sulfolane, acetaldehyde, dimethylformamide, dimethoxyethane, dimethyl sulfoxide, acetonitrile. Partially miscible with Diethyl ether, Methyl Ethyl Ketone, Dichloromethane, Ethyl Acetate, Bromine.
Vapor pressure 3.1690 kilopascals or 0.031276 atm[7]
Acidity (pKa) 13.995[8][9][b]
Basicity (pKb) 13.995
Conjugate acid Hydronium
Conjugate base Hydroxide
Thermal conductivity 0.6065 W/(m·K)[12]
Refractive index (nD)
1.3330 (20 °C)[13]
Viscosity 0.890 cP[14]
Structure
Crystal structure
Hexagonal
Point group
C2v
Molecular shape
Bent
Dipole moment
1.8546 D[15]
Thermochemistry
Heat capacity (C)
75.375 ± 0.05 J/(mol·K)[16]
Std molar
entropy (So298)
69.95 ± 0.03 J/(mol·K)[16]
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
−285.83 ± 0.04 kJ/mol[6][16]
Gibbs free energy (ΔfG˚)
−237.24 kJ/mol[6]
Hazards
Main hazards Drowning
Avalanche (as snow)

Water Intoxication
(see also Dihydrogen monoxide hoax)
NFPA 704
0
0
0
Flash point Non-flammable
Related compounds
Other cations
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen telluride
Hydrogen polonide
Hydrogen peroxide
Related solvents
Acetone
Methanol
Supplementary data page
Structure and
properties
Refractive index (n),
Dielectric constant (εr), etc.
Thermodynamic
data
Phase behaviour
solid–liquid–gas
Spectral data
UV, IR, NMR, MS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Water (H
2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" [17][18] and the "solvent of life".[19] It is the most abundant substance on Earth[20] and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface.[21] It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe.[20]
Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly polar. This polarity allows it to separate ions in salts and strongly bond to other polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity.
Water is amphoteric, meaning that it exhibits properties of both an acid and a base; it readily produces both H+
and OH−
ions.[c] Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of H+
and OH−
is a constant.[22]
Contents
1 Physical properties
1.1 Water, ice, and vapor
1.1.1 Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion
1.1.2 Density of water and ice
1.1.3 Density of saltwater and ice
1.1.4 Miscibility and condensation
1.1.5 Vapor pressure
1.1.6 Compressibility
1.1.7 Triple point
1.1.8 Melting point
1.2 Electrical properties
1.2.1 Electrical conductivity
1.3 Polarity and hydrogen bonding
1.3.1 Cohesion and adhesion
1.3.2 Surface tension
1.3.3 Capillary action
1.3.4 Water as a solvent
1.3.5 Quantum tunneling
1.4 Electromagnetic absorption
2 Structure
3 Chemical properties
3.1 Geochemistry
3.2 Acidity in nature
4 Isotopologues
5 Occurrence
6 Reactions
6.1 Acid-base reactions
6.2 Ligand chemistry
6.3 Organic chemistry
6.4 Water in redox reactions
6.5 Electrolysis
7 History
8 Nomenclature
9 See also
10 Footnotes
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Bibliography
12 External links
Physical properties[edit]
See also: Water chemistry analysis
Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H
2O; one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.[23] Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure, and appears colorless in small quantities, although it has its own intrinsic very light blue hue.[24][2] Ice also appears colorless, and water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas.
Unlike other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family, water is primarily a liquid under standard conditions due to hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water are constantly moving in relation to each other, and the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds (2×10−13 seconds).[25] However, these bonds are strong enough to create many of the peculiar properties of water, some of which make it integral to life.
Water, ice, and vapor[edit]
Within the Earth's atmosphere and surface, the liquid phase is the most common and is the form that is generally denoted by the word "water". The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard, amalgamated crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow. Aside from common hexagonal crystalline ice, other crystalline and amorphous phases of ice are known. The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor (or steam). Visible steam and clouds are formed from minute droplets of water suspended in the air.
Water also forms a supercritical fluid. The critical temperature is 647 K and the critical pressure is 22.064 MPa. In nature this only rarely occurs in extremely hostile conditions. A likely example of naturally occurring supercritical water is in the hottest parts of deep water hydrothermal vents, in which water is heated to the critical temperature by volcanic plumes and the critical pressure is caused by the weight of the ocean at the extreme depths where the vents are located. This pressure is reached at a depth of about 2200 meters: much less than the mean depth of the ocean (3800 meters).[26]
Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion[edit]
Heat of vaporization of water from melting to critical temperature
Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans.[27]
The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by about 80 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage.
The specific heat capacity of ice at −10 °C is 2.03 J/(g·K)[28] and the heat capacity of steam at 100 °C is 2.08 J/(g·K).[29]
Density of water and ice[edit]
Density of ice and water as a function of temperature
The density of water is about 1 gram per cubic centimetre (62 lb/cu ft): this relationship was originally used to define the gram.[30] The density varies with temperature, but not linearly: as the temperature increases, the density rises to a peak at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F) and then decreases.[31] This unusual negative thermal expansion below 4 °C (39 °F) is also observed in molten silica.[32] Regular, hexagonal ice is also less dense than liquid water—upon freezing, the density of water decreases by about 9%.[33]
These effects are due to the reduction of thermal motion with cooling, which allows water molecules to form more hydrogen bonds that prevent the molecules from coming close to each other.[31] While below 4 °C the breakage of hydrogen bonds due to heating allows water molecules to pack closer despite the increase in the thermal motion (which tends to expand a liquid), above 4 °C water expands as the temperature increases.[31] Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C (39 °F).[33][d]
Under increasing pressure, ice undergoes a number of transitions to other polymorphs with higher density than liquid water, such as ice II, ice III, high-density amorphous ice (HDA), and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA).[34][35]
Temperature distribution in a lake in summer and winter
The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, the lake could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in them would be killed.[33] Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer.[33] The layer of ice that floats on top insulates the water below.[36] Water at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the bottom, thus keeping the temperature of the water at the bottom constant (see diagram).[33]
Density of saltwater and ice[edit]
WOA surface density
The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C[37] (see here for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the former freezing point at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers.
As the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C[37] for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of the sea water just below it, in a process known as brine rejection. This denser salt water sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C[37] on the surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of currents called the thermohaline circulation.
Miscibility and condensation[edit]
Red line shows saturation
Main article: Humidity
See also: List of water-miscible solvents
Water is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all proportions. Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. This can be predicted by comparing the polarity. Water being a relatively polar compound will tend to be miscible with liquids of high polarity such as ethanol and acetone, whereas compounds with low polarity will tend to be immiscible and poorly soluble such as with hydrocarbons.
As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. On the other hand, the maximum water vapor pressure that is thermodynamically stable with the liquid (or solid) at a given temperature is relatively low compared with total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.
A saturated gas or one with 100% relative humidity is when the vapor pressure of water in the air is at equilibrium with vapor pressure due to (liquid) water; water (or ice, if cool enough) will fail to lose mass through evaporation when exposed to saturated air. Because the amount of water vapor in air is small, relative humidity, the ratio of the partial pressure due to the water vapor to the saturated partial vapor pressure, is much more useful. Vapor pressure above 100% relative humidity is called super-saturated and can occur if air is rapidly cooled, for example, by rising suddenly in an updraft.[e]
Vapor pressure[edit]
Main article: Vapor pressure of water
Vapor pressure diagrams of water
Compressibility[edit]
The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At 0 °C, at the limit of zero pressure, the compressibility is 6990510000000000000♠5.1×10−10 Pa−1. At the zero-pressure limit, the compressibility reaches a minimum of 6990440000000000000♠4.4×10−10 Pa−1 around 45 °C before increasing again with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases, being 6990390000000000000♠3.9×10−10 Pa−1 at 0 °C and 100 megapascals (1,000 bar).[38]
The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa.[39] The low compressibility of non-gases, and of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.[39]
Triple point[edit]
The various triple points of water
Phases in stable equilibrium
Pressure
Temperature
liquid water, ice Ih, and water vapor 611.657 Pa[40] 273.16 K (0.01 °C)
liquid water, ice Ih, and ice III 209.9 MPa 251 K (−22 °C)
liquid water, ice III, and ice V 350.1 MPa −17.0 °C
liquid water, ice V, and ice VI 632.4 MPa 0.16 °C
ice Ih, Ice II, and ice III 213 MPa −35 °C
ice II, ice III, and ice V 344 MPa −24 °C
ice II, ice V, and ice VI 626 MPa −70 °C
The temperature and pressure at which ordinary solid, liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium is a triple point of water. This point has been used to define the base unit of temperature, the kelvin, since 1954, and is thus set as having a temperature of 273.16 kelvin.[41][42]
Phase diagram of water
Due the existence of many polymorphs (forms) of ice, water has other triple points, which have either three polymorphs of ice or two polymorphs of ice and liquid in equilibrium.[42] Gustav Heinrich Johann Apollon Tammann in Göttingen produced data on several other triple points in the early 20th century. Kamb and others documented further triple points in the 1960s.[43][44][45]
Melting point[edit]
The melting point of ice is 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K) at standard pressure; however, pure liquid water can be supercooled well below that temperature without freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It can remain in a fluid state down to its homogeneous nucleation point of about 231 K (−42 °C; −44 °F).[46] The melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice falls slightly under moderately high pressures, by 0.0073 °C (0.0131 °F)/atm[f] or about 0.5 °C (0.90 °F)/70 atm[g][47] as the stabilization energy of hydrogen bonding is exceeded by intermolecular repulsion, but as ice transforms into its allotropes (see crystalline states of ice) above 209.9 MPa (2,072 atm), the melting point increases markedly with pressure, i.e., reaching 355 K (82 °C) at 2.216 GPa (21,870 atm) (triple point of Ice VII[48]).
Electrical properties[edit]
Electrical conductivity[edit]
Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent insulator, but not even "deionized" water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes auto-ionization in the liquid state, when two water molecules form one hydroxide anion (OH−
) and one hydronium cation (H
3O+
).
Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then it can conduct electricity far more readily.
It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical resistivity for water is approximately 18.2 MΩ·cm (182 kΩ·m) at 25 °C.[49] This figure agrees well with what is typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and deionized ultra-pure water systems used, for instance, in semiconductor manufacturing plants. A salt or acid contaminant level exceeding even 100 parts per trillion (ppt) in otherwise ultra-pure water begins to noticeably lower its resistivity by up to several kΩ·m.[citation needed]
In pure water, sensitive equipment can detect a very slight electrical conductivity of 0.05501 ± 0.0001 µS/cm at 25.00 °C.[49] Water can also be electrolyzed into oxygen and hydrogen gases but in the absence of dissolved ions this is a very slow process, as very little current is conducted. In ice, the primary charge carriers are protons (see proton conductor).[50] Ice was previously thought to have a small but measurable conductivity of 1×10−10 S/cm, but this conductivity is now thought to be almost entirely from surface defects, and without those, ice is an insulator with an immeasurably small conductivity.[31]
Polarity and hydrogen bonding[edit]
See also: Chemical polarity
A diagram showing the partial charges on the atoms in a water molecule
An important feature of water is its polar nature. The structure has a bent molecular geometry for the two hydrogens from the oxygen vertex. The oxygen atom also has two lone pairs of electrons. One effect usually ascribed to the lone pairs is that the H–O–H gas phase bend angle is 104.48°,[51] which is smaller than the typical tetrahedral angle of 109.47°. The lone pairs are closer to the oxygen atom than the electrons sigma bonded to the hydrogens, so they require more space. The increased repulsion of the lone pairs forces the O–H bonds closer to each other.[52]
Another consequence of its structure is that water is a polar molecule. Due to the difference in electronegativity, a bond dipole moment points from each H to the O, making the oxygen partially negative and each hydrogen partially positive. A large molecular dipole, points from a region between the two hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atom. The charge differences cause water molecules to aggregate (the relatively positive areas being attracted to the relatively negative areas). This attraction, hydrogen bonding, explains many of the properties of water, such as its solvent properties.[53]
Although hydrogen bonding is a relatively weak attraction compared to the covalent bonds within the water molecule itself, it is responsible for a number of water's physical properties. These properties include its relatively high melting and boiling point temperatures: more energy is required to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. In contrast, hydrogen sulfide (H
2S), has much weaker hydrogen bonding due to sulfur's lower electronegativity. H
2S is a gas at room temperature, in spite of hydrogen sulfide having nearly twice the molar mass of water. The extra bonding between water molecules also gives liquid water a large specific heat capacity. This high heat capacity makes water a good heat storage medium (coolant) and heat shield.
Cohesion and adhesion[edit]
Dew drops adhering to a spider web
Water molecules stay close to each other (cohesion), due to the collective action of hydrogen bonds between water molecules. These hydrogen bonds are constantly breaking, with new bonds being formed with different water molecules; but at any given time in a sample of liquid water, a large portion of the molecules are held together by such bonds.[54]
Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces. In biological cells and organelles, water is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are hydrophilic; that is, surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. Irving Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of water of hydration—requires doing substantial work against these forces, called hydration forces. These forces are very large but decrease rapidly over a nanometer or less.[55] They are important in biology, particularly when cells are dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to extracellular freezing.[56]
Surface tension[edit]
This paper clip is under the water level, which has risen gently and smoothly. Surface tension prevents the clip from submerging and the water from overflowing the glass edges.
Temperature dependence of the surface tension of pure water
Water has an unusually high surface tension of 71.99 mN/m at 25 °C[57] which is caused by the strength of the hydrogen bonding between water molecules.[58] This allows insects to walk on water.[58]
Capillary action[edit]
Because water has strong cohesive and adhesive forces, it exhibits capillary action.[59] Strong cohesion from hydrogen bonding and adhesion allows trees to transport water more than 100 m upward.[58]
Water as a solvent[edit]
Main article: Aqueous solution
Presence of colloidal calcium carbonate from high concentrations of dissolved lime turns the water of Havasu Falls turquoise.
Water is an excellent solvent due to its high dielectric constant.[60] Substances that mix well and dissolve in water are known as hydrophilic ("water-loving") substances, while those that do not mix well with water are known as hydrophobic ("water-fearing") substances.[61] The ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the substance can match or better the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between other water molecules. If a substance has properties that do not allow it to overcome these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules are precipitated out from the water. Contrary to the common misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not "repel", and the hydration of a hydrophobic surface is energetically, but not entropically, favorable.
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water molecules (hydration). The relatively small size of water molecules (~ 3 angstroms) allows many water molecules to surround one molecule of solute. The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive dipole ends.
In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules.
An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into Na+
cations and Cl−
anions, each being surrounded by water molecules. The ions are then easily transported away from their crystalline lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute is table sugar. The water dipoles make hydrogen bonds with the polar regions of the sugar molecule (OH groups) and allow it to be carried away into solution.
Quantum tunneling[edit]
Main article: Quantum tunneling of water
The quantum tunneling dynamics in water was reported as early as 1992. At that time it was known that there are motions which destroy and regenerate the weak hydrogen bond by internal rotations of the substituent water monomers.[62] On 18 March 2016, it was reported that the hydrogen bond can be broken by quantum tunneling in the water hexamer. Unlike previously reported tunneling motions in water, this involved the concerted breaking of two hydrogen bonds.[63] Later in the same year, the discovery of the quantum tunneling of water molecules was reported.[64]
Electromagnetic absorption[edit]
Main article: Electromagnetic absorption by water
Water is relatively transparent to visible light, near ultraviolet light, and far-red light, but it absorbs most ultraviolet light, infrared light, and microwaves. Most photoreceptors and photosynthetic pigments utilize the portion of the light spectrum that is transmitted well through water. Microwave ovens take advantage of water's opacity to microwave radiation to heat the water inside of foods. Water's light blue colour is caused by weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum.[65][66]
Structure[edit]
Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water
A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those observed in water because none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there are steric effects in bulky residues. In water, intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds, thereby forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in the anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C. This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-dimensional network extending throughout the liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies and computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water molecules in ice structures.
However, there is an alternative theory for the structure of water. In 2004, a controversial paper from Stockholm University suggested that water molecules in liquid form typically bind not to four but to only two others; thus forming chains and rings. The term "string theory of water" (which is not to be confused with the string theory of physics) was coined. These observations were based upon X-ray absorption spectroscopy that probed the local environment of individual oxygen atoms.[67]
Chemical properties[edit]
At standard conditions, water is a polar liquid that slightly dissociates disproportionately or self ionizes into an hydronium ion and hydroxide ion.
2 H
2O ⇌ H
3O+
+ OH−
The dissociation constant for this dissociation is commonly symbolized as Kw and has a value of about 10−14 at 25 °C; see here for values at other temperatures. Pure water has a concentration of the hydroxide ion (OH−
) equal to that of the hydrogen ion (H+
), which gives a pH of 7 at 25 °C.[68]
Geochemistry[edit]
Action of water on rock over long periods of time typically leads to weathering and water erosion, physical processes that convert solid rocks and minerals into soil and sediment, but under some conditions chemical reactions with water occur as well, resulting in metasomatism or mineral hydration, a type of chemical alteration of a rock which produces clay minerals. It also occurs when Portland cement hardens.
Water ice can form clathrate compounds, known as clathrate hydrates, with a variety of small molecules that can be embedded in its spacious crystal lattice. The most notable of these is methane clathrate, 4 CH
4·23H
2O, naturally found in large quantities on the ocean floor.
Acidity in nature[edit]
Rain is generally mildly acidic, with a pH between 5.2 and 5.8 if not having any acid stronger than carbon dioxide.[69] If high amounts of nitrogen and sulfur oxides are present in the air, they too will dissolve into the cloud and rain drops, producing acid rain.
Isotopologues[edit]
Several isotopes of both hydrogen and oxygen exist, giving rise to several known isotopologues of water. Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is the current international standard for water isotopes. Naturally occurring water is almost completely composed of the neutron-less hydrogen isotope protium. Only 155 ppm include deuterium (2
H or D), a hydrogen isotope with one neutron, and fewer than 20 parts per quintillion include tritium (3
H or T), which has two neutrons. Oxygen also has three stable isotopes, with 16
O present in 99.76%, 17
O in 0.04%, and 18
O in 0.2% of water molecules.[70]
Deuterium oxide, D
2O, is also known as heavy water because of its higher density. It is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron moderator. Tritium is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of 4500 days; THO exists in nature only in minute quantities, being produced primarily via cosmic ray-induced nuclear reactions in the atmosphere. Water with one protium and one deuterium atom HDO occurs naturally in ordinary water in low concentrations (~0.03%) and D
2O in far lower amounts (0.000003%) and any such molecules are temporary as the atoms recombine.
The most notable physical differences between H
2O and D
2O, other than the simple difference in specific mass, involve properties that are affected by hydrogen bonding, such as freezing and boiling, and other kinetic effects. This is because the nucleus of deuterium is twice as heavy as protium, and this causes noticeable differences in bonding energies. The difference in boiling points allows the isotopologues to be separated. The self-diffusion coefficient of H
2O at 25 °C is 23% higher than the value of D
2O.[71] Because water molecules exchange hydrogen atoms with one another, hydrogen deuterium oxide (DOH) is much more common in low-purity heavy water than pure dideuterium monoxide D
2O.
Consumption of pure isolated D
2O may affect biochemical processes – ingestion of large amounts impairs kidney and central nervous system function. Small quantities can be consumed without any ill-effects; humans are generally unaware of taste differences,[72] but sometimes report a burning sensation[73] or sweet flavor.[74] Very large amounts of heavy water must be consumed for any toxicity to become apparent. Rats, however, are able to avoid heavy water by smell, and it is toxic to many animals.[75]
Light water refers to deuterium-depleted water (DDW), water in which the deuterium content has been reduced below the standard 155 ppm level.
Occurrence[edit]
It is the most abundant substance on Earth and also the third most abundant molecule in the universe, after H
2 and CO.[20] 0.23 ppm of the earth's mass is water and 97.39% of the global water volume of 1.38×109 km3 is found in the oceans.[76]
Reactions[edit]
Acid-base reactions[edit]
Water is amphoteric: it has the ability to act as either an acid or a base in chemical reactions.[77] According to the Brønsted-Lowry definition, an acid is a proton (H+
) donor and a base is a proton acceptor.[78] When reacting with a stronger acid, water acts as a base; when reacting with a stronger base, it acts as an acid.[78] For instance, water receives an H+
ion from HCl when hydrochloric acid is formed:
HCl
(acid) + H
2O
(base) ⇌ H
3O+
+ Cl−
In the reaction with ammonia, NH
3, water donates a H+
ion, and is thus acting as an acid:
NH
3
(base) + H
2O
(acid) ⇌ NH+
4 + OH−
Because the oxygen atom in water has two lone pairs, water often acts as a Lewis base, or electron pair donor, in reactions with Lewis acids, although it can also react with Lewis bases, forming hydrogen bonds between the electron pair donors and the hydrogen atoms of water. HSAB theory describes water as both a weak hard acid and a weak hard base, meaning that it reacts preferentially with other hard species:
H+

(Lewis acid) + H
2O
(Lewis base) → 3
O+
Fe3+

(Lewis acid) + H
2O
(Lewis base) → Fe(H
2O)3+
6
Cl−

(Lewis base) + H
2O
(Lewis acid) → Cl(H
2O)−
6
When a salt of a weak acid or of a weak base is dissolved in water, water can partially hydrolyze the salt, producing the corresponding base or acid, which gives aqueous solutions of soap and baking soda their basic pH:
Na
2CO
3 + H
2O ⇌ NaOH + NaHCO
3
Ligand chemistry[edit]
Water's Lewis base character makes it a common ligand in transition metal complexes, examples of which include metal aquo complexes such as Fe(H
2O)2+
6 to perrhenic acid, which contains two water molecules coordinated to a rhenium center. In solid hydrates, water can be either a ligand or simply lodged in the framework, or both. Thus, FeSO
4·7H
2O consists of [Fe2(H2O)6]2+ centers and one "lattice water". Water is typically a monodentate ligand, i.e., it forms only one bond with the central atom.[79]
Some hydrogen-bonding contacts in FeSO4.7H2O. This metal aquo complex crystallizes with one molecule of "lattice" water, which interacts with the sulfate and with the [Fe(H2O)6]2+ centers.
Organic chemistry[edit]
As a hard base, water reacts readily with organic carbocations; for example in an hydration reaction, a hydroxyl group (OH−
) and an acidic proton are added to the two carbon atoms bonded together in the carbon-carbon double bond, resulting in an alcohol. When addition of water to an organic molecule cleaves the molecule in two, hydrolysis is said to occur. Notable examples of hydrolysis are the saponification of fats and the digestion of proteins and polysaccharides. Water can also be a leaving group in SN2 substitution and E2 elimination reactions; the latter is then known as a dehydration reaction.
Water in redox reactions[edit]
Water contains hydrogen in the oxidation state +1 and oxygen in the oxidation state −2.[80] It oxidizes chemicals such as hydrides, alkali metals, and some alkaline earth metals.[81][82] One example of an alkali metal reacting with water is:[83]
2 Na + 2 H
2O → H
2 + 2 Na+
+ 2 OH−
Some other reactive metals, such as aluminum and beryllium, are oxidized by water as well, but their oxides adhere to the metal and form a passive protective layer.[84] Note that the rusting of iron is a reaction between iron and oxygen[85] that is dissolved in water, not between iron and water.
Water can be oxidized to emit oxygen gas, but very few oxidants react with water even if their reduction potential is greater than the potential of O
2/H
2O. Almost all such reactions require a catalyst.[86] An example of the oxidation of water is:
4 AgF
2 + 2 H
2O → 4 AgF + 4 HF + O
2
Electrolysis[edit]
Main article: Electrolysis of water
Water can be split into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by passing an electric current through it.[87] This process is called electrolysis. The cathode half reaction is:
2 H+
+ 2
e−
→ H
2
The anode half reaction is:
2 H
2O → O
2 + 4 H+
+ 4
e−
The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C.[87] The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis.
History[edit]
Henry Cavendish showed that water was composed of oxygen and hydrogen in 1781.[88] The first decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, by electrolysis, was done in 1800 by English chemist William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle.[88][89] In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.[90]
Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933.[91]
The properties of water have historically been used to define various temperature scales. Notably, the Kelvin, Celsius, Rankine, and Fahrenheit scales were, or currently are, defined by the freezing and boiling points of water. The less common scales of Delisle, Newton, Réaumur and Rømer were defined similarly. The triple point of water is a more commonly used standard point today.
Nomenclature[edit]
The accepted IUPAC name of water is oxidane or simply water,[92] or its equivalent in different languages, although there are other systematic names which can be used to describe the molecule. Oxidane is only intended to be used as the name of the mononuclear parent hydride used for naming derivatives of water by substituent nomenclature.[93] These derivatives commonly have other recommended names. For example, the name hydroxyl is recommended over oxidanyl for the –OH group. The name oxane is explicitly mentioned by the IUPAC as being unsuitable for this purpose, since it is already the name of a cyclic ether also known as tetrahydropyran.[94][95]
The simplest systematic name of water is hydrogen oxide. This is analogous to related compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen sulfide, and deuterium oxide (heavy water). Using chemical nomenclature for type I ionic binary compounds, water would take the name hydrogen monoxide,[96] but this is not among the names published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).[92] Another name is dihydrogen monoxide, which is a rarely used name of water, and mostly used in the dihydrogen monoxide hoax.
Other systematic names for water include hydroxic acid, hydroxylic acid, and hydrogen hydroxide, using acid and base names.[h] None of these exotic names are used widely. The polarized form of the water molecule, H+
OH−
, is also called hydron hydroxide by IUPAC nomenclature.[97]
See also[edit]
Water portal
Water (data page)
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax
Double distilled water
Electromagnetic absorption by water
Water model
Fluid dynamics
Optical properties of water and ice
Superheated water
Hydrogen polyoxide
Viscosity of water
Water cluster
Water dimer
Water thread experiment
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), used for calibration, melts at 273.1500089(10) K (0.000089(10) °C, and boils at 373.1339 K (99.9839 °C). Other isotopic compositions melt or boil at slightly different temperatures.
Jump up ^ A commonly quoted value of 15.7 used mainly in organic chemistry for the pKa of water is incorrect.[10][11]
Jump up ^ H+ represents H
3O+
{H
2O)
n and more complex ions that form.
Jump up ^ (1-0.95865/1.00000) × 100% = 4.135%
Jump up ^ Adiabatic cooling resulting from the ideal gas law
Jump up ^ The source gives it as 0.0072°C/atm. However the author defines an atmosphere as 1,000,000 dynes/cm2 (a bar). Using the standard definition of atmosphere, 1,013,250 dynes/cm2, it works out to 0.0073°C/atm
Jump up ^ Using the fact that 0.5/0.0073 = 68.5
Jump up ^ Both acid and base names exist for water because it is amphoteric (able to react both as an acid or an alkali)
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of Hydrol". Merriam-Webster. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b Braun, Charles L.; Smirnov, Sergei N. (1993-08-01). "Why is water blue?". Journal of Chemical Education. 70 (8): 612. Bibcode:1993JChEd..70..612B. doi:10.1021/ed070p612. ISSN 0021-9584.
Jump up ^ Riddick 1970, Table of Physical Properties, Water 0b. pg 67-8.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, Properties of Ice and Supercooled Water in Section 6.
Jump up ^ Water in Linstrom, Peter J.; Mallard, William G. (eds.); NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg (MD), http://webbook.nist.gov (retrieved 2016-5-27)
^ Jump up to: a b c Anatolievich, Kiper Ruslan. "Properties of substance: water".
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, Vapor Pressure of Water From 0 to 370° C in Sec. 6.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, Chapter 8: Dissociation Constants of Inorganic Acids and Bases.
Jump up ^ Weingärtner et al. 2016, p. 13.
Jump up ^ "What is the pKa of Water". University of California, Davis.
Jump up ^ Silverstein, Todd P.; Heller, Stephen T. (17 April 2017). "pKa Values in the Undergraduate Curriculum: What Is the Real pKa of Water?". Journal of Chemical Education. 94 (6): 690–695. Bibcode:2017JChEd..94..690S. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00623.
Jump up ^ Ramires, Maria L. V.; Castro, Carlos A. Nieto de; Nagasaka, Yuchi; Nagashima, Akira; Assael, Marc J.; Wakeham, William A. (1995-05-01). "Standard Reference Data for the Thermal Conductivity of Water". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 24 (3): 1377–1381. Bibcode:1995JPCRD..24.1377R. doi:10.1063/1.555963. ISSN 0047-2689.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, 8—Concentrative Properties of Aqueous Solutions: Density, Refractive Index, Freezing Point Depression, and Viscosity.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, 6.186.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, 9—Dipole Moments.
^ Jump up to: a b c Water in Linstrom, Peter J.; Mallard, William G. (eds.); NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg (MD), http://webbook.nist.gov (retrieved 2014-06-01)
Jump up ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 620.
Jump up ^ "Water, the Universal Solvent". USGS.
Jump up ^ Reece et al. 2013, p. 48.
^ Jump up to: a b c Weingärtner et al. 2016, p. 2.
Jump up ^ Reece et al. 2013, p. 44.
Jump up ^ "autoprotolysis constant". IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology. IUPAC. doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00532.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Williamson & Heyden 2006.
Jump up ^ "Water (Code C65147)". NCI Thesaurus. National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-08-01.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jared D.; Christopher D. Cappa; Kevin R. Wilson; Ronald C. Cohen; Phillip L. Geissler; Richard J. Saykally (2005). "Unified description of temperature-dependent hydrogen bond rearrangements in liquid water" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102 (40): 14171–14174. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214171S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506899102. PMC 1242322  . PMID 16179387.
Jump up ^ Deguchi, Shigeru; Tsujii, Kaoru (2007-06-19). "Supercritical water: a fascinating medium for soft matter". Soft Matter. 3 (7): 797. Bibcode:2007SMat....3..797D. doi:10.1039/b611584e. ISSN 1744-6848.
Jump up ^ Rhein, M.; Rintoul, S.R. (2013). "3: Observations: Ocean" (PDF). IPCC WGI AR5 (Report). p. 257. Ocean warming dominates the global energy change inventory. Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93% of the increase in the Earth's energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence), with warming of the upper (0 to 700 m) ocean accounting for about 64% of the total. Melting ice (including Arctic sea ice, ice sheets and glaciers) and warming of the continents and atmosphere account for the remainder of the change in energy.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, Chapter 6: Properties of Ice and Supercooled Water.
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, 6. Properties of Water and Steam as a Function of Temperature and Pressure.
Jump up ^ "Decree on weights and measures". April 7, 1795. Gramme, le poids absolu d'un volume d'eau pure égal au cube de la centième partie du mètre, et à la température de la glace fondante.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 625.
Jump up ^ Shell, Scott M.; Debenedetti, Pablo G.; Panagiotopoulos, Athanassios Z. (2002). "Molecular structural order and anomalies in liquid silica" (PDF). Phys. Rev. E. 66: 011202. arXiv:cond-mat/0203383  . Bibcode:2002PhRvE..66a1202S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.66.011202.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Perlman, Howard. "Water Density". The USGS Water Science School. Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up ^ Loerting, Thomas; Salzmann, Christoph; Kohl, Ingrid; Mayer, Erwin; Hallbrucker, Andreas (2001-01-01). "A second distinct structural "state" of high-density amorphous ice at 77 K and 1 bar". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 3 (24): 5355–5357. Bibcode:2001PCCP....3.5355L. doi:10.1039/b108676f. ISSN 1463-9084.
Jump up ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 624.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 493.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Can the ocean freeze?". National Ocean Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
Jump up ^ Fine, R.A.; Millero, F.J. (1973). "Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure". Journal of Chemical Physics. 59 (10): 5529. Bibcode:1973JChPh..59.5529F. doi:10.1063/1.1679903.
^ Jump up to: a b Nave, R. "Bulk Elastic Properties". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2007-10-26.
Jump up ^ Murphy, D. M. (2005). "Review of the vapour pressures of ice and supercooled water for atmospheric applications". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 131: 1539–1565. Bibcode:2005QJRMS.131.1539M. doi:10.1256/qj.04.94.
Jump up ^ "Base unit definitions: Kelvin". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Weingärtner et al. 2016, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Schlüter, Oliver (2003-07-28). "Impact of High Pressure — Low Temperature Processes on Cellular Materials Related to Foods" (PDF). Technischen Universität Berlin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-09.
Jump up ^ Tammann, Gustav H.J.A (1925). "The States Of Aggregation". Constable And Company.
Jump up ^ Lewis & Rice 1922.
Jump up ^ Debenedetti, P. G.; Stanley, H. E. (2003). "Supercooled and Glassy Water" (PDF). Physics Today. 56 (6): 40–46. Bibcode:2003PhT....56f..40D. doi:10.1063/1.1595053.
Jump up ^ Sharp 1988, p. 27.
Jump up ^ "Revised Release on the Pressure along the Melting and Sublimation Curves of Ordinary Water Substance" (PDF). IAPWS. September 2011. Retrieved 2013-02-19.
^ Jump up to: a b Light, Truman S.; Licht, Stuart; Bevilacqua, Anthony C.; Morash, Kenneth R. (2005-01-01). "The Fundamental Conductivity and Resistivity of Water". Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters. 8 (1): E16–E19. doi:10.1149/1.1836121. ISSN 1099-0062.
Jump up ^ Crofts, A. (1996). "Lecture 12: Proton Conduction, Stoichiometry". University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 2009-12-06.
Jump up ^ Hoy, AR; Bunker, PR (1979). "A precise solution of the rotation bending Schrödinger equation for a triatomic molecule with application to the water molecule". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy. 74: 1–8. Bibcode:1979JMoSp..74....1H. doi:10.1016/0022-2852(79)90019-5.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 393.
Jump up ^ Campbell & Farrell 2007, pp. 37–38.
Jump up ^ Campbell & Reece 2009, p. 47.
Jump up ^ Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Fasano, Matteo; Asinari, Pietro; Decuzzi, Paolo (2014). "Scaling behaviour for the water transport in nanoconfined geometries". Nature Communications. 5: 4565. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5E4565C. doi:10.1038/ncomms4565. PMC 3988813  . PMID 24699509.
Jump up ^ "Physical Forces Organizing Biomolecules" (PDF). Biophysical Society. Archived from the original on August 7, 2007. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Lide 2003, Surface Tension of Common Liquids.
^ Jump up to: a b c Reece et al. 2013, p. 46.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, pp. 458–459.
Jump up ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 627.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 518.
Jump up ^ Pugliano, N. (1992-11-01). "Vibration-Rotation-Tunneling Dynamics in Small Water Clusters". Lawrence Berkeley Lab., CA (United States): 6. doi:10.2172/6642535.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Jeremy O.; Pérez, Cristóbal; Lobsiger, Simon; Reid, Adam A.; Temelso, Berhane; Shields, George C.; Kisiel, Zbigniew; Wales, David J.; Pate, Brooks H. (2016-03-18). "Concerted hydrogen-bond breaking by quantum tunneling in the water hexamer prism". Science. 351 (6279): 1310–1313. Bibcode:2016Sci...351.1310R. doi:10.1126/science.aae0012. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26989250. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
Jump up ^ Kolesnikov, Alexander I. (2016-04-22). "Quantum Tunneling of Water in Beryl: A New State of the Water Molecule". Physical Review Letters. 116 (16): 167802. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116p7802K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.167802. PMID 27152824. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
Jump up ^ Braun, Charles L.; Smirnov, Sergei N. (1993), "Why is water blue?" (PDF), Journal of Chemical Education, 70 (8): 612–614, Bibcode:1993JChEd..70..612B, doi:10.1021/ed070p612
Jump up ^ Pope; Fry (1996). "Absorption spectrum (380-700nm) of pure water. II. Integrating cavity measurements". Applied Optics. Bibcode:1997ApOpt..36.8710P. doi:10.1364/ao.36.008710.
Jump up ^ Ball, Philip (2008). "Water—an enduring mystery". Nature. 452 (7185): 291–292. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..291B. doi:10.1038/452291a. PMID 18354466.
Jump up ^ Boyd 2000, p. 105.
Jump up ^ Boyd 2000, p. 106.
Jump up ^ "Guideline on the Use of Fundamental Physical Constants and Basic Constants of Water" (PDF). IAPWS. 2001.
Jump up ^ Hardy, Edme H.; Zygar, Astrid; Zeidler, Manfred D.; Holz, Manfred; Sacher, Frank D. (2001). "Isotope effect on the translational and rotational motion in liquid water and ammonia". J. Chem. Phys. 114 (7): 3174–3181. Bibcode:2001JChPh.114.3174H. doi:10.1063/1.1340584.
Jump up ^ Urey, Harold C.; et al. (15 Mar 1935). "Concerning the Taste of Heavy Water". Science. 81 (2098). New York: The Science Press. p. 273. Bibcode:1935Sci....81..273U. doi:10.1126/science.81.2098.273-a.
Jump up ^ "Experimenter Drinks 'Heavy Water' at $5,000 a Quart". Popular Science Monthly. 126 (4). New York: Popular Science Publishing. Apr 1935. p. 17. Retrieved 7 Jan 2011.
Jump up ^ Müller, Grover C. (June 1937). "Is 'Heavy Water' the Fountain of Youth?". Popular Science Monthly. 130 (6). New York: Popular Science Publishing. pp. 22–23. Retrieved 7 Jan 2011.
Jump up ^ Miller, Inglis J., Jr.; Mooser, Gregory (Jul 1979). "Taste Responses to Deuterium Oxide". Physiology & Behavior. 23 (1): 69–74. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(79)90124-0.
Jump up ^ Weingärtner et al. 2016, p. 29.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 659.
^ Jump up to: a b Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 654.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 984.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 171.
Jump up ^ "Hydrides". Chemwiki. UC Davis. Retrieved 2016-06-25.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, pp. 932, 936.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 338.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 862.
Jump up ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 981.
Jump up ^ Charlot 2007, p. 275.
^ Jump up to: a b Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2013, p. 866.
^ Jump up to: a b Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 601.
Jump up ^ "Enterprise and electrolysis..." Royal Society of Chemistry. August 2003. Retrieved 2016-06-24.
Jump up ^ "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French chemist (1778–1850)". 1902 Encyclopedia. Footnote 122-1. Retrieved 2016-05-26.
Jump up ^ Lewis, G. N.; MacDonald, R. T. (1933). "Concentration of H2 Isotope". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1 (6): 341. Bibcode:1933JChPh...1..341L. doi:10.1063/1.1749300.
^ Jump up to: a b Leigh, Favre & Metanomski 1998, p. 34.
Jump up ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 85.
Jump up ^ Leigh, Favre & Metanomski 1998, p. 99.
Jump up ^ "Tetrahydropyran". Pubchem. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 2016-07-31.
Jump up ^ Leigh, Favre & Metanomski 1998, pp. 27–28.
Jump up ^ "Compound Summary for CID 22247451". Pubchem Compound Database. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
Bibliography[edit]
Boyd, Claude E. (2000). "pH, Carbon Dioxide, and Alkalinity". Water Quality. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer. ISBN 9781461544852.
Campbell, Mary K.; Farrell, Shawn O. (2007). Biochemistry (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-39041-1.
Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2009). Biology (8th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-8053-6844-4.
Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
Charlot, G. (2007). Qualitative Inorganic Analysis. Read Books. ISBN 1-4067-4789-0.
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (2005-11-22). Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005 (PDF). Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-438-2. Retrieved 2016-07-31.
Leigh, G. J.; Favre, H. A; Metanomski, W. V. (1998). Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (PDF). Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-86542-685-6. OCLC 37341352. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26.
Lewis, William C.M.; Rice, James (1922). A System of Physical Chemistry. Longmans, Green and Co.
Lide, David R. (2003-06-19). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition. CRC Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849304842.
Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B. (2013-11-10). Campbell Biology (10th ed.). Boston, Mass.: Pearson. ISBN 9780321775658.
Riddick, John (1970). Organic Solvents Physical Properties and Methods of Purification. Techniques of Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0471927260.
Sharp, Robert Phillip (1988-11-25). Living Ice: Understanding Glaciers and Glaciation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33009-2.
Weingärtner, Hermann; Teermann, Ilka; Borchers, Ulrich; Balsaa, Peter; Lutze, Holger V.; Schmidt, Torsten C.; Franck, Ernst Ulrich; Wiegand, Gabriele; Dahmen, Nicolaus; Schwedt, Georg; Frimmel, Fritz H.; Gordalla, Birgit C. (2016). "Water, 1. Properties, Analysis, and Hydrological Cycle". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_001.pub3. ISBN 9783527306732.
Zumdahl, Steven S.; Zumdahl, Susan A. (2013). Chemistry (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-13-361109-7.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water molecule.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water.
"Water Properties and Measurements". usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey. May 2, 2016. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
Release on the IAPWS Formulation 1995 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Ordinary Water Substance for General and Scientific Use (simpler formulation)
Online calculator using the IAPWS Supplementary Release on Properties of Liquid Water at 0.1 MPa, September 2008
Chaplin, Martin. "Water Structure and Science". London South Bank University. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
Calculation of vapor pressure, liquid density, dynamic liquid viscosity, surface tension of water
Water Density Calculator
Why does ice float in my drink?, NASA
Wikiversity has small "student" steam tables suitable for classroom use.
hide
v
t
e
Water
Overviews
Outline
Data
Model
Properties
States
Liquid
Ice
Vapor
Steam
Forms
Deuterium-depleted
Semiheavy
Heavy
Tritiated
Hydronium
On Earth
Cycle
Distribution
Hydrosphere
Hydrology
Hydrobiology
Origin
Pollution
Resources
management
policy
Supply
Portal
Category
Commons
Wiktionary
show
Links to related articles
show
v
t
e
Hydrogen compounds
H3AsO3
H3AsO4
HAt
HSO3F
HBF4
HBr
HBrO
HBrO2
HBrO3
HBrO4
HCl
HClO
HClO2
HClO3
HClO4
HCN
HCNO
H2CrO4/H2Cr2O7
H2CO3
H2CS3
HF
HFΟ
HI
HIO
HIO2
HIO3
HIO4
HMnO4
H2MoO4
HNC
NaHCO3
HNCO
HNO
HNO2
HNO3
H2N2O2
HNO5S
H3NSO3
H2O
H2O2
H2O3
H3PO2
H3PO3
H3PO4
H4P2O7
H5P3O10
H2PtCl6
H2S
H2S2
H2Se
H2SeO3
H2SeO4
H4SiO4
H2SiF6
HSCN
HNSC
H2SO3
H2SO4
H2SO5
H2S2O3
H2S2O6
H2S2O7
H2S2O8
CF3SO3H
H2Te
H2TeO3
H6TeO6
H4TiO4
H2Po
HCo(CO)4
show
v
t
e
Oxides
Mixed oxidation states
Antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4)
Cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4)
Europium(II,III) oxide (Eu3O4)
Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4)
Lead(II,IV) oxide (Pb3O4)
Manganese(II,III) oxide (Mn3O4)
Silver(I,III) oxide (Ag2O2)
Triuranium octoxide (U3O8)
Carbon suboxide (C3O2)
Mellitic anhydride (C12O9)
Praseodymium(III,IV) oxide (Pr6O11)
Terbium(III,IV) oxide (Tb4O7)
+1 oxidation state
Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O)
Dicarbon monoxide (C2O)
Dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O)
Gallium(I) oxide (Ga2O)
Lithium oxide (Li2O)
Potassium oxide (K2O)
Rubidium oxide (Rb2O)
Silver oxide (Ag2O)
Thallium(I) oxide (Tl2O)
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)
+2 oxidation state
Aluminium(II) oxide (AlO)
Barium oxide (BaO)
Beryllium oxide (BeO)
Cadmium oxide (CdO)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Chromium(II) oxide (CrO)
Cobalt(II) oxide (CoO)
Copper(II) oxide (CuO)
Europium(II) oxide (EuO)
Germanium monoxide (GeO))
Iron(II) oxide (FeO)
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Manganese(II) oxide (MnO)
Mercury(II) oxide (HgO)
Nickel(II) oxide (NiO)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Palladium(II) oxide (PdO)
Silicon monoxide (SiO)
Strontium oxide (SrO)
Sulfur monoxide (SO)
Disulfur dioxide (S2O2)
Thorium monoxide (ThO)
Tin(II) oxide (SnO)
Titanium(II) oxide (TiO)
Vanadium(II) oxide (VO)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+3 oxidation state
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3)
Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
Bismuth(III) oxide (Bi2O3)
Boron trioxide (B2O3)
Cerium(III) oxide (Ce2O3)
Dibromine trioxide (Br2O3)
Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3)
Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3)
Dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy2O3)
Erbium(III) oxide (Er2O3)
Europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3)
Gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd2O3)
Gallium(III) oxide (Ga2O3)
Holmium(III) oxide (Ho2O3)
Indium(III) oxide (In2O3)
Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)
Lanthanum oxide (La2O3)
Lutetium(III) oxide (Lu2O3)
Manganese(III) oxide (Mn2O3)
Neodymium(III) oxide (Nd2O3)
Nickel(III) oxide (Ni2O3)
Phosphorus trioxide (P4O6)
Praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr2O3)
Promethium(III) oxide (Pm2O3)
Rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3)
Samarium(III) oxide (Sm2O3)
Scandium oxide (Sc2O3)
Terbium(III) oxide (Tb2O3)
Thallium(III) oxide (Tl2O3)
Thulium(III) oxide (Tm2O3)
Titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3)
Tungsten(III) oxide (W2O3)
Vanadium(III) oxide (V2O3)
Ytterbium(III) oxide (Yb2O3)
Yttrium(III) oxide (Y2O3)
+4 oxidation state
Americium dioxide (AmO2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon trioxide (CO3)
Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2)
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2)
Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
Germanium dioxide (GeO2)
Hafnium(IV) oxide (HfO2)
Lead dioxide (PbO2)
Manganese dioxide (MnO2)
Neptunium(IV) oxide (NpO2)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Osmium dioxide (OsO2)
Plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2)
Praseodymium(IV) oxide (PrO2)
Protactinium(IV) oxide (PaO2)
Rhodium(IV) oxide (RhO2)
Ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2)
Selenium dioxide (SeO2)
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Tellurium dioxide (TeO2)
Terbium(IV) oxide (TbO2)
Thorium dioxide (ThO2)
Tin dioxide (SnO2)
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)
Tungsten(IV) oxide (WO2)
Uranium dioxide (UO2)
Vanadium(IV) oxide (VO2)
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)
+5 oxidation state
Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5)
Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5)
Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5)
Niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5)
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5)
Protactinium(V) oxide (Pa2O5)
Tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5)
Vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5)
+6 oxidation state
Chromium trioxide (CrO3)
Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3)
Rhenium trioxide (ReO3)
Selenium trioxide (SeO3)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Tellurium trioxide (TeO3)
Tungsten trioxide (WO3)
Uranium trioxide (UO3)
Xenon trioxide (XeO3)
Iridium trioxide (IrO3)
+7 oxidation state
Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7)
Manganese heptoxide (Mn2O7)
Rhenium(VII) oxide (Re2O7)
Technetium(VII) oxide (Tc2O7)
+8 oxidation state
Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)
Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4)
Xenon tetroxide (XeO4)
Iridium tetroxide (IrO4)
Hassium tetroxide (HsO4)
Related
Oxocarbon
Suboxide
Oxyanion
Ozonide
Peroxide
Superoxide
Oxides are sorted by oxidation state. Category:Oxides
show
v
t
e
Hydroxides
H2O He
LiOH Be(OH)2 B C NH3.H2O O F Ne
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Si P S Cl Ar
KOH Ca(OH)2 Sc(OH)3 Ti V Cr(OH)2
Cr(OH)3 Mn(OH)2 Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)3 Co(OH)2 Ni(OH)2 CuOH
Cu(OH)2 Zn(OH)2 Ga(OH)3 Ge(OH)2 As Se Br Kr
RbOH Sr(OH)2 Y(OH)3 Zr(OH)4 Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd AgOH Cd(OH)2 In(OH)3 Sn(OH)2
Sn(OH)4 Sb(OH)3 Te I Xe
CsOH Ba(OH)2 * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au(OH)3 Hg(OH)2 TlOH
Tl(OH)3 Pb(OH)2
Pb(OH)4 Bi(OH)3 Po At Rn
Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
↓
* La(OH)3 Ce(OH)3 Pr(OH)3 Nd(OH)3 Pm(OH)3 Sm(OH)3 Eu(OH)3 Gd(OH)3 Tb(OH)3 Dy(OH)3 Ho(OH)3 Er(OH)3 Tm(OH)3 Yb(OH)3 Lu(OH)3
** Ac Th(OH)4 Pa UO2(OH)2 Np Pu Am Cm(OH)3 Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
show
v
t
e
Binary compounds of hydrogen
Alkali metal hydrides
LiH
NaH
KH
RbH
CsH

Lithium hydride, LiH
ionic metal hydride

Beryllium hydride
Left (gas phase): BeH2
covalent metal hydride
Right: (BeH2)n (solid phase)
polymeric metal hydride

Borane and diborane
Left: BH3 (special conditions), covalent metalloid hydride
Right: B2H6 (standard conditions), dimeric metalloid hydride

Methane, CH4
covalent nonmetal hydride

Ammonia, NH3
covalent nonmetal hydride

Water, H2O
covalent nonmetal hydride

Hydrogen fluoride, HF
covalent nonmetal hydride
Alkaline earth hydrides
Monohydrides
BeH
MgH
CaH
SrH
BaH
Dihydrides
BeH2
MgH2
CaH2
SrH2
BaH2
Group 13 hydrides
Boranes
BH3
B2H6
B2H2
B2H4
B4H10
B5H9
B5H11
B6H10
B6H12
B10H14
B18H22
Alanes
AlH3
Al2H6
Gallanes
GaH3
Ga2H6
Indiganes
InH3
In2H6
Thallanes
TlH3
Tl2H6
Group 14 hydrides
Linear alkanes
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
more...
Linear alkenes
C2H4
C3H6
C4H8
C5H10
C6H12
C7H14
C8H16
C9H18
C10H20
more...
Linear alkynes
C2H2
C3H4
C4H6
C5H8
C6H10
C7H12
C8H14
C9H16
C10H18
more...
Silanes
SiH4
Si2H6
Si3H8
Si4H10
Si5H12
Si6H14
Si7H16
Si8H18
Si9H20
Si10H22
more...
Silenes
Si2H4
Silynes
Si2H2
SiH
Germanes
GeH4
Ge2H6
Ge3H8
Ge4H10
Ge5H12
Stannanes
SnH4
Sn2H6
Plumbanes
PbH4
CH
CH2
CH3
C2H
Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkenes
Annulenes
Many more
Pnictogen hydrides
Azanes
NH3
N2H4
N3H5
N4H6
N5H7
N6H8
N7H9
N8H10
N9H11
N10H12
more...
Azenes
N2H2
N3H3
N4H4
Phosphanes
PH3
P2H4
P3H5
P4H6
P5H7
P6H8
P7H9
P8H10
P9H11
P10H12
more...
Phosphenes
P2H2
P3H3
P4H4
Arsanes
AsH3
As2H4
Stibanes
SbH3
Bismuthanes
BiH3
HN3
NH
radical
Hydrogen chalcogenides
Polyoxidanes
H2O
H2O2
H2O3
H2O4
H2O5
H2O6
H2O7
H2O8
H2O9
H2O10
more...
Polysulfanes
H2S
H2S2
H2S3
H2S4
H2S5
H2S6
H2S7
H2S8
H2S9
H2S10
more...
Selanes
H2Se
H2Se2
Tellanes
H2Te
H2Te2
Polanes
PoH2
HO
HO2
HO3
H2O+–O–
H2S=S
(HS)2S+–S–
HS
HDO
D2O
T2O
Hydrogen halides
HF
HCl
HBr
HI
HAt
Transition metal hydrides
ScH2
YH2
YH3
TiH2
ZrH2
HfH2
VH
VH2
NbH
NbH2
TaH
CrH
CrH2
CrHx
NiH
PdHx (x < 1)
FeH
FeH2
FeH5
CuH
ZnH2
CdH2
HgH2
Lanthanide hydrides
LaH2
LaH3
CeH2
CeH3
PrH2
PrH3
NdH2
NdH3
SmH2
SmH3
EuH2
GdH2
GdH3
TbH2
TbH3
DyH2
DyH3
HoH2
HoH3
ErH2
ErH3
TmH2
TmH3
YbH2
YbH2.5
LuH2
LuH3
Actinide hydrides
AcH2
ThH2
Th4H15
PaH3
UH3
NpH2
NpH3
PuH2
PuH3
AmH2
AmH3
CmH2
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Properties_of_water&oldid=856321269"
Categories:
Forms of water
Hydrogen compounds
Hydroxides
Inorganic solvents
Neutron moderators
Oxides
Water chemistry
Hidden categories:
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
CS1 maint: Unfit url
Articles with short description
Articles without InChI source
Articles without KEGG source
Chemical articles having a data page
Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes
Chembox image size set
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Català
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
ગુજરાતી
हिन्दी
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Latina
Bahasa Melayu
Português
Română
Scots
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
ไทย
吴语
中文
16 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 August 2018, at 11:45 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: class style

values: shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/HOH_(disambiguation)
mw-redirect mw-disambig
HOH (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: sup

value: sub

value: span

value: caption

values: The water molecule has this basic geometric structure

values: Ball-and-stick model of a water molecule

values:
/wiki/File:Water_molecule_3D.svg
image
Space filling model of a water molecule

values: A drop of water falling towards water in a glass

values: background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;

values: chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)

values: font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;

values: word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;

values: border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;

values: list-style: none none; margin-left: 0px; word-break: break-all; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; line-height: inherit; display: none;

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border: none; padding: 0;
NavFrame1

values: Simplified molecular-input line-entry system

values: border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border: none; padding: 0;
NavFrame2

values:
/wiki/Methyl_Ethyl_Ketone
mw-redirect
Methyl Ethyl Ketone

values:
/wiki/Ethyl_Acetate
mw-redirect
Ethyl Acetate

values:
/wiki/Conjugate_base
mw-redirect
Conjugate base

values:
/wiki/Bent_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Bent (chemistry)

values:
/wiki/Worker_safety_and_health
mw-redirect
Worker safety and health

values:
/wiki/Water_Intoxication
mw-redirect
Water Intoxication

values: Flammability code 0: Will not burn. E.g., water

values: Health code 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g., sodium chloride

values: Reactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g., liquid nitrogen

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height usemap

values: width:12px; text-align:center; position:absolute; top:12px; left:35px;

values: width:13px; text-align:center; position:absolute; top:31px; left:15px;

values: width:13px; text-align:center; position:absolute; top:31px; left:54px;

values: width:100%; background:transparent; margin:0 auto; width:82px; font-family:sans-serif background:; float:left; font-size:20px; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; position:relative; height:80px; width:80px; padding:1px;

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_polonide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen polonide

values:
/wiki/Dielectric_constant
mw-redirect
Dielectric constant

values:
/wiki/UV/VIS_spectroscopy
mw-redirect
UV/VIS spectroscopy

values:
/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy
mw-redirect
NMR spectroscopy

values: margin:0 auto; text-align:left; line-height:normal;

values: background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;

values: width:40%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-right:1px solid transparent;

values: width:60%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-left:1px solid transparent;

values: border-collapse:collapse; width:22em; text-align:left; ;

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds
mw-redirect
Hydrogen bonds

values:
/wiki/Chemical_activity
mw-redirect
Chemical activity

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Water_chemistry_analysis
mw-redirect
Water chemistry analysis

values:
/wiki/Standard_conditions
mw-redirect
Standard conditions

values: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding
mw-redirect
Hydrogen bonding

values:
/wiki/Liquid_phase
mw-redirect
Liquid phase

values:
/wiki/Gaseous_phase
mw-redirect
Gaseous phase

values:
/wiki/Critical_temperature
mw-redirect
Critical temperature

values:
/wiki/Critical_pressure
mw-redirect
Critical pressure

values:
/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents
mw-redirect
Hydrothermal vents

values:
/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)
mw-redirect
Plume (hydrodynamics)

values: Edit section: Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion

values:
/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity
mw-redirect
Specific heat capacity

values:
/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization
mw-redirect
Heat of vaporization

values:
/wiki/High-density_amorphous_ice
mw-redirect
High-density amorphous ice

values:
/wiki/Very-high-density_amorphous_ice
mw-redirect
Very-high-density amorphous ice

values: Edit section: Density of saltwater and ice

values: Edit section: Miscibility and condensation

values:
/wiki/Vapor_pressure_of_water
mw-redirect
Vapor pressure of water

values:
/wiki/Electrical_insulation
mw-redirect
Electrical insulation

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
mw-redirect
Electrical conductivity

values: Edit section: Polarity and hydrogen bonding

values:
/wiki/Polar_molecule
mw-redirect
Polar molecule

values:
/wiki/Lime_(mineral)
mw-redirect
Lime (mineral)

values:
/wiki/Dipole-dipole_interaction
mw-redirect
Dipole-dipole interaction

values:
/wiki/Crystal_lattice
mw-redirect
Crystal lattice

values:
/wiki/Quantum_tunneling
mw-redirect
Quantum tunneling

values: Edit section: Electromagnetic absorption

values:
/wiki/Visible_light
mw-redirect
Visible light

values:
/wiki/Near_ultraviolet
mw-redirect
Near ultraviolet

values:
/wiki/Ultraviolet_light
mw-redirect
Ultraviolet light

values:
/wiki/Infrared_light
mw-redirect
Infrared light

values:
/wiki/Microwave_ovens
mw-redirect
Microwave ovens

values:
/wiki/Self_ionization_of_water
mw-redirect
Self ionization of water

values:
/wiki/Water_erosion
mw-redirect
Water erosion

values:
/wiki/Clathrate_compounds
mw-redirect
Clathrate compounds

values:
/wiki/Clathrate_hydrates
mw-redirect
Clathrate hydrates

values:
/wiki/Parts_per_million
mw-redirect
Parts per million

values: position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;

values: display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;

values:
/wiki/Baking_soda
mw-redirect
Baking soda

values:
/wiki/Ferrous_sulfate
mw-redirect
Ferrous sulfate

values:
/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis
mw-redirect
Gilbert Newton Lewis

values:
/wiki/Temperature_conversion
mw-redirect
Temperature conversion

values: IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry

values:
/wiki/Substitutive_nomenclature
mw-redirect
Substitutive nomenclature

values:
/wiki/Deuterium_oxide
mw-redirect
Deuterium oxide

values: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Double_distilled_water
mw-redirect
Double distilled water

values: -moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;

values:
/wiki/Adiabatic_cooling
mw-redirect
Adiabatic cooling

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values: The site requires a paid subscription to access this page.

values:
nofollow
external text
https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed070p612

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021/ed070p612

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9584

values:
nofollow
external free
http://webbook.nist.gov

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00623

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.555963

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0047-2689

values:
nofollow
external text
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.A00532

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0506899102

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16179387

values:
nofollow
external text
http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=b611584e

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039/b611584e

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1744-6848

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0203383

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.66.011202

values:
nofollow
external text
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/density.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=b108676f

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039/b108676f

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1463-9084

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.1679903

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.94

values: National Institute of Standards and Technology

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.1595053

values:
nofollow
external text
http://esl.ecsdl.org/content/8/1/E16

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1149/1.1836121

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1099-0062

values: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4565

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24699509

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2172/6642535

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126/science.aae0012

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26989250

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27152824

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364/ao.36.008710

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/452291a

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18354466

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.1340584

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126/science.81.2098.273-a

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063/1.1749300

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/37341352

values:
/wiki/CRC_Handbook
mw-redirect
CRC Handbook

values: Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a28_001.pub3

values:
/wiki/Cengage_Learning
mw-redirect
Cengage Learning

values:
/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg
image
Water droplet

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible expand navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values:
/wiki/Silicic_acid
mw-redirect
Silicic acid

values:
/wiki/Trifluoromethanesulfonic_acid
mw-redirect
Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Europium(II,III) oxide (page does not exist)

values: Praseodymium(III,IV) oxide (page does not exist)

values: Europium(II) oxide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Hafnium(IV)_oxide
mw-redirect
Hafnium(IV) oxide

values: Praseodymium(IV) oxide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Tin_dioxide
mw-redirect
Tin dioxide

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: width:2em; border:1px solid #aaaaaa; background-color:mistyrose;

values: border:1px solid #aaaaaa; background-color:mistyrose;

values:
/wiki/Ammonium_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Ammonium hydroxide

values: Scandium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Chromium(II) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Iron(III)_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Iron(III) hydroxide

values: border:1px solid #aaaaaa; background-color:mistyrose

values:
/wiki/Zirconium_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Zirconium hydroxide

values:
/wiki/Silver_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Silver hydroxide

values:
/wiki/Indium_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Indium hydroxide

values:
/wiki/Tin(IV)_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Tin(IV) hydroxide

values: Antimony(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Cesium_hydroxide
mw-redirect
Cesium hydroxide

values: Lanthanum(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Praseodymium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Neodymium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Promethium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Samarium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Europium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Gadolinium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Terbium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Dysprosium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Holmium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Erbium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Ytterbium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Lutetium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: Thorium(IV) hydroxide (page does not exist)

values: navigation navbox Hydroxides padding:3px

values:
/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydride
mw-redirect
Alkali metal hydride

values:
navbox-image
10
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Alkaline_earth_hydride
mw-redirect
Alkaline earth hydride

values: Strontium monohydride (page does not exist)

values: Barium monohydride (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Group_15_hydride
mw-redirect
Group 15 hydride

values:
/wiki/Nitrogen_monohydride
mw-redirect
Nitrogen monohydride

values:
/wiki/Group_16_hydride
mw-redirect
Group 16 hydride

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_tetroxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen tetroxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_pentoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen pentoxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_hexoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen hexoxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_heptoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen heptoxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_octoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen octoxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_nonoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen nonoxide

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_decoxide
mw-redirect
Hydrogen decoxide

values: Hydrogen tetrasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen pentasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen hexasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen heptasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen octasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen nonasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen decasulfide (page does not exist)

values: Hydrogen diselenide (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Group_17_hydride
mw-redirect
Group 17 hydride

values:
/wiki/Iron_dihydride
mw-redirect
Iron dihydride

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:Articles with short description

values: Category:Chemical articles having a data page

values: Category:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Properties_of_water
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: خصائص الماء – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: ویژگی‌های آب – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values: जल के गुणधर्म – Hindi

values: האנומליה של המים – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values: Propriedades físico-químicas da água – Portuguese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Вода (молекул) – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values: น้ำ (โมเลกุล) – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Properties_of_water rootpage-Properties_of_water skin-vector action-view