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Citizenship Clause
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The Citizenship Clause is the first sentence of Section 1 in the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which was adopted on July 9, 1868. It states that "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." This clause represented Congress's reversal of a portion of the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision which had declared that African Americans were not and could not become citizens of the United States or enjoy any of the privileges and immunities of citizenship.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had already granted U.S. citizenship to all persons born in the United States "not subject to any foreign power". The 39th Congress proposed the principle underlying the Citizenship Clause due to concerns expressed about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act during floor debates in Congress.[1][2] The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment sought to entrench the principle in the Constitution in order to prevent its being struck down by the Supreme Court or repealed by a future Congress.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Naturalization
3 Senate debate
4 Birthright citizenship
5 Loss of citizenship
6 Right to travel
7 Natural-born citizens
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Text[edit]
Section 1, Clause 1, of the Fourteenth Amendment, reads:
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.
Naturalization[edit]
The reference to naturalization in the Citizenship Clause is to the process by which immigrants are granted United States citizenship. Congress has power in relation to naturalization under the Naturalization Clause in Article I, Section 8, Clause 4 of the Constitution.[4][5][6][7][8]
Senate debate[edit]
The text of the Citizenship Clause was first offered in the Senate as an amendment to Section 1 of the joint resolution as passed by the House.
There are varying interpretations of the original intent of Congress, based on statements made during the congressional debate over the amendment.[9] While the Citizenship Clause was intended to define as citizens exactly those so defined in the Civil Rights Act,[3][10] which had been debated and passed in the same session of Congress only several months earlier, the clause's author, Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan, phrased it a little differently. In particular, the two exceptions to citizenship by birth for everyone born in the United States mentioned in the Act, namely, that they had to be "not subject to any foreign power" and not "Indians not taxed", were combined into a single qualification, that they be "subject to the jurisdiction" of the United States, and while Howard and others, such as Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, the author of the Civil Rights Act, believed that the formulations were equivalent, others, such as Senator James R. Doolittle from Wisconsin, disagreed, and pushed for an alternative wording.[11]
There was no recorded debate over who was encompassed by the expression "not subject to any foreign power" or whether these same people were excluded by the wording of the Citizenship Clause. Howard, when introducing the addition to the Amendment, stated that it was "the law of the land already" and that it excluded only "persons born in the United States who are foreigners, aliens, who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers".[12] Others also agreed that the children of ambassadors and foreign ministers were to be excluded.[13][14] However, concerning the children born in the United States to parents who are not U.S. citizens (and not foreign diplomats), three senators, including Trumbull, as well as President Andrew Johnson, asserted that both the Civil Rights Act and the Citizenship Clause would confer citizenship on them at birth,[15][16][17] and no senator offered a contrary opinion. Trumbull even went so far as to assert that this was already true prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act, although Senator Edgar Cowan of Pennsylvania, disagreed, arguing that this was only true for the children of European immigrants.[15] Senator John Conness of California expressed support for the Amendment for giving a constitutional basis for birthright citizenship to all children born in the United States to any parentage (including Chinese noncitizen residents who do not intend to reside permanently in the United States), even though he (and others) thought it had already been guaranteed by the Act,[18] whereas Cowan opposed the Amendment (and Act), arguing that it would have the undesirable outcome of extending citizenship to the children of Chinese and Gypsy immigrants.[19]
Most of the debate on this section of the Amendment centered on whether the wording in the Civil Rights Act or Howard's proposal more effectively excluded Indians on reservations and in U.S. territories from citizenship. Doolittle asserted, and Senators Reverdy Johnson of Maryland and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana concurred, that all Indians were subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, so that the phrase "Indians not taxed" would be preferable,[20] but Trumbull and Howard disputed this, arguing that the U.S. government did not have full jurisdiction over Indian tribes, which governed themselves and made treaties with the United States.[21][22] Moreover, they objected to the phrase "Indians not taxed" on the basis that it could be construed as making citizenship dependent on wealth and also that it would allow states to manipulate who is a citizen in their state through tax policy.[23]
Birthright citizenship[edit]
Main article: Birthright citizenship in the United States
The provisions in Section 1 have been interpreted to the effect that children born on United States soil, with very few exceptions, are U.S. citizens. This type of guarantee—legally termed jus soli, or "right of the territory"—does not exist in most of Europe, Asia or the Middle East, although it is part of English common law[24] and is common in the Americas.
Two Supreme Court precedents were set by the cases of Elk v. Wilkins[25] and United States v. Wong Kim Ark.[3] Elk v. Wilkins established that Indian tribes represented independent political powers with no allegiance to the United States, and that their peoples were under a special jurisdiction of the United States. Children born to these Indian tribes therefore did not automatically receive citizenship under the Fourteenth Amendment if they voluntarily left their tribe.[26] Indian tribes that paid taxes were exempt from this ruling; their peoples were already citizens by an earlier act of Congress, and all non-citizen Indians were subsequently made citizens by the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.
In Wong Kim Ark the Supreme Court held that, under the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a man born within the United States to foreigners (in that case, Chinese citizens) who have a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and are carrying on business in the United States[3] and who were not employed in a diplomatic or other official capacity by a foreign power, was a citizen of the United States.
A 2010 Congressional Research Service report, however, observed that, though it could be argued that Congress has no power to define "subject to the jurisdiction" and the terms of citizenship in a manner contrary to the Supreme Court's understanding of the Fourteenth Amendment as expressed in Wong Kim Ark and Elk, since Congress does have broad power to pass necessary and proper legislation to regulate immigration and naturalization under the Constitution, Art. I, § 8, cls. 4 & 18 of the constitution Congress arguably has the power to define "subject to the jurisdiction thereof" for the purpose of regulating immigration.[27]
Historian Eric Foner has explored the question of birthright citizenship and argues that "birthright citizenship stands as an example of the much-abused idea of American exceptionalism...birthright citizenship does make the United States (along with Canada) unique in the developed world. No European nation recognizes the principle."[28]
Loss of citizenship[edit]
The Fourteenth Amendment does not provide any procedure for revocation of United States citizenship. Under the Supreme Court precedent of Afroyim v. Rusk, loss of 14th-Amendment-based U.S. citizenship is possible only under the following circumstances:[29]
Fraud in the naturalization process. Technically this is not loss of citizenship, but rather a voiding of the purported naturalization and a declaration that the immigrant never was a U.S. citizen.
Voluntary relinquishment of citizenship. This may be accomplished either through renunciation procedures specially established by the State Department or through other actions (e.g., treason) which demonstrate an intention to give up U.S. citizenship.[30] Such an act of expatriation must be accompanied by an intent to terminate United States citizenship.[31]
For jus sanguinis U.S. citizenship, i.e., citizenship for the children born abroad of U.S. citizen parents, which is established only by congressional statute and not the U.S. Constitution (including its amendments), these restrictions do not apply (e.g., cf. Rogers v. Bellei, 401 U.S. 815 (1971)).
Right to travel[edit]
In Saenz v. Roe, the Supreme Court held that this clause protects an aspect of the right to travel.[32] Specifically, the Saenz Court said that the Citizenship Clause protects a citizen's right to resettle in other states and then be treated equally:
[T]he Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment expressly equates citizenship with residence: "That Clause does not provide for, and does not allow for, degrees of citizenship based on length of residence." Zobel, 457 U. S., at 69. It is equally clear that the Clause does not tolerate a hierarchy of 45 subclasses of similarly situated citizens based on the location of their prior residence. … [T]he protection afforded to the citizen by the Citizenship Clause of that Amendment is a limitation on the powers of the National Government as well as the States.
The Saenz Court also mentioned the majority opinion in the Slaughterhouse Cases, which had stated that "a citizen of the United States can, of his own volition, become a citizen of any State of the Union by a bona fide residence therein, with the same rights as other citizens of that State."[33]
Natural-born citizens[edit]
Main article: Natural born citizen
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) at "natural-born" defines it as a person who becomes a citizen at birth (as opposed to becoming one later). It lists this definition as going back to the 16th century. OED cites a law of 1695 (Act 7 & 8 Will. III (1696) 478) that states, "A Natural born Subject of this Realm...Who shall be willing to Enter and Register himself for the Service of His Majesty." It also quotes Thomas Jefferson 1776 (in T. Jefferson Public Papers 344): "All persons who..propose to reside..and who shall subscribe the fundamental laws, shall be considered as residents and entitled to all the rights of persons natural born." Blacks Law Dictionary (10th Edition) defines 'Natural Born Citizen' as "A person born within the jurisdiction of a national government."[34] Webster's International Dictionary (3rd edition, 2000) defines "natural-born" as " especially: having the legal status of citizen or subject."
Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution requires that a candidate for President of the United States be a "natural-born citizen." According to the US Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual: "the fact that someone is a natural born citizen (citizen at birth) pursuant to a statute does not necessarily imply that he or she is such a citizen for Constitutional purposes."[35]
The majority opinion by Justice Horace Gray in United States v. Wong Kim Ark observed that:
The constitution nowhere defines the meaning of these words ["citizen" and "natural born citizen"], either by way of inclusion or of exclusion, except in so far as this is done by the affirmative declaration that 'all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States.'[3]
This observation by Gray about the term "natural-born citizen" was obiter dicta, since the case did not involve any controversy about presidential eligibility.[36]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 1, p. 597.
^ Jump up to: a b Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2896.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649 (1898).
Jump up ^ Reyes, Carla. "Naturalization Law, Immigration Flow, and Policy" in Transforming America: Perspectives on U.S. Immigration, Volume 1, p. 149 (Michael LeMay ed., ABC-CLIO, 2013).
Jump up ^ Epps, Garrett. The Citizenship Clause: A "Legislative History". 60 American University Law Review 331, 352 (2010). "This language [in the Civil Rights Act of 1866] is significant but does not directly demonstrate anything about the 'clear intent' of the Citizenship Clause. First, it is a statute, enacted under the authority of some combination of the Naturalization Clause and the Thirteenth Amendment; the Fourteenth Amendment is a change to the Constitution, creating entirely new rights and providing government with new powers."
Jump up ^ Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 258 (1967). "Therefore, a bill was introduced [in 1818] to provide that a person could voluntarily relinquish his citizenship by declaring such relinquishment in writing before a district court and then departing from the country. The opponents of the bill argued that Congress had no constitutional authority, either express or implied, under either the Naturalization Clause or the Necessary and Proper Clause, to provide that a certain act would constitute expatriation."
Jump up ^ Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 940 (1983). "It is also argued that these cases present a nonjusticiable political question, because Chadha is merely challenging Congress' authority under the Naturalization Clause, U.S.Const., Art. I, § 8, cl. 4, and the Necessary and Proper Clause, U.S.Const., Art. I, § 8, cl. 18."
Jump up ^ In contrast to the aforementioned sources, Black's Law Dictionary defines "Naturalization Clause" as being equivalent to the Citizenship Clause. See Epps, Garrett, ed. (2009). "Naturalization Clause". Black's Law Dictionary (9th ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing. p. 1126. ISBN 978-0-314-19949-2. Naturalization Clause. The constitutional provision stating that every person born or naturalized in the United States is a citizen of the United States and of the state of residence. U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 1. See jus soli.
Jump up ^ Robert, Pear (1996-08-07). "Citizenship Proposal Faces Obstacle in the Constitution". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2893. Senator Reverdy Johnson said in the debate: "Now, all this amendment provides is, that all persons born in the United States and not subject to some foreign Power—for that, no doubt, is the meaning of the committee who have brought the matter before us—shall be considered as citizens of the United States ... If there are to be citizens of the United States entitled everywhere to the character of citizens of the United States, there should be some certain definition of what citizenship is, what has created the character of citizen as between himself and the United States, and the amendment says citizenship may depend upon birth, and I know of no better way to give rise to citizenship than the fact of birth within the territory of the United States, born of parents who at the time were subject to the authority of the United States."
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2890, 2892-3, 2896.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2890.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2897.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 1, p. 572. During the debate on the Civil Rights Act, Trumbull stated, "The Senator from Missouri and myself desire to arrive at the same point precisely, and that is to make citizens of everybody born in the United States who owe allegiance to the United States. We cannot make a citizen of a child of a foreign minister who is temporarily residing here. There is a difficulty in framing the amendment [to the Act] so as to make citizens of all people born in the United States who owe allegiance to it. I thought that might perhaps be the best form in which to put the amendment at one time, 'That all persons born in the United States and owing allegiance thereto are hereby declared to be citizens'; but upon investigation it was found that a sort of allegiance was due to the country from persons temporarily resident in it whom we would have no right to make citizens, and that that form would not answer."
^ Jump up to: a b Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 1, p. 498. The debate on the Civil Rights Act contained the following exchange:
Mr. Cowan: I will ask whether it will not have the effect of naturalizing the children of Chinese and Gypsies born in this country?
Mr. Trumbull: Undoubtedly.
...
Mr. Trumbull: I should like to inquire of my friend from Pennsylvania, if the children of Chinese now born in this country are not citizens?
Mr. Cowan: I think not.
Mr. Trumbull: I understand that under the naturalization laws the children who are born here of parents who have not been naturalized are citizens. This is the law, as I understand it, at the present time. Is not the child born in this country of German parents a citizen? I am afraid we have got very few citizens in some of the counties of good old Pennsylvania if the children born of German parents are not citizens.
Mr. Cowan: The honorable Senator assumes that which is not the fact. The children of German parents are citizens; but Germans are not Chinese; Germans are not Australians, nor Hottentots, nor anything of the kind. That is the fallacy of his argument.
Mr. Trumbull: If the Senator from Pennsylvania will show me in the law any distinction made between the children of German parents and the children of Asiatic parents, I may be able to appreciate the point which he makes; but the law makes no such distinction; and the child of an Asiatic is just as much of a citizen as the child of a European.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2891-2.
Jump up ^ See veto message by President Andrew Johnson.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2891. During the debate on the Amendment, Conness declared, "The proposition before us, I will say, Mr. President, relates simply in that respect to the children begotten of Chinese parents in California, and it is proposed to declare that they shall be citizens. We have declared that by law [the Civil Rights Act]; now it is proposed to incorporate that same provision in the fundamental instrument of the nation. I am in favor of doing so. I voted for the proposition to declare that the children of all parentage, whatever, born in California, should be regarded and treated as citizens of the United States, entitled to equal Civil Rights with other citizens." He further added that "they [the Chinese] all return to their own country at some time or other".
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2891-2. Cowan expressed concern over the prospect of a state not being able to determine its own citizens. In particular, he identified two groups that he felt were unsuitable for citizenship but would have such bestowed upon their children by the Amendment: Chinese and Gypsies, the latter of which he described thus, "who owe to her [Pennsylvania] no allegiance; who pretend to owe none; who recognized no authority in her government; who have a distinct, independent government of their own ...; who pay no taxes; who never perform military service; who do nothing, in fact, which becomes the citizen, and perform none of the duties which devolve upon him, but, on the other hand, have no homes, pretend to own no land, live nowhere, settle as trespassers where ever they go." He subsequently cautioned against adopting the proposed Amendment, "Are these people, by a constitutional amendment, to be put out of the reach of the State in which they live? ... If the mere fact of being born in a country confers that right then they will have it. ... Therefore I think, before we assert broadly that everybody who shall be born in the United States shall be taken to be a citizen of the United States, we ought to exclude others besides Indians not taxed, because I look upon Indians not taxed as being much less pestiferous to society than I look upon Gypsies."
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2893-4.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2893. Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull, participating in the debate, stated the following: "What do we [the committee reporting the clause] mean by 'subject to the jurisdiction of the United States'? Not owing allegiance to anybody else. That is what it means." He then proceeded to expound upon what he meant by "complete jurisdiction": "Can you sue a Navajoe Indian in court? ... We make treaties with them, and therefore they are not subject to our jurisdiction. ... If we want to control the Navajoes, or any other Indians of which the Senator from Wisconsin has spoken, how do we do it? Do we pass a law to control them? Are they subject to our jurisdiction in that sense?. ... Would he [Sen. Doolittle] think of punishing them for instituting among themselves their own tribal regulations? Does the Government of the United States pretend to take jurisdiction of murders and robberies and other crimes committed by one Indian upon another? ... It is only those persons who come completely within our jurisdiction, who are subject to our laws, that we think of making citizens."
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2895. Howard additionally stated the word jurisdiction meant "the same jurisdiction in extent and quality as applies to every citizen of the United States now" and that the United States possessed a "full and complete jurisdiction" over the person described in the amendment.
Jump up ^ Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2894-5.
Jump up ^ Today British nationality is defined in statute, which supersedes the common law.
Jump up ^ Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U.S. 94 (1884).
Jump up ^ Urofsky, Melvin I.; Finkelman, Paul (2002). A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States. 1 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512635-1.
Jump up ^ Birthright Citizenship Under the 14th Amendment of Persons Born in the United States to Alien Parents (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. August 12, 2010. p. 15 (page 18 of the PDF).
Jump up ^ Eric Foner, "Birthright Citizenship Is the Good Kind of American Exceptionalism," The Nation Aug. 27, 2015
Jump up ^ Afroyim v. Rusk 387 U.S. 253 (1967)
Jump up ^ U.S. State Department, Possible Loss of U.S. Citizenship and Dual Nationality. Archived April 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vance v. Terrazas, 444 U.S. 252 (1980): "As we have said, Afroyim requires that the record support a finding that the expatriating act was accompanied by an intent to terminate United States citizenship."
Jump up ^ Saenz v. Roe, 526 U.S. 489 (1999).
Jump up ^ Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873).
Jump up ^ "citizen". Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed.). Thompson Reuters. 2009.
Jump up ^ "7 FAM 1131.6-2 Eligibility for Presidency."
Jump up ^ Sen Hu and Jlellin Dong, eds. (2010). The Rocky Road to Liberty: A Documented History of Chinese Immigration and Exclusion. Javvin. p. 189. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
References[edit]
Congressional Globe (1866). "1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4". Debates and Proceedings, 1833-1873. pp. 2881–3840. covering the dates of May 29 to July 16.
External links[edit]
Ho, James C (2007-03-10). "Can Congress Repeal Birthright Citizenship?". The Los Angeles Times.
Eastman, John. "From Feudalism to Consent: Rethinking Birthright Citizenship", Heritage Foundation, Legal Memorandum #18 (2006-03-30).
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e
United States Fourteenth Amendment case law
[hide]
Citizenship Clause
Slaughter-House Cases (1873)
Elk v. Wilkins (1884)
United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898)
Perez v. Brownell (1958)
Afroyim v. Rusk (1967)
Rogers v. Bellei (1971)
Saenz v. Roe (1999)
[show]
Due Process Clause
Economic substantive
due process
Mugler v. Kansas (1887)
Allgeyer v. Louisiana (1897)
Lochner v. New York (1905)
Coppage v. Kansas (1915)
Adams v. Tanner (1917)
Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923)
Right to privacy
Meyer v. Nebraska (1923)
Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925)
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Doe v. Bolton (1973)
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Bowers v. Hardwick (1986)
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989)
Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)
Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt (2016)
Right to abortion
United States v. Vuitch (1971)
Doe v. Bolton (1973)
Roe v. Wade (1973)
H. L. v. Matheson (1981)
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health (1983)
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989)
Hodgson v. Minnesota (1990)
Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)
Stenberg v. Carhart (2000)
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of New England (2006)
Gonzales v. Carhart (2007)
Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt (2016)
Civil rights liability
under Section 1983
Monroe v. Pape (1961)
McNeese v. Board of Educ. (1963)
Pierson v. Ray (1967)
Jenkins v. McKeithen (1969)
Scheuer v. Rhodes (1974)
Wood v. Strickland (1975)
O'Connor v. Donaldson (1975)
Paul v. Davis (1976)
Imbler v. Pachtman (1976)
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York (1978)
Procunier v. Navarette (1978)
Owen v. City of Independence (1980)
Harlow v. Fitzgerald (1982)
Felder v. Casey (1988)
Will v. Michigan Department of State Police (1989)
Gonzaga University v. Doe (2002)
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community (2003)
City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams (2005)
Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee (2009)
Ashcroft v. Iqbal (2009)
Los Angeles County v. Humphries (2010)
Connick v. Thompson (2011)
Other
Holden v. Hardy (1898)
Muller v. Oregon (1908)
Buck v. Bell (1927)
Powell v. Alabama (1932)
West Coast Hotel v. Parrish (1937)
NAACP v. Alabama (1958)
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Loving v. Virginia (1967)
Epperson v. Arkansas (1968)
In re Winship (1971)
Edwards v. Aguillard (1987)
Troxel v. Granville (2000)
Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. (2009)
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
[show]
Equal Protection Clause
United States v. Cruikshank (1876)
Pace v. Alabama (1883)
Civil Rights Cases (1883)
Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886)
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Buchanan v. Warley (1917)
Lum v. Rice (1927)
Skinner v. Oklahoma (1942)
Perez v. Sharp (1948)
Goesaert v. Cleary (1948)
Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla. (1948)
Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)
Hernandez v. Texas (1954)
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (1964)
Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966)
Loving v. Virginia (1967)
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)
Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson (1971)
Reed v. Reed (1971)
Frontiero v. Richardson (1973)
Craig v. Boren (1976)
Milliken v. Bradley (1974)
Plyler v. Doe (1982)
Romer v. Evans (1996)
Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007)
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
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text:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Nations in which English is an official language (de facto or de jure). Anglosphere countries are those where English is the main native language.
Anglosphere
Official as majority language
Official as minority language
Co-official as majority language
Co-official as minority language
Unofficial[clarification needed]
Not official as majority language
Not official as minority language
All areas of the world that were ever part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.
The following is a list of territories where English is an official language, that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials. In 2015, there were 54 sovereign states and 27 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language. Many country subdivisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level.
The majority of states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire. Notable exceptions include Rwanda, which was formerly a Belgian territory, Cameroon, where only part of national territory were under British mandate, and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were under American rule. English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Caribbean Community, Union of South American Nations and many other international organisations. Although English is de jure not an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language. Only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language.
The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered to be their de facto official language due to its dominant position in these countries.
Contents
1 Sovereign states
2 Non-sovereign entities
3 Country subdivisions
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 References
Sovereign states[edit]
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Country
Region
Population1
Primary language?
Antigua and Barbuda[1] Caribbean 85,000 Yes
Bahamas[1] Caribbean 331,000 Yes
Barbados[2] Caribbean 294,000 Yes
Belize[3] Central America 288,000 Yes
Botswana[3] Africa 1,882,000 No
Burundi[4] Africa 10,114,505 No
Cameroon[1] Africa 22,534,532 No
Canada[1] North America 35,985,751 Yes (except Quebec, northern New Brunswick and Nunavut)
Cook Islands14[1] Oceania 20,000 Yes
Dominica[1] Caribbean 73,000 Yes
Federated States of Micronesia[1] Oceania 110,000 No
Fiji[1] Oceania 828,000 No
The Gambia[1] Africa 1,709,000 No
Ghana[1] Africa 27,000,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Grenada[1] Caribbean 106,000 Yes
Guyana[5] South America 738,000 Yes
India[3][6] Asia 1,247,540,000 No (but official and educational)
Ireland[7][8] Europe 4,581,000 Yes (Irish is first official language)
Jamaica[9] Caribbean 2,714,000 Yes
Kenya[1] Africa 45,010,056 Yes (in business and education)
Kiribati[1] Oceania 95,000 No
Lesotho[1] Africa 2,008,000 No
Liberia[1] Africa 3,750,000 Yes
Malawi[10] Africa 16,407,000 No
Malta[1] Europe 430,000 No (but official and educational)
Marshall Islands[1] Oceania 59,000 No
Mauritius[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 1,262,000 No
Namibia[1] Africa 2,074,000 No (used as lingua franca)
Nauru[11] Oceania 10,000 No
Nepal[12][better source needed] Asia 29,700,002 No (but official and educational)
Nigeria[1][13] Africa 182,202,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Niue14[1] Oceania 1,600 No
Pakistan[1] Asia 199,085,847 No (but official and educational)
Palau[3] Oceania 20,000 No
Papua New Guinea[14][15] Oceania 7,059,653 No
Philippines[1][16] Asia 102,885,100 No (but official and educational)
Rwanda[1] Africa 11,262,564 No (but official and educational)
Saint Kitts and Nevis[17] Caribbean 50,000 Yes
Saint Lucia[1] Caribbean 165,000 Yes
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[18] Caribbean 120,000 Yes
Samoa[19] Oceania 188,000 No
Seychelles[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 87,000 No
Sierra Leone[1] Africa 6,190,280 Yes
Singapore[20] Asia 5,469,700[21] No (but official, mostly and widely spoken, and educational)
Solomon Islands[1] Oceania 507,000 No
South Africa[22] Africa 54,956,900 No (but official, educational and
lingua franca in formal economy )
South Sudan[23] Africa 12,340,000 No
Sudan[1] Africa 40,235,000 No
Swaziland[1] Africa 1,141,000 No
Tanzania[1] Africa 51,820,000 No
Tonga[24] Oceania 100,000 No
Trinidad and Tobago[1] Caribbean 1,333,000 Yes
Tuvalu[3] Oceania 11,000 No
Uganda[1] Africa 37,873,253 No (official and educational)[25]
Vanuatu[26] Oceania 226,000 No
Zambia[1] Africa 16,212,000 No
Zimbabwe[1] Africa 13,061,239 No (used as lingua franca)
Countries where English is a de facto official language
Country
Region
Population
Primary language?
Australia Oceania 25,019,600 Yes
New Zealand[27] Oceania 4,893,830 Yes
United Kingdom Europe 66,040,229 Yes
United States North America 325,719,178 Yes
Countries where English is a de facto official, but not primary language
Country
Region
Population1
Bahrain[28][29] Asia / Middle East 1,378,000
Bangladesh[30] Asia 150,039,000
Brunei[31][32] Asia 415,717
Cyprus[33] Europe 1,141,166
Eritrea[1] Africa 6,234,000
Ethiopia[1] Africa 85,000,000
Israel[34][35][36] Asia / Middle East 8,051,200
Jordan[37] Asia / Middle East 9,882,401
Kuwait[38] Asia / Middle East 4,348,395
Malaysia[39] Asia 30,018,242
Maldives[40] Asia 427,756
Myanmar Asia 51,486,253
Qatar[41] Asia / Middle East 2,675,522
Sri Lanka[42][43] Asia 20,277,597
United Arab Emirates[44] Asia / Middle East 5,779,760
Non-sovereign entities[edit]
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Entity
Region
Population1
Primary language?
Akrotiri and Dhekelia Europe 15,700 No
American Samoa11 Oceania 67,700 No
Anguilla[1] Caribbean 13,101 Yes
Bermuda9[1] North America 65,000 Yes
British Virgin Islands[1] Caribbean 23,000 Yes
Cayman Islands[3] Caribbean 47,000 Yes
Curaçao[45] Caribbean 150,563 No
Falkland Islands South Atlantic 3,000 Yes
Gibraltar[1] Europe 29,257 No
Guam4 Oceania 173,000 No (<50% of population)
Hong Kong2[1] Asia 7,097,600 No (Cantonese mostly spoken)
Isle of Man8 Europe 80,058 Yes
Jersey6[1] Europe 89,300 Yes
Norfolk Island[1] Australia 1,828 Yes
Northern Mariana Islands7 Oceania 53,883 No
Pitcairn Islands13[1] Oceania 50 Yes
Puerto Rico3 Caribbean 3,991,000 No (Spanish is the primary language)
Sint Maarten[46] Caribbean 40,900 No
Turks and Caicos Islands[1] Caribbean 26,000 Yes
U.S. Virgin Islands5 Caribbean 111,000 Yes
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Entity
Region
Population1
British Indian Ocean Territory Indian Ocean 3,000
Guernsey10 Europe 61,811
Montserrat[1] Caribbean 5,900
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha[3] South Atlantic 5,660
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not primary, language
Entity
Region
Population1
Christmas Island12[1] Australia 1,508
Cocos (Keeling) Islands[1] Australia 596
Tokelau[47] Oceania 1,400
Country subdivisions[edit]
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level.
Country subdivisions where English is a de jure official language
Subdivision
Country
Region
Population
Alabama[48] United States North America 4,833,722
Alaska[49] United States North America 735,132
Arizona[50] United States North America 6,626,624
Arkansas[48] United States North America 2,959,373
California[48] United States North America 38,332,521
Colorado[48] United States North America 5,268,367
Florida[48] United States North America 19,552,860
Georgia[48] United States North America 9,992,167
Hawaii[48] United States Oceania 1,404,054
Idaho[48] United States North America 1,612,136
Illinois[48] United States North America 12,882,135
Indiana[48] United States North America 6,570,902
Iowa[48] United States North America 3,090,416
Kansas[48] United States North America 2,893,957
Kentucky[48] United States North America 4,395,295
Louisiana[51] United States North America 4,670,724
Massachusetts[51] United States North America 6,794,422
Mississippi[48] United States North America 2,991,207
Missouri[48] United States North America 6,083,672
Montana[48] United States North America 1,015,165
Nebraska[48] United States North America 1,868,516
New Hampshire[48] United States North America 1,323,459
North Carolina[48] United States North America 9,848,060
North Dakota[48] United States North America 723,393
Northern Ireland United Kingdom Europe
Oklahoma[52] United States North America 3,850,568
Saba[53] Netherlands Caribbean 1,991
San Andrés y Providencia[54] Colombia South America 75,167
Sarawak[55][56][57] Malaysia Asia 2,471,140
Scotland[58] United Kingdom Europe 5,313,600
Sint Eustatius[53] Netherlands Caribbean 3,897
South Carolina[48] United States North America 4,774,839
South Dakota[48] United States North America 844,877
Tennessee[48] United States North America 6,495,978
Texas[48] United States North America 27,469,114
Utah[48] United States North America 2,900,872
Virginia[48] United States North America 8,260,405
Wales[59] United Kingdom Europe 3,063,456
West Virginia[60] United States North America 1,844,128
Wyoming[48] United States North America 582,658
See also[edit]
Commonwealth realms portal
British Empire portal
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
British Empire
Footnotes[edit]
^1 The population figures are based on the sources in List of countries by population, with information as of 23 January 2009 (UN estimates, et al.), and refer to the population of the country and not necessarily to the number of inhabitants that speak English in the country in question.
^2 Hong Kong is a former British Crown colony (1843-1981) and British Dependent Territory (1981-1997); it is currently a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (1997- present)
^3 Puerto Rico is, historically and culturally, connected to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean; Spanish is also an official language on the island. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated United States territory referred to as a "Commonwealth"
^4 Guam is an organized unincorporated territory of the United States
^5 The US Virgin Islands is an insular area of the United States
^6 Jersey is a British Crown dependency
^7 The Northern Mariana Islands is a commonwealth in political union with the United States
^8 Isle of Man is a British Crown dependency
^9 Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory
^10 Guernsey is a British Crown dependency
^11 American Samoa is an unincorporated U.S. territory
^12 Christmas Island is an external territory of Australia
^13 Pitcairn Islands is a British Overseas Territory
^14 The Cook Islands and Niue are associated states of New Zealand that lack general recognition.
^15 Somaliland is a de facto state, recognized internationally as an autonomous region of Somalia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Official language; | work=The World Factbook | accessdate=2009-01-11 | title=Field Listing - Languages }}
Jump up ^ "Society". Government Information Service (Barbados). Archived from the original on 2009-02-13. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g English usage; "Field Listing - Languages". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "English is now official language of Burundi". IWACU English News. 17 July 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Profile". Government Information Agency (Guyana). Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ N. Krishnaswamy; Lalitha Krishnaswamy (6 January 2006). "3.14 English Becomes a Second Language". The story of English in India. Foundation Books. ISBN 978-81-7596-312-2.
Jump up ^ The Constitution
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-06. Retrieved 2013-01-02.
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Jamaica (section 20(6e) ? implicit)
Jump up ^ Malawi Investment Promotion Agency (August 2005). "Opportunities for investment and Trade in Malawi ? the Warm Heart of Africa". Government of Malawi. Archived from the original on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Nauru". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2008-12-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Nauruan are official.
Jump up ^ Nepalese English
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Nigeria". BBC News. April 30, 2008. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "General Information on Papua New Guinea". Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Papua New Guinea". BBC News. 2008-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article XIV". Chanrobles Law Library. 1987. Retrieved October 27, 2007. (See Article XIV, Section 7)
Jump up ^ "Primary Schools". Government of St Christopher (St Kitts) and Nevis. Archived from the original on 2009-01-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "St. Vincent and the Grenadines Profile". Agency for Public Information (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). Archived from the original on 2010-11-12. Retrieved 2011-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Legislations: List of Acts and Ordinances". The Parliament of Samoa. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006. Retrieved 2009-01-18. Languages for official legislation are Samoan and English.
Jump up ^ Wong, Aline (2000-11-24). "Education in a Multicultural Setting - The Singapore Experience". Ministry of Education, Government of Singapore. Archived from the original on 2008-05-04. Retrieved 2009-01-18. There are four official languages: English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil.
Jump up ^ "Statistics Singapore - Latest Data - Population (Mid-Year Estimates)". Statistics Singapore. June 2014. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa". Constitutional Court of South Africa. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of Southern Sudan". Southern Sudan Civil Society Initiative. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
Jump up ^ Kingdom of Tonga (March 2008). "The United Nations / Universal Periodic Review by the United Nations Human Rights Council". Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Tongan are listed as official.
Jump up ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". The University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu". Government of the Republic of Vanuatu. 1980. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand (PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015. In addition to the M?ori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
Jump up ^ "Bahrain: Languages". Britannica Online. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Living in Bahrain". BSB. Archived from the original on June 24, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "[T]eaching of English continued in primary, secondary and tertiary level not because it was the official language but it became thelanguage of trade and commerce. Over the years, the prominence of English continued to rise. ... English language is dominantly present in every side of our national life while on the other hand in our constitution it is clearly declared that the language of the country is Bengali. In fact, nothing is said about the status of English language in our constitution. On one hand, economic activities in the private companies are carried out in English while there is a government law (Bengali procholon ain1987) that government offices must use Bengali in their official works. So from the government point of view Bengali is the national-official language of Bangladesh and English is the most important foreign language. But in reality English is the second language of the country and in many places English is more important than Bengali in Bangladesh." https://www.scribd.com/doc/53272796/Sucess-of-English-language-in-Bangladesh-rec
Jump up ^ English is a "Statutory national working language." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Brunei." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/BN Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1959, Malay is the official language of Brunei; but English may be used "for all official purposes." Laws are written in English and Malay, with the English version being the authoritative one. "Laws of Brunei: Revised Edition. Section 82" (PDF). 1984. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter, eds. (2006). "Greece and Cyprus". Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society / Soziolinguistik: ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft. Handbooks of linguistics and communication science / Handbucher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft. 3 (2nd ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1881?1889.
Jump up ^ Spolsky, Bernard (1999). Round Table on Language and Linguistics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 169?70. ISBN 0-87840-132-6. In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.
Jump up ^ Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava (2004). "Part I: Language and Discourse". In Diskin Ravid, Dorit; Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava. Perspectives on Language and Development: Essays in Honor of Ruth A. Berman. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 90. ISBN 1-4020-7911-7. English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society. ... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc. English behaves 'as if' it were the second and official language in Israel.
Jump up ^ Shohamy, Elana (2006). Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches. Routledge. pp. 72?73. ISBN 0-415-32864-0. In terms of English, there is no connection between the declared policies and statements and de facto practices. While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.
Jump up ^ " English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic." de Gruyter, Walter (2006). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Ulrich Ammon. p. 1921. ISBN 9783110184181. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ " English is widely spoken. It is used in business and is a compulsory second language in schools." "Kuwait Guide". Commisceo Global. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "English remains an active second language, and serves as the medium of instruction for maths and sciences in all public schools. Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the misuse of Malay and has instituted fines for public signs that mix Malay and English." "About Malaysia:Language". My Government: The Government of Malaysia's Official Portal. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Other languages spoken in Maldives include English, which is also recognized as the second main language. Initially, Dhivehi was used as the medium of teaching in schools, but the need to promote higher education led to the conversion of syllabus in English. Now, English is widely spoken by the locals of Maldives." "Maldives Languages". Retrieved Feb 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baker, Colin; Jones, Sylvia Prys (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters. p. 429. ISBN 978-1853593628.
Jump up ^ English is a "De facto national working language, used in government." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Sri Lanka." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/LK Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1978, Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages of Sri Lanka, but English is "the link language." Any person is entitled "to receive communications from, and to communicate and transact business with, any official in his official capacity" in English, to receive an English translation of "any official register, record, publication or other document," and "to communicate and transact business in English." English translations must be made for "all laws and subordinate legislation," "all Orders, Proclamations, rules, by-laws, regulations and notifications." "THE CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA: Chapter IV". 1978. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Hanani, Fatiha (December 2009). Impact of English on Young Arabs' Use of Arabic in the UAE (Master of Arts thesis). American University of Sharjah.
Jump up ^ "LANDSVERORDENING van de 28ste maart 2007 houdende vaststelling van de officiele talen (Landsverordening officiele talen)" (in Dutch). Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
Jump up ^ According to Art. 1 para 2. Constitution of Sint Maarten Archived 2013-03-03 at WebCite: "The official languages are Dutch and English"
Jump up ^ "Associated Countries and External Territories: Tokelau". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Crawford, James (June 24, 2008). "Language Legislation in the U.S.A." languagepolicy.net. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Alaska Supreme Court Upholds State's Official English Law". Business Wire. November 5, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Arizona makes English official". Washington Times. November 8, 2006. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-20. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
Jump up ^ Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010). "Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval". NewsOK. The Oklahoman. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b English can be used in relations with the government
"Invoeringswet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Consulta de la Norma:". alcaldiabogota.gov.co.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak makes English official language along with BM". themalaymailonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia". BorneoPost Online - Borneo, Malaysia, Sarawak Daily News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak adopts English as official language". thesundaily.my.
Jump up ^ Scottish Government. "Scottish Facts and Information". Scotland.org. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ National Assembly for Wales (2012). "National Assembly for Wales (Official Languages) Act 2012". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "West Virginia is the 32nd State to pass Official English". Pro English. March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
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display: none;

values: 英語を公用語としている国の一覧 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Lista de países onde o inglês é a língua oficial – Portuguese

values: Listă de țări în care engleza este limbă oficială – Romanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Список стран, где английский является официальным языком – Russian

values: English as an official language – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: ஆங்கிலத்தை ஆட்சி மொழியாகக் கொண்ட நாடுகளின் பட்டியல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: İngilizcenin resmî dil olduğu ülkelerin listesi – Turkish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Список англомовних країн та регіонів – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: فہرست ممالک انگریزی بطور سرکاری زبان – Urdu

values: 英语国家和地区列表 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-List_of_territorial_entities_where_English_is_an_official_language rootpage-List_of_territorial_entities_where_English_is_an_official_language skin-vector action-view