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Molecule
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For the scientific journal, see Molecules (journal).
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a PTCDA molecule, which contains clusters of five carbon rings.[1]
A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene molecules, which consist of linear chains of five carbon rings.[2]
AFM image of 1,5,9-trioxo-13-azatriangulene and its chemical structure.[3]
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.[4][5][6][7][8] Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules.[9]
A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are generally not considered single molecules.[10]
Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond, quartz, or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes crystals.
Contents
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1 Molecular science
2 History and etymology
3 Bonding
3.1 Covalent
3.2 Ionic
4 Molecular size
5 Molecular formulas
5.1 Chemical formula types
5.2 Structural formula
6 Molecular geometry
7 Molecular spectroscopy
8 Theoretical aspects
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Molecular science[edit]
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose–Einstein condensate.
History and etymology[edit]
Main article: History of molecular theory
According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass.
Molecule (1794) – "extremely minute particle", from French molécule (1678), from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until the late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes.[11][12]
The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties.[13] This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.
Bonding[edit]
Molecules are held together by either covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment. For example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements.[14]
Covalent[edit]
Main article: Covalent bonding
A covalent bond forming H2 (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are termed shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed covalent bonding.[15]
Ionic[edit]
Main article: Ionic bonding
Sodium and fluorine undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically.
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (termed anions).[16] This transfer of electrons is termed electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complicated nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH4+ or SO42−. In simpler words, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell.
Molecular size[edit]
Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.
The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of 0.74 Å.[17]
Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.[18][19] The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples.
Molecular formulas[edit]
Chemical formula types[edit]
Main article: Chemical formula
The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts.
A compound's empirical formula is a very simple type of chemical formula.[20] It is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it.[21] For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely – dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule.
The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different molecules. However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different molecules.
The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example, the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH.
The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.
Structural formula[edit]
Main article: Structural formula
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane
For molecules with a complicated 3-dimensional structure, especially involving atoms bonded to four different substituents, a simple molecular formula or even semi-structural chemical formula may not be enough to completely specify the molecule. In this case, a graphical type of formula called a structural formula may be needed. Structural formulas may in turn be represented with a one-dimensional chemical name, but such chemical nomenclature requires many words and terms which are not part of chemical formulas.
Molecular geometry[edit]
Main article: Molecular geometry
Structure and STM image of a "cyanostar" dendrimer molecule.[22]
Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles— about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity. Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomer, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities.
Molecular spectroscopy[edit]
Main article: Spectroscopy
Hydrogen can be removed from individual H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the rescan image (e). Such manipulations can be used in single-molecule electronics.[23]
Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission.[24] Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).
Microwave spectroscopy commonly measures changes in the rotation of molecules, and can be used to identify molecules in outer space. Infrared spectroscopy measures changes in vibration of molecules, including stretching, bending or twisting motions. It is commonly used to identify the kinds of bonds or functional groups in molecules. Changes in the arrangements of electrons yield absorption or emission lines in ultraviolet, visible or near infrared light, and result in colour. Nuclear resonance spectroscopy actually measures the environment of particular nuclei in the molecule, and can be used to characterise the numbers of atoms in different positions in a molecule.
Theoretical aspects[edit]
The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond. H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons and one negatively charged electron, which means that the Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion. With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry.
When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at least one vibrational state".[4] This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state[25] and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.
Whether or not an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule is inherently an operational definition. Philosophically, therefore, a molecule is not a fundamental entity (in contrast, for instance, to an elementary particle); rather, the concept of a molecule is the chemist's way of making a useful statement about the strengths of atomic-scale interactions in the world that we observe.
See also[edit]
Atom
Chemical polarity
Covalent bond
Diatomic molecule
List of compounds
List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
Molecular design software
Molecular engineering
Molecular geometry
Molecular Hamiltonian
Molecular ion
Molecular modelling
Molecular orbital
Non-covalent bonding
Periodic systems of small molecules
Small molecule
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Van der Waals molecule
World Wide Molecular Matrix
Chemistry portal
Molecular and cell biology portal
Physics portal
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Chandra, Sulekh (2005). Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry. New Age Publishers. ISBN 81-224-1512-1.
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Jump up ^ Roger L. DeKock; Harry B. Gray; Harry B. Gray (1989). Chemical structure and bonding. University Science Books. p. 199. ISBN 0-935702-61-X.
Jump up ^ Chang RL; Deen WM; Robertson CR; Brenner BM (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall: III. Restricted transport of polyanions". Kidney Int. 8 (4): 212–218. PMID 1202253. doi:10.1038/ki.1975.104.
Jump up ^ Chang RL; Ueki IF; Troy JL; Deen WM; Robertson CR; Brenner BM (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall to macromolecules. II. Experimental studies in rats using neutral dextran". Biophys J. 15 (9): 887–906. Bibcode:1975BpJ....15..887C. PMC 1334749  . PMID 1182263. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(75)85863-2.
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Jump up ^ "ChemTeam: Empirical Formula". www.chemteam.info. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
Jump up ^ Hirsch, Brandon E.; Lee, Semin; Qiao, Bo; Chen, Chun-Hsing; McDonald, Kevin P.; Tait, Steven L.; Flood, Amar H. (2014). "Anion-induced dimerization of 5-fold symmetric cyanostars in 3D crystalline solids and 2D self-assembled crystals". Chemical Communications. 50 (69): 9827–30. PMID 25080328. doi:10.1039/C4CC03725A.
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Jump up ^ Anderson JB (May 2004). "Comment on "An exact quantum Monte Carlo calculation of the helium-helium intermolecular potential" [J. Chem. Phys. 115, 4546 (2001)]". J Chem Phys. 120 (20): 9886–7. Bibcode:2004JChPh.120.9886A. PMID 15268005. doi:10.1063/1.1704638.
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text:
Mantle (geology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Mantle (disambiguation).
The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some other rocky planetary bodies. For a mantle to form, the planetary body must be large enough to have undergone the process of planetary differentiation by density. The mantle is bounded on the bottom by the planetary core and on top by the crust. The terrestrial planets (Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury), the Moon, two of Jupiter's moons (Io and Europa) and the asteroid Vesta each have a mantle made of silicate rock.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two other moons of Jupiter (Ganymede and Callisto), as well as Titan and Triton, each have a mantle made of ice or other solid volatile substances.[9][10][11][12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Earth's mantle
1.1 Structure
1.2 Characteristics
1.3 Temperature
1.4 Movement
1.5 Exploration
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Earth's mantle
The internal structure of Earth
The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers of different composition. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometres (1,793 mi).[13] The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume.[14] It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which makes up about 15% of Earth's volume.[14] Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface.[15] Information about the structure and composition of the mantle has been obtained from geophysical investigation and from direct geoscientific analyses of Earth mantle-derived xenoliths and mantle that has been exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.
Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner asthenosphere composed of plastic flowing rock of varying thickness, on average about 200 km (120 mi) thick,[16] and the lowermost part of the lithosphere composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km (31 to 75 mi) thick.[17] A thin crust, the upper part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km (3.1 to 46.6 mi) thick.[18] Recent analysis of hydrous ringwoodite from the mantle suggests that there is between one[19] and three[20] times as much water in the transition zone between the lower and upper mantle than in all the world's oceans combined.[21]
In some places under the ocean the mantle is actually exposed on the surface of Earth.[22] There are also a few places on land where mantle rock has been pushed to the surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands region of Gros Morne National Park in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador and Zabargad Island (St. John's Island) in the Red Sea. (Also Macquarie Island, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Troodos Ophiolite, Lizard Complex, Semail Ophiolite, and other ophiolites)
Structure
The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from seismology. These layers (and their thicknesses/depths) are the following: the upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around 7 to 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi) downward to 410 km (250 mi)),[23] the transition zone (410–660 km or 250–410 mi), the lower mantle (660–2,891 km or 410–1,796 mi), and anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness (on average ~200 km (120 mi) thick).[15][24][25][26]
The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which was first noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or "Moho".[24][27] The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km (120 mi). Below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the seismic shear velocity is reduced; this so-called low-velocity zone (LVZ) extends down to a depth of several hundred km. Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about 220 km (140 mi) depth;[28] although this discontinuity has been found in other studies, it is not known whether the discontinuity is ubiquitous. The transition zone is an area of great complexity; it physically separates the upper and lower mantle.[26] Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous. The D" layer at the core–mantle boundary separates the mantle from the core.[15][24] In 2015, research using gravitational data from GRACE satellites and the long wavelength nonhydrostatic geoid indicated viscosity[29] increases by a factor of ten to 150 about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) below earth's surface; separate research also indicates sinking tectonic plates stall at this depth, leading Robert van der Hilst to speculate "In term's of structure and dynamics, 1,000 kilometers could be more important" (than the currently accepted 660 km depth upper—lower division).[30] The lower mantle also contains some discontinueous zones, called "thermochemical piles" which have been interpreted as either thermally differentiated, upwellings bringing warmer material towards the surface, or as chemically differentiated material.[31] A principal source of the heat that drives plate tectonics is the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[32]
Characteristics
The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its mechanical properties as the direct consequence of the difference in composition (expressed as different mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types, rheology and seismic characteristics. The crust is a solidification product of mantle derived melts, expressed as various degrees of partial melting products during geologic time. Partial melting of mantle material is believed to cause incompatible elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense material floating upward through pore spaces, cracks, or fissures, that would subsequently cool and solidify at the surface. Typical mantle rocks have a higher magnesium to iron ratio and a smaller proportion of silicon and aluminium than the crust. This behavior is also predicted by experiments that partly melt rocks thought to be representative of Earth's mantle.
Mapping the interior of the Earth with earthquake waves.
Mantle rocks shallower than about 410 km (250 mi) depth consist mostly of olivine, pyroxenes, spinel-structure minerals, and garnet;[26] typical rock types are thought to be peridotite,[26] dunite (olivine-rich peridotite), and eclogite. Between about 400 km (250 mi) and 650 km (400 mi) depth, olivine is not stable and is replaced by high pressure polymorphs with approximately the same composition: one polymorph is wadsleyite (also called beta-spinel type), and the other is ringwoodite (a mineral with the gamma-spinel structure). Below about 650 km (400 mi), all of the minerals of the upper mantle begin to become unstable. The most abundant minerals present, the silicate perovskites, have structures (but not compositions) like that of the mineral perovskite followed by the magnesium/iron oxide ferropericlase.[33] The changes in mineralogy at about 400 and 650 km (250 and 400 mi) yield distinctive signatures in seismic records of the Earth's interior, and like the moho, are readily detected using seismic waves. These changes in mineralogy may influence mantle convection, as they result in density changes and they may absorb or release latent heat as well as depress or elevate the depth of the polymorphic phase transitions for regions of different temperatures. The changes in mineralogy with depth have been investigated by laboratory experiments that duplicate high mantle pressures, such as those using the diamond anvil.[34]
Composition of Earth's mantle in weight percent[35] [36]
Element
Amount
Compound
Amount
O 44.8
Mg 22.8 SiO2 46
Si 21.5 MgO 37.8
Fe 5.8 FeO 7.5
Ca 2.3 Al2O3 4.2
Al 2.2 CaO 3.2
Na 0.3 Na2O 0.4
K 0.03 K2O 0.04
Sum 99.7 Sum 99.1
The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the mantle solid/plastic. This is because of the relative melting points of the different layers (nickel–iron core, silicate crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the surface both nickel–iron alloys and silicates are sufficiently cool to be solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates are generally solid (localised regions with small amounts of melt exist); however, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively little pressure, the rock in the upper mantle has a relatively low viscosity. In contrast, the lower mantle is under tremendous pressure and therefore has a higher viscosity than the upper mantle. The metallic nickel–iron outer core is liquid because of the high temperature, despite the high pressure. As the pressure increases, the nickel–iron inner core becomes solid because the melting point of iron increases dramatically at these high pressures.[37]
Temperature
In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust; to over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the boundary with the core.[37] Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface (about 1200 °C for representative peridotite), the mantle is almost exclusively solid.[37] The enormous lithostatic pressure exerted on the mantle prevents melting, because the temperature at which melting begins (the solidus) increases with pressure.
Movement
Main article: Mantle convection
This figure is a snapshot of one time-step in a model of mantle convection. Colors closer to red are hot areas and colors closer to blue are cold areas. In this figure, heat received at the core–mantle boundary results in thermal expansion of the material at the bottom of the model, reducing its density and causing it to send plumes of hot material upwards. Likewise, cooling of material at the surface results in its sinking.
Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle.[24] Hot material upwells, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries called subduction zones. Locations on the surface that lie over plumes are predicted to have high elevation (because of the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and to exhibit hot spot volcanism. The volcanism often attributed to deep mantle plumes is alternatively explained by passive extension of the crust, permitting magma to leak to the surface (the "Plate" hypothesis).[38]
The convection of the Earth's mantle is a chaotic process (in the sense of fluid dynamics), which is thought to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with continental drift which applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within Earth's mantle.
Although there is a tendency to larger viscosity at greater depth, this relation is far from linear and shows layers with dramatically decreased viscosity, in particular in the upper mantle and at the boundary with the core.[39] The mantle within about 200 km (120 mi) above the core–mantle boundary appears to have distinctly different seismic properties than the mantle at slightly shallower depths; this unusual mantle region just above the core is called D″ ("D double-prime"), a nomenclature introduced over 50 years ago by the geophysicist Keith Bullen.[40] D″ may consist of material from subducted slabs that descended and came to rest at the core–mantle boundary and/or from a new mineral polymorph discovered in perovskite called post-perovskite.
Earthquakes at shallow depths are a result of stick-slip faulting; however, below about 50 km (31 mi) the hot, high pressure conditions ought to inhibit further seismicity. The mantle is considered to be viscous and incapable of brittle faulting. However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi). A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, including dehydration, thermal runaway, and phase change. The geothermal gradient can be lowered where cool material from the surface sinks downward, increasing the strength of the surrounding mantle, and allowing earthquakes to occur down to a depth of 400 km (250 mi) and 670 km (420 mi).
The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~136 GPa (1.4 million atm).[26] Pressure increases as depth increases, since the material beneath has to support the weight of all the material above it. The entire mantle, however, is thought to deform like a fluid on long timescales, with permanent plastic deformation accommodated by the movement of point, line, and/or planar defects through the solid crystals comprising the mantle. Estimates for the viscosity of the upper mantle range between 1019 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth,[39] temperature, composition, state of stress, and numerous other factors. Thus, the upper mantle can only flow very slowly. However, when large forces are applied to the uppermost mantle it can become weaker, and this effect is thought to be important in allowing the formation of tectonic plate boundaries.
Exploration
Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the relative thinness of the oceanic crust as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust.
The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost over-runs. The deepest penetration was approximately 180 m (590 ft). In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached 1,416 metres (4,646 ft) below the sea floor from the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution.
On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the RRS James Cook embarked on a voyage to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle lies exposed without any crust covering, midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Caribbean Sea. The exposed site lies approximately three kilometres beneath the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometres.[41][42] A relatively difficult attempt to retrieve samples from the Earth's mantle was scheduled for later in 2007.[43] The Chikyu Hakken mission attempted to use the Japanese vessel Chikyū to drill up to 7,000 m (23,000 ft) below the seabed. This is nearly three times as deep as preceding oceanic drillings.
A novel method of exploring the uppermost few hundred kilometres of the Earth was recently proposed, consisting of a small, dense, heat-generating probe which melts its way down through the crust and mantle while its position and progress are tracked by acoustic signals generated in the rocks.[44] The probe consists of an outer sphere of tungsten about one metre in diameter with a cobalt-60 interior acting as a radioactive heat source. It was calculated that such a probe will reach the oceanic Moho in less than 6 months and attain minimum depths of well over 100 km (62 mi) in a few decades beneath both oceanic and continental lithosphere.[45]
Exploration can also be aided through computer simulations of the evolution of the mantle. In 2009, a supercomputer application provided new insight into the distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of iron, from when the mantle developed 4.5 billion years ago.[46]
See also
Core–mantle boundary
Earth's internal heat budget
Lehmann discontinuity
Mantle xenoliths
Mantle convection
Mesosphere (mantle)
Mohorovičić discontinuity
Numerical modeling (geology)
Post-perovskite phase transition
Primitive mantle
References
Jump up ^ "Earth Structure". Trinity University, Texas. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Zharkov, V. N. & Zasurskii, I. Ia. (1981). "Distribution of the shearing stresses in the silicate mantle of Venus". Astronomicheskii Vestnik. 15: 11–16.
Jump up ^ Longhi, John; et al. (1992). "The bulk composition, mineralogy and internal structure of Mars". Mars (A93-27852 09-91). University of Arizona Press, Tucson. pp. 184–208. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "MESSENGER Provides New Look at Mercury's surprising core and landscape curiosities". NASA. 21 March 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Moon ABCs Fact Sheet" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ NASA (6 October 2000). "Scientists Show Jovian Moon Io's Mantle is Similar to Earth". NASA. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Europa". NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Neumann, W.; et al. (2014). "Differentiation of Vesta: Implications for a shallow magma ocean". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 395: 267–280. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.033.
Jump up ^ "Ganymede: In Depth". NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Callisto: In Depth". NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Layers of Titan". NASA. 23 February 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Triton: In Depth". NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Sorokhtin, O.G.; Chilingarian, G.V.; Sorokhtin, N.O. (2011). Evolution of Earth and its climate birth, life and death of Earth. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Ltd. p. 137. ISBN 9780444537584. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Robertson, Eugene (2007). "The interior of the earth". USGS. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The structure of the Earth". Moorland School. 2005. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Graham R.; Turk, Jonathan (2007). Earth science and the environment (4th ed., International student edition. ed.). Australia: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. 133–134. ISBN 9780495112877. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Lithosphere: Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary. Glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
Jump up ^ Crust: Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary. Glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
Jump up ^ "Rare Diamond confirms that Earth's mantle holds an ocean's worth of water". Scientific American. March 12, 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Schmandt, Brandon; Jacobsen, Steven D.; Becker, Thorsten W.; Liu, Zhenxian; Dueker, Kenneth G. (13 June 2014). "Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle". Science. 344 (6189): 1265–1268. doi:10.1126/science.1253358. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Bob Yirka (June 8, 2017). "Study suggests mid-mantle holds as much water as Earth's oceans". Phys.org. Retrieved June 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mission to Study Earth's Gaping 'Open Wound'. LiveScience. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
Jump up ^ The location of the base of the crust varies from approximately 10 to 70 kilometers. Oceanic crust is generally less than 10 kilometers thick. "Standard" continental crust is around 35 kilometers thick, and the large crustal root under the Tibetan Plateau is approximately 70 kilometers thick.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Alden, Andrew (2007). "Today's Mantle: a guided tour". About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ The Mantle. mediatheek.thinkquest.nl (2000)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Burns, Roger George (1993). Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 354. ISBN 0-521-43077-1. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
Jump up ^ "Istria on the Internet – Prominent Istrians – Andrija Mohorovicic". 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Carlowicz, Michael (2005). "Inge Lehmann biography". American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Rudoph, Maxwell (11 December 2015). "Viscosity jump in Earth's mid-mantle". Science. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Sumner, Thomas (10 December 2015). "Gooey rock in mantle thickens 1,000 kilometers down". Science News. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Garnero, Edward J.; McNamara, Allen K.; Shim, Sang-Heon (2016). "Continent-sized anomalous zones with low seismic velocity at the base of Earth's mantle". Nature Geoscience. 9: 481–489. doi:10.1038/NGEO2733.
Jump up ^ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) is a Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science lab managed by University of California., What Keeps the Earth Cooking? News Release by Paul Preuss, July 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Anderson, Don L. (2007) New Theory of the Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84959-3, ISBN 0-521-84959-4
Jump up ^ Alden, Andrew. "The Big Squeeze: Into the Mantle". About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ mantle@Everything2.com. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Ian (1998). The Earth's Mantle - Composition, Structure, and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. pp. 311–378. ISBN 0-521-78566-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Louie, J. (1996). "Earth's Interior". University of Nevada, Reno. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
Jump up ^ Foulger, G.R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6148-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Walzer, Uwe; Hendel, Roland and Baumgardner, John. Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings. igw.uni-jena.de
Jump up ^ Alden, Andrew. "The End of D-Double-Prime Time?". About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Than, Ker (2007-03-01). "Scientists to study gash on Atlantic seafloor". Msnbc.com. Retrieved 2008-03-16. A team of scientists will embark on a voyage next week to study an “open wound” on the Atlantic seafloor where the Earth’s deep interior lies exposed without any crust covering.
Jump up ^ "Earth's Crust Missing In Mid-Atlantic". Science Daily. 2007-03-02. Retrieved 2008-03-16. Cardiff University scientists will shortly set sail (March 5) to investigate a startling discovery in the depths of the Atlantic.
Jump up ^ "Japan hopes to predict 'Big One' with journey to center of Earth". PhysOrg.com. 2005-12-15. Archived from the original on 2005-12-19. Retrieved 2008-03-16. An ambitious Japanese-led project to dig deeper into the Earth's surface than ever before will be a breakthrough in detecting earthquakes including Tokyo's dreaded "Big One," officials said Thursday.
Jump up ^ Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F., Poluektov P.P., Emets E.P. 2005. Probing of the interior layers of the Earth with self-sinking capsules. Atomic Energy, 99, 556–562
Jump up ^ Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F. "Exploring the Earth’s Crust and Mantle Using Self-Descending, Radiation-Heated, Probes and Acoustic Emission Monitoring". Chapter 7. In: Nuclear Waste Research: Siting, Technology and Treatment, ISBN 978-1-60456-184-5, Editor: Arnold P. Lattefer, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2008
Jump up ^ University of California – Davis (2009-06-15). Super-computer Provides First Glimpse Of Earth's Early Magma Interior. ScienceDaily. Retrieved on 2009-06-16.
Further reading
Don L. Anderson, Theory of the Earth, Blackwell (1989), is a textbook dealing with the Earth's interior and is now available on the web. Retrieved 2007-12-23.
Jeanloz, Raymond (2000). "Mantle of the Earth". In Haraldur Sigurdsson; Bruce Houghton; Hazel Rymer; John Stix; Steve McNutt. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 41–54. ISBN 978-0-12-643140-7. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
Nixon, Peter H. (1987). Mantle xenoliths: J. Wiley & Sons, 844p., (ISBN 0-471-91209-3).
Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert, Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, Third Edition (2014), ISBN 978-1-107-00653-9 (Hardback) ISBN 978-0-521-18623-0 (Paperback)
External links
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
The Biggest Dig: Japan builds a ship to drill to the earth's mantle – Scientific American (September 2005)
Information on the Mohole Project
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