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Dice
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For other uses, see Dice (disambiguation).
Four traditional dice showing all six different sides
Dice (singular die or dice;[1] from Old French dé; from Latin datum "something which is given or played"[2]) are small throwable objects with multiple resting positions, used for generating random numbers. Dice are suitable as gambling devices for games like craps and are also used in non-gambling tabletop games.
A traditional die is a cube, with each of its six faces showing a different number of dots (pips) from 1 to 6. When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing on its upper surface a random integer from one to six, each value being equally likely. A variety of similar devices are also described as dice; such specialized dice may have polyhedral or irregular shapes and may have faces marked with symbols instead of numbers. They may be used to produce results other than one through six. Loaded and crooked dice are designed to favor some results over others for purposes of cheating or amusement.
A dice tray, a tray used to contain thrown dice, is sometimes used for gambling or board games, in particular to allow dice throws which do not interfere with other game pieces.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Usage
3 Construction
3.1 Arrangement
3.2 Manufacturing
3.3 Terms
3.4 Unicode representation
4 Loaded dice
5 Variants
5.1 Polyhedral dice
5.1.1 Standard variations
5.1.2 Rarer variations
5.2 Non-numeric
5.3 Spherical dice
6 Applications
6.1 Notation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Composite image of all sides of a 12mm Roman die, found in Leicestershire, England
Bone die found at Cantonment Clinch (1823–1834), a fort used in the American Civil War
A collection of historical dice from various regions of Asia
Dice have been used since before recorded history, and it is uncertain where they originated. The oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800–2500 BCE.[3] Other excavations from ancient tombs in the Indus Valley civilization indicate a South Asian origin.[4]
The Egyptian game of Senet was played with dice. Senet was played before 3000 BC and up to the 2nd century AD. It was likely a racing game, but there is no scholarly consensus on the rules of Senet.[5] Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda and the early Buddhist games list.[6] There are several biblical references to "casting lots", as in Psalm 22, indicating that dicing (or a related activity) was commonplace when the psalm was composed. It is theorized that dice developed from the practice of fortunetelling with the talus of hoofed animals, colloquially known as "knucklebones", but knucklebones is not the oldest divination technique that incorporates randomness.[7] Knucklebones was a game of skill played by women and children; a derivative form had the four sides of the bone receive different values and count as modern dice.[8]
Knucklebones die, made of steatite
Although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere ("to play at dice"). Dicing was even a popular pastime of emperors. Letters by Augustus to Tacitus and his daughter recount his hobby of dicing. There were two sizes of Roman dice. Tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six.[9] Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century AD [10] and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BC.[11]
Dominoes and playing cards originated in China as developments from dice. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty, and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books.[12] In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku. There are two types of sugoroku. Ban-sugoroku is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period, while e-sugoroku is a racing game.[13]
Usage[edit]
Dice are thrown onto a flat surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a dice cup). The face of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. One typical dice game today is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice. Dice are frequently used to randomize moves in board games, usually by deciding the distance through which a piece will move along the board; examples of this are backgammon and Monopoly.
The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics. A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; They are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator. Perhaps to mitigate against concerns that the pips on the faces of certain styles of dice cause a small bias,[citation needed] casinos use precision dice with flush markings.
Construction[edit]
Arrangement[edit]
Chirality of dice. Faces may be placed counterclockwise (top) or clockwise.
Common dice are small cubes most commonly 1.6 cm (0.63 in) across,[citation needed] whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips. (While the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.)
Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, implying that the 1, 2 and 3 faces share a vertex.[14] The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex. If the 1, 2 and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called "right-handed", and if those faces run clockwise, the die is called "left-handed". Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed.[15]
Typical facets showing the more compact pip arrangement of an Asian-style die (top) vs. a Western-style die(bottom).
The pips on dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown. Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides. One possible explanation is that red fours are of Indian origin.[15][16] In some older sets, the "one" pip is a colorless depression.
Manufacturing[edit]
Western, Asian and casino dice
Non-precision dice are manufactured via the plastic injection molding process. The pips or numbers on the die are a part of the mold. The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry. The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing. The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering. A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die. This process also creates the smoother, rounded edges on the dice.[17]
Precision casino dice may have a polished or sand finish, making them transparent or translucent respectively. Casino dice have their pips drilled, then filled flush with a paint of the same density as the material used for the dice, such that the center of gravity of the dice is as close to the geometric center as possible. All such dice are stamped with a serial number to prevent potential cheaters from substituting a die. Precision backgammon dice are made the same way; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface.
Terms[edit]
While the terms ace, deuce, trey, cater, cinque and sice are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice. Ace is from the Latin as, meaning "a unit";[18] the others are 2 to 6 in old French.[19]
Unicode representation[edit]
Using Unicode characters, the faces ⚀ ⚁ ⚂ ⚃ ⚄ ⚅, can be shown in text using the range U+2680 to U+2685 or using decimal ⚀ to ⚅.[20]
Loaded dice[edit]
A loaded, weighted, or crooked die is one that has been tampered with so that it will land with a specific side facing upwards more or less often than a fair die would. There are several methods for creating loaded dice, including rounded faces, off-square faces and weights. Transparent acetate dice are used by casinos as they are harder to tamper with than other dice.
Variants[edit]
Polyhedral dice[edit]
A typical set of roleplaying dice in various colors. They consist of the five Platonic solids, along with a ten-sided die that is also used for generating percentages.
Around the end of the 1960s, non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames,[21] and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games. The numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, are distinguished with a dot or underline.
Standard variations[edit]
Further information: isohedron
Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes. Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons. Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated. The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices. Such sets frequently include a second 10-sided die either of contrasting color or numbered by tens, allowing for a pair of 10-sided dice to generate numbers between 1 and 100.
Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate the real probability distributions of the events they simulate. For instance, 10-sided dice can be rolled in pairs to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions.[22]
Unlike other common dice, a four-sided die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it has to be read in a different way. Many such dice have the numbers printed around the points, so that when it settles, the numbers at the vertex pointing up are the same and are read. Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middles of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are read.
Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces (this is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd-number of faces). Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces.
Faces/
Sides
Shape
Notes
4 Tetrahedron Each face has three numbers, arranged such that the upright number, placed either near the vertex or near the opposite edge, is the same on all three visible faces. The upright numbers represent the value of the roll. This die does not roll well and thus it is usually thrown into the air instead.
6 Cube A common die. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is seven.
8 Octahedron Each face is triangular and the die resembles two square pyramids attached base-to-base. Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.
10 Pentagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite. The die has two sharp corners, where five kites meet, and ten blunter corners, where three kites meet. The ten faces usually bear numbers from zero to nine, rather than one to ten (zero being read as "ten" in many applications). Often all odd numbered faces converge at one sharp corner, and the even ones at the other. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 9 (if numbered 0–9) or 11 (if numbered 1–10).
12 Dodecahedron Each face is a regular pentagon. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 13.
20 Icosahedron Faces are equilateral triangles. Icosahedrons have been found dating to Roman/Ptolemaic times, but it is not known if they were used as gaming dice. Modern dice with 20 sides are sometimes numbered 0–9 twice as an alternative to 10-sided dice. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 21 if numbered 1–20.
Rarer variations[edit]
"Uniform fair dice" are dice where all faces have equal probability of outcome, which follows from the symmetry of the die (as it is face-transitive), and include:
Platonic solids, the five regular polyhedra: 4, 6, 8, 12, 20 sides
Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides
Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any even number above 4, and usually divisible by 4 so that a face will face up
Trapezohedrons, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number above 4
Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides
A variation on the standard die is known as the "average" die.[23][24] These are six-sided dice with sides numbered 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, which have the same aritmetic mean as a standard die (3.5 for a single die, 7 for a pair of dice), but have a narrower range of possible values (2 through 5 for one, 4 through 10 for a pair). They are used in some table-top wargames, where a narrower range of numbers is required.[24]
Dice with an odd number of flat faces can be made as "long dice".[25] They are based on an infinite set of prisms. All the (rectangular) faces they may actually land on are congruent, so they are equally fair. (The other 2 sides of the prism are rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die never actually rests on those faces.)
Faces/
sides
Shape
Image
Notes
1 Möbius Strip or Sphere Most commonly a joke die, this is either a sphere with a 1 marked on it or shaped like a Möbius strip.
2 Cylinder A coin flip. Some coins with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other are available, but most simply use a common coin.
3 Rounded-off
triangular prism This is a rounded-off triangular prism, intended to be rolled like a rolling-pin style die. The die is rounded-off at the edges to make it impossible for it to somehow land on the triangular sides, which makes it look a bit like a jewel. When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards. On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3). The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll. Another possible shape is the "American football" or "rugby ball" shape, where the ends are pointed (with rounded points) rather than just rounded. A third variety features faces that resemble warped squares.
5 Triangular prism This is a prism that is thin enough to land either on its "edge" or "face". When landing on an edge, the result is displayed by digits (2–4) close to the prism's top edge. The triangular faces are labeled with the digits 1 and 5.
7 Pentagonal prism Similar in constitution to the 5-sided die. Seven-sided dice are used in a seven-player variant of backgammon. Seven-sided dice are described in the 13th century Libro de los juegos as having been invented by Alfonso X in order to speed up play in chess variants.[26][27]
12 Rhombic dodecahedron Each face is a rhombus.
14 Heptagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite.
16 Octagonal bipyramid Each face is an isosceles triangle.
18 Rounded rhombicuboctahedron 18 faces are squares; the 8 triangular faces are rounded and cannot be landed on.
24 Triakis octahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Tetrakis hexahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Deltoidal icositetrahedron Each face is a kite.
Pentagonal icositetrahedron Each face is an irregular pentagon.
30 Rhombic triacontahedron Each face is a rhombus. Although not included in most dice sets, it can be found in most hobby and game stores.
34 Heptadecagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite.
48 Disdyakis dodecahedron Each face is a scalene triangle.
50 Icosakaipentagonal trapezohedron The faces of the 50-sided die are kites, although very narrow, but numbered 0-49 (0 read as 50 in many applications).
60 Deltoidal hexecontahedron Each face is a kite.
Pentakis dodecahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Pentagonal hexecontahedron Each face is an irregular pentagon.
Triakis icosahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
100 Zocchihedron 100-sided dice can be found in hobby and game stores. They are made by flattening 100 facets on a sphere, but are not truly "uniform fair dice".
120 Disdyakis triacontahedron Each face is a scalene triangle.
Non-numeric[edit]
A set of Fudge dice
The faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits. However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers. Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for Warhammer Fantasy Battle, Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice.
Spherical dice[edit]
A spherical die
A die can be constructed in the shape of a sphere, with the addition of an internal cavity in the shape of the dual polyhedron of the desired die shape and an internal weight. The weight will settle in one of the points of the internal cavity, causing it to settle with one of the numbers uppermost. For instance, a sphere with an octahedral cavity and a small internal weight will settle with one of the 6 points of the cavity held downwards by the weight.
Applications[edit]
Typical role-playing dice, showing a variety of colors and styles. Note the older hand-inked green 12-sided die (showing an 11), manufactured before pre-inked dice were common. Many players collect or acquire a large number of mixed and unmatching dice.
Polyhedral dice are commonly used in role-playing games. The fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) is largely credited with popularizing dice in such games. Some games use only one type, like Exalted which uses only ten-sided dice. Others use numerous types for different game purposes, such as D&D, which makes use of all common polyhedral dice. Dice are usually used to determine the outcome of events. Games typically determine results either as a total on one or more dice above or below a fixed number, or a certain number of rolls above a certain number on one or more dice. Due to circumstances or character skill, the initial roll may have a number added to or subtracted from the final result, or have the player roll extra or fewer dice. To keep track of rolls easily, dice notation is frequently used.
Many board games use dice to randomize how far pieces move or to settle conflicts. Typically, this has meant that rolling higher numbers is better. Some games, such as Axis & Allies, have inverted this system by making the lower values more potent. In the modern age, a few games and game designers have approached dice in a different way by making each side of the die similarly valuable. In Castles of Burgundy, players spend their dice to take actions based on the die's value. In this game, a six is not better than a one, or vice versa. In Quarriors (and its descendent, Dicemasters), different sides of the dice can offer completely different abilities. Several sides often give resources while others grant the player useful actions.[28]
Dice can be used for divination and using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy. A pair of common dice is usual, though other forms of polyhedra can be used. Tibetan Buddhists sometimes use this method of divination. It is highly likely that the Pythagoreans used the Platonic solids as dice. They referred to such dice as "the dice of the gods" and they sought to understand the universe through an understanding of geometry in polyhedra.[29]
Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination; the first die represents planets, the Sun, the Moon, and the nodes of the Moon, the second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. A specialized icosahedron die provides the answers of the Magic 8-Ball, conventionally used to provide answers to yes-or-no questions.
Notation[edit]
Main article: Dice notation
In many gaming contexts, especially tabletop role-playing games, shorthand notations representing different dice rolls are used. A "d" or "D" is used to indicate a die with a specific number of sides; for example, d4 denotes a four-sided die. If several dice of the same type are to be rolled, this is indicated by a leading number specifying the number of dice. Hence, 6d8 means the player should roll six eight-sided dice and add the results. Modifiers to a die roll can also be indicated as desired. For example, 3d6+4 instructs the player to roll three six-sided dice, calculate the total, and add four to it.
See also[edit]
Medieval People at Play, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
Crown and Anchor
d20 System
Dreidel
Fuzzy dice
Musikalisches Würfelspiel
Nontransitive dice
Quincunx
Sicherman dice
Teetotum
Urim and Thummim
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Definition of dice in English, Oxford Dictionaries
Jump up ^ "die". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
Jump up ^ "presstv.ir". presstv.ir. April 11, 2007. Archived from the original on June 20, 2007. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ Possehl, Gregory. "Meluhha". In: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996a, 133–208
Jump up ^ Finkel, Irving (2008). "Board Games". Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58839-295-4.
Jump up ^ 2.3, 4.38, 6.118, 7.52, 7.109
Jump up ^ Laird, Jay (2009). Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society. SAGE Publications. pp. 171–173. ISBN 978-1-4522-6610-7.
Jump up ^ Good, Alexandra. "Knucklebones". Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum. Retrieved 2015-04-16.
Jump up ^ Matz, David (2002). Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-313-30326-5.
Jump up ^ "christies.com". christies.com. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) with faces inscribed with Greek letters". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Ronan, Colin; Needham, Joseph (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9.
Jump up ^ Salter, Rebecca (2006). "Board Games". Japanese Popular Prints: From Votive Slips to Playing Cards. University of Hawaii Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-8248-3083-0.
Jump up ^ Cf. Greek Anthology Book 14, §8: "The Opposite Pairs of Numbers on a Die. The numbers on a die run so: six one, five two, three four."
^ Jump up to: a b "Standard Dice". Archived from the original on July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Chinese Dice". Elliott Avedon Museum & Archive of Games. Archived from the original on 2008-05-01.
Jump up ^ How Dice Are Made from Awesome Dice
Jump up ^ "ace". AskOxford. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ Conant, Levi Leonard (1896). The Number Concept: Its Origin and Development. Macmillan. p. 124.
Jump up ^ "Dice faces in block Miscellaneous Symbols" (PDF). The Unicode standard.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Jon (July 2012). Playing at the World: A History of Simulating Wars, People and Fantastic Adventures, from Chess to Role-Playing Games. Unreason Press. pp. 315–318. ISBN 978-0-615-64204-8.
Jump up ^ Paret, Michelle; Martz, Eston (2009). "Tumbling Dice & Birthdays: Understanding the Central Limit Theorem" (PDF). Minitab. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Specialist D6". em4miniatures. Retrieved 2017-08-18.
^ Jump up to: a b "[TMP] 'What are Average Dice' Topic". The Miniatures Page. 2009-11-20. Retrieved 2017-08-18.
Jump up ^ Kybos, Alea. "Properties of Dice" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2012-10-07.
Jump up ^ "games.rengeekcentral.com". games.rengeekcentral.com. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "wwmat.mat.fc.ul.pt" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ http://boingboing.net/2014/10/02/making-better-use-of-dice-in-g.html
Jump up ^ Guthrie, Kenneth (1988). The Pythagorean sourcebook and library: an anthology of ancient writings which relate to Pythagoras and Pythagorean philosophy. Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press. ISBN 978-0-933999-50-3. OCLC 255212063.
Diaconis, Persi; and Keller, Joseph B.; "Fair Dice", The American Mathematical Monthly, 96(4):337–339, 1989 (Discussion of dice that are fair "by symmetry" and "by continuity")
Iverson, G. R.; Longcour, W. H.; et al.; Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws, Psychometrika, vol. 36, no. 1, March 1971
Knizia, Reiner, Dice Games Properly Explained, Elliot Right Way Books, 1999, ISBN 0-7160-2112-9
External links[edit]
Look up dice in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dice.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Dice". MathWorld.
Analysis of dice probabilities, also features Uspenski's work on rolling multiple dice
"Fair Dice" is an illustrated Math Games column about all the possible fair dice, and the mathematical reasons why other shapes are not fair
A complete list of all possible fair dice which has nice illustrations
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dice". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 176–177.
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text:
List of most common surnames in South America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of the most common surnames in South America.
Contents
1 Argentina
2 Brazil
3 Chile
4 Colombia
5 Paraguay
6 Suriname
7 See also
8 References
Argentina[edit]
Most surnames are of Spanish descent, but due to large Italian immigration (approximately 62% of Argentines have Italian ancestry)[citation needed], there are also several surnames of Italian origin like Bianchi, Ferrari, Rossi, Russo but because the amount of Italian surnames far surpass those of Spain most of the surnames below are of Spanish origin.
Rank[1]
Surname
#
Pop. %
1 Fernandez 568.240 1,472%
2 Rodríguez 483.212 1,252%
3 González 426.253 1,104%
4 García 411.462 1,066%
5 López 393.704 1,020%
6 Martínez 346.271 0,897%
7 Pérez 336.094 0,870%
8 Álvarez 294.527 0,763%
9 Gómez 290.821 0,753%
10 Sánchez 271.351 0,703%
11 Díaz 256.397 0,664%
12 Vásquez 187.974 0,487%
13 Castro 173.055 0,448%
14 Romero 166.497 0,431%
15 Suárez 160.483 0,415%
16 Blanco 154.248 0,399%
17 Ruiz 140.829 0,364%
18 Alonso 135.893 0,352%
19 Torres 133.599 0,346%
20 Domínguez 132.625 0,343%
21 Gutiérrez 130.607 0,338%
22 Sosa 129.372 0,335%
23 Iglesias 126.822 0,328%
24 Giménez 125.009 0,323%
25 Ramírez 124.550 0,322%
26 Martín 123.938 0,321%
27 Varela 119.674 0,310%
28 Ramos 118.825 0,307%
29 Núnez 118.106 0,306%
30 Rossi 116.775 0,302%
31 Silva 107.835 0,279%
32 Méndez 104.668 0,271%
33 Hernández 104.581 0,270%
34 Flores 100.092 0,261%
35 Pereyra 99.884 0,258%
36 Ferrari 98.761 0,255%
37 Ortiz 96.761 0,250%
38 Medina 96.228 0,249%
39 Benítez 95.628 0,247%
40 Herrera 94.781 0,245%
41 Arias 94.537 0,245%
42 Acosta 92.707 0,240%
43 Moreno 92.127 0,238%
44 Aguirre 91.365 0,236%
45 Otero 89.583 0,232%
46 Cabrera 88.398 0,229%
47 Rey 88.394 0,229%
48 Rojas 81.343 0,210%
49 Vidal 80.233 0,207%
50 Molina 80.050 0,207%
51 Russo 79.882 0,206%
52 Paz 75.365 0,195%
53 Vega 74.107 0,192%
54 Costa 73.932 0,191%
55 Bruno 73.907 0,191%
56 Romano 73.458 0,190%
57 Morales 71.587 0,185%
58 Ríos 71.534 0,185%
59 Miranda 70.713 0,183%
60 Muñoz 70.092 0,181%
61 Franco 70.055 0,181%
62 Castillo 69.720 0,180%
63 Campos 69.447 0,179%
64 Bianchi 68.510 0,177%
65 Luna 66.763 0,172%
66 Correa 66.535 0,172%
67 Ferreyra 66.461 0,172%
68 Navarro 66.457 0,172%
69 Quiroga 66.138 0,171%
70 Colombo 65.375 0,169%
71 Cohen 63.575 0,164%
72 Pereyra 63.367 0,163%
73 Vera 63.226 0,163%
74 Lorenzo 63.157 0,163%
75 Gil 62.727 0,162%
76 Santos 60.580 0,156%
77 Delgado 59.333 0,154%
78 Godoy 58.956 0,152%
79 Rivas 58.811 0,151%
80 Rivero 58.604 0,151%
81 Gallo 57.990 0,149%
82 Peralta 57.192 0,148%
83 Soto 55.633 0,144%
84 Figueroa 55.515 0,143%
85 Juárez 55.310 0,143%
86 Marino 54.806 0,142%
87 Ponce 54.009 0,139%
88 Calvo 52.282 0,135%
89 Ibáñez 51.972 0,134%
90 Cáceres 51.493 0,133%
91 Carrizo 50.657 0,131%
92 Vargas 50.613 0,131%
93 Mendoza 50.588 0,131%
94 Aguilar 49.717 0,128%
95 Ledesma 49.645 0,128%
96 Guzmán 49.543 0,128%
97 Soria 49.291 0,127%
98 Villalba 48.602 0,125%
99 Prieto 48.355 0,125%
100 Maldonado 47.344 0,122%
First 100
11.632.320
30,093%
Total pop. (2005 est.)
38.592.150
100,000%
Brazil[edit]
Most of the surnames of the Brazilian population have a Portuguese origin, due to Portuguese colonization in the country (it is estimated that 80% of the Brazilian population has at least one Portuguese ancestor), while other South American countries were largely colonized by the Spanish. However, due to historical immigration, there are also surnames of African, Arabic, Italian, German, Japanese, and Spanish origin. 2010 data:
Rank
Surname
Share of Brazilian population (in number of inhabitants)
#
Origin
1 Silva 10,4% 20,882,120 Portuguese
2 Santos 6,7% 13,433,982 Portuguese/Spanish
3 Sousa 4,9% 9,810,832 Portuguese
4 Oliveira 3,1% 6,209,493 Portuguese
5 Pereira 2,9% 5,892,937 Portuguese
6 Lima 2,5% 5,007,393 Portuguese
7 Carvalho 2,33% 4,630,387 Portuguese
8 Ferreira 2,29% 4,590,010 Portuguese
9 Rodrigues 4,510,002 Portuguese/Spanish
10 Almeida 2,16% 4,393,398 Portuguese
11 Costa 1,94% 3,905,800 Portuguese
12 Gomes 1,92% 3,848,000 Portuguese/Spanish
13 Martins 1,83% 3,650,200 Portuguese
14 Araújo 1,69% 3,320,780 Portuguese
15 Melo 3,209,000 Portuguese
16 Barbosa 1,52% 3,040,300 Portuguese/Spanish
17 Ribeiro 1,503% 3,010,000 Portuguese
18 Alves 1,48% 2,960,500 Portuguese/Spanish
19 Cardoso 1,41% 2,830,120 Portuguese
20 Schmitz or Schmidt 1,33% 2,673,000 German
21 Rocha 1,27% 2,540,600 Portuguese
22 Correia, Correa 1,25% 2,505,070 Portuguese/Spanish
23 Dias 1,23% 2,467,000 Portuguese/Spanish
24 Teixeira 1,2% 2,408,500 Portuguese
25 Fernandes 1,195% 2,379,700 Portuguese/Spanish
26 Azevedo 1,192% 2,370,000 Portuguese
27 Cavalcante or Cavalcanti 1,188% 2,366,300 Italian
28 Montes 1,183% 2,362,000 Portuguese/Spanish
29 Morais Portuguese
30 Gonçalves 1,174% 2,348,000 Portuguese/Spanish
First 30
64,6%
128,695,910
—
Chile[edit]
All surnames are Spanish in origin, with quite a few of them being Basque (e.g. Araya or Zúñiga)
#
Either 1st or
2nd surname
Persons[2]
1 González 741,388
2 Muñoz 578,673
3 Rojas 413,897
4 Díaz 410,802
5 Pérez 326,867
6 Soto 298,062
7 Contreras 276,887
8 Silva 259,950
9 Martínez 252,966
10 Sepúlveda 251,078
11 Morales 248,448
12 Rodríguez 243,695
13 López 240,181
14 Fuentes 228,609
15 Hernández 226,848
16 Torres 226,480
17 Araya 224,232
18 Flores 221,231
19 Espinoza 219,375
20 Valenzuela 215,025
21 Castillo 213,321
22 Ramírez 211,191
23 Reyes 208,752
24 Gutiérrez 201,734
25 Castro 199,508
26 Vargas 198,471
27 Álvarez 193,002
28 Vásquez 189,946
29 Tapia 179,905
30 Fernández 179,246
31 Sánchez 178,615
32 Carrasco 172,877
33 Gómez 172,758
34 Cortés 171,370
35 Herrera 170,309
36 Núñez 165,806
37 Jara 161,085
38 Vergara 155,118
39 Rivera 147,835
40 Figueroa 145,460
41 Riquelme 143,590
42 García 142,002
43 Miranda 138,939
44 Bravo 138,392
45 Vera 137,646
46 Molina 131,094
47 Vega 128,132
48 Campos 126,260
49 Sandoval 125,640
50 Orellana 123,619
51 Zúñiga 120,757
52 Olivares 120,074
53 Alarcón 118,019
54 Gallardo 117,752
55 Ortiz 117,228
56 Garrido 115,109
57 Salazar 113,881
58 Guzmán 109,922
59 Henríquez 109,364
60 Saavedra 108,702
61 Navarro 107,897
62 Aguilera 107,864
63 Parra 106,100
64 Romero 105,597
65 Aravena 105,441
66 Pizarro 105,352
67 Godoy 103,887
68 Peña 103,377
69 Cáceres 102,830
70 Leiva 99,890
71 Escobar 97,979
72 Yáñez 96,589
73 Valdés 96,528
74 Vidal 96,037
75 Salinas 94,110
76 Cárdenas 93,925
77 Jiménez 92,032
78 Ruiz 91,539
79 Lagos 91,024
80 Maldonado 89,091
81 Bustos 88,445
82 Medina 87,578
83 Pino 86,295
84 Palma 82,735
85 Moreno 82,548
86 Sanhueza 82,383
87 Carvajal 81,785
88 Navarrete 81,729
89 Sáez 80,938
90 Alvarado 79,985
91 Donoso 79,855
92 Poblete 79,248
93 Bustamante 78,732
94 Toro 78,659
95 Ortega 78,086
96 Venegas 76,900
97 Guerrero 76,823
98 Paredes 75,825
99 Farías 75,242
100 San Martín 74,575
Top 100
15,802,580
#
1st surname
% of
population[3]
1 González 4.7
2 Muñoz 3.7
3 Rojas 2.6
4 Díaz 2.6
5 Pérez 2.1
6 Soto 1.9
7 Contreras 1.8
8 Silva 1.6
9 Martínez 1.6
10 Sepúlveda 1.6
Top 10
24.2
Note: The source (Civil Registry and Identification Service) does not mention the reference year (it was published in 2008) or whether the count includes only the first surname or both surnames (Chile uses two surnames, but the second one is rarely mentioned). It is assumed the first table refers to both surnames (it is unknown if people having the same first and second surname are counted once or twice) and the second table to the first surname only. It is also unclear whether Chileans living abroad were counted, although it is probable that those that were born in Chile were included, as they were registered at birth.
Colombia[edit]
All names in the list are of Spanish origin (2010 data).
#
Surname
People
1 Rodríguez 707,789
2 Gómez 537,843
3 González 531,484
4 Martínez 530,721
5 García 524,835
6 López 509,880
7 Hernández 454,471
8 Sánchez 449,750
9 Ramírez 427,404
10 Pérez 418,660
11 Díaz 388,419
12 Muñoz 293,759
13 Rojas 286,038
14 Moreno 265,374
15 Jiménez 261,391
Source: National Civil Registry (2010)[4]
Paraguay[edit]
The list of most common surnames in Paraguay, reflected in the national voters register, shows the influence of Castilian Spanish in the Paraguayan society.
Eight of the top 11 surnames end with "ez", the distinctive suffix of Castilian family names. The suffix "ez" means "son of"; thus, González means "son of Gonzalo", Benítez is "son of Benito" and Martínez means "son of Martín". This is similar to the suffix "son" in English (Johnson, "son of John", Jackson, "son of Jack") and to "ic" or "ich" of Slavic names such as Ivanovich ("son of Ivan").
Rank[5]
%
Surname
Origin
1 6.62 González Spanish
2 4.84 Benítez Spanish
3 4.18 Martínez Spanish
4 3.13 López Spanish
5 2.61 Giménez Spanish
6 2.54 Vera Spanish
7 2.08 Duarte Spanish
8 2.05 Ramírez Spanish
9 2.01 Villalba Spanish
10 1.94 Fernández Spanish
11 1.81 Gómez Spanish
12 1.78 Acosta Spanish
13 1.76 Rojas Spanish
14 1.69 Ortiz Spanish
15 1.68 Cáceres Spanish
16 1.58 Rodríguez Spanish
17 1.57 Ruíz Spanish
18 1.54 Núñez Spanish
19 1.48 Ayala Spanish
20 1.46 Báez Spanish
21 1.39 Galeano Spanish
22 1.34 Ferreira Portuguese
23 1.27 Franco Spanish/Portuguese
24 1.25 Torres Spanish
25 1.25 Cardozo Spanish
All surnames are of Spanish origin, except when noted.
Suriname[edit]
Rank[6]
Surname
1 Tjon
2 Pinas
3 Wong
4 Chin
5 Mohan
6 Kalloe
7 Singh
8 Lie
9 van Dijk
10 Tjin
See also[edit]
Lists of most common surnames, for other continents
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Top Surnames Argentina". [1]. Retrieved 5 March 2010. External link in |publisher= (help) (Broken Link - not trustwothy)
Jump up ^ "TRES MILLONES DE CHILENOS FIGURAN CON LOS APELLIDOS MÁS COMUNES". Terra Networks. 22 July 2008. Archived from the original on 23 July 2008.
Jump up ^ ""González, Muñoz y Rojas son los apellidos más comunes en Chile" Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine., La Tercera, page 22, Sunday, November 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Los apellidos más comunes en Colombia, Nuestra Huella, número 46, 1 December 2010
Jump up ^ "Los apellidos más comunes en el padrón que se usará en abril" (PDF) (in Spanish). [2]. Retrieved March 24, 2008. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ "The Top 10 most common surnames in Suriname". Retrieved 28 February 2016.
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Ancient Greek coinage
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The history of ancient Greek coinage can be divided (along with most other Greek art forms) into four periods, the Archaic, the Classical, the Hellenistic and the Roman. The Archaic period extends from the introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the 7th century BC until the Persian Wars in about 480 BC. The Classical period then began, and lasted until the conquests of Alexander the Great in about 330 BC, which began the Hellenistic period, extending until the Roman absorption of the Greek world in the 1st century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are called Roman provincial coins or Greek Imperial Coins.
Contents
[hide]
1 Weight standards and denominations
2 Archaic period
3 Classical period
4 Hellenistic period
5 Minting
6 Coins as a symbol of the city-state
7 Commemorative coins
8 Ancient Greek coins today
9 See also
10 Citations
11 Further reading
12 External links
Weight standards and denominations[edit]
Above: Six rod-shaped obeloi (oboloi) displayed at the Numismatic Museum of Athens, discovered at Heraion of Argos. Below: grasp[1] of six oboloi forming one drachma
Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620-600 BC, known as Phanes' coin. Obverse: Stag grazing, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two incuse punches.
Further information: Attic weight
The three most important standards of the ancient Greek monetary system were the Attic standard, based on the Athenian drachma of 4.3 grams of silver and the Corinthian standard based on the stater of 8.6 grams of silver, that was subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 grams, and the Aeginetan stater or didrachm of 12.2 grams, based on a drachma of 6.1 grams.[2] The word drachm(a) means "a handful", literally "a grasp".[1] Drachmae were divided into six obols (from the Greek word for a spit[3]), and six spits made a "handful". This suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits in prehistoric times were used as measures in daily transactions. In archaic/pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually represented a form of transportable bullion, which eventually became bulky and inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect, Spartan legislation famously forbade issuance of Spartan coin, and enforced the continued use of iron spits so as to discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original meaning (which also gave the euphemistic diminutive "obelisk", "little spit"), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós, or ὀβελός, obelós) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as such in Modern Greek slang (όβολα, óvola, "monies").
The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular tetartemorion) which represented 1/4 of an obol, or 1/24 of a drachm. This coin (which was known to have been struck in Athens, Colophon, and several other cities) is mentioned by Aristotle as the smallest silver coin.[4]:237 Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at 3/8 of an obol.[4]:247
Denominations of silver drachma
Image
Denomination
Value
Weight
Dekadrachm 10 drachmae 43 grams
Tetradrachm 4 drachmae 17.2 grams
Didrachm 2 drachmae 8.6 grams
Drachma 6 obols 4.3 grams
Tetrobol 4 obols 2.85 grams
Triobol (hemidrachm) 3 obols 2.15 grams
Diobol 2 obols 1.43 grams
Obol 4 tetartemorions 0.72 grams
Tritartemorion 3 tetartemorions 0.54 grams
Hemiobol 2 tetartemorions 0.36 grams
Trihemitartemorion 1.5 tetartemorions 0.27 grams
Tetartemorion 1/4 obol 0.18 grams
Hemitartemorion ½ tetartemorion 0.09 grams
Relative size: Tritartemorion compared to 5c EU, 1c US, 50fils UAE, 1p UK, 5c AU
Archaic period[edit]
Archaic coinage
Uninscribed electrum coin from Lydia, 6th century BCE. Obverse: lion head and sunburst Reverse: plain square imprints, probably used to standardise weight
Ionia, Uncertain city (possibly Kyme, Aeolis) 600-550 BCE, Hemiobol. Horse head, rough incuse
Electrum coin from Ephesus, 520-500 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.
The first known coins were issued in either Lydia or Ionia in Asia Minor at some time before 600 BC, either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that would authenticate them. These coins were made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that was highly prized and abundant in that area. By the middle of the 6th century BC, technology had advanced, making the production of pure gold and silver coins simpler. Accordingly, King Croesus introduced a double metal standard that allowed for coins of pure gold and pure silver to be struck and traded in the marketplace.
Coins of Aegina
Silver stater of Aegina, 550-530 BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down center. Rev. incuse square with eight sections. After the end of the Peloponnesian War, 404 BC, Sea turtle was replaced by the land tortoise.
Silver drachma of Aegina, 404-340 BC. Obverse: Land tortoise. Reverse: inscription ΑΙΓ[ΙΝΑΤΟΝ] ([of the] Aeg[inetans]) "Aegina" and dolphin.
The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing city-states (in Greek, poleis), and more than half of them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis, indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm of Aegina that regularly turns up in hoards in Egypt and the Levant, places which were deficient in silver supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins to this "Aeginetan" weight standard of (6.1 grams to the drachm), other cities included their own symbols on the coins.
Athenian coins, however, were struck on the "Attic" standard, with a drachm equaling 4.3 grams of silver. Over time, Athens' plentiful supply of silver from the mines at Laurion and its increasing dominance in trade made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as "owls" because of their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time of Alexander the Great and his Hellenistic successors, this large denomination was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for hoarding.
Classical period[edit]
A Syracusan tetradrachm (c. 415–405 BC)
Obverse: head of the nymph Arethusa, surrounded by four swimming dolphins and a rudder
Reverse: a racing quadriga, its charioteer crowned by the goddess Victory in flight.
Tetradrachm of Athens, (5th century BC)
Obverse: a portrait of Athena, patron goddess of the city, in helmet
Reverse: the owl of Athens, with an olive sprig and the inscription "ΑΘΕ", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, "of the Athenians"
The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.
The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.
Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of mainland Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550BC to 510BC.[5][6]
Hellenistic period[edit]
Gold 20-stater of Eucratides I, the largest gold coin to have survived from Antiquity.
Drachma of Alexandria, 222-235 AD. Obverse: Laureate head of Alexander Severus, KAI(ΣΑΡ) MAP(ΚΟΣ) AYP(ΗΛΙΟΣ) ΣЄY(ΑΣΤΟΣ) ΑΛЄΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ЄΥΣЄ(ΒΗΣ). Reverse: Bust of Asclepius.
The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.
Posthumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from Temnos, Aeolis. Dated 188-170 BC. Obverse: Alexander the Great as Herakles facing right wearing the nemean lionskin. Reverse: Zeus seated on throne to the left holding eagle in right hand and scepter in left; in left field PA monogram and angular sigma above grape vine arching over oinochoe; ALEXANDROU vertical in right field. Reference: Price 1678.
Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").
The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showing hubris (arrogance). But the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria had no such scruples: having already awarded themselves with "divine" status, they issued magnificent gold coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well. This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.
Minting[edit]
See also: Hammered coinage
All Greek coins were handmade, rather than machined as modern coins are. The design for the obverse was carved (in incuso) into a block of bronze or possibly iron, called a die. The design of the reverse was carved into a similar punch. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold and then, placed between these two and the punch struck hard with a hammer, raising the design on both sides of the coin.[7]
Coins as a symbol of the city-state[edit]
Coins of Greek city-states depicted a unique symbol or feature, an early form of emblem, also known as badge in numismatics, that represented their city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example depicted pegasus the mythological winged stallion, tamed by their hero Bellerophon. Coins of Ephesus depicted the bee sacred to Artemis. Drachmas of Athens depicted the owl of Athena. Drachmas of Aegina depicted a chelone. Coins of Selinunte depicted a "selinon" (σέλινον[8] - celery). Coins of Heraclea depicted Heracles. Coins of Gela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the river Gela. Coins of Rhodes depicted a "rhodon" (ῥόδον[9] - rose). Coins of Knossos depicted the labyrinth or the mythical creature minotaur, a symbol of the Minoan Crete. Coins of Melos depicted a "mēlon" (μήλον - apple). Coins of Thebes depicted a Boeotian shield.
Corinthian stater with pegasus
Coin of Rhodes with a rose
Didrachm of Selinunte with a celery
Coin of Ephesus with a bee
Stater of Olympia depicting Nike
Coin of Melos with an apple
Obolus from Stymphalia with a Stymphalian bird
Coin of Thebes with a Boeotian shield
Coin of Gela with a man-headed bull, the personification of the river Gela
Didrachm of Knossos depicting the Minotaur
Commemorative coins[edit]
Dekadrachm of Syracuse. Head of Arethusa or queen Demarete. ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (of the Syracusians), around four dolphins
The use of commemorative coins to celebrate a victory or an achievement of the state was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media, they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin was a commemorative decadrachm issued by Athens following the Greek victory in the Persian Wars. On these coins that were struck around 480 BC, the owl of Athens, the goddess Athena's sacred bird, was depicted facing the viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves, the olive tree being Athena's sacred plant and also a symbol of peace and prosperity.[10]
Ancient Greek coins today[edit]
Collections of ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of which the collections of the British Museum, the American Numismatic Society, and the Danish National Museum are considered to be the finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000 ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by academics and researchers.
There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several auction houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.
Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market. Due to the numbers in which they were produced, the durability of the metals, and the ancient practice of burying large numbers of coins to save them, coins are an ancient art within the reach of ordinary collectors.
See also[edit]
Numismatics portal
Art of ancient Greece
Indian coinage
Philippeioi
Seleucid coinage
Silver stater with a turtle, early coin
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Entry δράσσομαι in LSJ, cf: δράξ (drax), δραχμή (drachmē): grasp with the hand
Jump up ^ BMC 11 - Attica Megaris Aegina
Jump up ^ "Obol". Retrieved 8 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b American Numismatic Society (1916). American Journal of Numismatics. 49-50. American Numismatic and Archaeological Society.
Jump up ^ "Bruttium - Ancient Greek Coins - WildWinds". Retrieved 8 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lucania - Ancient Greek Coins - WildWinds.com". Retrieved 8 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Grierson: Numismatics
Jump up ^ Entry σέλινον at LSJ
Jump up ^ Entry ῥόδον at LSJ
Jump up ^ "Decadrachm". Flickr. Retrieved 8 September 2014.

Library resources about
Ancient Greek coinage
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Further reading[edit]
Grierson, Philip (1975), Numismatics, Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-885098-0
Head, Barclay V. (1911), Historia Numorum; A Manual of Greek Numismatics, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hill, George Francis (1906), Historical Greek Coins, London : Archibald Constable and Co.
Jenkins, H.K. (1990), Ancient Greek Coins, Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-014-6
Konuk, Koray (2003), From Kroisos to Karia; Early Anatolian Coins from the Muharrem Kayhan Collection, ISBN 975-8070-61-4
Kraay, Colin M. (1976), Archaic and Classical Greek Coins, New York: Sanford J. Durst, ISBN 0-915262-75-4.
Melville Jones, John R, 'A Dictionary of Ancient Greek Coins', London, Seaby 1986, reprinted Spink 2004.
Melville Jones, John R, Testimonia Numaria. Greek and Latin texts concerning Ancient Greek Coinage, 2 vols (1993 and 2007), London, Spink, 0-907-05-40-0 and 978-1-902040-81-3.
Ramage, Andrew and Craddock, Paul (2000), King Croesus' Gold; Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, Trustees of the British Museum, ISBN 0-7141-0888-X.
Rutter N. K, Burnett A. M, Crawford M. H, Johnston A. E.M, Jessop Price M (2001), Historia Numorum Italy, London: The British Museum Press, ISBN 0-7141-1801-X.
Sayles, Wayne G, Ancient Coin Collecting, Iola, Wisconsin : Krause Publications, 2003.
Sayles, Wayne G, Ancient Coin Collecting II: Numismatic Art of the Greek World", Iola, Wisconsin : Krause Publications, 2007.
Sear, David, "Greek Coins and Their Values: Volume 1", London: Spink, Seaby, ISBN 0 900652 462
Sear, David, "Greek Coins and Their Values: Volume 2" London: Spink.
Seltman, Charles (1933), Greek Coins, London: Methuen & Co, Ltd.
Seltman, Charles, Masterpieces of Greek Coinage, Bruno Cassirer - Oxford, 1949.
Thompson M, Mørkholm O, Kraay C. M. (eds): An Inventory of Greek Coin Hoards, (IGCH). New York, 1973 ISBN 978-0-89722-068-2
Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum:
American Numismatic Society: The Collection of the American Numismatic Society, New York
Ward, John, Greek Coins and their Parent Cities, London : John Murray, 1902. (accompanied by a catalogue of the author’s collection by Sir George Francis Hill)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Greek coinage.
Greek Coin Collection
International Numismatic Commission
The British Academy
Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum in UK
American Numismatic Society
Perseus Project at Tuft University
Wildwinds: a database for Greek and Roman coins - includes images
CoinArchives.com: A large database of coins previously sold at auction - includes images and prices
ACSearch.info: A large database of coins previously sold at auction - includes images and prices, this site is free.
http://coinproject.com/greek_list.php?type=1: A large database of Greek coin types and the most complete list of cities which struck Greek coins.
National Numismatic Museum, Athens
Historia Numorum: A Manual of Greek Numismatics
Hellenic Numismatic Society
History of the Greek coins And presentation of the Greek modern coins
Online numismatic exhibit: "This round gold is but the image of the rounder globe" (H.Melville). The charm of gold in ancient coinage
Digital Library Numis (DLN) Online books and articles on Greek coins
Asia Minor Coins History and index/photo gallery of ancient Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (Anatolia/Turkey)
VCoins: a database for Greek and Roman coins - includes images
Cornell Collection of Antiquities, Coins Collection. Gold, silver and bronze coins from ancient Greece.
‹ The template below (Ancient Greece topics) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
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