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Sukkot
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For the biblical location, see Sukkot (place).
"Ingathering" redirects here. For the Ingathering of the Exiles (Kibbutz Galuyot), see Gathering of Israel.
Sukkot
From left to right, lulav with Hadasim and Aravot, etrog carrier, and etrog used on Sukkot
Official name
Hebrew: סוכות or סֻכּוֹת
("Booths, Tabernacles")
Observed by
Jews, Hebrews, Israelites, Messianic Jews, Samaritans, Semitic Neopagans
Type
Jewish
Significance
One of the three pilgrimage festivals
Observances
Dwelling in sukkah, taking the Four Species, hakafot and Hallel in Synagogue
Begins
15th day of Tishrei
Ends
21st day of Tishrei (22nd outside of Israel, overlapping with Shemini Atzeret)
2017 date
Sundown October 4 through
nightfall October 11
(October 12 outside Israel)
2018 date
Sundown September 23 through nightfall September 30
(October 1 outside Israel)
2019 date
Starting October 20 (at sundown).
2020 date
Starting October 9 (at sundown).
Related to
Shemini Atzeret, Simchat Torah
Sukkot (Hebrew: סוכות or סֻכּוֹת, sukkōt, commonly translated as Feast of Tabernacles or Feast of the Ingathering, traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation Sukkos or Succos, literally Feast of Booths) is a biblical Jewish holiday celebrated on the 15th day of the seventh month, Tishrei (varies from late September to late October). During the existence of the Jerusalem Temple, it was one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (Hebrew: שלוש רגלים, shalosh regalim) on which the Israelites were commanded to perform a pilgrimage to the Temple.
Sukkot has a double significance. The one mentioned in the Book of Exodus is agricultural in nature—"Feast of Ingathering at the year's end" (Exodus 34:22)—and marks the end of the harvest time and thus of the agricultural year in the Land of Israel. The more elaborate religious significance from the Book of Leviticus is that of commemorating the Exodus and the dependence of the People of Israel on the will of God (Leviticus 23:42-43).
The holiday lasts seven days in Israel and eight in the diaspora. The first day (and second day in the diaspora) is a Shabbat-like holiday when work is forbidden. This is followed by intermediate days called Chol Hamoed, when certain work is permitted. The festival is closed with another Shabbat-like holiday called Shemini Atzeret (one day in Israel, two days in the diaspora, where the second day is called Simchat Torah). Shemini Atzeret coincides with the eighth day of Sukkot outside Israel.
The Hebrew word sukkōt is the plural of sukkah, "booth" or "tabernacle", which is a walled structure covered with s'chach (plant material such as overgrowth or palm leaves). A sukkah is the name of the temporary dwelling in which farmers would live during harvesting, a fact connecting to the agricultural significance of the holiday stressed by the Book of Exodus. As stated in Leviticus, it is also intended as a reminiscence of the type of fragile dwellings in which the Israelites dwelt during their 40 years of travel in the desert after the Exodus from slavery in Egypt. Throughout the holiday, meals are eaten inside the sukkah and many people sleep there as well.
On each day of the holiday it is mandatory to perform a waving ceremony with the Four Species.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Laws and customs
3 Building a sukkah
4 Special prayers
4.1 Hoshanot
4.2 Ushpizin
5 Chol HaMoed
6 Hakhel
7 Simchat Beit HaShoevah
8 Hoshana Rabbah
9 Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah
10 Jeroboam's feast
11 In Christianity
12 Academic views
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
16.1 Jewish
16.1.1 General
16.1.2 By Branch of Judaism
16.2 Christian
Origins[edit]
External aerial view of Sukkah booths where Jewish families eat their meals and sleep throughout the Sukkot holiday
A 19th century painted Sukkah from Austria or South Germany, Painted pine, 220 × 285.5 cm, Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme
Sukkah in New Hampshire
In the Book of Leviticus, God told Moses to command the people: "On the first day you shall take the product of hadar trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook" (Lev. 23:40), and "You shall live in booths seven days; all citizens in Israel shall live in booths, in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelite people live in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt" (Lev. 23:42–43).
The origins of Sukkot are both historical and agricultural. Historically, Sukkot commemorates the forty-year period during which the children of Israel were wandering in the desert, living in temporary shelters. Agriculturally, Sukkot is a harvest festival and is sometimes referred to as Chag HaAsif (חג האסיף, the "Festival of Ingathering"), as it celebrates the gathering of the harvest.[1][2]
Laws and customs[edit]
Sukkot is a seven-day holiday, with the first day celebrated as a full festival with special prayer services and holiday meals. The seventh day of Sukkot is called Hoshana Rabbah ("Great Hoshana", referring to the tradition that worshippers in the synagogue walk around the perimeter of the sanctuary during morning services) and has a special observance of its own. Outside Israel, the first and last two days are celebrated as full festivals. The intermediate days are known as Chol HaMoed ("festival weekdays"). According to Halakha, some types of work are forbidden during Chol HaMoed.[3] In Israel many businesses are closed during this time.[4]
Throughout the week of Sukkot, meals are eaten in the sukkah. If a brit milah or Bar Mitzvah rises during Sukkot, the seudat mitzvah (obligatory festive meal) is served in the sukkah. Similarly, the father of a newborn boy greets guests to his Friday-night Shalom Zachar in the sukkah. Males awaken there, although the requirement is waived in case of draught. Every day, a blessing is recited over the Lulav and the Etrog.
Observance of Sukkot is detailed in the Book of Nehemiah 8:13-18, Zechariah 14:16-19 and Leviticus 23:34-44 in the Bible, the Mishnah (Sukkah 1:1–5:8); the Tosefta (Sukkah 1:1–4:28); and the Jerusalem Talmud (Sukkah 1a–) and Babylonian Talmud (Sukkah 2a–56b).
Building a sukkah[edit]
It is customary to decorate the interior of the sukkah to beautify the mitzvah. Pictured: 5-by-8-foot (1.5 m × 2.4 m) wall hanging
The sukkah walls can be constructed of any material (wood, canvas, aluminum siding, sheets). The walls can be free-standing or include the sides of a building or porch. The roof must be of organic material, known as s'chach, such as leafy tree overgrowth, schach mats or palm fronds.[5] It is customary to decorate the interior of the sukkah with hanging decorations of the four species[6] as well as with attractive artwork.
Special prayers[edit]
Sukkot prayers at the Western Wall or Kotel
Prayers during Sukkot include the reading of the Torah every day, reciting the Mussaf (additional) service after morning prayers, reciting Hallel, and adding special additions to the Amidah and Grace after Meals. In addition, the service includes rituals involving the Four Species. The lulav and etrog are not brought to the synagogue on Shabbat.[7]
Hoshanot[edit]
On each day of the festival, worshippers walk around the synagogue carrying their Four species while reciting special prayers known as Hoshanot.[7]:852 This takes place either after the morning's Torah reading or at the end of Mussaf. This ceremony commemorates the willow ceremony at the Temple in Jerusalem, in which willow branches were piled beside the altar with worshippers parading around the altar reciting prayers.[8]
Ushpizin[edit]
A custom originating with Lurianic Kabbalah is to recite the ushpizin prayer to "invite" one of seven "exalted guests" into the sukkah.[9] These ushpizin (Aramaic אושפיזין 'guests'), represent the seven shepherds of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Joseph and David. According to tradition, each night a different guest enters the sukkah followed by the other six. Each of the ushpizin has a unique lesson which teaches the parallels of the spiritual focus of the day on which they visit.
Chol HaMoed[edit]
Main article: Chol HaMoed
Decorations hanging from the s'chach (top or "ceiling") on the inside of a sukkah
The second through seventh days of Sukkot (third through seventh days outside Israel) are called Chol HaMoed (חול המועד - lit. "festival weekdays"). These days are considered by halakha to be more than regular weekdays but less than festival days. In practice, this means that all activities that are needed for the holiday—such as buying and preparing food, cleaning the house in honor of the holiday, or traveling to visit other people's sukkot or on family outings—are permitted by Jewish law. Activities that will interfere with relaxation and enjoyment of the holiday—such as laundering, mending clothes, engaging in labor-intensive activities—are not permitted.[10][11]
Religious Jews often treat Chol HaMoed as a vacation period, eating nicer than usual meals in their sukkah, entertaining guests, visiting other families in their sukkot, and taking family outings. Many synagogues and Jewish centers also offer events and meals in their sukkot during this time to foster community and goodwill.
On the Shabbat which falls during the week of Sukkot (or in the event when the first day of Sukkot is on Shabbat), the Book of Ecclesiastes is read during morning synagogue services in Israel. (Diaspora communities read it the second Shabbat {eighth day} when the first day of sukkot is on Shabbat.) This Book's emphasis on the ephemeralness of life ("Vanity of vanities, all is vanity...") echoes the theme of the sukkah, while its emphasis on death reflects the time of year in which Sukkot occurs (the "autumn" of life). The penultimate verse reinforces the message that adherence to God and His Torah is the only worthwhile pursuit. (Cf. Ecclesiastes 12:13,14.)[12]
Hakhel[edit]
Main article: Hakhel
In the days of the Temple in Jerusalem, all Israelite, and later Jewish men, women, and children on pilgrimage to Jerusalem for the festival would gather in the Temple courtyard on the first day of Chol HaMoed Sukkot to hear the Jewish king read selections from the Torah. This ceremony, which was mandated in Deuteronomy 31:10-13, was held every seven years, in the year following the Shmita (Sabbatical) year. This ceremony was discontinued after the destruction of the Temple, but it has been revived in Israel since 1952 on a smaller scale.[13]
Simchat Beit HaShoevah[edit]
Main article: Simchat Beit HaShoeivah
During the intermediate days of Sukkot, gatherings of music and dance, known as Simchat Beit HaShoeivah (Celebration of the Place of Water-Drawing), take place. This commemorates the drawing of the water for the water-libation on the Altar, an offering unique to Sukkot, when water was carried up the Jerusalem pilgrim road from the Pool of Siloam to the Temple in Jerusalem.[14]
Hoshana Rabbah[edit]
Main article: Hoshana Rabbah
The seventh day of Sukkot is known as Hoshana Rabbah (Great Supplication). This day is marked by a special synagogue service in which seven circuits are made by worshippers holding their Four Species, reciting additional prayers. In addition, a bundle of five willow branches is beaten on the ground.[7]:859 [8]
Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah[edit]
Main articles: Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah
The holiday immediately following Sukkot is known as Shemini Atzeret (lit. "Eighth [Day] of Assembly"). Shemini Atzeret is usually viewed as a separate holiday.[15] In the Diaspora a second additional holiday, Simchat Torah ("Joy of the Torah"), is celebrated. In the Land of Israel, Simchat Torah is celebrated on Shemini Atzeret. On Shemini Atzeret people leave their sukkah and eat their meals inside the house. Outside Israel, many eat in the sukkah without making the blessing. The sukkah is not used on Simchat Torah.[16]
Jeroboam's feast[edit]
According to 1 Kings 12:32-33, King Jeroboam, first king of the rebellious northern kingdom, instituted a feast on the fifteenth day of the eighth month in imitation of the feast of Sukkot in Judah, and pilgrims went to Bethel instead of Jerusalem to make thanksgiving offerings. Jeroboam feared that continued pilgrimages from the northern kingdom to Jerusalem could lead to pressure for reunion with Judah:
If these people go up to offer sacrifices in the house of the Lord at Jerusalem, then the heart of this people will turn back to their lord, Rehoboam king of Judah, and they will kill me and go back to Rehoboam king of Judah.[17]
In Christianity[edit]
Further information: Christian observances of Jewish holidays
Sukkot is celebrated by a number of Christian denominations that observe holidays from the Old Testament. These groups base this on the fact that Jesus celebrated Sukkot (see the Gospel of John 7). The holiday is celebrated according to its Hebrew calendar dates. The first mention of observing the holiday by Christian groups dates to the 17th century, among the sect of the Subbotniks in Russia.[citation needed] In the Orthodox Church, the holiday is said to correspond to the new covenant Feast of the Transfiguration.
Academic views[edit]
De Moor has suggested that there are links between Sukkot and the Ugaritic New Year festival, in particular the Ugaritic custom of erecting two rows of huts built of branches on the temple roof as temporary dwelling houses for their gods.[18][19]
Some have pointed out that the original Thanksgiving holiday had many similarities with Sukkot in the Bible.[20][21]
See also[edit]
Harvest festival
Jewish holiday
List of harvest festivals
Sukkah City - a 2010 public art and architecture competition planned for New York City's Union Square Park
Ushpizin (film), 2004
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Judaism 101: Sukkot". jewfaq.org.
Jump up ^ Sukkot – The Festival of Booths
Jump up ^ Scherman, Nosson; Zlotowitz, Meir, eds. (1994). Pesach Its observance, Laws and Significance. Mesorah Publications, Ltd. p. 88. ISBN 9780899064475. Retrieved October 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "True Chol Hamoed Celebration is only in Israel". Arutz Sheva. October 12, 2014. Retrieved October 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "How Do We Make a Sukkah?". beingjewish.com. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Judaica 101: Sukkot". Ajudaica.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sacks, Lord Jonathan (2009). The Koren Siddur (Nusaḥ Ashkenaz, 1st Hebrew/English ed.). Jerusalem: Koren Publishers. ISBN 9789653010673.
^ Jump up to: a b "Honshana Rabbah — Sukkot & Simchat Torah". chabad.org. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica, v19, pg 303
Jump up ^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 530
Jump up ^ Krakowski, Rabbi Y. Dov. "Hilchos Chol HaMoed". ou.org. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, Hanan. "Ecclesiastes (Kohelet)". myjewishlearning.org. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Appel, G., "A Revival of the Ancient Assembly of Hakhel", Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Fall 1959)
Jump up ^ Prero, Rabbi Yehudah. "Simchas Bais HaShoeva – A Happiness of Oneness". torah.org. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ See Rosh Hashanah 4b for rare cases where it is viewed as part of the Sukkot holiday.
Jump up ^ See A Deeper Look at Shemini Atzeret / Simchat Torah Retrieved 2014-10-14
Jump up ^ 1 Kings 12:27
Jump up ^ Johannes Cornelis De Moor (1972). New Year with Canaanites and Israelites. Kok. pp. 6–7.
Jump up ^ Wagenaar, Jan A. (2005). Origin and Transformation of the Ancient Israelite Festival Calendar. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 156.
Jump up ^ "Thanksgiving's Sukkot Roots".
Jump up ^ "Did Sukkot Shape Thanksgiving?".
Further reading[edit]
Chumney, Edward (1994). The Seven Festivals of the Messiah. Treasure House. ISBN 1-56043-767-7.
Howard, Kevin (1997). The Feasts of the Lord God's Prophetic Calendar from Calvary to the Kingdom. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7518-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sukkot.
Jewish[edit]
General[edit]
The Sukkah Project
The Sukkah Center
Jewish Virtual Library - Jewish Holidays: Sukkot
My Jewish Learning: Sukkot 101
By Branch of Judaism[edit]
Chabad.org: Sukkot & Simchat Torah Hasidic Judaism
Orthodox Union - Jewish Holidays: Sukkot Orthodox Judaism
The Rabbinical Assembly: Sukkot Conservative Judaism
Reform Judaism: Sukkot Reform Judaism
Reconstructing Judaism: Sukkot Reconstructionist Judaism
The Karaite Jews of America: Sukkot Karaite Judaism
Christian[edit]
Sukkot: The Season of our Joy - The Feast of Tabernacles

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text:
Bacteremia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the systemic immune response to bacterial infection in the blood, see sepsis.
Bacteremia
Classification and external resources
Specialty
infectious disease
ICD-10
A49.9 (NOS)
ICD-9-CM
790.7
MeSH
D016470
[edit on Wikidata]
Bacteremia (also bacteraemia) is the presence of bacteria in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment,[1] so the detection of bacteria in the blood (most commonly accomplished by blood cultures[2]) is always abnormal. It is distinct from sepsis, which is the host response to the bacteria.[3]
Bacteria can enter the bloodstream as a severe complication of infections (like pneumonia or meningitis), during surgery (especially when involving mucous membranes such as the gastrointestinal tract), or due to catheters and other foreign bodies entering the arteries or veins (including during intravenous drug abuse).[4] Transient bacteremia can result after dental procedures or brushing of teeth.[5]
Bacteremia can have several important health consequences. The immune response to the bacteria can cause sepsis and septic shock, which has a high mortality rate.[6] Bacteria can also spread via the blood to other parts of the body (which is called hematogenous spread), causing infections away from the original site of infection, such as endocarditis or osteomyelitis.[7] Treatment for bacteremia is with antibiotics, and prevention with antibiotic prophylaxis can be given in high risk situations.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Health effects
3 Causes
3.1 Gram positive bacteremia
3.2 Gram negative bacteremia
3.3 Bacteremia risk factors
4 Diagnosis
5 Treatment
5.1 Gram positive bacteremia
5.2 Gram negative bacteremia
5.3 Catheter-associated infections
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Definition[edit]
Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream that are alive and capable of reproducing. It is a type of bloodstream infection.[9] Bacteremia is defined as either a primary or secondary process. In primary bacteremia, bacteria have been directly introduced into the bloodstream.[10] Injection drug use may lead to primary bacteremia. In the hospital setting, use of blood vessel catheters contaminated with bacteria may also lead to primary bacteremia.[11] Secondary bacteremia occurs when bacteria have entered the body at another site, such as the cuts in the skin, or the mucous membranes of the lungs (respiratory tract), mouth or intestines (gastrointestinal tract), bladder (urinary tract), or genitals.[12] Bacteria that have infected the body at these sites may then spread into the lymphatic system and gain access to the bloodstream, where further spread can occur.[13]
Bacteremia may also be defined by the timing of bacteria presence in the bloodstream: transient, intermittent, or persistent. In transient bacteremia, bacteria are present in the bloodstream for minutes to a few hours before being cleared from the body, and the result is typically harmless in healthy people.[14] This can occur after manipulation of parts of the body normally colonized by bacteria, such as the mucosal surfaces of the mouth during teeth brushing, flossing, or dental procedures,[15] or instrumentation of the bladder or colon.[9] Intermittent bacteremia is characterized by periodic seeding of the same bacteria into the bloodstream by an existing infection elsewhere in the body, such as an abscess, pneumonia, or bone infection, followed by clearing of that bacteria from the bloodstream. This cycle will often repeat until the existing infection is successfully treated.[9] Persistent bacteremia is characterized by the continuous presence of bacteria in the bloodstream.[9] It is usually the result of an infected heart valve, a central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), an infected blood clot (suppurative thrombophlebitis), or an infected blood vessel graft.[9] Persistent bacteremia can also occur as part of the infection process of typhoid fever, brucellosis, and bacterial meningitis. Left untreated, conditions causing persistent bacteremia can be potentially fatal.[16]
Bacteremia is clinically distinct from sepsis, which is a condition where the blood stream infection is associated with an inflammatory response from the body, often causing abnormalities in body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and white blood cell count.[17]
Health effects[edit]
Bacteremia is typically transient and is quickly removed from the blood by the immune system.[5]
Bacteremia frequently evokes a response from the immune system called Sepsis, which consists of symptoms such as fever, chills, and hypotension.[18] Severe immune responses to bacteremia may result in septic shock and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome,[18] which are potentially fatal.
Bacteremia can travel through the blood stream to distant sites in the body and cause infection (hematogenous spread). Hematogenous spread of bacteria is part of the pathophysiology of certain infections of the heart (endocarditis), structures around the brain (meningitis), and tuberculosis of the spine (Pott's disease). Hematogenous spread of bacteria is responsible for many bone infections (osteomyelitis).[19]
Prosthetic cardiac implants (for example artificial heart valves) are especially vulnerable to infection from bacteremia.[20]
Prior to widespread use of vaccines, occult bacteremia was an important consideration in febrile children that appeared otherwise well.[21]
Causes[edit]
Bacteria can enter the bloodstream in a number of different ways. However, for each major classification of bacteria (gram negative, gram positive, or anaerobic) there are characteristic sources or routes of entry into the bloodstream that lead to bacteremia. Causes of bacteremia can additionally be divided into healthcare-associated (acquired during the process of receiving care in a healthcare facility) or community-acquired (acquired outside of a health facility, often prior to hospitalization).
Gram positive bacteremia[edit]
Gram positive bacteria are an increasingly important cause of bacteremia.[22] Staphyloccocus, streptococcus, and enterococcus species are the most important and most common species of gram-positive bacteria that can enter the bloodstream. These bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the gastrointestinal tract.
Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia in North and South America and is also an important cause of community-acquired bacteremia.[23] Skin ulceration or wounds, respiratory tract infections, and IV drug use are the most important causes of community-acquired staph aureus bacteremia. In healthcare settings, intravenous catheters, urinary tract catheters, and surgical procedures are the most common causes of staph aureus bacteremia.[24]
There are many different types of streptococcal species that can cause bacteremia. Group A streptococcus (GAS) typically causes bacteremia from skin and soft tissue infections.[25] Group B streptococcus is an important cause of bacteremia in neonates, often immediately following birth.[16] Viridans streptococci species are normal bacterial flora of the mouth. Viridans strep can cause temporary bacteremia after eating, toothbrushing, or flossing.[16] More severe bacteremia can occur following dental procedures or in patients receiving chemotherapy.[16] Finally, streptococcus bovis is a common cause of bacteremia in patients with colon cancer.[26]
Enterococci are an important cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia. These bacteria commonly live in the gastrointestinal tract and female genital tract. Intravenous catheters, urinary tract infections and surgical wounds are all risk factors for developing bacteremia from enterococcal species.[27] Resistant enterococcal species can cause bacteremia in patients who have had long hospital stays or frequent antibiotic use in the past.[28]
Gram negative bacteremia[edit]
Gram negative bacterial species are responsible for approximately 24% of all cases of healthcare-associated bacteremia and 45% of all cases of community-acquired bacteremia.[29][30] In general, gram negative bacteria enter the bloodstream from infections in the respiratory tract, genitourinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, or hepatobiliary system. Gram-negative bacteremia occurs more frequently in elderly populations (65 years or older) and is associated with higher morbidity and mortality in this population.[31]
E.coli is the most common cause of community-acquired bacteremia accounting for approximately 75% of cases.[32] E.coli bacteremia is usually the result of a urinary tract infection. Other organisms that can cause community-acquired bacteremia include Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis. Salmonella infection, despite mainly only resulting in gastroenteritis in the developed world, is a common cause of bacteremia in Africa.[33] It principally affects children who lack antibodies to Salmonella and HIV+ patients of all ages.
Among healthcare-associated cases of bacteremia, gram negative organisms are an important cause of bacteremia in the ICU.[34] Catheters in the veins, arteries, or urinary tract can all create a way for gram negative bacteria to enter the bloodstream.[25] Surgical procedures of the genitourinary tract, intestinal tract, or hepatobiliary tract can also lead to gram negative bacteremia.[25] Pseudomonas and Enterobacter species are the most important causes of gram negative bacteremia in the ICU.[34]
Bacteremia risk factors[edit]
There are several risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing bacteremia from any type of bacteria.[22][35] These include:
HIV infection
Diabetes Mellitus
Chronic hemodialysis
Solid organ transplant
Stem cell transplant
Treatment with glucocorticoids
Liver failure
Asplenia[36]
Diagnosis[edit]
Bacteremia is most commonly diagnosed by blood culture, in which a sample of blood drawn from the vein by needle puncture is allowed to incubate with a medium that promotes bacterial growth.[37] If bacteria are present in the bloodstream at the time the sample is obtained, the bacteria will multiply and can thereby be detected.
Any bacteria that incidentally find their way to the culture medium will also multiply. For example, if the skin is not adequately cleaned before needle puncture, contamination of the blood sample with normal bacteria that live on the surface of the skin can occur.[38] For this reason, blood cultures must be drawn with great attention to sterile process. The presence of certain bacteria in the blood culture, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli almost never represent a contamination of the sample. On the other hand, contamination may be more highly suspected if organisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis or Propionibacterium acnes grow in the blood culture.
Two blood cultures drawn from separate sites of the body are often sufficient to diagnose bacteremia.[38] Two out of two cultures growing the same type of bacteria usually represents a real bacteremia, particularly if the organism that grows is not a common contaminant.[38] One out of two positive cultures will usually prompt a repeat set of blood cultures to be drawn to confirm whether a contaminant or a real bacteremia is present.[38] The patient's skin is typically cleaned with an alcohol-based product prior to drawing blood to prevent contamination.[38] Blood cultures may be repeated at intervals to determine if persistent — rather than transient — bacteremia is present.[38]
Prior to drawing blood cultures, a thorough patient history should be taken with particular regard to presence of both fevers and chills, other focal signs of infection such as in the skin or soft tissue, a state of immunosuppression, or any recent invasive procedures.[37]
Ultrasound of the heart is recommended in all those with bacteremia due to Staphylococcus aureus to rule out infectious endocarditis.[39]
Treatment[edit]
The presence of bacteria in the blood almost always requires treatment with antibiotics. This is because there are high mortality rates from progression to sepsis if antibiotics are delayed.[34]
The treatment of bacteremia should begin with empiric antibiotic coverage. Any patient presenting with signs or symptoms of bacteremia or a positive blood culture should be started on intravenous antibiotics.[31] The choice of antibiotic is determined by the most likely source of infection and by the characteristic organisms that typically cause that infection. Other important considerations include the patient's past history of antibiotic use, the severity of the presenting symptoms, and any allergies to antibiotics.[40] Empiric antibiotics should be narrowed, preferably to a single antibiotic, once the blood culture returns with a particular bacteria that has been isolated.[40]
Gram positive bacteremia[edit]
The Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) recommends treating uncomplicated methicillin resistant staph aureus (MRSA) bacteremia with a 14-day course of intravenous vancomycin.[41] Uncomplicated bacteremia is defined as having positive blood cultures for MRSA, but having no evidence of endocarditis, no implanted prostheses, negative blood cultures after 2–4 days of treatment, and signs of clinical improvement after 72 hrs.[41]
The antibiotic treatment of choice for streptococcal and enteroccal infections differs by species. However, it is important to look at the antibiotic resistance pattern for each species from the blood culture to better treat infections caused by resistant organisms.[22]
Gram negative bacteremia[edit]
The treatment of gram negative bacteremia is also highly dependent on the causative organism. Empiric antibiotic therapy should be guided by the most likely source of infection and the patient's past exposure to healthcare facilities.[42] In particular, a recent history of exposure to a healthcare setting may necessitate the need for antibiotics with pseudomonas aeruginosa coverage or broader coverage for resistant organisms.[42] Extended generation cephalosporins such as ceftriaxone or beta lactam/beta lactam inhibitor antibiotics such as piperacillin-tazobactam are frequently used for the treatment of gram negative bacteremia.[42]
Catheter-associated infections[edit]
For healthcare-associated bacteremia due to intravenous catheters, the IDSA has published guidelines for catheter removal. Short term catheters (in place <14 days) should be removed if bacteremia is caused by any gram negative bacteria, staph aureus, enterococci or mycobacteria.[43] Long term catheters (>14 days) should be removed if the patient is developing signs or symptoms of sepsis or endocarditis, or if blood cultures remain positive for more than 72 hours.[43]
See also[edit]
Antibiotic prophylaxis
Dental antibiotic prophylaxis
Fungemia
Viremia
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Brigden, M. L. (2001-02-01). "Detection, education and management of the asplenic or hyposplenic patient". American Family Physician. 63 (3): 499–506, 508. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 11272299.
^ Jump up to: a b Coburn, Bryan; Morris, Andrew M.; Tomlinson, George; Detsky, Allan S. (2012-08-01). "Does This Adult Patient With Suspected Bacteremia Require Blood Cultures?". JAMA. 308 (5): 502. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.8262. ISSN 0098-7484.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hall, Keri K.; Lyman, Jason A. (2016-12-16). "Updated Review of Blood Culture Contamination". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 19 (4): 788–802. doi:10.1128/CMR.00062-05. ISSN 0893-8512. PMC 1592696  . PMID 17041144.
Jump up ^ Holland, TL; Arnold, C; Fowler VG, Jr (1 October 2014). "Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a review". JAMA. 312 (13): 1330–41. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.9743. PMC 4263314  . PMID 25268440.
^ Jump up to: a b Hooper, David (2016). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. Chapter 170. ISBN 978-0-07-180215-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Liu, Catherine; Bayer, Arnold; Cosgrove, Sara E.; Daum, Robert S.; Fridkin, Scott K.; Gorwitz, Rachel J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Karchmer, Adolf W.; Levine, Donald P. (2011-02-01). "Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 52 (3): e18–55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21208910.
^ Jump up to: a b c Russo, Thomas (2016). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. Chapter 186. ISBN 978-0-07-180215-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Mermel, Leonard A.; Allon, Michael; Bouza, Emilio; Craven, Donald E.; Flynn, Patricia; O'Grady, Naomi P.; Raad, Issam I.; Rijnders, Bart J. A.; Sherertz, Robert J. (2009-07-01). "Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related infection: 2009 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 49 (1): 1–45. doi:10.1086/599376. ISSN 1537-6591. PMC 4039170  . PMID 19489710.
External links[edit]
Lowell S. Young,Bacteremia at the Merck Manuals Online Medical Library
Bacteremia at Medscape eMedicine
hide
v
t
e
Abnormal clinical and laboratory findings for blood tests (R70–R79, 790)
Red blood cells
Size
Anisocytosis
Macrocyte
Microcyte
Shape
Poikilocytosis
membrane abnormalities:
Acanthocyte
Codocyte
Ovalocyte
Spherocyte
Dacrocyte
Echinocyte
Schistocyte
Degmacyte
Drepanocyte
Stomatocyte
Knizocyte
Hemoglobinization
Anisochromia
Hypochromia
Inclusion bodies
Developmental
Howell–Jolly body
Basophilic stippling
Pappenheimer bodies
Cabot rings
Hemoglobin precipitation
Heinz body
Other
Rouleaux
Reticulocyte
Elevated ESR
Lymphocytes
Smudge cell
Downey cell
Small molecules
Blood sugar
Hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Prediabetes
Impaired fasting glucose
Impaired glucose tolerance
Oxyhyperglycemia
Nitrogenous
Azotemia
Hyperuricemia
Hypouricemia
Proteins
LFT
Elevated transaminases
Elevated ALP
Hypoproteinemia
Hypoalbuminemia
Other
Elevated cardiac markers
Elevated alpha-fetoprotein
Minerals
Iron overload disorder
Pathogens/sepsis
Bacteremia
Viremia
Fungemia
Parasitemia
Algaemia
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacteremia&oldid=849019980"
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Zune software
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Zune software
Developer(s)
Microsoft
Operating system
Windows XP SP3 and later[1]
Type
Utility software
License
Proprietary software
Zune is a discontinued media management app for Microsoft Windows[1] that functions as a full media player application with a library, an interface to the Zune Marketplace, and as a media streaming server.[2] The software is used to sync with all devices with Zune functionality including the Zune 4, 8, 16, 30, 80, 120, Zune HD, Windows Phone 7, and Microsoft Kin. Zune devices work exclusively with the Zune software, which applies many design principles of Microsoft's Metro design language.
The software was discontinued on October 16, 2012[citation needed] and replaced with the Windows Phone App (available both as desktop app and Windows Store app versions) and subsequently the "Phone Companion" App built into Windows 10 for PC, which is used for syncing with devices running Windows Phone 8 (including 8.1) and Windows 10 Mobile, respectively. The software's role as a music and video player and streaming service has been superseded by Groove Music and Xbox Video.[3]
Zune online services were completely shut down on November 15, 2015,[4] but the Zune software is still available for download from the Windows Phone website for use with Windows Phone 7 and Zune devices, which do not work with the newer apps designed for Windows Phone 8/8.1/Windows 10 Mobile.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Content
1.1 History
2 Zune Marketplace
2.1 Music
2.2 Videos
2.3 Applications
2.4 International availability
2.5 Platforms
2.6 Pricing
2.7 Zune Music Pass
3 See also
4 References
Content[edit]
As a media player, the Zune software supports the following formats:
multimedia
supported formats
Audio MP3, AAC (Low complexity), .mp4, .m4b, .mov, WMA (standard, pro, and lossless)
Video MPEG4 (in .mp4, .m4v and .mov containers), H.264 (in .mp4, .m4v and .mov containers), WMV, ASF, AVI (in .avi container)
Images JPEG
The Zune software organizes the media in its library and allows users to add to the library by ripping from CDs, syncing with a Zune device, and downloading from the Zune Marketplace. The Zune software also allows one to organize song metadata. It can automatically download album art and metadata tag data for content in the library.
On the PC, the Zune software streams files to other PCs, the Xbox 360, and other compatible devices. The Zune software also connects with the Zune social and keeps track of files swapped with other users.
The Zune software runs only on 32-bit Windows XP or 32-bit/64-bit Windows Vista/Windows 7.[6] Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is not supported. The Zune software is also compatible with Windows 8 and Windows 10 so Zune device users would have continued legacy support on the new operating system, despite the Zune brand's phasing out before the 2012 release of the OS.
History[edit]
Main article: Zune Software version history
The 1.0 versions of the Zune software were a modified version of Windows Media Player 11 while versions since 2.0 are built independently with additional DirectShow decoders for AAC, MPEG-4 and H.264. The current version of the software is 4.08.2345, released on August 22, 2011. Several versions of the software have been released. As of October 16, 2012 Zune became Xbox Music.
Zune Marketplace[edit]
Zune Marketplace was an online store that offered music, podcasts, TV shows, movies, music videos, and mobile applications. Content could be viewed or purchased on Windows PCs with the Zune software installed, Zune devices, the Xbox 360, Windows Phone phones, or the Microsoft Kin phones.[7] Zune Music Marketplace has since been superseded by Xbox Music.
Music[edit]
Initially offering 2 million songs, the Zune Marketplace had grown to offer 14 million songs,[8] all of which were available in MP3 format at up to 320kbit/s and were DRM-free. Music on Zune Marketplace was offered by the big four music groups (EMI, Warner Music Group, Sony BMG and Universal Music Group), as well as smaller music labels.[8]
The home page of the Zune Marketplace shows featured music as selected by Microsoft, and the most popular music. Users can search, or filter by genres including rock, pop, dance, urban, and others.
Prior to Zune Marketplace’s music becoming DRM-free, songs were protected by Windows Media DRM however the Zune Software only allowed WMDRM content from the Zune Marketplace to be transferred to Zune devices. Zune Marketplace DRM content could be played by other WMDRM compatible applications and devices.
Videos[edit]
Zune Marketplace offers television shows from the following companies: A&E, Anime, Bravo, Cartoon Network, CBS, Discovery Communications, E!, Fox, G4, GamerTV, History Channel, Marvel, MLB, NBC, Paley Center, PBS, Spike, Starz, SyFy, TNA, USA Network, and Viacom.
Movies from Paramount, Universal, Warner Brothers, 20th Century Fox and other studios are offered for purchase or time-limited rental. Some movies are available in HD. Selected content purchased via Zune Marketplace on the Xbox 360 additionally offers 5.1 surround sound.[9]
Music videos were also offered for purchase. Zune Video Marketplace has been superseded by Xbox Video.
Applications[edit]
See also: List of Zune applications and Windows Phone Store
Zune Marketplace included an applications section where apps and games could be downloaded for the Zune HD. The store initially launched with nine apps, all of which were developed by Microsoft and released for free. The selection of apps expanded to sixty-two games and applications over two years. Apps that were available included several games, Facebook, Twitter, and Windows Live Messenger. Applications are also available from various independent developers made using XNA Game Studio or OpenZDK, which use C# and C++ respectively. On August 31, 2012, the apps sections of the Zune Marketplace and users' media collections were disabled within the software.
The Zune software also allowed users to browse, purchase, and install Windows Phone apps from Windows Phone Marketplace.
International availability[edit]
Zune Marketplace was originally only available in the United States. In October 2010, certain Zune Marketplace content became available in additional countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia. The following table shows content availability by country:[10]
Content
Countries
Music United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Canada, Australia
Zune Music Pass United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Canada, Australia
Podcasts United States
TV United States, Canada
Movie Rental United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Movie Purchase United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Applications United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Canada, Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan
It has been discovered that there are a number of workarounds for accessing the Zune Pass and other Zune Marketplace capabilities outside of the countries where it has been launched.
Platforms[edit]
The Zune software for Windows PCs offers the entire selection of music, podcasts, videos, and applications. The Xbox 360 offers movie and music video downloads, as well as Zune Pass streaming. Zune devices, Windows Phone devices and the Microsoft Kin phones permit the download and streaming of music; Windows Phone devices additionally allow the download of applications.
Pricing[edit]
Purchases are made in the Microsoft Points currency, which can also be used to purchase content from Xbox Live and Games for Windows Live marketplaces. The exchange rate is one United States dollar to 80 Microsoft points. Most music tracks are priced at 79 points or 99 points.[citation needed] This works out to US$0.9875 or US$1.24 per song.
Zune Music Pass[edit]
Zune Music Pass is a music subscription service, which allows subscribers to download an unlimited number of songs for as long as their subscription is active. The songs can be played on up to 3 Windows PCs and on up to 3 other Zune-compatible devices, but cannot be burned to an audio CD. Songs downloaded using Zune Pass are provided in WMA format at 192kbit/s and are restricted by DRM. Zune Music Pass subscribers in the United States and other select countries were permitted to keep 10 songs per month even after their subscription ended, however the incentive was ultimately discontinued.[11][12] On October 3, 2011, the Zune Music Pass price was lowered to $9.99/month, and the 10 song credit was removed.[13] On October 15, 2012, Microsoft re-branded Zune as Xbox Music on the Xbox 360 with the promise of a complete rollout on October 26.[14]
See also[edit]
Comparison of online music stores
Zune
Zune Social
Xbox Music
Xbox Video
Windows Phone
Xbox 360
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Thurrott, Paul (June 11, 2012). "Windows 8 Tip: Syncing a Windows Phone or Zune Device". SuperSite for Windows. Penton. Retrieved March 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Media Sharing FAQ". Zune. Microsoft. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved November 21, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Ben (October 15, 2012). "With the launch of Xbox Music, Zune is truly no more". Engadget. AOL.
Jump up ^ "Zune retirement FAQ". Support. Microsoft. October 20, 2015. Archived from the original on November 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Zune software for your PC". Windows Phone. Microsoft. Archived from the original on September 26, 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Dhiman, Viney (March 3, 2014). "Zune Software Computer System Requirement". Nerd's magazine.
Jump up ^ "Zune Marketplace". Zune. Microsoft. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Stroh, Michael (September 29, 2011). "Zune expands to Canada, drops Zune Pass price in US". The Windows Blog. Microsoft. Archived from the original on February 2, 2012. Retrieved September 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "More films, faster with Zune". Xbox. Microsoft. Archived from the original on June 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Zune to Expand Multiscreen Entertainment Services Into International Markets". News Center. Microsoft. September 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Farivar, Cyrus (September 14, 2006). "Zune Marketplace To Keep Your Zune Player Happy". Engadget. AOL.
Jump up ^ "Zune Pass". Zune. Microsoft. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ Melanson, Donald (September 29, 2011). "Microsoft announces new $10 Zune Music Pass, expands service to Canada". Engadget. AOL.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Ben (October 15, 2012). "Xbox Music heads to Xbox 360 first tomorrow, PC / tablets on Oct. 26, WP8 soon after; we go hands-on". Engadget. AOL.
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Microsoft Zune
Development history
Hardware
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zune_software&oldid=820931687"
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