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HTTPS
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HTTPS (HTTP Secure) is an adaptation of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet.[1][2] In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted by Transport Layer Security (TLS), or formerly, its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also often referred to as HTTP over TLS,[3] or HTTP over SSL.[4]
The principal motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the accessed website and protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data. It protects against man-in-the-middle attacks. The bidirectional encryption of communications between a client and server protects against eavesdropping and tampering of the communication.[5] In practice, this provides a reasonable assurance that one is communicating without interference by attackers with the website that one intended to communicate with, as opposed to an impostor.
Historically, HTTPS connections were primarily used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web, e-mail and for sensitive transactions in corporate information systems.[citation needed] In the late 2000s and early 2010s, HTTPS was increasingly used for protecting page authenticity on all types of websites, securing accounts and keeping user communications, identity and web browsing private.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 Usage in websites
1.2 Browser integration
2 Security
3 Technical
3.1 Difference from HTTP
3.2 Network layers
3.3 Server setup
3.3.1 Acquiring certificates
3.3.2 Use as access control
3.3.3 In case of compromised secret (private) key
3.4 Limitations
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Transport Layer Security.
Illustration of the networking protocol https and the www letters
The Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) scheme HTTPS has identical usage syntax to the HTTP scheme. However, HTTPS signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic. SSL/TLS is especially suited for HTTP, since it can provide some protection even if only one side of the communication is authenticated. This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where typically only the server is authenticated (by the client examining the server's certificate).
HTTPS creates a secure channel over an insecure network. This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used and that the server certificate is verified and trusted.
Because HTTPS piggybacks HTTP entirely on top of TLS, the entirety of the underlying HTTP protocol can be encrypted. This includes the request URL (which particular web page was requested), query parameters, headers, and cookies (which often contain identity information about the user). However, because host (website) addresses and port numbers are necessarily part of the underlying TCP/IP protocols, HTTPS cannot protect their disclosure. In practice this means that even on a correctly configured web server, eavesdroppers can infer the IP address and port number of the web server (sometimes even the domain name e.g. www.example.org, but not the rest of the URL) that one is communicating with, as well as the amount (data transferred) and duration (length of session) of the communication, though not the content of the communication.[5]
Web browsers know how to trust HTTPS websites based on certificate authorities that come pre-installed in their software. Certificate authorities (such as Symantec, Comodo, GoDaddy, GlobalSign and Let's Encrypt) are in this way being trusted by web browser creators to provide valid certificates. Therefore, a user should trust an HTTPS connection to a website if and only if all of the following are true:
The user trusts that the browser software correctly implements HTTPS with correctly pre-installed certificate authorities.
The user trusts the certificate authority to vouch only for legitimate websites.
The website provides a valid certificate, which means it was signed by a trusted authority.
The certificate correctly identifies the website (e.g., when the browser visits "https://example.com", the received certificate is properly for "example.com" and not some other entity).
The user trusts that the protocol's encryption layer (SSL/TLS) is sufficiently secure against eavesdroppers.
HTTPS is especially important over insecure networks (such as public Wi-Fi access points), as anyone on the same local network can packet-sniff and discover sensitive information not protected by HTTPS. Additionally, many free to use and paid WLAN networks engage in packet injection in order to serve their own ads on webpages. However, this can be exploited maliciously in many ways, such as injecting malware onto webpages and stealing users' private information.[6]
HTTPS is also very important for connections over the Tor anonymity network, as malicious Tor nodes can damage or alter the contents passing through them in an insecure fashion and inject malware into the connection. This is one reason why the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Tor project started the development of HTTPS Everywhere,[5] which is included in the Tor Browser Bundle.[7]
As more information is revealed about global mass surveillance and criminals stealing personal information, the use of HTTPS security on all websites is becoming increasingly important regardless of the type of Internet connection being used.[8][9] While metadata about individual pages that a user visits is not sensitive, when combined, they can reveal a lot about the user and compromise the user's privacy.[10][11][12]
Deploying HTTPS also allows the use of HTTP/2 (or its predecessor, the now-deprecated protocol SPDY), that are new generations of HTTP, designed to reduce page load times and latency.
It is recommended to use HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) with HTTPS to protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks, especially SSL stripping.[12][13]
HTTPS should not be confused with the little-used Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) specified in RFC 2660.
Usage in websites[edit]
As of November 2017[update], 27.7% of Alexa top 1,000,000 websites use HTTPS as default,[14] 43.1% of the Internet's 141,387 most popular websites have a secure implementation of HTTPS,[15] and 45% of page loads (measured by Firefox Telemetry) use HTTPS.[16]
According to Mozilla since January 2017 more than half of the Web traffic is encrypted.[17][18]
Browser integration[edit]
Most browsers display a warning if they receive an invalid certificate. Older browsers, when connecting to a site with an invalid certificate, would present the user with a dialog box asking whether they wanted to continue. Newer browsers display a warning across the entire window. Newer browsers also prominently display the site's security information in the address bar. Extended validation certificates turn the address bar green in newer browsers. Most browsers also display a warning to the user when visiting a site that contains a mixture of encrypted and unencrypted content.
Comparison between different kinds of SSL/TLS certificates
(Using Firefox as an example)
Many web browsers, including Firefox (shown here), use the address bar to tell the user that their connection is secure, often by coloring the background.
When accessing a site only with a common certificate, the address bar of Firefox turns green. For some other browsers, a "lock" sign may appear.
Most web browsers alert the user when visiting sites that have invalid security certificates.
Firefox uses HTTPS for Google searches as of version 14,[19] to "shield our users from network infrastructure that may be gathering data about the users or modifying/censoring their search results".[20]
The Electronic Frontier Foundation, opining that "In an ideal world, every web request could be defaulted to HTTPS", has provided an add-on called HTTPS Everywhere for Mozilla Firefox that enables HTTPS by default for hundreds of frequently used websites. A beta version of this plugin is also available for Google Chrome and Chromium.[21][22]
Security[edit]
Main article: Transport Layer Security § Security
The security of HTTPS is that of the underlying TLS, which typically uses long-term public and private keys to generate a short-term session key, which is then used to encrypt the data flow between client and server. X.509 certificates are used to authenticate the server (and sometimes the client as well). As a consequence, certificate authorities and public key certificates are necessary to verify the relation between the certificate and its owner, as well as to generate, sign, and administer the validity of certificates. While this can be more beneficial than verifying the identities via a web of trust, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures drew attention to certificate authorities as a potential weak point allowing man-in-the-middle attacks.[23][24] An important property in this context is forward secrecy, which ensures that encrypted communications recorded in the past cannot be retrieved and decrypted should long-term secret keys or passwords be compromised in the future. Not all web servers provide forward secrecy.[25][needs update]
A site must be completely hosted over HTTPS, without having part of its contents loaded over HTTP – for example, having scripts loaded insecurely – or the user will be vulnerable to some attacks and surveillance. Also having only a certain page that contains sensitive information (such as a log-in page) of a website loaded over HTTPS, while having the rest of the website loaded over plain HTTP, will expose the user to attacks. On a site that has sensitive information somewhere on it, every time that site is accessed with HTTP instead of HTTPS, the user and the session will get exposed. Similarly, cookies on a site served through HTTPS have to have the secure attribute enabled.[12]
Technical[edit]
Difference from HTTP[edit]
HTTPS URLs begin with "https://" and use port 443 by default, whereas HTTP URLs begin with "http://" and use port 80 by default.
HTTP is not encrypted and is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks, which can let attackers gain access to website accounts and sensitive information, and modify webpages to inject malware or advertisements. HTTPS is designed to withstand such attacks and is considered secure against them (with the exception of older, deprecated versions of SSL).
Network layers[edit]
HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application layer; as does the TLS security protocol (operating as a lower sublayer of the same layer), which encrypts an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypts a message upon arrival. Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted SSL/TLS connection.
Everything in the HTTPS message is encrypted, including the headers, and the request/response load. With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, the attacker can only know that a connection is taking place between the two parties and their domain names and IP addresses.
Server setup[edit]
To prepare a web server to accept HTTPS connections, the administrator must create a public key certificate for the web server. This certificate must be signed by a trusted certificate authority for the web browser to accept it without warning. The authority certifies that the certificate holder is the operator of the web server that presents it. Web browsers are generally distributed with a list of signing certificates of major certificate authorities so that they can verify certificates signed by them.
Acquiring certificates[edit]
Authoritatively signed certificates may be free[26][27] or cost between 8 USD[28] and 70 USD[29] per year (in 2012–2014).
Organizations may also run their own certificate authority, particularly if they are responsible for setting up browsers to access their own sites (for example, sites on a company intranet, or major universities). They can easily add copies of their own signing certificate to the trusted certificates distributed with the browser.
There also exists a peer-to-peer certificate authority, CACert. However, it is not included in the trusted root certificates of many popular browsers (e.g. Firefox, Chrome, Internet Explorer), which may cause warning messages to be displayed to end users.
Let's Encrypt, launched in April 2016,[30] provides free and automated SSL/TLS certificates to websites.[31] According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, "Let's Encrypt" will make switching from HTTP to HTTPS "as easy as issuing one command, or clicking one button."[32]
Use as access control[edit]
The system can also be used for client authentication in order to limit access to a web server to authorized users. To do this, the site administrator typically creates a certificate for each user, a certificate that is loaded into their browser. Normally, that contains the name and e-mail address of the authorized user and is automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without even entering a password.
In case of compromised secret (private) key[edit]
An important property in this context is perfect forward secrecy (PFS). Possessing one of the long-term asymmetric secret keys used to establish an HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short-term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time. Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and Elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only ones known to have that property. Only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions use it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.[25] Among the larger internet providers, only Google supports PFS since 2011 (State of September 2013).[citation needed]
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, for example because the secrecy of the private key has been compromised. Newer versions of popular browsers such as Firefox,[33] Opera,[34] and Internet Explorer on Windows Vista[35] implement the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) to verify that this is not the case. The browser sends the certificate's serial number to the certificate authority or its delegate via OCSP and the authority responds, telling the browser whether the certificate is still valid.[36]
Limitations[edit]
SSL and TLS encryption can be configured in two modes: simple and mutual. In simple mode, authentication is only performed by the server. The mutual version requires the user to install a personal client certificate in the web browser for user authentication..[37] In either case, the level of protection depends on the correctness of the implementation of software and the cryptographic algorithms in use.
SSL/TLS does not prevent the indexing of the site by a web crawler, and in some cases the URI of the encrypted resource can be inferred by knowing only the intercepted request/response size.[38] This allows an attacker to have access to the plaintext (the publicly available static content), and the encrypted text (the encrypted version of the static content), permitting a cryptographic attack.
Because TLS operates at a protocol level below that of HTTP, and has no knowledge of the higher-level protocols, TLS servers can only strictly present one certificate for a particular address and port combination.[39] In the past, this meant that it was not feasible to use name-based virtual hosting with HTTPS. A solution called Server Name Indication (SNI) exists, which sends the hostname to the server before encrypting the connection, although many old browsers do not support this extension. Support for SNI is available since Firefox 2, Opera 8, Safari 2.1, Google Chrome 6, and Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista.[40][41][42]
From an architectural point of view:
An SSL/TLS connection is managed by the first front machine that initiates the TLS connection. If, for any reasons (routing, traffic optimization, etc.), this front machine is not the application server and it has to decipher data, solutions have to be found to propagate user authentication information or certificate to the application server, which needs to know who is going to be connected.
For SSL/TLS with mutual authentication, the SSL/TLS session is managed by the first server that initiates the connection. In situations where encryption has to be propagated along chained servers, session timeOut management becomes extremely tricky to implement.
With mutual SSL/TLS, security is maximal, but on the client-side, there is no way to properly end the SSL/TLS connection and disconnect the user except by waiting for the server session to expire or closing all related client applications.
A sophisticated type of man-in-the-middle attack called SSL stripping was presented at the Blackhat Conference 2009. This type of attack defeats the security provided by HTTPS by changing the https: link into an http: link, taking advantage of the fact that few Internet users actually type "https" into their browser interface: they get to a secure site by clicking on a link, and thus are fooled into thinking that they are using HTTPS when in fact they are using HTTP. The attacker then communicates in clear with the client.[43] This prompted the development of a countermeasure in HTTP called HTTP Strict Transport Security.
HTTPS has been shown vulnerable to a range of traffic analysis attacks. Traffic analysis attacks are a type of side-channel attack that relies on variations in the timing and size of traffic in order to infer properties about the encrypted traffic itself. Traffic analysis is possible because SSL/TLS encryption changes the contents of traffic, but has minimal impact on the size and timing of traffic. In May 2010, a research paper by researchers from Microsoft Research and Indiana University discovered that detailed sensitive user data can be inferred from side channels such as packet sizes. More specifically, the researchers found that an eavesdropper can infer the illnesses/medications/surgeries of the user, his/her family income and investment secrets, despite HTTPS protection in several high-profile, top-of-the-line web applications in healthcare, taxation, investment and web search.[44] Although this work demonstrated vulnerability of HTTPS to traffic analysis, the approach presented by the authors required manual analysis and focused specifically on web applications protected by HTTPS.
The fact that most modern websites, including Google, Yahoo!, and Amazon, use HTTPS causes problems for many users trying to access public Wi-Fi hot spots, because a Wi-Fi hot spot login page fails to load if the user tries to open an HTTPS resource [45][46]. Several websites, such as nonhttps.com or nothttps.com, guarantee that they will always remain accessible by HTTP.
History[edit]
Netscape Communications created HTTPS in 1994 for its Netscape Navigator web browser.[47] Originally, HTTPS was used with the SSL protocol. As SSL evolved into Transport Layer Security (TLS), HTTPS was formally specified by RFC 2818 in May 2000.
See also[edit]
Bullrun (decryption program) – a secret anti-encryption program run by the U.S. National Security Agency
Computer security
curl-loader
Diameter protocol
HTTPsec
Moxie Marlinspike
Opportunistic encryption
Stunnel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Secure your site with HTTPS". Google Support. Google, Inc. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "What is HTTPS?". Comodo CA Limited. Retrieved February 27, 2015. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP [...]
Jump up ^ Network Working Group (May 2000). "HTTP Over TLS". The Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Enabling HTTP Over SSL". Adobe Systems Incorporated. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "HTTPS Everywhere FAQ". Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hotel Wifi JavaScript Injection". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ The Tor Project, Inc. "Tor". torproject.org.
Jump up ^ Konigsburg, Eitan; Pant, Rajiv; Kvochko, Elena (November 13, 2014). "Embracing HTTPS". The New York Times. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Kevin (September 12, 2014). "Fifteen Months After the NSA Revelations, Why Aren't More News Organizations Using HTTPS?". Freedom of the Press Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "HTTPS as a ranking signal". Google Webmaster Central Blog. Google Inc. August 6, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2015. You can make your site secure with HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) [...]
Jump up ^ Grigorik, Ilya; Far, Pierre (June 26, 2014). "Google I/O 2014 - HTTPS Everywhere". Google Developers. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "How to Deploy HTTPS Correctly". Retrieved 13 June 2012.
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Jump up ^ "HTTPS usage statistics on top websites". statoperator.com. Retrieved 2017-11-03.
Jump up ^ "SSL Pulse". Trustworthy Internet Movement. 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2015-10-19.
Jump up ^ Aas, Josh (22 June 2016). "Progress Towards 100% HTTPS, June 2016". Lets Encrypt. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "We're Halfway to Encrypting the Entire Web". Electronic Frontier Foundation. 21 February 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Finley, Klint (January 31, 2017). "Half the Web Is Now Encrypted. That Makes Everyone Safer". WIRED. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Firefox 14.0.1 Release Notes". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Firefox Rolling Out HTTPS Google search". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Peter Eckersley: Encrypt the Web with the HTTPS Everywhere Firefox Extension EFF blog, 17 June 2010
Jump up ^ HTTPS Everywhere EFF projects
Jump up ^ Law Enforcement Appliance Subverts SSL, Wired, 2010-04-03.
Jump up ^ New Research Suggests That Governments May Fake SSL Certificates, EFF, 2010-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b SSL: Intercepted today, decrypted tomorrow, Netcraft, 2013-06-25.
Jump up ^ "Free SSL Certificates from a Free Certificate Authority". sslshopper.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ Justin Fielding (2006-07-16). "Secure Outlook Web Access with (free) SSL: Part 1". TechRepublic. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Namecheap.com SSL Services". namecheap. Retrieved 30 Jan 2012.
Jump up ^ "Secure Site Pro with SSL Certificate". Retrieved August 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Catalin Cimpanu. "Let's Encrypt Launched Today, Currently Protects 3.8 Million Domains". Softpedia News. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kerner, Sean Michael (November 18, 2014). "Let's Encrypt Effort Aims to Improve Internet Security". eWeek.com. Quinstreet Enterprise. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Eckersley, Peter (November 18, 2014). "Launching in 2015: A Certificate Authority to Encrypt the Entire Web". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mozilla Firefox Privacy Policy". Mozilla Foundation. 27 April 2009. Archived from the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Opera 8 launched on FTP". Softpedia. 19 April 2005. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (31 January 2006). "HTTPS Security Improvements in Internet Explorer 7". MSDN. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Myers, M; Ankney, R; Malpani, A; Galperin, S; Adams, C (June 1999). "Online Certificate Status Protocol – OCSP". Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Manage client certificates on Chrome devices - Chrome for business and education Help". support.google.com. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ Pusep, Stanislaw (31 July 2008). "The Pirate Bay un-SSL". Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: FAQ". apache.org.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (22 October 2005). "Upcoming HTTPS Improvements in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2". Microsoft. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Server Name Indication (SNI)". inside aebrahim's head.
Jump up ^ Pierre, Julien. "Browser support for TLS server name indication" (2001-12-19). Bugzilla. Mozilla Foundation. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ "sslstrip". Retrieved 2011-11-26.
Jump up ^ Shuo Chen; Rui Wang; XiaoFeng Wang; Kehuan Zhang (May 2010). "Side-Channel Leaks in Web Applications: a Reality Today, a Challenge Tomorrow" (PDF). IEEE Symposium on Security & Privacy 2010.
Jump up ^ "How to Force a Public Wi-Fi Network Login Page to Open". Retrieved 2017-12-30.
Jump up ^ "iOS: What To Do When Your Public Wi-Fi Won't Connect All the Way". Retrieved 2017-12-30.
Jump up ^ Walls, Colin (2005). Embedded software. Newnes. p. 344. ISBN 0-7506-7954-9.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to HTTPS.
RFC 2818: HTTP Over TLS
RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security Protocol 1.2
RFC 6101: The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Protocol Version 3.0
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Particle detector
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about detection of ionizing radiation. For detection of non-ionizing particles, see Particle counter.
In experimental and applied particle physics, nuclear physics, and nuclear engineering, a particle detector, also known as a radiation detector, is a device used to detect, track, and/or identify ionizing particles, such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle accelerator. Detectors can measure the particle energy and other attributes such as momentum, spin, charge, particle type, in addition to merely registering the presence of the particle.
Contents
1 Examples and types
2 Modern detectors
3 Research particle detectors
3.1 At colliders
3.2 Under construction
3.3 Without colliders
4 On spacecraft
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Examples and types[edit]
Summary of Particle Detector types
Many of the detectors invented and used so far are ionization detectors (of which gaseous ionization detectors and semiconductor detectors are most typical) and scintillation detectors; but other, completely different principles have also been applied, like Čerenkov light and transition radiation.
Cloud chambers visualize particles by creating a supersaturated layer of vapor. Particles passing through this region create cloud tracks similar to condensation trails of planes
Recording of a bubble chamber at CERN
Historical examples
Bubble chamber
Wilson cloud chamber (diffusion chamber)
Photographic plates
Detectors for radiation protection
The following types of particle detector are widely used for radiation protection, and are commercially produced in large quantities for general use within the nuclear, medical and environmental fields.
Gaseous ionization detectors
Geiger-Müller tube
Ionization chamber
Proportional counter
Scintillation counter
Semiconductor detectors
Dosimeters
Electroscopes (when used as portable dosimeters)
Commonly used detectors for particle and nuclear physics
Gaseous ionization detectors
Ionization chamber
Proportional counter
Multiwire Proportional Chamber
Drift chamber
Time projection chamber
Geiger-Müller tube
Spark chamber
Solid-state detectors
semiconductor detectors and variants including CCDs
solid-state track detectors
Cherenkov detector
RICH (Ring Imaging Cherenkov Detector)
Scintillation counter and associated Photomultiplier or Photodiode / Avalanche photodiode
Lucas cell
Time of flight detector
Semiconductor detector
Silicon Vertex Detector
Transition radiation detector
Calorimeters
Microchannel plate detectors
Neutron detectors
Modern detectors[edit]
Main article: Hermetic detector
Modern detectors in particle physics combine several of the above elements in layers much like an onion.
Research particle detectors[edit]
Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term counter is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy photons or even visible light). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.
At colliders[edit]
At CERN
for the LHC
CMS
ATLAS
ALICE
LHCb
for the LEP
Aleph[1]
Delphi[2]
L3
Opal[3]
for the SPS
The COMPASS Experiment
Gargamelle
NA61/SHINE
At Fermilab
for the Tevatron
CDF
D0
Mu2e
At DESY
for HERA
H1
HERA-B
HERMES
ZEUS
At BNL
for the RHIC
PHENIX
Phobos
STAR
At SLAC
for the PeP-II
BaBar
for the SLC
SLD
At Cornell
for CESR
CLEO
CUSB
At BINP
for the VEPP-2M and VEPP-2000
ND
SND
CMD
for the VEPP-4
KEDR
Others
MECO from UC Irvine
Under construction[edit]
For ILC
CALICE
Without colliders[edit]
Super-Kamiokande
AMANDA
CDMS
On spacecraft[edit]
JEDI
AMS
See also[edit]
List of particles
Counting efficiency
References[edit]
Jones, R. Clark (1949). "A New Classification System for Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 327–341. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000327.
Jones, R. Clark (1949). "Erratum: The Ultimate Sensitivity of Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 343. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000343.
Jones, R. Clark (1949). "Factors of Merit for Radiation Detectors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 39 (5): 344–356. doi:10.1364/JOSA.39.000344.
Further reading[edit]
Filmstrips
"Radiation detectors". H. M. Stone Productions, Schloat. Tarrytown, N.Y., Prentice-Hall Media, 1972.
General Information
Grupen, C. (June 28 – July 10, 1999). "Physics of Particle Detection". AIP Conference Proceedings, Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics, VIII. 536. Istanbul: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 3&ndash, 34. arXiv:physics/9906063. doi:10.1063/1.1361756.
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Death Valley
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the valley. For the park, see Death Valley National Park. For other uses, see Death Valley (disambiguation).
Death Valley
Death Valley
Death Valley
California
Floor elevation
−86 m (−282 ft)[1]
Area
3,000 square miles (7,800 km2)
Geography
Coordinates
36°14′49″N 116°49′01″W / 36.24694°N 116.81694°W / 36.24694; -116.81694[2]
Watercourses
Furnace Creek
Amargosa River
Death Valley is a desert valley located in Eastern California. It is one of the hottest places in the world at the height of summertime along with deserts in Africa and in the Middle East.[3]
Death Valley's Badwater Basin is the point of the lowest elevation in North America, at 282 feet (86 m) below sea level.[1] This point is 84.6 miles (136.2 km) east-southeast of Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States with an elevation of 14,505 feet (4,421 m).[4] Death Valley's Furnace Creek holds the record for the highest reliably recorded air temperature in the world, 134 °F (56.7 °C) on July 10, 1913.[5] This has been contested by other weather experts.[6]
Located near the border of California and Nevada, in the Great Basin, east of the Sierra Nevada mountains, Death Valley constitutes much of Death Valley National Park and is the principal feature of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts Biosphere Reserve. It is located mostly in Inyo County, California. It runs from north to south between the Amargosa Range on the east and the Panamint Range on the west; the Sylvania Mountains and the Owlshead Mountains form its northern and southern boundaries, respectively. It has an area of about 3,000 sq mi (7,800 km2).[7] The highest point in Death Valley itself is Telescope Peak in the Panamint Range, which has an elevation of 11,043 feet (3,366 m).
Contents
[hide]
1 Geology
2 Climate
3 Biodiversity
4 Lake Badwater and Glacial Lake Manly
5 History
6 In popular culture
7 Notable locations
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Geology[edit]
Main article: Geology of the Death Valley area
Sand dunes at Mesquite Flats
Map showing the system of once-interconnected Pleistocene lakes in eastern California (USGS)
Death Valley is one of the best geological examples of a basin and range configuration. It lies at the southern end of a geological trough known as Walker Lane, which runs north into Oregon. The valley is bisected by a right lateral strike slip fault system, represented by the Death Valley Fault and the Furnace Creek Fault. The eastern end of the left lateral Garlock Fault intersects the Death Valley Fault. Furnace Creek and the Amargosa River flow through the valley but eventually disappear into the sands of the valley floor.
Death Valley also contains salt pans. According to current geological consensus, at various times during the middle of the Pleistocene era, inland lakes (collectively referred to as Lake Manly) formed in Death Valley. Lake Manly received water overflowing from a chain of other Pleistocene lakes, most of which are now also dry lakebeds. As the area turned to desert, the water evaporated, leaving the abundance of evaporitic salts such as common sodium salts and borax, which were later exploited during the modern history of the region, primarily 1883 to 1907.[8]
Climate[edit]
Death Valley has a subtropical, hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh), with long, extremely hot summers and short, warm winters, as well as little rainfall. As a general rule, lower altitudes tend to have higher temperatures. When the sun heats the ground, that heat is then radiated upward, but the dense below-sea-level air absorbs some of this radiation and radiates some of it back towards the ground. In addition, the high valley walls trap rising hot air and recycle it back down to the valley floor, where it is heated by compression.[9]
This process is especially important in Death Valley, as it provides its specific climate and geography. The valley is surrounded by mountains, while its surface is mostly flat and devoid of plants, so much of the sun's heat can reach the ground, absorbed by soil and rock. When air at ground level is heated, it begins to rise, moving up past steep, high mountain ranges, which then cools slightly, sinking back down towards the valley more compressed. This air is then reheated by the sun to a higher temperature, moving up the mountain again, whereby the air moves up and down in a circular motion in cycles, similar to how a convection oven works. This heated air increases ground temperature markedly, forming the hot wind currents that are trapped by atmospheric pressure and mountains, thus stays mostly within the valley. Such hot wind currents contribute to perpetual drought-like conditions in Death Valley and prevent much cloud formation from passing through the confines of the valley, where precipitation is often in the form of a virga.[10] Death Valley holds temperature records because it has an unusually high number of factors that lead to high atmospheric temperatures.
The depth and shape of Death Valley influence its summer temperatures. The valley is a long, narrow basin 282 feet (86 m) below sea level, yet is walled by high, steep mountain ranges. The clear, dry air and sparse plant cover allow sunlight to heat the desert surface. Summer nights provide little relief, as overnight lows may only dip into the 82 to 98 °F (28 to 37 °C) range. Moving masses of super-heated air blow through the valley creating extremely high temperatures.[11]
The hottest air temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was 134 °F (56.7 °C) on July 10, 1913, at Furnace Creek,[12] which is the hottest atmospheric temperature ever recorded on earth.[5] During the heat wave that peaked with that record, five consecutive days reached 129 °F (54 °C) or above. Some meteorologists dispute the accuracy of the 1913 temperature measurement.[13]
The hottest surface temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was 201.0 °F (93.9 °C) on July 15, 1972, at Furnace Creek, which is the hottest ground surface temperature ever recorded on earth, as well as the only recorded surface temperature of above 200 °F (93.3 °C).[14]
The greatest number of consecutive days with a maximum temperature of 100 °F (38 °C) or above was 154 days in the summer of 2001. The summer of 1996 had 40 days over 120 °F (49 °C), and 105 days over 110 °F (43 °C). The summer of 1917 had 52 days where the temperature reached 120 °F (49 °C) or above with 43 of them consecutive. Four major mountain ranges lie between Death Valley and the ocean, each one adding to an increasingly drier rain shadow effect, and in 1929, 1953, and 1989, no rain was recorded for the whole year.[11] The period from 1931 to 1934 was the driest stretch on record with only 0.64 inches (16 mm) of rain over a 40-month period.[10] On June 30, 2013, during the 2013 extreme heat wave, the mercury reached 129 °F (54 °C) at Furnace Creek station, which is the all-time hottest air temperature recorded for June.
The mean annual temperature for Death Valley (Furnace Creek Weather Station) is 77.2 °F (25.1 °C) with an average high of 65.2 °F (18 °C) in December, 66.9 °F (19 °C) in January, and 116.5 °F (47 °C) in July.[15] From 1934 to 1961, the weather station at Cow Creek recorded a mean annual temperature of 77.2 °F (25.1 °C).[16]
The longest number of consecutive days where temperatures reached 90 °F (32 °C) or more was 205 from April to October 1992.[17] On average, 192 days per year in Death Valley have temperatures that reach 90 °F or more.[18] Before being moved to Furnace Creek, the weather station at Greenland Ranch averaged 194.4 days annually where temperatures reached 90 °F or more.[19]
View from Badwater Basin
The lowest temperature recorded at Greenland Ranch was 15 °F (−9 °C) in January 1913.[20]
The period from July 17–19, 1959, was the longest string of consecutive days where nighttime low temperatures did not drop below 100 °F (38 °C).[21] The highest overnight or low temperature recorded in Death Valley is 110 °F (43 °C), recorded on July 5, 1918, and the current world record for hottest overnight low.[22] As recently as July 12, 2012, the low temperature at Death Valley dropped to just 107 °F (42 °C) after a high of 128 °F (53 °C) on the previous day. The only other location which matches Death Valley's overnight low temperature of 107 °F in recent years is Khasab Airport in Oman, which also recorded a low of 107 °F (42 °C) on June 27, 2012.[23] Also on July 12, 2012 the mean 24-hour temperature recorded at Death Valley was 117.5 °F (47.5 °C), which makes it the world's warmest 24-hour temperature on record.[24]
The average annual precipitation in Death Valley is 2.36 inches (60 mm), while the Greenland Ranch station averaged 1.58 in (40 mm).[25] The wettest month on record is January 1995, when 2.59 inches (66 mm) fell on Death Valley.[10] The wettest period on record was mid-2004 to mid-2005, in which nearly 6 inches (150 mm) of rain fell in total, leading to ephemeral lakes in the valley and the region and tremendous wildflower blooms.[26] Snow with accumulation has only been recorded in January 1922, while scattered flakes have been recorded on other occasions.
[hide]Climate data for Death Valley (Furnace Creek Station)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
87
(31) 97
(36) 102
(39) 113
(45) 122
(50) 129
(54) 134
(57) 127
(53) 123
(51) 113
(45) 98
(37) 89
(32) 134
(57)
Mean maximum °F (°C)
77.0
(25) 83.9
(28.8) 93.4
(34.1) 103.4
(39.7) 112.1
(44.5) 120.4
(49.1) 123.7
(50.9) 121.9
(49.9) 116.0
(46.7) 104.2
(40.1) 88.8
(31.6) 77.0
(25) 124.5
(51.4)
Average high °F (°C)
66.9
(19.4) 73.3
(22.9) 82.1
(27.8) 90.5
(32.5) 100.5
(38.1) 109.9
(43.3) 116.5
(46.9) 114.7
(45.9) 106.5
(41.4) 92.8
(33.8) 77.1
(25.1) 65.2
(18.4) 91.4
(33)
Daily mean °F (°C)
53.4
(11.9) 59.8
(15.4) 68.4
(20.2) 76.3
(24.6) 86.6
(30.3) 95.5
(35.3) 102.2
(39) 100.2
(37.9) 91.1
(32.8) 77.1
(25.1) 62.6
(17) 51.7
(10.9) 77.2
(25.1)
Average low °F (°C)
40.0
(4.4) 46.3
(7.9) 54.8
(12.7) 62.1
(16.7) 72.7
(22.6) 81.2
(27.3) 88.0
(31.1) 85.7
(29.8) 75.6
(24.2) 61.5
(16.4) 48.1
(8.9) 38.3
(3.5) 62.9
(17.2)
Mean minimum °F (°C)
28.4
(−2) 34.4
(1.3) 41.4
(5.2) 48.7
(9.3) 56.6
(13.7) 65.4
(18.6) 75.7
(24.3) 73.5
(23.1) 62.7
(17.1) 48.8
(9.3) 35.5
(1.9) 28.8
(−1.8) 26.3
(−3.2)
Record low °F (°C)
15
(−9) 20
(−7) 26
(−3) 35
(2) 42
(6) 49
(9) 62
(17) 65
(18) 41
(5) 32
(0) 24
(−4) 19
(−7) 15
(−9)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
0.39
(9.9) 0.51
(13) 0.30
(7.6) 0.12
(3) 0.03
(0.8) 0.05
(1.3) 0.07
(1.8) 0.13
(3.3) 0.21
(5.3) 0.07
(1.8) 0.18
(4.6) 0.30
(7.6) 2.36
(59.9)
Mean monthly sunshine hours
217 226 279 330 372 390 403 372 330 310 210 186 3,625
Source #1: NOAA 1981–2010 US Climate Normals[27]
Source #2: weather2travel.com[28]
[hide]Climate data for Death Valley (Cow Creek Station)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
84
(29) 89
(32) 100
(38) 110
(43) 120
(49) 125
(52) 126
(52) 125
(52) 123
(51) 111
(44) 95
(35) 84
(29) 126
(52)
Average high °F (°C)
64.4
(18) 71.6
(22) 80.6
(27) 90.9
(32.7) 100.0
(37.8) 109.3
(42.9) 116.0
(46.7) 113.8
(45.4) 106.9
(41.6) 92.1
(33.4) 75.4
(24.1) 65.9
(18.8) 90.6
(32.6)
Daily mean °F (°C)
52.5
(11.4) 59.1
(15.1) 67.4
(19.7) 77.5
(25.3) 86.4
(30.2) 95.3
(35.2) 102.1
(38.9) 99.9
(37.7) 92.1
(33.4) 78.1
(25.6) 62.3
(16.8) 54.1
(12.3) 77.2
(25.1)
Average low °F (°C)
40.6
(4.8) 46.6
(8.1) 54.3
(12.4) 64.1
(17.8) 72.7
(22.6) 81.2
(27.3) 88.4
(31.3) 86.0
(30) 77.4
(25.2) 64.0
(17.8) 49.3
(9.6) 42.4
(5.8) 63.9
(17.7)
Record low °F (°C)
19
(−7) 30
(−1) 33
(1) 45
(7) 52
(11) 54
(12) 69
(21) 69
(21) 57
(14) 40
(4) 32
(0) 27
(−3) 19
(−7)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
0.24
(6.1) 0.32
(8.1) 0.20
(5.1) 0.20
(5.1) 0.10
(2.5) 0.02
(0.5) 0.10
(2.5) 0.11
(2.8) 0.12
(3) 0.11
(2.8) 0.20
(5.1) 0.29
(7.4) 2.00
(50.8)
Source: www.wrcc.dri.edu[29]
Biodiversity[edit]
Death Valley in 2005 springtime bloom
In spite of the overwhelming heat and sparse rainfall, Death Valley exhibits considerable biodiversity. Wildflowers, watered by snowmelt, carpet the desert floor each spring, continuing into June.[26] Bighorn sheep, red-tailed hawks, and wild burros may be seen. Death Valley has over 600 springs and ponds. Salt Creek, a mile-long shallow depression in the center of the valley, supports pupfish.[30]
Darwin Falls, on the western edge of Death Valley Monument, falls 100 feet (30 m) into a large pond surrounded by willows and cottonwood trees. Over 80 species of birds have been spotted around the pond.[31]
Lake Badwater and Glacial Lake Manly[edit]
A Landsat 5 satellite photo of Lake Badwater on February 9, 2005
A Landsat 5 satellite photo of Badwater Basin dry lake on February 15, 2007
In 2005, Death Valley received four times its average annual rainfall of 1.5 inches (38 mm). As it has done before for hundreds of years, the lowest spot in the valley filled with a wide, shallow lake, but the extreme heat and aridity immediately began evaporating the ephemeral lake.
The pair of images (seen at right) from NASA's Landsat 5 satellite documents the short history of Death Valley's Lake Badwater: formed in February 2005 (top) and evaporated by February 2007 (bottom). In 2005, a big pool of greenish water stretched most of the way across the valley floor. By May 2005 the valley floor had resumed its more familiar role as Badwater Basin, a salt-coated salt flats. In time, this freshly dissolved and recrystallized salt will darken.
The western margin of Death Valley is traced by alluvial fans. During flash floods, rainfall from the steep mountains to the west pours through narrow canyons, picking up everything from fine clay to large rocks. When these torrents reach the mouths of the canyons, they widen and slow, branching out into braided streams. The paler the fans, the younger they are.
During the Pleistocene ice age, which ended roughly 10,000–12,000 years ago, the Sierra Nevada was much wetter. During that time, Death Valley was filled with a huge lake, called Glacial Lake Manly, that was nearly 100 miles (160 km) long and 600 feet (180 m) deep, the end-basin in a chain of lakes that began with Mono Lake in the north and continued through multiple basins down the Owens River Valley through Searles and China Lakes and the Panamint Valley to the immediate west.[32] Remnants of this wetter period can still be seen in the region today, including the presence of several isolated populations of pupfish.[30]
History[edit]
Death Valley is home to the Timbisha tribe of Native Americans, formerly known as the Panamint Shoshone, who have inhabited the valley for at least the past millennium. The Timbisha name for the valley, tümpisa, means "rock paint" and refers to the red ochre paint that can be made from a type of clay found in the valley. Some families still live in the valley at Furnace Creek. Another village was in Grapevine Canyon near the present site of Scotty's Castle. It was called in the Timbisha language maahunu, whose meaning is uncertain, although it is known that hunu means "canyon".
Badlands at Zabriskie Point in Death Valley
The valley received its English name in 1849 during the California Gold Rush. It was called Death Valley by prospectors[33] and others who sought to cross the valley on their way to the gold fields, after 13 pioneers perished from one early expedition of wagon trains.[34][35] During the 1850s, gold and silver were extracted in the valley. In the 1880s, borax was discovered and extracted by mule-drawn wagons.
On the afternoon of July 10, 1913, the United States Weather Bureau recorded a high temperature of 134 °F (56.7 °C) at Greenland Ranch (now Furnace Creek) in Death Valley.[5] This temperature stands as the highest ambient air temperature ever recorded at the surface of the Earth. (A report of a temperature of 58 °C (136.4 °F) recorded in Libya in 1922 was later determined to be inaccurate.)[12]
Death Valley National Monument was proclaimed on February 11, 1933, by President Herbert Hoover, placing the area under federal protection. In 1994, the monument was redesignated as Death Valley National Park, as well as being substantially expanded to include Saline and Eureka Valleys.
In popular culture[edit]
A number of movies have been filmed in Death Valley:[36]
Chimmie Fadden Out West
Danger Valley
Death Valley (1927)
Fair Warning
The Border Patrolman
Where Trails Divide (1937)
Twenty Mule Team
Death Valley (1946)
Yellow Sky
3 Godfathers
The Walking Hills
The Gunfighter (1950)
Surrender
Cattle Drive
Westward the Women
Escape from Fort Bravo
Tumbleweed
War Paint
The Law and Jake Wade
One-Eyed Jacks
The Reward (1965)
The Professionals
The Legend of God's Gun (2007)
Notable locations[edit]
Flash flood near Panamint Butte, Death Valley
Main article: Places of interest in the Death Valley area
Badwater Basin
China Ranch
Dante's View
Darwin Falls
Devils Hole
Father Crowley Viewpoint
Furnace Creek
Harmony Borax Works
Hells Gate
Hog Ranch Mountains
Myers Ranch
Oasis at Death Valley
Russell Camp
New Ryan
Upper and Lower Noonday Camp
Shoreline Butte
Stovepipe Wells
Tecopa
Tecopa Hot Springs
West Side Borax Camp
Wilson Ranch
Wildrose Ranger Station
See also[edit]
Racetrack Playa, a large dry lakebed within the Valley
Sailing stones, famous moving stones of Death Valley
Death Valley Suite, a symphonic suite by Ferde Grofe, inspired by the history and geography of Death Valley
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "USGS National Elevation Dataset (NED) 1 meter Downloadable Data Collection from The National Map 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) - National Geospatial Data Asset (NGDA) National Elevation Data Set (NED)". United States Geological Survey. September 21, 2015. Retrieved September 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Feature Detail Report for: Death Valley". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey.
Jump up ^ "World Heat Record Overturned – A Personal Account". WunderBlog. Retrieved 24 October 2016. Consequently, the WMO assessment is that the official highest recorded surface temperature of 56.7°C (134°F) was measured on 10 July 1913 at Greenland Ranch (Death Valley) CA
Jump up ^ "Find Distance and Azimuths Between 2 Sets of Coordinates". Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 13 August 2010. Entered coordinates for Badwater 36-15-01-N, 116-49-33-W; and Mount Whitney 36-34-43-N, 118-17-31-W
^ Jump up to: a b c "World Meteorological Organization World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive". Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Wagner, David. "Doubts Cloud Death Valley's 100-Year Heat Record".
Jump up ^ Wright, JW, ed. (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. 456. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
Jump up ^ Celeste Cosby; Jeanette Hawkins; Jani Kushla; Molly Robinson (2009). "Boron Minerals of Death Valley". Clark Science Center, Smith College. Archived from the original on 17 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Weather and Climate Death Valley National Park" (PDF). U.S. National Park Service. July 2007. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Weather and Climate". Death Valley National Park. U.S. National Park Service. 23 May 2008. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service. "Weather and Climate" (PDF). Death Valley. NPS.gov. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b El Fadli, KI; et al. (September 2012). "World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 94 (2): 199. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1.
Jump up ^ Masters, Jeff. "Historic Heat Wave Reponsible(sic) for Death Valley's 129°F Gradually Weakening". WunderBlog. Wunderground. Archived from the original on 2013-11-05.
Jump up ^ Kubecka, Paul (2001). "A possible world record maximum natural ground surface temperature". Weather. 56 (7): 218–221. Bibcode:2001Wthr...56..218K. doi:10.1002/j.1477-8696.2001.tb06577.x.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Western U.S. Climate Historical Summaries Weather". Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Western U.S. Climate Historical Summaries Weather". Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "State Extremes". Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Temperature". General Climate Summary. Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Temperature". General Climate Summary. Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Period of Record General Climate Summary - Temperature". Greenland Ranch, California. Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Parzybok, TW (2005). Weather Extremes of the West. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. p. 103. ISBN 978-0878424733.
Jump up ^ "July Daily Normals And Records" (PDF). The Death Valley Climate Book. National Weather Service. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
Jump up ^ Masters, Jeff (16 July 2013). "Death Valley records a low of 107°F (41.7°C): a world record". Weather Underground. Archived from the original on 7 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Jeff Masters. "Death Valley records a low of 107°F (41.7°C): a world record". Blog. Weather Underground. Retrieved 19 September 2012.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Monthly Climate Summary". Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wet Winter Brings Life to Death Valley".
Jump up ^ NOAA. "1981–2010 US Climate Normals". NOAA. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Weather2travel.com. "Weather2travel Death Valley Climate". Retrieved 16 June 2011.
Jump up ^ WRCC. "Western U.S. Climate Historical Summaries Weather". Desert Research Institute. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Phenotypic Plasticity of Death Valley's Pupfish
Jump up ^ Not So Dead, Smithsonian Magazine, May 2008, p. 30
Jump up ^ "Image of the Day: Lake Badwater, Death Valley". Earth Observing System. NASA. 18 March 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Lingenfelter, Richard E.; Dwyer, Richard A. (1988). Death Valley Lore, Classic Tales of Fantasy, Adventure and Mystery. Reno: University of Nevada Press. ISBN 0-87417-136-9.
Jump up ^ Manly, William Lewis (1894). "Death Valley in '49". Project Gutenberg. The Pacific Tree and Vine Co.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Jerry. "Paradise Found". Santa Clarita Valley Historical Society. Retrieved 2017-10-07.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Jerry L. (2016). Western Filming Locations California Book 6. CP Entertainment Books. Pages 132-133. ISBN 9780692722947.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Death Valley (category)
Death Valley travel guide from Wikivoyage
National Park Service: Official Death Valley National Park website
Historical photographs of Death Valley (1926), The Bancroft Library
UNESCO Biosphere Preserve: Mojave and Colorado Deserts
Strange moving rocks of the valley
The Phenotypic Plasticity of Death Valley's Pupfishes an American Scientist article by Sean Lema
Death Valley Area Interactive Map
Surficial Geologic Map of the Death Valley Junction 30' x 60' Quadrangle, California and Nevada United States Geological Survey
Death Valley Weather
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Death Valley
Death Valley Nonprofit Support Organization
Death Valley on National Geographic
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Death_Valley&oldid=804219221"
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Death Valley
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