text:
Mediterranean Sea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Mediterranean" redirects here. For other uses, see Mediterranean (disambiguation).
"Mediterranea" redirects here. For the 2015 film, see Mediterranea (film).
Mediterranean Sea
Map of the Mediterranean Sea
Coordinates
35°N 18°E / 35°N 18°E / 35; 18Coordinates: 35°N 18°E / 35°N 18°E / 35; 18
Type
Sea
Primary inflows
Atlantic Ocean, Sea of Marmara, Nile, Ebro, Rhône, Chelif, Po
Basin countries
about 60 [show]
Abkhazia (independence disputed, claimed by Georgia)
Albania
Algeria
Andorra
Austria
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Burundi
Chad
Republic of the Congo
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Egypt
Eritrea
Ethiopia
France
Georgia
Germany
Gibraltar (UK)
Greece
Hungary
Israel
Italy
Kenya
Kosovo (independence disputed, claimed by Serbia)
Lebanon
Libya
Liechtenstein
Macedonia
Malta
Moldova
Monaco
Montenegro
Morocco
Niger
Northern Cyprus (independence disputed, claimed by Cyprus)
State of Palestine (a de jure sovereign state)
Poland[1]
Romania
Russia
Rwanda
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Ossetia (independence disputed, claimed by Georgia)
South Sudan
Spain
Sudan
Switzerland
Syria
Tanzania
Transnistria (independence disputed, claimed by Moldova)
Tunisia
Turkey
Uganda
Ukraine
Vatican City
Surface area
2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)
Average depth
1,500 m (4,900 ft)
Max. depth
5,267 m (17,280 ft)
Water volume
3,750,000 km3 (900,000 cu mi)
Residence time
80–100 years[2]
Islands
3300+
Settlements
Alexandria, Algiers, Athens, Barcelona, Beirut, Carthage, Dubrovnik, İzmir, Rome, Split, Tangier, Tel Aviv, Tripoli, Tunis (full list)
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually identified as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.
The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in the middle of land" (from medius, "middle" and terra, "land"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km (8.7 mi) wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4]
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, and in the south by Africa. It is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The sea's average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km (500 miles). The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara (connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea), has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 square miles).[5]
The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.
The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 History
2.1 Ancient civilisations
2.2 Middle Ages and empires
2.3 21st century and migrations
3 Geography
3.1 Extent
3.2 Oceanography
3.3 Coastal countries
3.4 Coastal cities
3.5 Subdivisions
3.5.1 Other seas
3.5.2 Other features
3.6 10 largest islands by area
3.7 Climate
3.7.1 Sea temperature
4 Geology
4.1 Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis
4.1.1 Messinian salinity crisis
4.1.2 Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna
4.1.3 Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"
5 Paleoclimate
6 Ecology and biota
7 Environmental history
7.1 Natural hazards
7.2 Biodiversity
7.2.1 Invasive species
7.2.2 Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species
7.3 Sea-level rise
7.4 Pollution
7.5 Shipping
7.6 Tourism
7.7 Overfishing
7.8 Aquaculture
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Name[edit]
With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.
The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning "amid the earth (note: earth in the sense "soil", not Planet Earth)" or "between land" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a "middle, between" + terra f., "land, earth"): as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, "between" + γη, "land, earth").[6] It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia (Μεσοποταμία), meaning "between rivers".
The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example, the Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea" and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"), and occasionally Mare Internum[7] and in Greek as the "Mare Magnum", meaning "Great Sea".[8]
In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea" (הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל, HaYam HaGadol, Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or simply "The Sea" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" (הַיָּם הָאַחֲרוֹן), due to its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as "Western Sea", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines" (יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Exod. 23:31), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites.
In Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon (הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן), "the Middle Sea", reflecting the Sea's name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin Mare internum (Inner Sea) or Mare Nostrum (Our Sea), and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).[8]
Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ (البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط), "the [White] Middle Sea", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as Baḥr al-Rūm (بحر الروم), or "the Roman/Byzantine Sea."[8]
In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, meaning the "Pure White Sea".
In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz,[9] meaning "the White Sea", to distinguish it from the Black Sea.[8]
History[edit]
This images may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2017)
Main article: History of the Mediterranean region
Ancient civilisations[edit]
Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in antiquity c. the 6th century BCE
The Roman Empire at its farthest extent in AD 117
Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.[10]
Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history.
Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea").
Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.[11]
Middle Ages and empires[edit]
The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the European Holy League against the Ottoman Turks.
The Western Roman Empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.
Europe started to revive, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.
The bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816
Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.
The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea.[12] According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[13]
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most trade between Western Europe and the East had passed through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.[14][15][16]
21st century and migrations[edit]
File:BlackMarble20161km.jpg
Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at night
In 2013 the Maltese president described the Mediterranean sea as a "cemetery" due to the large amounts of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized.[17] European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies.[18] An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die".[19]
Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.[20]
Geography[edit]
A satellite image showing the Mediterranean Sea. The Strait of Gibraltar can be seen in the bottom left (north-west) quarter of the image; to its left is the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, and to its right, the Maghreb in Africa.
The Dardanelles strait in Turkey. The north side is Europe with the Gelibolu Peninsula in the Thrace region; the south side is Anatolia in Asia.
The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara (Dardanelles) is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.[8]
Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean; Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Sardinia, Corsica, Ibiza, Majorca and Menorca (the Balearic Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.
The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.
Extent[edit]
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[21]
Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins:
Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).
On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily.
On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E / 37.783°N 12.367°E / 37.783; 12.367), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).
Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin.
On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles.
On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.
On the east: The coasts of Syria and Israel.
Oceanography[edit]
Predominant surface currents for June
Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.
Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin.[22] Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.[23] The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8%.[24]
The pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar.[25] Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.[26]
The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F).[24]
Coastal countries[edit]
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Mediterranean countries.
Map of the Mediterranean Sea
The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:
Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.
Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.
Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.
Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.
Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus, and the Gaza Strip.
Barcelona, the largest metropolitan area on the Mediterranean Sea and also the headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean
The Acropolis of Athens with the Mediterranean Sea in the background
The ancient port of Jaffa (now part of Tel Aviv-Yafo) in Israel: according to the Bible, where Jonah set sail before being swallowed by a whale[27]
Alexandria, one of the largest cities on the Mediterranean
Catania, Sicily, with Mount Etna in the background
İzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey after Istanbul and Ankara
Coastal cities[edit]
For a more comprehensive list, see List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea.
Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:
Country
Cities
Algeria Algiers, Annaba, Oran
Egypt Alexandria, Port Said
France Marseille, Nice
Greece Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Thessaloniki
Israel Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv
Italy Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Taranto, Trieste, Venice
Lebanon Beirut, Tripoli
Libya Benghazi, Khoms, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten
Morocco Tétouan, Tangier
Palestine Gaza City, Khan Yunis
Spain Alicante, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma, Valencia.
Syria Latakia
Tunisia Sfax, Sousse, Tunis
Turkey Antalya, Adana, İzmir, Mersin
Subdivisions[edit]
Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe (right), as seen from Gibraltar
According to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):[21]
the Strait of Gibraltar;
the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;
the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands;
the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);
the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily;
the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;
the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;
the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.
Other seas[edit]
Positano, Tyrrhenian Sea
Although not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:
the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea
the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,
the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,
In the Aegean Sea,
the Thracian Sea in its north,
the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese,
the Sea of Crete north of Crete,
the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios
the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus
the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean
Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations.
Other features[edit]
View of the Saint George Bay, and snow-capped Mount Sannine from the Corniche, Beirut
The Port of Marseille seen from L'Estaque
Sarandë, Albania is situated on an open sea gulf of the Ionian sea in the central Mediterranean.
In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:
the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon
the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria
the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.
the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria
the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco
the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula
the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal
the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula
the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea
the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia
the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia
the Gulf of Lion, south of France
the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain
the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy
the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy
the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy
the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy
the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy
The Paklinski Islands off the coast of Croatia; the Adriatic Sea contains over 1200 islands and islets
the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy
the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania
the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel
the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy
the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica
the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)
the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)
the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia
the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta
the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo
10 largest islands by area[edit]
The two biggest islands of the Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia (Italy)
Main article: List of islands in the Mediterranean
Country
Island
Area in km2
Population
Italy Sicily 25,460 5,048,995
Italy Sardinia 23,821 1,672,804
Cyprus Cyprus 9,251 1,088,503
France Corsica 8,680 299,209
Greece Crete 8,336 623,666
Greece Euboea 3,655 218.000
Spain Majorca 3,640 869,067
Greece Lesbos 1,632 90,643
Greece Rhodes 1,400 117,007
Greece Chios 842 51,936
Climate[edit]
Map of climate zones in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to the Köppen climate classification
Sea temperature[edit]
Mean sea temperature (°C)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Marseille[28] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14
16.6
Gibraltar[29] 16 15 16 16 17 20 22 22 22 20 18 17
18.4
Málaga[30] 16 15 15 16 17 20 22 23 22 20 18 16
18.3
Athens[31] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 18
19.3
Barcelona[32] 13 13 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15
17.8
Heraklion[33] 16 15 15 16 19 22 24 25 24 22 20 18
19.7
Venice[34] 11 10 11 13 18 22 25 26 23 20 16 14
17.4
Valencia[35] 14 13 14 15 17 21 24 26 24 21 18 15
18.5
Malta[36] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18
19.9
Alexandria[37] 18 17 17 18 20 23 25 26 26 25 22 20
21.4
Naples[38] 15 14 14 15 18 22 25 27 25 22 19 16
19.3
Larnaca[39] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19
21.7
Limassol[40] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19
21.7
Antalya 17 17 17 18 21 24 27 28 27 25 22 19
21.8
Tel Aviv[41] 18 17 17 18 21 24 26 28 27 26 23 20
22.1
Geology[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: Geology and paleoclimatology of the Mediterranean Basin
A submarine karst spring, called vrulja, near Omiš; observed through several ripplings of an otherwise calm sea surface.
The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.[42][43]
Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.[44]
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850 thousand km2 (330 thousand mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640 thousand mi2). A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[45][46]
Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis[edit]
Messinian salinity crisis before the Zanclean flood
Play media
Animation: Messinian salinity crisis
The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The Central Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of ancient, modern, present and foreseeable history, the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate.
Messinian salinity crisis[edit]
During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times.[47] During late Miocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya;[48] see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.
After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition.[49][50] Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view. [51][52]
Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna[edit]
The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The former gateway closed about six (6) mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), which occurred well before the MSC and lasted much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which thereby normalised migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species;[53] see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.
The near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their geneses.
Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).[54]
Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"[edit]
The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.
Paleoclimate[edit]
Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.[55] Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.
Ecology and biota[edit]
As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[56] the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.
The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the ogre cancer.
See also: Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance
Environmental history[edit]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Mediterranean Sea/Archive 1. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate.[57] The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham's work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.[57] The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.[57]
The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the Latifundiums took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some[who?] assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times — the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and showing various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages",[58] and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity.[57]
Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.[57] The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns.[57] The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome'[59] as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents for the then much more important (tourism) travellers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations.[57] Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.[57]
Natural hazards[edit]
Stromboli volcano in Italy
The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend.[60] Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others as Mount Etna and Stromboli are to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active[61] and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occur within decades.[62]
Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.[63] It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[64] The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.[65] The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to forest fires, followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[64] Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.
Biodiversity[edit]
See also: List of fish of the Mediterranean Sea and List of fish of the Black Sea
Unlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.
Invasive species[edit]
The reticulate whipray is one of the species that colonised the Eastern Mediterranean through the Suez Canal as part of the ongoing Lessepsian migration.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.
Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin,[66] introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of "alien" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a "familiar sight".
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.[67]
Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species[edit]
In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the "lessepsian" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.[citation needed]
Sea-level rise[edit]
By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result of the effects of climate change.[68] This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:
Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.[69]
A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[70]
Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.[71] Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.[72]
Pollution[edit]
Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years.[when?] The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[73] The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'[74] Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.[75]
The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.[76]
Shipping[edit]
A cargo ship cruises towards the Strait of Messina
Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.
The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000 long tons) of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.
Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.[72]
Tourism[edit]
Antalya on the Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast) received more than 11 million international tourist arrivals in 2014.
The Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the most culturally diverse block basin sea regions in the world, with a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures. The Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists.[citation needed]
Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries regardless of the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbour coastal nations. In that regard, authorities around the Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick intercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or natural disaster.
Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.
Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit.[72]
See also: environmental impact of tourism
Overfishing[edit]
Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.[date missing]
There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.
Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.
Aquaculture[edit]
Aquaculture in western Greece
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Aquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish.
Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning.
Gallery[edit]
Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia
The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, France
Sardinia's south coast, Italy
Pretty Bay, Malta
Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia
Panoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia
View of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina
A view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro
Ksamil Islands, Albania
Navagio, Greece
Marmaris, Turquoise Coast, Turkey
Paphos, Cyprus
Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria
A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon
A view of Haifa, Israel
Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt
Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain
Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria
El Jebha, a port town in Morocco
Europa Point, Gibraltar
Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco
Sunset at the Deir al-Balah beach, Gaza Strip
See also[edit]
Mediterranean portal
Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures
Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly
Familial Mediterranean fever
History of the Mediterranean region
Holy League (Mediterranean)
List of islands in the Mediterranean
List of Mediterranean countries
Mediterranean Basin
Mediterranean climate
Mediterranean diet
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Mediterranean Games
Mediterranean race
Mediterranean sea (oceanography)
Piri Reis – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean
Seto Inland Sea – also known as the Japanese Mediterranean Sea
Suez Canal
Tyrrhenian Basin
Union for the Mediterranean
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "UNECE.indb" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Pinet, Paul R. (2008). Invitation to Oceanography. Jones & Barlett Learning. p. 220. ISBN 0-7637-5993-7.
Jump up ^ "Microsoft Word — ext_abstr_East_sea_workshop_TLM.doc" (PDF). Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Researchers predict Mediterranean Sea level rise — Headlines — Research – European Commission". Europa. 19 March 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Mediterranean Sea". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-10-23.
Jump up ^ "entry μεσόγαιος". Liddell & Scott. Archived from the original on 2 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Sallust, The Jugurthine War 17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vella, Andrew P. (1985). "Mediterranean Malta" (PDF). Hyphen. 4 (5): 469–472. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Özhan Öztürk claims that in Old Turkish ak also means "west" and that Akdeniz hence means "West Sea", while Karadeniz (Black Sea) means "North Sea". Özhan Öztürk. Pontus: Antik Çağ’dan Günümüze Karadeniz’in Etnik ve Siyasi Tarihi Genesis Yayınları. Ankara. 2011. pp. 5–9. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012.
Jump up ^ David Abulafia (2011). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Rappoport, S. (Doctor of Philosophy, Basel). History of Egypt (undated, early 20th century), Volume 12, Part B, Chapter V: "The Waterways of Egypt", pages 248–257 (online). London: The Grolier Society.
Jump up ^ Robert Davis (5 December 2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780333719664. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
Jump up ^ C.I. Gable – Constantinople Falls to the Ottoman Turks - Boglewood Timeline – 1998 – Retrieved 3 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "History of the Ottoman Empire, an Islamic Nation where Jews Lived" – Sephardic Studies and Culture – Retrieved 3 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert Guisepi – The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors To Empire Builders – 1992 – History World International – Retrieved 3 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Migrant deaths prompt calls for EU action". Al Jazeera — English. 13 October 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Schulz: EU migrant policy 'turned Mediterranean into graveyard'". EUobserver. 24 October 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Novruz Mammadov: The Mediterranean become a burial ground".
Jump up ^ "Over one million sea arrivals reach Europe in 2015". UNHCR – The UN Refugee Agency. 30 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Pinet, Paul R. (1996), Invitation to Oceanography (3rd ed.), St Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., p. 202, ISBN 0-314-06339-0
Jump up ^ Pinet 1996, p. 206.
^ Jump up to: a b Emeis, Kay-Christian; Struck, Ulrich; Schulz, Hans-Martin; Rosenberg, Reinhild; Bernasconi, Stefano; Erlenkeuser, Helmut; Sakamoto, Tatsuhiko; Martinez-Ruiz, Francisca (2000). "Temperature and salinity variations of Mediterranean Sea surface waters over the last 16,000 years from records of planktonic stable oxygen isotopes and alkenone unsaturation ratios". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 158 (3–4): 259–280. Bibcode:2000PPP...158..259E. doi:10.1016/s0031-0182(00)00053-5.
Jump up ^ Pinet 1996, pp. 206–207.
Jump up ^ Pinet 1996, p. 207.
Jump up ^ Israel, By Sue Bryant, (New Holland Publishers, 2008), page 72
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Marseille Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – France".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Gibraltar (Westside) Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Gibraltar".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Malaga Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Costa del Sol".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Athens Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Greece – Greece".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Barcelona Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Spain".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Iraklion Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Crete – Crete".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Venice Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Venetian Riviera".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Valencia Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Spain – Spain".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Valletta Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Malta – Malta".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Alexandria Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Egypt".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Naples Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Neapolitan Riviera".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Larnaca Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Cyprus".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Limassol Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Cyprus".
Jump up ^ Weather2Travel.com. "Tel Aviv Climate: Monthly Weather Averages – Israel".
Jump up ^ William Ryan (2008). "Decoding the Mediterranean salinity crisis". Sedimentology. 56 (1): 95–136. Bibcode:2009Sedim..56...95R. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01031.x.
Jump up ^ William Ryan (2008). "Modeling the magnitude and timing of evaporative drawdown during the Messinian salinity crisis" (PDF). Sedimentology. 5 (3–4): 229.
Jump up ^ Garcia-Castellanos, D., Estrada, F., Jiménez-Munt, I., Gorini, C., Fernàndez, M., Vergés, J., De Vicente, R. (10 December 2009) Catastrophic flood of the Mediterranean after the Messinian salinity crisis, Nature 462, pp. 778–781, doi:10.1038/nature08555
Jump up ^ Elmer LaMoreaux, Philip (2001). "Geologic/Hydrogeologic Setting and Classification of Springs". Springs and Bottled Waters of the World: Ancient History, Source, Occurrence, Quality and Use. Springer. p. 57. ISBN 978-3-540-61841-6.
Jump up ^ Žumer, Jože (2004). "Odkritje podmorskih termalnih izvirov" [Discovery of submarine thermal springs] (PDF). Geografski obzornik (in Slovenian). Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia. 51 (2): 11–17. ISSN 0016-7274. (in Slovene)
Jump up ^ de la Vara, Alba; Topper, Robin P.M.; Meijer, Paul Th.; Kouwenhoven, Tanja J. (2015). "Water exchange through the Betic and Rifian corridors prior to the Messinian Salinity Crisis: A model study". Paleoceanography. 30 (5): 548–557. Bibcode:2015PalOc..30..548V. doi:10.1002/2014PA002719.
Jump up ^ Krijgsman, W.; Fortuinb, A. R.; Hilgenc, F. J.; Sierrod, F. J. (2001). "Astrochronology for the Messinian Sorbas basin (SE Spain) and orbital (precessional) forcing for evaporite cyclicity". Sedimentary Geology. 140: 43–60. Bibcode:2001SedG..140...43K. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00171-8.
Jump up ^ Gargani J., Rigollet C. (2007). "Mediterranean Sea level variations during the Messinian Salinity Crisis". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (L10405): L10405. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410405G. doi:10.1029/2007GL029885.
Jump up ^ Gargani J.; Moretti I.; Letouzey J. (2008). "Evaporite accumulation during the Messinian Salinity Crisis : The Suez Rift Case". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (2): L02401. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.2401G. doi:10.1029/2007gl032494.
Jump up ^ Govers, R. (2009). Choking the Mediterranean to dehydration: The Messinian salinity crisis Geology, 37 (2), 167–170 doi:10.1130/G25141A.1 Link
Jump up ^ Garcia-Castellanos, D., A. Villaseñor, 2011. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc. Nature, 2011-12-15 pdf here Link
Jump up ^ Agusti, J; Moya-Sola, S (1990). "Mammal extinctions in the Vallesian (Upper Miocene)". Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences. 30: 425–432. doi:10.1007/BFb0011163. ISBN 3-540-52605-6. ISSN 1613-2580. (Abstract)
Jump up ^ Politische Geographien Europas: Annäherungen an ein umstrittenes Konstrukt, Anke Strüver, LIT Verlag Münster, 2005, p.43
Jump up ^ FJ, Hilgen. Astronomical calibration of Gauss to Matuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implication for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale, 104 (1991) 226–244 Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1991.[1]
Jump up ^ Hsu K.J., "When the Mediterranean Dried Up" Scientific American, Vol. 227, December 1972, p32
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History, by Alfred Thomas Grove, Oliver Rackham, Yale University Press, 2003, review at Yale university press Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (review) Brian M. Fagan, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454–455 |
Jump up ^ Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern, Jean M. Grove, Taylor & Francis, 2004
Jump up ^ Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995
Jump up ^ The wave that destroyed Atlantis Harvey Lilley, BBC News Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
Jump up ^ Antonio Denti, "Super volcano", global danger, lurks near Pompeii, Reuters, 3 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Isaia, Roberto; Paola Marianelli; Alessandro Sbrana (2009). "Caldera unrest prior to intense volcanism in Campi Flegrei (Italy) at 4.0 ka B.P.: Implications for caldera dynamics and future eruptive scenarios". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (L21303): L21303. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3621303I. doi:10.1029/2009GL040513.
Jump up ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". guardian.co.uk. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alle kennisdossiers van het Instituut Fysieke Veiligheid" (PDF).
Jump up ^ EU Solidarity Fund Website 2003 proposal of EUR 47.6 million for Italian regions hit by natural disasters
Jump up ^ "IUCN Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity Loss Caused by Alien Invasive Species" (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Leppäkoski, E. et al. (2002). Invasive aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management. pp. 325–336.
Jump up ^ "Mediterranean Sea Level Could Rise By Over Two Feet, Global Models Predict". Science Daily. 3 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Briny future for vulnerable Malta". BBC News. 4 April 2007.
Jump up ^ "Egypt fertile Nile Delta falls prey to climate change". 28 January 2010. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Nicholls, R.J.; Klein, R.J.T. (2005). Climate change and coastal management on Europe's coast, in: Vermaat, J.E. et al. (Ed.) (2005). Managing European coasts: past, present and future. pp. 199–226.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Other threats in the Mediterranean | Greenpeace International". Greenpeace. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. Environmental issues". Explorecrete.com. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "EUROPA". Europa. Archived from the original on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Mediterranean Monk Seal Fact Files: Overview". Monachus-guardian.org. 5 May 1978. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Marine Litter: An Analytical Overview" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. 2005. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutMediterranean Seaat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera
[show]
Links to related articles
[show]
v
t
e
Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea
Sovereign states
Albania
Algeria
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Croatia
Cyprus
Egypt
France
Greece
Israel
Italy
Lebanon
Libya
Malta
Monaco
Montenegro
Morocco
Slovenia
Spain
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
States with limited recognition
Northern Cyprus
Palestine
Dependencies and other territories
Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK)
Gibraltar (UK)
[show]
v
t
e
Earth's oceans and seas
Arctic Ocean
Amundsen Gulf
Barents Sea
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Boothia
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Lincoln Sea
Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
Pechora Sea
Queen Victoria Sea
Wandel Sea
White Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Alboran Sea
Archipelago Sea
Argentine Sea
Baffin Bay
Balearic Sea
Baltic Sea
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Bothnia
Bay of Campeche
Bay of Fundy
Black Sea
Bothnian Sea
Caribbean Sea
Celtic Sea
English Channel
Foxe Basin
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Maine
Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Venezuela
Hudson Bay
Ionian Sea
Irish Sea
Irminger Sea
James Bay
Labrador Sea
Levantine Sea
Libyan Sea
Ligurian Sea
Marmara Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Myrtoan Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Sargasso Sea
Sea of Åland
Sea of Azov
Sea of Crete
Sea of the Hebrides
Thracian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Wadden Sea
Indian Ocean
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bali Sea
Bay of Bengal
Flores Sea
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Suez
Java Sea
Laccadive Sea
Mozambique Channel
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Timor Sea
Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea
Banda Sea
Bering Sea
Bismarck Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Celebes Sea
Ceram Sea
Chilean Sea
Coral Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Alaska
Gulf of Anadyr
Gulf of California
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Halmahera Sea
Koro Sea
Mar de Grau
Molucca Sea
Moro Gulf
Philippine Sea
Salish Sea
Savu Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
Seto Inland Sea
Shantar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Solomon Sea
South China Sea
Sulu Sea
Tasman Sea
Visayan Sea
Yellow Sea
Southern Ocean
Amundsen Sea
Bellingshausen Sea
Cooperation Sea
Cosmonauts Sea
Davis Sea
D'Urville Sea
King Haakon VII Sea
Lazarev Sea
Mawson Sea
Riiser-Larsen Sea
Ross Sea
Scotia Sea
Somov Sea
Weddell Sea
Landlocked seas
Aral Sea
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Salton Sea
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of the world
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Africa
Central Africa
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Cape Lopez
Mayombe
Igboland
Mbaise
Maputaland
Pool Malebo
Congo Basin
Chad Basin
Congolese rainforests
Ouaddaï highlands
Ennedi Plateau
East Africa
African Great Lakes
Albertine Rift
East African Rift
Great Rift Valley
Gregory Rift
Rift Valley lakes
Swahili coast
Virunga Mountains
Zanj
Horn of Africa
Afar Triangle
Al-Habash
Barbara
Danakil Alps
Danakil Desert
Ethiopian Highlands
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Tadjoura
Indian Ocean islands
Comoros Islands
North Africa
Maghreb
Barbary Coast
Bashmur
Ancient Libya
Atlas Mountains
Nile Valley
Cataracts of the Nile
Darfur
Gulf of Aqaba
Lower Egypt
Lower Nubia
Middle Egypt
Nile Delta
Nuba Mountains
Nubia
The Sudans
Upper Egypt
Western Sahara
West Africa
Pepper Coast
Gold Coast
Slave Coast
Ivory Coast
Cape Palmas
Cape Mesurado
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Niger Basin
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Niger Delta
Inner Niger Delta
Southern Africa
Madagascar
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
Northern Highlands
Rhodesia
North
South
Thembuland
Succulent Karoo
Nama Karoo
Bushveld
Highveld
Fynbos
Cape Floristic Region
Kalahari Desert
Okavango Delta
False Bay
Hydra Bay
Macro-regions
Aethiopia
Arab world
Commonwealth realm
East African montane forests
Eastern Desert
Equatorial Africa
Françafrique
Gibraltar Arc
Greater Middle East
Islands of Africa
List of countries where Arabic is an official language
Mediterranean Basin
MENA
Middle East
Mittelafrika
Negroland
Northeast Africa
Portuguese-speaking African countries
Sahara
Sahel
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sudan (region)
Sudanian Savanna
Tibesti Mountains
Tropical Africa
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of North America
Canada
Eastern Canada
Western Canada
Canadian Prairies
Central Canada
Northern Canada
Atlantic Canada
The Maritimes
French Canada
English Canada
Acadia
Acadian Peninsula
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Peace River Country
Cypress Hills
Palliser's Triangle
Canadian Shield
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Newfoundland (island)
Vancouver island
Gulf Islands
Strait of Georgia
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Labrador Peninsula
Gaspé Peninsula
Avalon Peninsula
Bay de Verde Peninsula
Brodeur Peninsula
Melville Peninsula
Bruce Peninsula
Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
Cook Peninsula
Gulf of Boothia
Georgian Bay
Hudson Bay
James Bay
Greenland
United States
Pacific Northwest
Inland Northwest
Northeast
New England
Mid-Atlantic
Commonwealth
West
Midwest
Upper Midwest
Mountain States
Intermountain West
Basin and Range Province
Oregon Trail
Mormon Corridor
Calumet Region
Southwest
Old Southwest
Llano Estacado
Frontier Strip
Central United States
Tallgrass prairie
South
South Central
Deep South
Upland South
Four Corners
East Coast
West Coast
Gulf Coast
Third Coast
Coastal states
Eastern United States
Appalachia
Trans-Mississippi
Great North Woods
Great Plains
Interior Plains
Great Lakes
Great Basin
Great Basin Desert
Acadia
Ozarks
Ark-La-Tex
Waxhaws
Siouxland
Twin Tiers
Driftless Area
Palouse
Piedmont
Atlantic coastal plain
Outer Lands
Black Dirt Region
Blackstone Valley
Piney Woods
Rocky Mountains
Mojave Desert
The Dakotas
The Carolinas
Shawnee Hills
San Fernando Valley
Tornado Alley
North Coast
Lost Coast
Emerald Triangle
San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay
North Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)
Silicon Valley
Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
Gulf of Mexico
Lower Colorado River Valley
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
Colville Delta
Arkansas Delta
Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
Mississippi Delta
Mississippi River Delta
Columbia River Estuary
Great Basin
High Desert
Monterey Peninsula
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Lower Peninsula of Michigan
Virginia Peninsula
Keweenaw Peninsula
Middle Peninsula
Delmarva Peninsula
Alaska Peninsula
Kenai Peninsula
Niagara Peninsula
Beringia
Belt regions
Bible Belt
Black Belt
Corn Belt
Cotton Belt
Frost Belt
Rice Belt
Rust Belt
Sun Belt
Snow Belt
Mexico
Northern Mexico
Baja California Peninsula
Gulf of California
Colorado River Delta
Gulf of Mexico
Soconusco
Tierra Caliente
La Mixteca
La Huasteca
Bajío
Valley of Mexico
Mezquital Valley
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
Yucatán Peninsula
Basin and Range Province
Central
Western Caribbean Zone
Isthmus of Panama
Gulf of Panama
Pearl Islands
Azuero Peninsula
Mosquito Coast
Caribbean
West Indies
Antilles
Greater Antilles
Lesser Antilles
Leeward
Leeward Antilles
Windward
Lucayan Archipelago
Southern Caribbean
Aridoamerica
Mesoamerica
Oasisamerica
Northern
Middle
Anglo
Latin
French
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of South America
North
Caribbean South America
West Indies
Los Llanos
The Guianas
Amazon basin
Amazon rainforest
Gulf of Paria
Paria Peninsula
Paraguaná Peninsula
Orinoco Delta
South
Tierra del Fuego
Patagonia
Pampas
Pantanal
Gran Chaco
Chiquitano dry forests
Valdes Peninsula
West
Andes
Tropical Andes
Wet Andes
Dry Andes
Pariacaca mountain range
Altiplano
Atacama Desert
East
Amazon basin
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
Latin
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Asia
Central
Greater Middle East
Aral Sea
Aralkum Desert
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Sea of Galilee
Transoxiana
Turan
Greater Khorasan
Ariana
Khwarezm
Sistan
Kazakhstania
Eurasian Steppe
Asian Steppe
Kazakh Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
Wild Fields
Yedisan
Muravsky Trail
Ural
Ural Mountains
Volga region
Idel-Ural
Kolyma
Transbaikal
Pryazovia
Bjarmaland
Kuban
Zalesye
Ingria
Novorossiya
Gornaya Shoriya
Tulgas
Iranian Plateau
Altai Mountains
Pamir Mountains
Tian Shan
Badakhshan
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Mount Imeon
Mongolian Plateau
Western Regions
Taklamakan Desert
Karakoram
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Siachen Glacier
North
Inner Asia
Northeast
Far East
Russian Far East
Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
Extreme North
Siberia
Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
Transbaikal
Khatanga Gulf
Baraba steppe
Kamchatka Peninsula
Amur Basin
Yenisei Gulf
Yenisei Basin
Beringia
Sikhote-Alin
East
Japanese archipelago
Northeastern Japan Arc
Sakhalin Island Arc
Korean Peninsula
Gobi Desert
Taklamakan Desert
Greater Khingan
Mongolian Plateau
Inner Asia
Inner Mongolia
Outer Mongolia
China proper
Manchuria
Outer Manchuria
Inner Manchuria
Northeast China Plain
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
North China Plain
Yan Mountains
Kunlun Mountains
Liaodong Peninsula
Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau
Tibet
Tarim Basin
Northern Silk Road
Hexi Corridor
Nanzhong
Lingnan
Liangguang
Jiangnan
Jianghuai
Guanzhong
Huizhou
Wu
Jiaozhou
Zhongyuan
Shaannan
Ordos Loop
Loess Plateau
Shaanbei
Hamgyong Mountains
Central Mountain Range
Japanese Alps
Suzuka Mountains
Leizhou Peninsula
Gulf of Tonkin
Yangtze River Delta
Pearl River Delta
Yenisei Basin
Altai Mountains
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
West
Greater Middle East
MENA
Middle East
Red Sea
Caspian Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Zagros Mountains
Persian Gulf
Pirate Coast
Strait of Hormuz
Greater and Lesser Tunbs
Al-Faw Peninsula
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Aden
Balochistan
Arabian Peninsula
Najd
Hejaz
Tihamah
Eastern Arabia
South Arabia
Hadhramaut
Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
Tigris–Euphrates
Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia
Lower Mesopotamia
Sawad
Nineveh plains
Akkad (region)
Babylonia
Canaan
Aram
Eber-Nari
Suhum
Eastern Mediterranean
Mashriq
Kurdistan
Levant
Southern Levant
Transjordan
Jordan Rift Valley
Levantine Sea
Golan Heights
Hula Valley
Gaza Strip
West Bank
Galilee
Gilead
Judea
Samaria
Arabah
Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Sinai Peninsula
Arabian Desert
Syrian Desert
Fertile Crescent
Azerbaijan
Syria
Palestine
Iranian Plateau
Armenian Highlands
Caucasus
Caucasus Mountains
Greater Caucasus
Lesser Caucasus
North Caucasus
South Caucasus
Kur-Araz Lowland
Lankaran Lowland
Alborz
Absheron Peninsula
Anatolia
Cilicia
Cappadocia
Alpide belt
South
Greater India
Indian subcontinent
Himalayas
Hindu Kush
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Pashtunistan
Punjab
Balochistan
Kashmir
Kashmir Valley
Pir Panjal Range
Thar Desert
Indus Valley
Indus River Delta
Indus Valley Desert
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Eastern coastal plains
Western Coastal Plains
Meghalaya subtropical forests
Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
Doab
Bagar tract
Great Rann of Kutch
Little Rann of Kutch
Deccan Plateau
Coromandel Coast
Konkan
False Divi Point
Hindi Belt
Ladakh
Aksai Chin
Gilgit-Baltistan
Baltistan
Shigar Valley
Karakoram
Saltoro Mountains
Siachen Glacier
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Mannar
Trans-Karakoram Tract
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman Islands
Nicobar Islands
Maldive Islands
Alpide belt
Southeast
Mainland
Indochina
Malay Peninsula
Maritime
Peninsular Malaysia
Sunda Islands
Greater Sunda Islands
Lesser Sunda Islands
Indonesian Archipelago
Timor
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
Philippine Archipelago
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
Leyte Gulf
Gulf of Thailand
East Indies
Nanyang
Alpide belt
Asia-Pacific
Tropical Asia
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Europe
North
Nordic
Northwestern
Scandinavia
Scandinavian Peninsula
Fennoscandia
Baltoscandia
Sápmi
West Nordic
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
East
Danubian countries
Prussia
Galicia
Volhynia
Donbass
Sloboda Ukraine
Sambia Peninsula
Amber Coast
Curonian Spit
Izyum Trail
Lithuania Minor
Nemunas Delta
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Vyborg Bay
Karelia
East Karelia
Karelian Isthmus
Lokhaniemi
Southeastern
Balkans
Aegean Islands
Gulf of Chania
North Caucasus
Greater Caucasus
Kabardia
European Russia
Southern Russia
Central
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Alpine states
Alpide belt
Mitteleuropa
Visegrád Group
West
Benelux
Low Countries
Northwest
British Isles
English Channel
Channel Islands
Cotentin Peninsula
Normandy
Brittany
Gulf of Lion
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Pyrenees
Alpide belt
South
Italian Peninsula
Insular Italy
Tuscan Archipelago
Aegadian Islands
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Gibraltar Arc
Southeastern
Mediterranean
Crimea
Alpide belt
Germanic
Celtic
Slavic countries
Uralic
European Plain
Eurasian Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Wild Fields
Pannonian Basin
Great Hungarian Plain
Little Hungarian Plain
Eastern Slovak Lowland
[show]
v
t
e
Regions of Oceania
Australasia
Gulf of Carpentaria
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
New Zealand
South Island
North Island
Coromandel Peninsula
Zealandia
New Caledonia
Solomon Islands (archipelago)
Vanuatu
Kula Gulf
Australia
Capital Country
Eastern Australia
Lake Eyre basin
Murray–Darling basin
Northern Australia
Nullarbor Plain
Outback
Southern Australia
Maralinga
Sunraysia
Great Victoria Desert
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf St Vincent
Lefevre Peninsula
Fleurieu Peninsula
Yorke Peninsula
Eyre Peninsula
Mornington Peninsula
Bellarine Peninsula
Mount Henry Peninsula
Melanesia
Islands Region
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands Archipelago
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Caroline Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Palau
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands
Wake Island
Polynesia
Easter Island
Hawaiian Islands
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Austral Islands
Gambier Islands
Marquesas Islands
Society Islands
Tuamotu
Kermadec Islands
Mangareva Islands
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Ring of Fire
[show]
v
t
e
Polar regions
Antarctic
Antarctic Peninsula
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Eklund Islands
Ecozone
Extreme points
Islands
Arctic
Arctic Alaska
British Arctic Territories
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Finnmark
Greenland
Northern Canada
Northwest Territories
Nunavik
Nunavut
Russian Arctic
Sakha
Sápmi
Yukon
North American Arctic
[show]
v
t
e
Earth's oceans and seas
Arctic Ocean
Amundsen Gulf
Barents Sea
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Boothia
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Lincoln Sea
Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
Pechora Sea
Queen Victoria Sea
Wandel Sea
White Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Alboran Sea
Archipelago Sea
Argentine Sea
Baffin Bay
Balearic Sea
Baltic Sea
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Bothnia
Bay of Campeche
Bay of Fundy
Black Sea
Bothnian Sea
Caribbean Sea
Celtic Sea
English Channel
Foxe Basin
Greenland Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Maine
Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Venezuela
Hudson Bay
Ionian Sea
Irish Sea
Irminger Sea
James Bay
Labrador Sea
Levantine Sea
Libyan Sea
Ligurian Sea
Marmara Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Myrtoan Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Sargasso Sea
Sea of Åland
Sea of Azov
Sea of Crete
Sea of the Hebrides
Thracian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Wadden Sea
Indian Ocean
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bali Sea
Bay of Bengal
Flores Sea
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Suez
Java Sea
Laccadive Sea
Mozambique Channel
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Timor Sea
Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea
Banda Sea
Bering Sea
Bismarck Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Celebes Sea
Ceram Sea
Chilean Sea
Coral Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Alaska
Gulf of Anadyr
Gulf of California
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Halmahera Sea
Koro Sea
Mar de Grau
Molucca Sea
Moro Gulf
Philippine Sea
Salish Sea
Savu Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
Seto Inland Sea
Shantar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Solomon Sea
South China Sea
Sulu Sea
Tasman Sea
Visayan Sea
Yellow Sea
Southern Ocean
Amundsen Sea
Bellingshausen Sea
Cooperation Sea
Cosmonauts Sea
Davis Sea
D'Urville Sea
King Haakon VII Sea
Lazarev Sea
Mawson Sea
Riiser-Larsen Sea
Ross Sea
Scotia Sea
Somov Sea
Weddell Sea
Landlocked seas
Aral Sea
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Salton Sea
Book
Category
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 239897976
GND: 4074895-9
SELIBR: 153712
NDL: 00573122
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Sea&oldid=814786589"
Categories:
European seas
Geography of North Africa
Marginal seas
Marine ecoregions
Mediterranean Sea
Natural history of Europe
Seas of the Atlantic Ocean
Seas of Africa
Hidden categories:
CS1 Slovenian-language sources (sl)
Articles with Slovene-language external links
Use dmy dates from August 2014
Coordinates on Wikidata
Hidden templates using styles
Articles containing Arabic-language text
Articles needing more viewpoints from September 2017
Articles needing additional references from May 2012
All articles needing additional references
Articles containing Croatian-language text
Accuracy disputes from February 2017
All accuracy disputes
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011
All articles with vague or ambiguous time
Vague or ambiguous time from May 2012
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017
Articles needing additional references from October 2010
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikivoyage
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Адыгабзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
Ænglisc
Аҧсшәа
العربية
Aragonés
ܐܪܡܝܐ
Armãneashti
Arpetan
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Авар
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Bamanankan
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Bikol Central
Български
Boarisch
བོད་ཡིག
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
ChiShona
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Emiliàn e rumagnòl
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
贛語
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Interlingue
Ирон
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Kapampangan
ქართული
Kaszëbsczi
Қазақша
Kernowek
Kiswahili
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Кырык мары
Ladino
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Lingála
La .lojban.
Luganda
Lumbaart
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
Malti
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Mirandés
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Napulitano
Нохчийн
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Nouormand
Occitan
Олык марий
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
Patois
Перем Коми
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Piemontèis
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Ποντιακά
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Qırımtatarca
Română
Rumantsch
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
Sardu
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Ślůnski
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Taqbaylit
Tarandíne
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Türkmençe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vèneto
Vepsän kel’
Tiếng Việt
Võro
Walon
文言
West-Vlams
Winaray
Wolof
吴语
Xitsonga
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Zazaki
Zeêuws
Žemaitėška
中文
डोटेली
Kabɩyɛ
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 December 2017, at 22:56.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Mediterranean_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Mediterranean (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: href title

value: th

attrs: colspan class style

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color: #cedeff; font-size: 125%;

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: colspan style

values: text-align:center;line-height: 1.2; border-bottom: 1px solid #cedeff;

value: span

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values: Primary inflows: rivers, streams, precipitation

values: text-align: left; display: none; background: transparent;

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border:none;
NavFrame1

values: text-align:center;border-bottom: #cedeff 1px solid

values:
/wiki/Tel_Aviv-Jaffa
mw-redirect
Tel Aviv-Jaffa

values: List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea

values:
/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language
mw-redirect
Ancient Greek language

values:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content
presentation

values:
/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia
mw-redirect
Darius I of Persia

values:
/wiki/Roman_empire
mw-redirect
Roman empire

values:
/wiki/Conquest_of_Constantinople
mw-redirect
Conquest of Constantinople

values:
/wiki/Ottoman_occupation_of_Toulon
mw-redirect
Ottoman occupation of Toulon

values: Edit section: 21st century and migrations

values: width: 270px; height: 110px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; top: -265px; left: -1055px; width: 2200px

values:
/wiki/Gelibolu_Peninsula
mw-redirect
Gelibolu Peninsula

values:
/wiki/Lesbos_Island
mw-redirect
Lesbos Island

values:
/wiki/Naxos_Island
mw-redirect
Naxos Island

values:
/wiki/Malta_Island
mw-redirect
Malta Island

values:
/wiki/Cape_Spartel
mw-redirect
Cape Spartel

values:
/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)
mw-redirect
Precipitation (meteorology)

values:
/wiki/British_overseas_territory
mw-redirect
British overseas territory

values:
/wiki/Sovereign_Base_Areas
mw-redirect
Sovereign Base Areas

values:
/wiki/Tel_Aviv-Yafo
mw-redirect
Tel Aviv-Yafo

values:
/wiki/Khoms,_Libya
mw-redirect
Khoms, Libya

values: width:60%; text-align:left; font-size:90%; margin-left:1em;

values:
/wiki/Italian_peninsula
mw-redirect
Italian peninsula

values:
/wiki/Sea_of_Sicily
mw-redirect
Sea of Sicily

values:
/wiki/Cilician_Sea
mw-redirect
Cilician Sea

values:
/wiki/Mount_Pelion
mw-redirect
Mount Pelion

values:
/wiki/Mirtoan_Sea
mw-redirect
Mirtoan Sea

values:
/wiki/Gulf_of_Haifa
mw-redirect
Gulf of Haifa

values:
/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra
mw-redirect
Gulf of Sidra

values:
/wiki/Corsica_Channel
mw-redirect
Corsica Channel

values:
/wiki/Gulf_of_%C4%B0skenderun
mw-redirect
Gulf of İskenderun

values: Edit section: 10 largest islands by area

values: width:40%; text-align:center; font-size:90%; margin-left:1em;

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: File:Koppen World Map (Mediterranean Sea area only).png

values: margin-left: auto; margin-right:auto; overflow:hidden; width:auto; max-width:777px;

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: Geology and paleoclimatology of the Mediterranean Basin

values:
/wiki/African_plate
mw-redirect
African plate

values:
/wiki/Eurasian_plate
mw-redirect
Eurasian plate

values: Edit section: Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/640px--Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:640px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="74.112" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="914200" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.1080p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Full HD WebM (1080P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 1080P" data-transcodekey="1080p.webm" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="1006656" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-title="Original Ogg file, 1,440 × 1,080 (2.06 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="2061093" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="2120560" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="214" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="118704" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="228320" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="455288" data-framerate="25"/></video>

values:
/wiki/Mountain_belt
mw-redirect
Mountain belt

values:
/wiki/Betic_Corridor
mw-redirect
Betic Corridor

values: Edit section: Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

values:
/wiki/Zanclean_Flood
mw-redirect
Zanclean Flood

values: Tortonian salinity crisis (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Red_Sea_Basin
mw-redirect
Red Sea Basin

values: Edit section: Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"

values:
/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund
mw-redirect
World Wildlife Fund

values: Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2014)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values:
/wiki/Thera_eruption
mw-redirect
Thera eruption

values:
/wiki/Forest_fire
mw-redirect
Forest fire

values:
/wiki/Bitter_Lakes
mw-redirect
Bitter Lakes

values:
/wiki/Aswan_High_Dam
mw-redirect
Aswan High Dam

values: International Union for Conservation of Nature

values:
/wiki/Marine_biologist
mw-redirect
Marine biologist

values: Edit section: Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Habitat_corridor
mw-redirect
Habitat corridor

values: The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2012)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values:
/wiki/Plastic_debris
mw-redirect
Plastic debris

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)

values:
/wiki/Shipping_route
mw-redirect
Shipping route

values:
/wiki/Marine_environment
mw-redirect
Marine environment

values:
/wiki/Marine_habitat
mw-redirect
Marine habitat

values:
/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_tourism
mw-redirect
Environmental impact of tourism

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Holy_League_(Mediterranean)
mw-redirect
Holy League (Mediterranean)

values: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub

values: border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:100%;

values:
/wiki/Liddell_%26_Scott
mw-redirect
Liddell & Scott

values:
nofollow
external text
http://euobserver.com/tickers/121894

values:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08555

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7274

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2F2014PA002719

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1029%2F2007GL029885

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1029%2F2007gl032494

values:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG25141A.1

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBFb0011163

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1613-2580

values:
/wiki/Kenneth_J._Hsu
mw-redirect
Kenneth J. Hsu

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1029%2F2009GL040513

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values: Template:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea

values: Template talk:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Indian_Ocean_islands
mw-redirect
Indian Ocean islands

values:
/wiki/Comoros_Islands
mw-redirect
Comoros Islands

values:
/wiki/Nile_Valley
mw-redirect
Nile Valley

values: List of countries where Arabic is an official language

values: Template talk:Regions of North America (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Vancouver_island
mw-redirect
Vancouver island

values: List of belt regions of the United States

values: Latin America and the Caribbean (region)

values: Template talk:Regions of South America (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Northern_South_America
mw-redirect
Northern South America

values: Template talk:Regions of Asia (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Asian_Steppe
mw-redirect
Asian Steppe

values:
/wiki/Inner_Manchuria
mw-redirect
Inner Manchuria

values:
/wiki/Pirate_Coast
mw-redirect
Pirate Coast

values:
/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia
mw-redirect
Lower Mesopotamia

values: Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests

values: Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows

values:
/wiki/Indonesian_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Indonesian Archipelago

values:
/wiki/Philippine_Archipelago
mw-redirect
Philippine Archipelago

values: Template talk:Regions of Europe (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Mangareva_Islands
mw-redirect
Mangareva Islands

values:
/wiki/Polar_regions
mw-redirect
Polar regions

values:
/wiki/Antarctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Antarctic ecozone

values: List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands

values:
/wiki/Extreme_North
mw-redirect
Extreme North

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/239897976

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4074895-9

values:
nofollow
external text
https://libris.kb.se/auth/153712

values: Category:CS1 Slovenian-language sources (sl)

values: Category:Articles with Slovene-language external links

values: Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text

values: Category:Articles needing more viewpoints from September 2017

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2012

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles containing Croatian-language text

values: Category:Accuracy disputes from February 2017

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2014

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011

values: Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous time from May 2012

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2010

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: ЩIылъэку Хы – Kabardian

values: Хыгурыт – Adyghe

values: ሜድትራኒያን ባሕር – Amharic

values: Адгьылбжьаратә мшын – Abkhazian

values: البحر الأبيض المتوسط – Arabic

values: ܝܡܐ ܚܘܪܐ ܡܨܥܝܐ – Aramaic

values: ভূমধ্য সাগৰ – Assamese

values: Ракьдагьоркьосеб ралъад – Avaric

values: ভূমধ্যসাগর – Bangla

values: Урта диңгеҙ – Bashkir

values: Міжземнае мора – Belarusian

values: Міжземнае мора – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: रूम सागर – Bhojpuri

values: Средиземно море – Bulgarian

values: ཏི་ཀྲུང་ཧའེ་རྒྱ་མཚོ། – Tibetan

values: Газарай дундада тэнгис – Russia Buriat

values: Вăтаçĕр тинĕсĕ – Chuvash

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahemeri
Vahemeri – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Μεσόγειος Θάλασσα – Greek

values: مدیترانه – Persian

values: Am Muir Meadhan-thìreach – Scottish Gaelic

values: Միջերկրական ծով – Armenian

values: भूमध्य सागर – Hindi

values: Зæххастæуы денджыз – Ossetic

values: הים התיכון – Hebrew

values: ಮೆಡಿಟರೇನಿಯನ್ ಸಮುದ್ರ – Kannada

values: ხმელთაშუა ზღვა – Georgian

values: Жерорта теңізі – Kazakh

values:
https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mor_Kres
Mor Kres – Cornish
kw
kw
interlanguage-link-target

values: Жер ортолук деңиз – Kyrgyz

values: Мӱлӓндӹ лоштыш тангыж – Western Mari

values: ທະເລເມດີແຕກລາເນ – Lao

values: भूमध्य सागर – Maithili

values: Средоземно Море – Macedonian

values: മദ്ധ്യധരണ്യാഴി – Malayalam

values: भूमध्य समुद्र – Marathi

values: სქირონაშქა ზუღა – Mingrelian

values: مدیترانه دریا – Mazanderani

values: Газрын Дундад тэнгис – Mongolian

values: မြေထဲပင်လယ် – Burmese

values: भूमध्य सागर – Nepali

values: मेडिटेरेनियन सागर – Newari

values: Лаьттаюккъера хӀорд – Chechen

values: Мландыпокшел теҥыз – Eastern Mari

values: ਭੂ-ਮੱਧ ਸਮੁੰਦਰ – Punjabi

values: Meditarienian Sii – Jamaican Creole English

values: Мушӧр саридз – Komi-Permyak

values: សមុទ្រ មេឌីទែរ៉ានេ – Khmer

values: Μεσόγειον Θάλασσα – Pontic

values: Середоземне море – Rusyn

values: Средиземное море – Russian

values: Сир ортотунааҕы байҕал – Sakha

values: මධ්‍යධරණී මුහුද – Sinhala

values: Средоземно море – Serbian

values: நடுநிலக் கடல் – Tamil

values: Урта диңгез – Tatar

values: మధ్యధరా సముద్రము – Telugu

values: ทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน – Thai

values: Баҳри Миёназамин – Tajik

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akdeniz
Akdeniz – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Середземне море – Ukrainian

values: بحیرہ روم – Urdu

values: يەر ئوتتۇرا دېڭىزى – Uyghur

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskmeri
Keskmeri – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values: מיטלענדישער ים – Yiddish

values: भूमध्य सागर – Doteli

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mediterranean_Sea rootpage-Mediterranean_Sea skin-vector action-view