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Yoda
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This article is about the Star Wars character. For other uses, see Yoda (disambiguation).
Yoda
Star Wars character
Yoda in The Empire Strikes Back
First appearance
The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
Last appearance
Star Wars Rebels
– "Shroud of Darkness" (2016)
Created by
George Lucas
Voiced by
Frank Oz (Episodes I-III, V-VII, Star Tours—The Adventures Continue, Star Wars Rebels)
John Lithgow (The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi radio dramas)
Greg Berg (one episode of Muppet Babies)
Peter McConnell (Super Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
Corey Burton (Read-along storybook CDs)
Tom Kane (various TV shows and video games)
Eric Jacobson (It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie)
Performed by
Frank Oz (lead puppeteer, Episodes I, V-VI)
Eric Jacobson (puppeteer, It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie)
Deep Roy (costume, uncredited, Episode V)[1][2][3][4]
Warwick Davis (costume, uncredited, Episode I)
Additional performers: Kathryn Mullen, David Barclay, Mike Quinn, Wendy Froud, Don Austen, David Greenaway, Katherine Smee
Information
Full name
Yoda
Species
Unknown
Gender
Male
Occupation
Jedi Master
Affiliation
Jedi Order
Galactic Republic
Title
Grand Master of the Jedi Order (Episodes I-VI)
Member of the High Jedi Council (Episodes I-III)
General in the Grand Army of the Republic (Episodes II-III)
Yoda is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise created by George Lucas, first appearing in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back. In the original films, he trains Luke Skywalker to fight against the Galactic Empire. In the prequel films, he serves as the Grand Master of the Jedi Order and as a high-ranking general of Clone Troopers in the Clone Wars. Following his death in Return of the Jedi at the age of 900, Yoda was the oldest living character in the Star Wars franchise in canon, until the introduction of Maz Kanata in Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
Contents
[hide]
1 Concept and creation
1.1 Character overview
2 Appearances
2.1 Feature films
2.1.1 Original trilogy
2.1.1.1 The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
2.1.1.2 Return of the Jedi (1983)
2.1.2 Prequel trilogy
2.1.2.1 Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)
2.1.2.2 Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002)
2.1.2.3 Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (2005)
2.1.3 Sequel trilogy
2.1.3.1 Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015)
2.2 Animated series
2.2.1 Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008)
2.2.2 Star Wars Rebels (2014)
2.3 Legends
2.3.1 Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003)
2.3.2 Comics
3 In popular culture
3.1 Merchandising
3.1.1 Lego
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Concept and creation
Frank Oz provided Yoda's voice in each film and used his skills as a puppeteer in the original trilogy and Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. For some walking scenes in Episodes V and I, dwarf actors Deep Roy and Warwick Davis appeared in costume as Yoda (though neither was credited). While Frank Oz served as the primary performer, he was assisted by a multitude of other puppeteers, including:[5] Kathryn Mullen (Ep. V), Wendy Froud (Ep. V), David Barclay (Ep. V-VI), Mike Quinn (Ep. VI), David Greenaway (Ep. I & VI), Don Austen (Ep. I), and Kathy Smee (Ep. I). For the radio dramatizations of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, Yoda was voiced by John Lithgow, while Tom Kane voiced him in the Clone Wars animated series, several video games, and the series Star Wars: The Clone Wars.
The make-up artist Stuart Freeborn based Yoda's face partly on his own and partly on Albert Einstein's.[6][7][8][9] In The Phantom Menace, he was redesigned to look younger. He was computer-generated for two distant shots, but remained mostly a puppet.[10] The puppet was re-designed by Nick Dudman from Stuart Freeborn's original design.
Rendered with computer animation in Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, Yoda appeared in ways not previously possible, including his participation in elaborate fight scenes. In Revenge of the Sith, his face appears in several big close-ups, demanding highly detailed CGI work. His performance was deliberately designed to be consistent with the limitations of the puppet version, with some "mistakes" made such as the occasional ear-jiggling.[citation needed] Rob Coleman was responsible for the character's new incarnation to the series.
Yoda was recreated in CGI for the 2011 Blu-ray release of The Phantom Menace.[11] A clip of the new CG Yoda from The Phantom Menace was first seen in the featurette The Chosen One, included in the 2005 DVD release of Revenge of the Sith.[12] The 2012 theatrical 3D release of The Phantom Menace also features the CG version of Yoda.
Character overview
Grand Jedi Master Yoda is among the oldest and most powerful known Jedi Masters in the Star Wars universe. Series creator George Lucas opted to have many details of the character's life history remain unknown. Yoda's race and home world have not been named in any media, canonical or otherwise, and he is merely said to be of a "species unknown" by the Star Wars Databank. Yoda's characteristic speech patterns have been analyzed and discussed by academic syntacticians, who found it somewhat inconsistent, but could extrapolate that it has object–subject–verb word order[13] making it an anastrophe.
The films and expanded universe reveal that he had a hand in training almost every Jedi in the galaxy, including Count Dooku, who is identified in Attack of the Clones as Yoda's old Padawan Learner; Mace Windu; Obi-Wan Kenobi (partially, before Qui-Gon Jinn takes over as Obi-Wan's master); Ki-Adi-Mundi, Kit Fisto and eventually Luke Skywalker. During the animated series Star Wars: Clone Wars, set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith, he mentions that he trained another one of the leaders on the Jedi Council, Master Oppo Rancisis. In the Star Wars prequel films, he instructs several younglings in the Jedi Temple before they are assigned to a master. This was displayed in a scene in Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones. In The Empire Strikes Back he mentioned that he had been training Jedi "for 800 years", which means he must have been a Master Jedi for quite some time before that.
Appearances
Feature films
Original trilogy
The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
Yoda makes his first film appearance in The Empire Strikes Back. Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) arrives on Dagobah to seek his guidance, having been instructed to do so by the Force ghost of Obi-Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness).
Yoda does not initially identify himself to Luke and instead tests his patience by presenting himself as a comical and senile backwater individual, deliberately provoking both Luke and R2-D2 (Kenny Baker). Luke is shocked when he finally realizes that this small, elderly creature is the powerful Jedi Master he was seeking. Finding that Luke has the same anger and recklessness which caused his father's downfall, Yoda is reluctant to teach him in the ways of the Force, and agrees only at Obi-Wan's behest. Before finishing his training, however, Luke chooses to leave Dagobah in order to confront Darth Vader and save his friends at Bespin. Yoda and Obi-Wan warn him that he is not ready to face Vader and is being lured into a trap, but Luke leaves anyway, promising to return. When Obi-Wan laments that Luke is their "last hope," Yoda reminds him that "there is another".
Return of the Jedi (1983)
Yoda makes a brief appearance in Return of the Jedi, set a year after The Empire Strikes Back. Yoda, now sick and frail, informs Luke that he has completed his training but will not be a Jedi until he confronts Darth Vader; he also confirms that Vader is Luke's father, something Vader had told Luke in the previous film. Yoda then peacefully dies at the age of 900, his body disappearing as he becomes "one with the Force". He leaves Luke with the knowledge that "there is another Skywalker". Moments later, Obi-Wan's ghost helps Luke come to the realization that the "other" of whom Yoda spoke is Princess Leia (Carrie Fisher), who is his twin sister.
In the film's final scene, after the Empire has been defeated, Luke sees Yoda's spirit looking upon him with pride, alongside Obi-Wan and the redeemed Anakin Skywalker (Vader's former Jedi self).[14]
Prequel trilogy
Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)
Yoda returns as a younger version of himself in the prequel trilogy beginning with The Phantom Menace. The film marked the final time Oz would portray the character as a puppet. However, in the 2011 Blu-ray release of The Phantom Menace, the Yoda puppet was replaced by a CGI character to match the later depiction of the character. In the film, which is set 35 years before The Empire Strikes Back, Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) brings the young Anakin Skywalker (Jake Lloyd) to the Jedi Council. Qui-Gon is convinced that Anakin is the "Chosen One" of Jedi prophecy who will bring balance to the Force, and requests the boy be trained as a Jedi. Yoda senses great fear in Anakin, especially in regards to his attachment to his mother, and foresees "grave danger" in his training. The Council, led at the time by Yoda's former padawan Mace Windu (Samuel L. Jackson), rejects Qui-Gon's request.
When Qui-Gon is mortally wounded in a duel with Sith Lord Darth Maul (played by Ray Park and voiced by Peter Serafinowicz), his dying request to his Padawan Obi-Wan Kenobi (Ewan McGregor) is that Anakin be trained as a Jedi. Obi-Wan, determined to fulfill his promise to his master, tells Yoda that he will train the boy, even without the Council's approval. Yoda makes Obi-Wan a Jedi Knight, and reluctantly gives his blessing to Anakin's training.[15]
Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002)
Yoda's CGI appearance in Attack of the Clones
Yoda makes his first CGI appearance in Attack of the Clones. Set a decade after The Phantom Menace, Yoda, now in direct control of the Order's policy as Master of the High Council in addition to his traditional position as Grandmaster, is one of the many Jedi who are concerned about the emergence of the Separatists, a group of systems rebelling against the Galactic Republic. After the first attempted assassination of Senator Padmé Amidala (Natalie Portman), Chancellor Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid) "suggests" that she be put under the protection of Obi-Wan, who is training Anakin (now played by Hayden Christensen). At the climax of the film, Yoda arrives in time to save Obi-Wan and Anakin from the Separatists and defeats his former apprentice, Count Dooku (Christopher Lee), in a lightsaber duel.
Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (2005)
In Revenge of the Sith, Yoda leads the Jedi Council in pursuing the mysterious Sith Lord Darth Sidious. Palpatine has by now amassed near-dictatorial emergency powers, and begins interfering in Jedi affairs by appointing Anakin as his personal representative on the Council. The Council grants Anakin a Council seat, but denies him the rank of Master, feeling that doing so would amount to giving Palpatine a vote in the Council. Additionally, they order him to spy on Palpatine, whom Anakin considers a friend and mentor. Confused and angered by the perceived sub and the instructions to commit what he believes to be treason, Anakin continues to lose faith in the Jedi Order.
Anakin seeks Yoda's counsel about his prophetic visions that someone close to him will die. Yoda, unaware of the person Anakin speaks of is Padmé, or that she is Anakin's wife and pregnant with his child, tells him to "train himself to let go of everything that he fears to lose". Unsatisfied, Anakin turns to Palpatine, who then reveals himself as Darth Sidious. Palpatine manipulates the young Jedi into becoming his Sith apprentice, Darth Vader, with the promise that the dark side holds the power to save Padmé from dying in childbirth.
Palpatine later transforms the Republic into the tyrannical Galactic Empire, proclaiming himself emperor for life, and orders the clone troopers to kill their Jedi generals. At this time, Yoda is on Kashyyyk, overseeing the battle between the Separatist forces and a combined command of clone troopers and Wookiees. Through the Force, Yoda feels the deaths of each of the Jedi as they are assassinated by their own troops. After swiftly killing the clone troopers instructed to kill him, he escapes with Wookiee leaders Tarfful and Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew), and returns to Coruscant, where he and Obi-Wan fight their way into the Jedi Temple to stop a trap for all surviving Jedi. Inside, they discover that all the Jedi inside, younglings included, have been slaughtered. They then discover a holographic recording, revealing Vader as the assassin. Yoda decides to face Palpatine, sending Obi-Wan to kill Vader. When Obi-Wan protests, Yoda tells him that the Anakin he knew no longer exists, having been "consumed by Darth Vader".
Subsequently, Yoda battles Palpatine in a lightsaber duel that wrecks the Senate Rotunda. In the end, neither is able to overcome the other and Yoda is forced to retreat. He goes into exile on Dagobah so that he may hide from the Empire and wait for another opportunity to destroy the Sith. At the end of the film, it's revealed that Yoda has been in contact with Qui-Gon's spirit, learning the secret of immortality from him and passing it on to Obi-Wan.
Yoda is also instrumental in deciding the fate of the Skywalker children after Padmé dies in childbirth, recommending that Luke and Leia be hidden from Vader and Palpatine in remote locations. Other than the ancient Jedi Master, only the Organas, the Lars family, R2-D2 and Obi-Wan know of their true identities.[16]
Sequel trilogy
Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015)
In The Force Awakens, set 30 years after Return of the Jedi, Yoda's voice is heard by the young scavenger Rey (Daisy Ridley) after she discovers Luke Skywalker's lightsaber.[17]
Animated series
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008)
Yoda appears in Star Wars: The Clone Wars, voiced by Tom Kane. In the prequel film Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Yoda assigns Anakin Skywalker his own Padawan, Ahsoka Tano, as he believes that she will help Anakin grow as a Jedi and as a person. Throughout most of the series, Yoda spends his time on Coruscant with the Jedi Council, but he occasionally leaves for certain tasks, such as negotiations with King Katuunko on Rugosa, and a confrontation with Asajj Ventress' droid army. Yoda also watches over Anakin and Ahsoka throughout the series, pleased that they are both maturing due to each other's influence. However, in the final arc of season five, Ahsoka is framed for a crime she didn't commit, and Yoda and the Jedi Council expel her, at the demand of Admiral Tarkin, and turn her over to the Republic military. Along with other members of the Council, Yoda observes Ahsoka's trial, but Anakin bursts in with the true culprit, Barriss Offee, before the verdict can be read. Afterwards Yoda, Anakin and the Council personally invite Ahsoka to rejoin the Order, but to their shock, she refuses and leaves. According to Dave Filoni, Yoda blames himself for Ahsoka's departure, as he had made her Anakin's padawan in the first place.
In the final arc of the final season, Yoda hears Qui-Gon Jinn speaking to him from beyond the grave. Yoda flees the Jedi Temple with R2-D2 to travel to Dagobah, the planet he would make his home when he enters exile after events of Revenge of the Sith, to find answers. Shown cryptic visions of the fall of the Jedi, Yoda learns he has been "chosen" to learn how to manifest his consciousness after death as a Force ghost. Yoda is tested by a group of spirit priestesses in order to overcome trials and temptations on his pilgrimage; one of these tests is to face an illusion of ancient Sith lord Darth Bane. Yoda's final test is to resist an attempt by Darth Sidious and Dooku to lure him to the dark side with a false vision of deceased Jedi Master Sifo Dyas. Yoda engages in a metaphysical battle with Sidious, and appears to sacrifice his life in order to save Anakin's - only to awaken and discover that the battle was merely a vision, and that he has passed the test. The priestesses inform Yoda that his training will resume in time.
Star Wars Rebels (2014)
Yoda was heard in the Star Wars Rebels episode "Path of the Jedi" with Frank Oz reprising the role for the first time since Revenge of the Sith.[18] He communicates with Padawan Ezra Bridger and his master Kanan Jarrus during their experience in an ancient temple on Lothal, and helps the pair do some soul-searching to analyze their true motivations. He appears physically for the first time, in the season 2 episode "Shroud of Darkness", in which he tells Ezra he should find Malachor and reunites with Ahsoka after nearly 20 years.
Legends
With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.[19][20][21]
Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003)
Yoda appears in the 2003 Cartoon Network animated television series Star Wars: Clone Wars, voiced by Tom Kane. In the show, Yoda is made a General, like many of the Jedi Knights and Masters. Yoda escorts Padmé on their journey to an unspecified planet, but Yoda senses several Jedi in distress on Ilum. Using the Jedi mind trick to convince Captain Typho to take them to Ilum, Yoda saves two Jedi Knights and finds a message from Count Dooku giving orders to destroy the Jedi Temple on Ilum. In the animated series' final episode, Yoda fights side by side with Mace Windu to defend Coruscant, which is under attack from the Separatists. The two Jedi Masters realize too late that the battle is a distraction; Separatist leader General Grievous truly intends to kidnap Palpatine. The Jedi Master's effort to stop Grievous fails, and Palpatine is taken hostage, thus setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith.
Comics
Yoda acts as a supporting character in Dark Horse Comics' Clone Wars tie-in comic books. He is also an important character in several novels set in the Star Wars universe, particularly Yoda: Dark Rendezvous.
In popular culture
In 2007, Yoda was selected by Empire magazine as the "25th greatest movie character of all time".[22] On their list of the 100 Greatest Fictional Characters, Fandomania.com ranked Yoda at number 60.[23]
Yoda also appears in Disney's Star Tours: The Adventures Continue attraction, where he is voiced by his original voice actor, Frank Oz.[24]
A life-size statue of Yoda greets visitors to Lucasfilm's Letterman Digital Arts Center in San Francisco's Presidio, the headquarters of Industrial Light and Magic.
American musician and parody artist "Weird Al" Yankovic used the character as inspiration for a parody of The Kinks' "Lola", in a song entitled "Yoda."
Merchandising
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2009)
TomTom has included a "Yoda" voice as one of the Celebrity GPS voicings in their "Star Wars" voice series.[25]
Lego
Lego's Yoda minifigure was the first of their figures to be shorter than the other toys in the Lego Star Wars line; it has shorter legs than the other action figures.[26] Yoda appears in a television series based on the Lego Star Wars toys, created by the Lego company, among them Lego Star Wars: The Yoda Chronicles, Lego Star Wars: The Padawan Menace, Star Wars: The New Yoda Chronicles, and Lego Star Wars: Droid Tales.
See also
Star Wars portal
References
Jump up ^ "The Making of Yoda".
Jump up ^ "Cut Scenes: Dogabah".
Jump up ^ "Dogabah Second Unit Still".
Jump up ^ "Deep Roy as Yoda".
Jump up ^ "Those Yoda Guys".
Jump up ^ "Star Wars make-up artist Stuart Freeborn dies aged 98". BBC News. 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Stuart Freeborn, Yoda's maker, dies". The Guardian. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ "British make-up artist Stuart Freeborn, who created Yoda, dies aged 98". The Times. Retrieved February 7, 2013
Jump up ^ Hauptfuhrer, Fred (9 June 1980). "Yoda Mania: America Falls in Love with the 26–Inch, Green, Pointy-Eared Sage and his Master Puppeteer, Frank Oz". People. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Desowitz, Bill (2002-06-14). "Yoda as We've Never Seen Him Before". Animation World Magazine. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Yoda Goes CGI in 'Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace' on Blu-ray". Hi-Def Digest. 2011-08-25. Retrieved 2011-08-26.
Jump up ^ Gould, Chris. "Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith". dvdactive. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
Jump up ^ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005-05-18). "Language Log: Yoda's syntax the Tribune analyzes; supply more details I will!". Itre.cis.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith
Jump up ^ Bryant, Jacob (21 December 2015). "Obi-Wan, Yoda Secretly in 'Star Wars: The Force Awakens'". Variety. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive: Yoda Returns for Star Wars Rebels". tvguide.com. 15 December 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Disney and Random House announce relaunch of Star Wars Adult Fiction line". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ McMilian, Graeme (April 25, 2014). "Lucasfilm Unveils New Plans for Star Wars Expanded Universe". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Legendary Star Wars Expanded Universe Turns a New Page". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Empire's The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Empire Magazine. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
Jump up ^ "The 100 Greatest Fictional Characters". Fandomania.com. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
Jump up ^ Cole, Carolyn (July 23, 2012). "Frank Oz to ‘Star Wars’ fans: Do the Yoda impression I won’t". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Star Wars™ voices now available for TomTom devices". Starwars.tomtom.com. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
Jump up ^ Martell, Nevin (2009). Standing Small: A Celebration of 30 Years of the Lego Minifigure. DK. p. 69.
Works cited
The Jedi Apprentice series by Dave Wolverton and Jude Watson
Episode I: The Phantom Menace, 1st edition paperback, 1999. Terry Brooks, George Lucas, ISBN 0-345-43411-0
Episode III: Revenge of the Sith - Novelization, 1st edition hardcover, 2005. Matthew Woodring Stover, George Lucas, ISBN 0-7126-8427-1
The Annotated Screenplays, softcover, 1997. George Lucas, Leigh Brackett, Lawrence Kasdan, Laurent Bouzereau, ISBN 0-345-40981-7
The Courtship of Princess Leia, 1995. Dave Wolverton, ISBN 0-553-56937-6
Mission from Mount Yoda, 1993. Paul Davids, Hollace Davids, ISBN 0-553-15890-2
A Guide to the Star Wars Universe, 2nd edition, 1994. Bill Slavicsek, ISBN 0-345-38625-6
The Essential guide to Characters (Star Wars), 1st edition, 1995. Andy Mangels, ISBN 0-345-39535-2
The New Essential Guide to Characters, 1st edition, 2002. Daniel Wallace, Michael Sutfin, ISBN 0-345-44900-2
Star Wars: The Visual Dictionary, hardcover, 1998. David West Reynolds, ISBN 0-7894-3481-4
Star Wars: Revenge of the Sith: The Visual Dictionary, hardcover, 2005. James Luceno, ISBN 0-7566-1128-8
Star Wars Roleplaying Game: Revised Core Rulebook, hardcover, 2002. Bill Slavicsek, Andy Collins, J.D. Wiker, ISBN 0-7869-2876-X
Star Wars Roleplaying Game: Power of the Jedi Sourcebook, hardcover, 2002. Michael Mikaelian, Jeff Grubb, Owen K.C. Stephens, James Maliszewski, ISBN 0-7869-2781-X
External links
Look up Yoda in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Yoda in the StarWars.com Databank
Yoda on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki
Yoda on IMDb
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De novo synthesis
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De novo synthesis refers to the synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules such as sugars or amino acids, as opposed to recycling after partial degradation. For example, nucleotides are not needed in the diet as they can be constructed from small precursor molecules such as formate and aspartate. Methionine, on the other hand, is needed in the diet because while it can be degraded to and then regenerated from homocysteine, it cannot be synthesized de novo.
De novo is a Latin phrase, literally translating to "from the new," but implying "anew," "from scratch," or "from the beginning."
Contents
[hide]
1 De novo DNA synthesis
2 De novo pathways
3 External links
4 References
De novo DNA synthesis[edit]
De novo DNA synthesis is DNA replication without the need for precursor template DNA. It's also referred to as artificial gene synthesis. Primase is an RNA polymerase, and it can add a primer to an existing strand awaiting replication. DNA polymerase cannot add primers, and therefore, needs primase to add the primer de novo.
De novo pathways[edit]
De novo pathways do not use free bases: adenine (abbreviated as A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), or uracil (U). The purine ring is built up one atom or a few atoms at a time and attached to ribose throughout the process. Pyrimidine ring is synthesized as orotate and attached to ribose phosphate and later converted to common pyrimidine nucleotides. De novo synthesis enzymes are predicted to be present as large multienzyme complexes, although this hypothesis has yet to be thoroughly proven.
External links[edit]
Purine and pyrimidine Metabolism
De novo synthesis of purine nucleotides
References[edit]

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Lightness
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For other uses, see Lightness (disambiguation).
Three hues in the Munsell color model. Each color differs in value from top to bottom in equal perception steps. The right column undergoes a dramatic change in perceived color.
In colorimetry and color theory, lightness, also known as value or tone, is a representation of variation in the perception of a color or color space's brightness. It is one of the color appearance parameters of any color appearance model.
Various color models have an explicit term for this property. The Munsell color model uses the term value, while the HSL color model, HCL color space and Lab color space use the term lightness. The HSV model uses the term value a little differently: a color with a low value is nearly black, but one with a high value is the pure, fully saturated color.
In subtractive color (i.e. paints) value changes can be achieved by adding black or white to the color. However, this also reduces saturation. Chiaroscuro and Tenebrism both take advantage of dramatic contrasts of value to heighten drama in art. Artists may also employ shading, subtle manipulation of value.
Contents
[hide]
1 Relationship to value and relative luminance
2 Other psychological effects
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Relationship to value and relative luminance[edit]
The Munsell value has long been used as a perceptually uniform lightness scale. A question of interest is the relationship between the Munsell value scale and the relative luminance. Aware of the Weber–Fechner law, Munsell remarked "Should we use a logarithmic curve or curve of squares?"[1] Neither option turned out to be quite correct; scientists eventually converged on a roughly cube-root curve, consistent with the Stevens' power law for brightness perception, reflecting the fact that lightness is proportional to the number of nerve impulses per nerve fiber per unit time.[2] The remainder of this section is a chronology of lightness approximations, leading to CIE LAB.
Note. – Munsell's V runs from 0 to 10, while Y typically runs from 0 to 100 (often interpreted as a percentage). Typically, the relative luminance is normalized so that the "reference white" (say, magnesium oxide) has a tristimulus value of Y = 100. Since the reflectance of magnesium oxide (MgO) relative to the perfect reflecting diffuser is 97.5%, V = 10 corresponds to Y = 100/97.5% ≈ 102.6 if MgO is used as the reference.[3]
Observe that the lightness is 50% for a relative luminance of around 18% relative to the reference white.
1920
Priest et al. provide a basic estimate of the Munsell value (with Y running from 0 to 1 in this case):[4]
V = 10 Y . {\displaystyle V=10{\sqrt {Y}}.}
1933
Munsell, Sloan, and Godlove launch a study on the Munsell neutral value scale, considering several proposals relating the relative luminance to the Munsell value, and suggest:[5][6]
V 2 = 1.474 , 2 Y − 0.004 , 743 Y 2 . {\displaystyle V^{2}=1.474,2Y-0.004,743Y^{2}.}
1943
Newhall, Nickerson, and Judd prepare a report for the Optical Society of America. They suggest a quintic parabola (relating the reflectance in terms of the value):[7]
Y = 1.221 , 9 V − 0.231 , 11 V 2 + 0.239 , 51 V 3 − 0.021 , 009 V 4 + 0.000 , 840 , 4 V 5 . {\displaystyle Y=1.221,9V-0.231,11V^{2}+0.239,51V^{3}-0.021,009V^{4}+0.000,840,4V^{5}.}
1943
Using Table II of the O.S.A. report, Moon and Spencer express the value in terms of the relative luminance:[8]
V = 5 ( Y / 19.77 ) 0.426 = 1.4 Y 0.426 . {\displaystyle V=5(Y/19.77)^{0.426}=1.4Y^{0.426}.}
1944
Saunderson and Milner introduce a subtractive constant in the previous expression, for a better fit to the Munsell value.[9] Later, Jameson and Hurvich claim that this corrects for simultaneous contrast effects.[10][11]
V = 2.357 Y 0.343 − 1.52. {\displaystyle V=2.357Y^{0.343}-1.52.}
1955
Ladd and Pinney of Eastman Kodak are interested in the Munsell value as a perceptually uniform lightness scale for use in television. After considering one logarithmic and five power-law functions (per Stevens' power law), they relate value to reflectance by raising the reflectance to the power of 0.352:[12]
V = 2.217 Y 0.352 − 1.324. {\displaystyle V=2.217Y^{0.352}-1.324.}
Realizing this is quite close to the cube root, they simplify it to:
V = 2.468 Y 1 / 3 − 1.636. {\displaystyle V=2.468Y^{1/3}-1.636.}
1958
Glasser et al. define the lightness as ten times the Munsell value (so that the lightness ranges from 0 to 100):[13]
L ⋆ = 25.29 Y 1 / 3 − 18.38. {\displaystyle L^{\star }=25.29Y^{1/3}-18.38.}
1964
Wyszecki simplifies this to:[14]
W ⋆ = 25 Y 1 / 3 − 17. {\displaystyle W^{\star }=25Y^{1/3}-17.}
This formula approximates the Munsell value function for 1% < Y < 98% (it is not applicable for Y < 1%) and is used for the CIE 1964 color space.
1976
CIE LAB uses the following formula:
L ⋆ = 116 ( Y / Y n ) 1 / 3 − 16. {\displaystyle L^{\star }=116(Y/Y_{\mathrm {n} })^{1/3}-16.}
where Yn is the CIE XYZ Y tristimulus value of the reference white point (the subscript n suggests "normalized") and is subject to the restriction Y/Yn > 0.01. Pauli removes this restriction by computing a linear extrapolation which maps Y/Yn = 0 to L* = 0 and is tangent to the formula above at the point at which the linear extension takes effect. First, the transition point is determined to be Y/Yn = (6/29)^3 ≈ 0.008,856, then the slope of (29/3)^3 ≈ 903.3 is computed. This gives the two-part function:[15]
f ( t ) = { t 1 / 3 if t > ( 6 29 ) 3 1 3 ( 29 6 ) 2 t + 4 29 otherwise {\displaystyle f(t)={\begin{cases}t^{1/3}&{\text{if }}t>{\big (}{\frac {6}{29}}{\big )}^{3}\\{\frac {1}{3}}{\big (}{\frac {29}{6}}{\big )}^{2}t+{\frac {4}{29}}&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}}
The lightness is then:
L ⋆ = 116 f ( Y / Y n ) − 16. {\displaystyle L^{\star }=116f(Y/Y_{\mathrm {n} })-16.}
At first glance, you might approximate the lightness function by a cube root, an approximation that is found in much of the technical literature. However, the linear segment near black is significant, and so the 116 and 16 coefficients. The best-fit pure power function has an exponent of about 0.42, far from 1/3.[16]
An approximately 18% grey card, having an exact reflectance of ( 33 / 58 ) 3 {\displaystyle \left(33/58\right)^{3}} , has a lightness value of 50. It is called "mid grey" because its lightness is midway between black and white.
Other psychological effects[edit]
This subjective perception of luminance in a non-linear fashion is one thing that makes gamma compression of images worthwhile. Beside this phenomenon there are other effects involving perception of lightness. Chromacity can affect perceived lightness as described by the Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect. Though the CIE LAB space and relatives do not account for this effect on lightness, it may be implied in the Munsell color model. Light levels may also affect perceived chromacity, as with the Purkinje effect.
See also[edit]
Brightness
Tints and shades
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kuehni, Rolf G. (February 2002). "The early development of the Munsell system". Color Research & Application. 27 (1): 20–27. doi:10.1002/col.10002.
Jump up ^ Hunt, Robert W. G. (May 18, 1957). "Light Energy and Brightness Sensation". Nature. 179 (4568): 1026. doi:10.1038/1791026a0.
Jump up ^ Valberg, Arne (2006). Light Vision Color. John Wiley and Sons. p. 200. ISBN 0470849029.
Jump up ^ Priest, Irwin G.; Gibson, K.S.; McNicholas, H.J. (September 1920). "An examination of the Munsell color system. I: Spectral and total reflection and the Munsell scale of Value". Technical paper 167 (3). United States Bureau of Standards: 27.
Jump up ^ Munsell, A.E.O.; Sloan, L.L.; Godlove, I.H. (November 1933). "Neutral value scales. I. Munsell neutral value scale". JOSA. 23 (11): 394–411. doi:10.1364/JOSA.23.000394. Note: This paper contains a historical survey stretching to 1760.
Jump up ^ Munsell, A.E.O.; Sloan, L.L.; Godlove, I.H. (December 1933). "Neutral value scales. II. A comparison of results and equations describing value scales". JOSA. 23 (12): 419–425. doi:10.1364/JOSA.23.000419.
Jump up ^ Newhall, Sidney M.; Nickerson, Dorothy; Judd, Deane B (May 1943). "Final report of the O.S.A. subcommittee on the spacing of the Munsell colors". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 33 (7): 385–418. doi:10.1364/JOSA.33.000385.
Jump up ^ Moon, Parry; Spencer, Domina Eberle (May 1943). "Metric based on the composite color stimulus". JOSA. 33 (5): 270–277. doi:10.1364/JOSA.33.000270.
Jump up ^ Saunderson, Jason L.; Milner, B.I. (March 1944). "Further study of ω space". JOSA. 34 (3): 167–173. doi:10.1364/JOSA.34.000167.
Jump up ^ Hurvich, Leo M.; Jameson, Dorothea (November 1957). "An Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision". Psychological Review. 64 (6): 384–404. doi:10.1037/h0041403. PMID 13505974.
Jump up ^ Jameson, Dorothea; Leo M. Hurvich (May 1964). "Theory of brightness and color contrast in human vision". Vision Research. 4 (1-2): 135–154. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(64)90037-9. PMID 5888593.
Jump up ^ Ladd, J.H.; Pinney, J.E. (September 1955). "Empirical relationships with the Munsell Value scale". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 43 (9): 1137. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1955.277892.
Jump up ^ Glasser, L.G.; A.H. McKinney; C.D. Reilly; P.D. Schnelle (October 1958). "Cube-root color coordinate system". JOSA. 48 (10): 736–740. doi:10.1364/JOSA.48.000736.
Jump up ^ Wyszecki, Günther (November 1963). "Proposal for a New Color-Difference Formula". JOSA. 53 (11): 1318–1319. doi:10.1364/JOSA.53.001318. Note: The asterisks are not used in the paper.
Jump up ^ Pauli, Hartmut K.A. (1976). "Proposed extension of the CIE recommendation on "Uniform color spaces, color spaces, and color-difference equations, and metric color terms"". JOSA. 66 (8): 866–867. doi:10.1364/JOSA.66.000866.
Jump up ^ Poynton, Charles; Funt, Brian (Feb 2014). "Perceptual uniformity in digital image representation and display". Color Research and Application. 39 (1): 6–15. doi:10.1002/col.21768.
External links[edit]
Media related to Lightness at Wikimedia Commons
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Group (periodic table)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In the periodic table of the elements, each numbered column is a group.
In chemistry, a group (also known as a family[citation needed]) is a column of elements in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 numbered groups in the periodic table, and the f-block columns (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered. The elements in a group have similar physical or chemical characteristics of the outermost electron shells of their atoms (i.e., the same core charge), as most chemical properties are dominated by the orbital location of the outermost electron. There are three systems of group numbering. The modern numbering group 1 to group 18 is recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It replaces two older naming schemes that were mutually confusing. Also, groups may be identified by their topmost element or have a specific name. For example, group 16 is variously described as the oxygen group and as Chalcogens
Contents
1 Group names
2 CAS and old IUPAC numbering (A/B)
3 References
4 Further reading
Group names[edit]
In history, several sets of group names have been used:[1][2]
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Groups in the Periodic table
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1
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a
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17
18
Mendeleev (I–VIII) IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB b
CAS (US, A-B-A) IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
old IUPAC (Europe, A-B) IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIB IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0
Trivial name Alkali metals Alkaline earth metalsr Coinage metals Triels Tetrels Pnictogensr Chalcogensr Halogensr Noble gasesr
Name by elementr Lithium group Beryllium group Scandium group Titanium group Vanadium group Chromium group Manganese group Iron group Cobalt group Nickel group Copper group Zinc group Boron group Carbon group Nitrogen group Oxygen group Fluorine group Helium or Neon group
Period 1 h H h He
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Period 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Period 6 Cs Ba La Ce–Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Period 7 Fr Ra Ac Th–Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
a Group 3 has scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y). For the rest of the group, sources differ as either being (1) lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr), or (2) lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or (3) the whole set of 15+15 lanthanides and actinides. IUPAC has initiated a project to standardize the definition as either (1) Sc, Y, Lu and Lr, or (2) Sc, Y, La and Ac.[3]
b Group 18, the noble gases, were not discovered at the time of Mendeleev's original table. Later (1902), Mendeleev accepted the evidence for their existence, and they could be placed in a new "group 0", consistently and without breaking the periodic table principle.
r Group name as recommended by IUPAC.
h Hydrogen (H), while placed in group 1, is not considered to be part of the alkali metals.
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IUPAC
names
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(U.S.)
Name by element
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(*=IUPAC recommended name)
note
Group 1 IA IA lithium family alkali metals*
Group 2 IIA IIA beryllium family alkaline earth metals*
Group 3 IIIA IIIB scandium family Consisting of rare earth elements plus actinides
Group 4 IVA IVB titanium family
Group 5 VA VB vanadium family
Group 6 VIA VIB chromium family
Group 7 VIIA VIIB manganese family
Group 8 VIII VIIIB iron family
Group 9 VIII VIIIB cobalt family
Group 10 VIII VIIIB nickel family
Group 11 IB IB copper family coinage metals
Group 12 IIB IIB zinc family Volatile Metals
Group 13 IIIB IIIA boron family triels and Icosagens triels from Greek tri (three, III)
Group 14 IVB IVA carbon family tetrels and Crystallogens tetrels from Greek tetra (four, IV)
Group 15 VB VA nitrogen family pentels, pnictogens* pentels from Greek penta (five, V)
Group 16 VIB VIA oxygen family chalcogens*
Group 17 VIIB VIIA fluorine family halogens*
Group 18 Group 0 VIIIA helium family or neon family noble gases* and Aerogens
Some other names have been proposed and used without gaining wide acceptance: volatile metals for group 12; icosagens for group 13; crystallogens, adamantogens, and merylides for group 14; and aerogens for group 18.
CAS and old IUPAC numbering (A/B)[edit]
Two earlier group number systems exist: CAS (Chemical Abstracts Service) and old IUPAC. Both use numerals (Arabic or Roman) and letters A and B. Both systems agree on the numbers. The numbers indicate approximately the highest oxidation number of the elements in that group, and so indicate similar chemistry with other elements with the same numeral. The number proceeds in a linearly increasing fashion for the most part, once on the left of the table, and once on the right (see List of oxidation states of the elements), with some irregularities in the transition metals. However, the two systems use the letters differently. For example, potassium (K) has one valence electron. Therefore, it is located in group 1. Calcium (Ca) is in group 2, for it contains two valence electrons.
In the old IUPAC system the letters A and B were designated to the left (A) and right (B) part of the table, while in the CAS system the letters A and B are designated to main group elements (A) and transition elements (B). The old IUPAC system was frequently used in Europe, while the CAS is most common in America. The new IUPAC scheme was developed to replace both systems as they confusingly used the same names to mean different things. The new system simply numbers the groups increasingly from left to right on the standard periodic table. The IUPAC proposal was first circulated in 1985 for public comments,[1] and was later included as part of the 1990 edition of the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry.[4]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fluck, E. (1988). "New Notations in the Periodic Table" (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. IUPAC. 60 (3): 431–436. doi:10.1351/pac198860030431. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
Jump up ^ IUPAC (2005). "Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "The constitution of group 3 of the periodic table". IUPAC. 2015-12-18.
Jump up ^ Leigh, G. J. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: Recommendations 1990. Blackwell Science, 1990. ISBN 0-632-02494-1.
Further reading[edit]
Scerri, E. R. (2007). The periodic table, its story and its significance. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.
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Public Service Commission, West Bengal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Public Service Commission, West Bengal
Abbreviation
PSCWB
Motto
To conduct the Civil Services Examination for entry-level appointments to the various Civil Services of state of West Bengal
Formation
April 1, 1937; 81 years ago (1937-04-01)[1]
Type
Government of West Bengal
Headquarters
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Location
161A, S.P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata - 700026
Region served
West Bengal, India
Official language
English, Bengali
Chairman
Shri Dipankar Dasgupta[2]
Website
www.pscwb.org.in www.pscwbonline.gov.in
The Public Service Commission, West Bengal or PSCWB (Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ লোকসেবা আয়োগ) is the state agency authorized to conduct the Civil Services Examination for entry-level appointments to the various Civil Services of state of West Bengal in India.
Location[edit]
The office of the Public Service Commission, West Bengal is situated in Mudiali, Tollygunge area, Kolkata. The official address is 161A Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ About PSC, WEST BENGAL www.pscwbonline.gov.in
Jump up ^ Composition of Public Service Commission, West Bengal www.pscwbonline.gov.in
External links[edit]
PSCWB Official website
Public Service Commission, West Bengal
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_Service_Commission,_West_Bengal&oldid=842600966"
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