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Borders of the oceans
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Maps exhibiting the world's oceanic waters. A continuous body of water encircling the Earth, the world (global) ocean is divided into a number of principal areas. Five oceanic divisions are usually recognized: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern; the last two listed are sometimes consolidated into the first three.
The borders of the oceans are the limits of the Earth's oceanic waters. The definition and number of oceans can vary depending on the adopted criteria.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Arctic Ocean
2.1 Notes
3 Atlantic Ocean
3.1 North Atlantic
3.2 South Atlantic
3.3 Notes
4 Indian Ocean
4.1 Notes
5 Pacific Ocean
5.1 North Pacific
5.2 South Pacific
5.3 Notes
6 Southern or Antarctic Ocean
7 See also
8 References
Overview[edit]
Though generally described as several separate oceans, the world's oceanic waters constitute one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.[1][2] This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.[3]
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Southern (Antarctic) Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other names.
Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth's mantle. Continental crust is thicker but less dense. From this perspective, the Earth has three oceans: the World Ocean, the Caspian Sea,[citation needed] and the Black Sea. The latter two were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is at times a discrete ocean, because tectonic plate movement has repeatedly broken its connection to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, but the Bosporus is a natural canal cut through continental rock some 7,000 years ago, rather than a piece of oceanic sea floor like the Strait of Gibraltar.
Despite their names, some smaller landlocked "seas" are not connected with the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea (which is nevertheless, geologically, itself a full-fledged ocean—see above) and numerous salt lakes such as the Aral Sea.
A complete hierarchy showing which seas belong to which oceans, according to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and for the whole planet, is available at the European Marine Gazetteer website.[4] See also the list of seas article for the seas included in each ocean area. Also note there are many varying definitions of the world's seas and no single authority.
The borders of the Arctic Ocean, according to the CIA The World Factbook[5] (blue area), and as defined by the IHO (black outline - excluding marginal waterbodies).
Arctic Ocean[edit]
The Arctic Ocean covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia and is sometimes considered a sea or estuary of the Atlantic.[6][7]
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
Between Greenland and West Spitzbergen [sic] — The Northern limit of Greenland Sea.[Ar 1]
Between West Spitzbergen and North East Land — the parallel of lat. 80°N.
From Cape Leigh Smith to Cape Kohlsaat — the Northern limit of Barentsz Sea [sic].[Ar 2]
From Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov — the Northern limit of Kara Sea.[Ar 3]
From Cape Molotov to the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island — the Northern limit of Laptev Sea.[Ar 4]
From the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island to the Northern point of Wrangel Island — the Northern limit of East Siberian Sea.[Ar 5]
From the Northern point of Wrangel Island to Point Barrow — the Northern limit of Chuckchi Sea [sic].[Ar 6]
From Point Barrow to Cape Land's End on Prince Patrick Island — the Northern limit of Beaufort Sea,[Ar 7] through the Northwest coast of Prince Patrick Island to Cape Leopold M'Clintock, thence to Cape Murray (Brook Island) and along the Northwest coast to the extreme Northerly point; to Cape Mackay (Borden Island); through the Northwesterly coast of Borden Island to Cape Malloch, to Cape Isachsen (Ellef Ringnes Island); to the Northwest point of Meighen Island to Cape Stallworthy (Axel Heiberg Island) to Cape Colgate the extreme West point of Ellesmere Island; through the North shore of Ellesmere Island to Cape Columbia thence a line to Cape Morris Jesup (Greenland).
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Kara Sea and East Siberian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Arctic Ocean.
The CIA defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean differently, as depicted in the map comparing its definition to the IHO's definition.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining the Northernmost point of Spitzbergen [sic] [Svalbard] to the Northernmost point of Greenland".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "Cape Leigh Smith across the Islands Bolshoy Ostrov (Great Island) [Storøya], Gilles [Kvitøya] and Victoria; Cape Mary Harmsworth (Southwestern extremity of Alexandra Land) along the northern coasts of Franz-Josef Land as far as Cape Kohlsaat (81°14′N 65°10′E / 81.233°N 65.167°E / 81.233; 65.167)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov (81°16′N 93°43′E / 81.267°N 93.717°E / 81.267; 93.717) (Northern extremity of Severnaya Zemlya on Komsomolets Island)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Cape Molotov to the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island (76°10′N 138°50′E / 76.167°N 138.833°E / 76.167; 138.833)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line from the Northernmost point of Wrangel Island (179°30'W) to the Northern sides of the De Long Islands (including Henrietta and Jeannette Islands) and Bennett Island, thence to the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line from Point Barrow, Alaska (71°20′N 156°20′W / 71.333°N 156.333°W / 71.333; -156.333) to the Northernmost point of Wrangel Island (179°30'W)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Lands End, Prince Patrick Island (76°16′N 124°08′W / 76.267°N 124.133°W / 76.267; -124.133)".
Atlantic Ocean[edit]
The Atlantic Ocean, according to the CIA The World Factbook[9] (blue area), and as defined by the IHO (black outline - excluding marginal waterbodies).
The Atlantic Ocean separates the Americas from Europe and Africa. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
North Atlantic[edit]
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
On the West. The Eastern limits of the Caribbean Sea,[At 1] the Southeastern limits of the Gulf of Mexico[At 2] from the North coast of Cuba to Key West, the Southwestern limit of the Bay of Fundy[At 3] and the Southeastern and Northeastern limits of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.[At 4]
On the North. The Southern limit of Davis Strait[At 5] from the coast of Labrador to Greenland and the Southwestern limit of the Greenland Sea[At 6] and Norwegian Sea[At 7] from Greenland to the Shetland Islands.
On the East. The Northwestern limit of the North Sea,[At 8] the Northern and Western limits of the Scottish Seas,[At 9] the Southern limit of the Irish Sea,[At 10] the Western limits of the Bristol[At 11] and English Channels,[At 12] of the Bay of Biscay[At 13] and of the Mediterranean Sea.[At 14]
On the South. The equator, from the coast of Brazil to the Southwestern limit of the Gulf of Guinea.[At 15]
South Atlantic[edit]
The 3rd edition (currently in force) of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
On the Southwest. The meridian of Cape Horn, Chile (67°16'W) from Tierra del Fuego to the Antarctic Continent; a line from Cape Virgins (52°21′S 68°21′W / 52.350°S 68.350°W / -52.350; -68.350) to Cape Espiritu Santo, Tierra del Fuego, the Eastern entrance to Magellan Strait, Chile
On the West. The limit of the Rio de La Plata.[At 16]
On the North. The Southern limit of the North Atlantic Ocean.
On the Northeast. The limit of the Gulf of Guinea.[At 15]
On the Southeast. From Cape Agulhas along the meridian of 20° East to the Antarctic continent.
On the South. The Antarctic Continent.
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Biscay and Gulf of Guinea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Atlantic Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Atlantic Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60°S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.)[10] While the name "Southern Ocean" is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition's "Southern Ocean", omitted from the 3rd edition.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "From Point San Diego (Puerto Rico) Northward along the meridian thereof (65°39'W) to the 100 fathom line, thence Eastward and Southward, in such a manner that all islands, shoals and narrow waters of the Lesser Antilles are included in the Caribbean Sea as far as Galera Point (Northeast extremity of the island of Trinidad). From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point (Southeast extreme) and thence to Baja Point (9°32′N 61°0′W / 9.533°N 61.000°W / 9.533; -61.000) in Venezuela".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Cape Catoche Light (21°37′N 87°04′W / 21.617°N 87.067°W / 21.617; -87.067) with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35'W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at eastern end of Florida Bay, all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running northwesterly from Cape St. Mary (44°05'N) Nova Scotia, through Machias Seal Island (67°06'W) and on to Little River Head (44°39'N) in the State of Maine".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line from Cape Canso (45°20′N 61°0′W / 45.333°N 61.000°W / 45.333; -61.000) to Red Point (45°35′N 60°45′W / 45.583°N 60.750°W / 45.583; -60.750) in Cape Breton Island, through this Island to Cape Breton and on to Pointe Blanche (46°45′N 56°11′W / 46.750°N 56.183°W / 46.750; -56.183) in the Island of St. Pierre, and thence to the Southwest point of Morgan Island (46°51′N 55°49′W / 46.850°N 55.817°W / 46.850; -55.817)" and "A line running from Cape Bauld (North point of Kirpon Island, 51°40′N 55°25′W / 51.667°N 55.417°W / 51.667; -55.417) to the East extreme of Belle Isle and on to the Northeast Ledge (52°02′N 55°15′W / 52.033°N 55.250°W / 52.033; -55.250). Thence a line joining this ledge with the East extreme of Cape St. Charles (52°13'N) in Labrador".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "The parallel of 60° North between Greenland and Labrador".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Straumness (NW extreme of Iceland) to Cape Nansen (68°15′N 29°30′W / 68.250°N 29.500°W / 68.250; -29.500) in Greenland".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "From a point on the West coast of Norway in Latitude 61°00' North along this parallel to Longitude 0°53' West thence a line to the NE extreme of Fuglö (62°21′N 6°15′W / 62.350°N 6.250°W / 62.350; -6.250 (Fuglö)) and on to the East extreme of Gerpir (65°05′N 13°30′W / 65.083°N 13.500°W / 65.083; -13.500 (Gerpir)) in Iceland".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "From Dunnet Head (3°22'W) in Scotland to Tor Ness (58°47'N) in the Island of Hoy, thence through this island to the Kame of Hoy (58°55'N) on to Breck Ness on Mainland (58°58'N) through this island to Costa Head (3°14'W) and to Inga Ness (59'17'N) in Westray through Westray, to Bow Head, across to Mull Head (North point of Papa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North point of North Ronaldsay) and thence to Horse Island (South point of the Shetland Islands)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running from Bloody Foreland (55°10′N 8°17′W / 55.167°N 8.283°W / 55.167; -8.283) in Ireland to the West point of Tory Island, on to Barra Head, the Southwest point of the Hebrides, thence through these islands, in such a manner that the West coasts of the main islands appertain to the Atlantic Ocean and all the narrow waters appertain to the Inner Seas, as far as the Butt of Lewis (North Point), and thence to Cape Wrath (58°37'N) in Scotland".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining St. David's Head (51°54′N 5°19′W / 51.900°N 5.317°W / 51.900; -5.317) to Carnsore Point (52°10′N 6°22′W / 52.167°N 6.367°W / 52.167; -6.367)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "a line joining Hartland Point [in Devon] (51°01′N 4°32′W / 51.017°N 4.533°W / 51.017; -4.533) to St. Govan's Head [in Pembrokeshire] (51°36′N 4°55′W / 51.600°N 4.917°W / 51.600; -4.917)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Isle Vierge (48°38′23″N 4°34′13″W / 48.63972°N 4.57028°W / 48.63972; -4.57028) to Lands End (50°04′N 5°43′W / 50.067°N 5.717°W / 50.067; -5.717)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Cap Ortegal (43°46′N 7°52′W / 43.767°N 7.867°W / 43.767; -7.867) to Penmarch Point (47°48′N 4°22′W / 47.800°N 4.367°W / 47.800; -4.367)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa)".
^ Jump up to: a b Defined by IHO as "A line running Southeastward from Cape Palmas in Liberia to Cape Lopez (0°38′S 8°42′E / 0.633°S 8.700°E / -0.633; 8.700)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Punta del Este, Uruguay (34°58.5′S 54°57.5′W / 34.9750°S 54.9583°W / -34.9750; -54.9583) and Cabo San Antonio, Argentina (36°18′S 56°46′W / 36.300°S 56.767°W / -36.300; -56.767)".
Indian Ocean[edit]
The Indian Ocean, according to the CIA The World Factbook[11] (blue area), and as defined by the IHO (black outline - excluding marginal waterbodies).
The Indian Ocean washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the Indian Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
On the North. The Southern limits of the Arabian Sea[I 1] and the Lakshadweep Sea,[I 2] the Southern limit of the Bay of Bengal,[I 3] the Southern limits of the East Indian Archipelago,[I 4] and the Southern limit of the Great Australian Bight.[I 5]
On the West. From Cape Agulhas in 20° long. East, Southward along this meridian to the Antarctic Continent.
On the East. From South East Cape, the Southern point of Tasmania down the meridian 146°55'E to the Antarctic Continent.
On the South. The Antarctic Continent.
Note that this definition excludes any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Indian Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Indian Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60°S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.)[10] While the name "Southern Ocean" is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition's "Southern Ocean", omitted from the 3rd edition.
The boundary of the Indian Ocean is a constitutional issue for Australia. The Imperial South Australia Colonisation Act, 1834, which established and defined the Colony of South Australia defined South Australia’s southern limit as being the “Southern Ocean.” This definition was carried through to Australian constitutional law upon the Federation of Australia in 1901.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll (Maldives), to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun (Africa, 10°26'N)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running from Dondra Head in Ceylon [Sri Lanka] to the most Southerly point of Addu Atoll".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "Adam's Bridge (between India and Ceylon and from the Southern extreme of Dondra Head (South point of Ceylon) to the North point of Poeloe Bras (5°44′N 95°04′E / 5.733°N 95.067°E / 5.733; 95.067)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as the southern limits of the Java Sea ("the North and West coasts of Java to Java Hoofd (6°46′S 105°12′E / 6.767°S 105.200°E / -6.767; 105.200) its Western point, and thence a line to Vlakke Hoek (5°55′S 104°35′E / 5.917°S 104.583°E / -5.917; 104.583) the Southern extreme of Sumatra"), the Bali Sea ("A line from Tanjong Banenan through the Southern points of Balt [sic] and Noesa Islands to Tanjong Bt Gendang, the Southwest extreme of Lombok, and its South coast to Tanjong Ringgit the Southeast extreme, thence a line to Tanjong Mangkoen (9°01′S 116°43′E / 9.017°S 116.717°E / -9.017; 116.717) the Southwest extreme of Soembawa"), the Savu Sea ("By a line from the Southwest point of Timor to the Northeast point of Roti, through this island to its Southwest point, thence a line to Poeloe Dana (10°49′S 121°17′E / 10.817°S 121.283°E / -10.817; 121.283) and to Tanjong Ngoendjoe, the Southern extreme of Soemba and through this island to Tanjong Karosso, its Western point"), and the western limit of the Timor Sea ("A line from Cape Londonderry to the Southwest point of Roti Island (10°56′S 122°48′E / 10.933°S 122.800°E / -10.933; 122.800)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining West Cape Howe (35°08′S 117°37′E / 35.133°S 117.617°E / -35.133; 117.617) Australia to South West Cape, Tasmania".
Pacific Ocean[edit]
The Pacific Ocean according to the CIA The World Factbook[12] (blue area), and as defined by the IHO (black outline — excluding marginal waterbodies)
The Pacific is the ocean that separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
North Pacific[edit]
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the East Indian Archipelago from the Equator to Luzon Island.
On the West and Northwest. The Eastern limits of the Philippine Sea[P 1] and Japan Sea[P 2] and the Southeastern limit of the Sea of Okhotsk.[P 3]
On the North. The Southern limits of the Bering Sea[P 4] and the Gulf of Alaska.[P 5]
On the East. The Western limit of Coastal waters of Southeast Alaska and Br. Columbia,[P 6] and the Southern limit of the Gulf of California.[P 7]
On the South. The Equator, but excluding those islands of the Gilbert and Galàpagos Groups which lie to the Northward thereof.
South Pacific[edit]
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:[8]
On the West. From Southeast Cape, the Southern point of Tasmania, down the meridian of 146°55'E to the Antarctic continent.
On the Southwest and Northwest. The Southern, Eastern and Northeastern limits of the Tasman Sea,[P 8][P 9][P 10] the Southeastern and Northeastern limits of the Coral Sea,[P 11][P 12] the Southern, Eastern and Northern limits of the Solomon[P 13][P 14] and Bismark [sic][P 15] seas, and the Northeastern limit of the East Indian Archipelago from New Guinea to the Equator.
On the North. The Equator, but including those islands of the Gilbert and Galàpagos Groups which lie to the Northward thereof.
On the East. The meridian of Cape Horn (67°16'W) from Tierra del Fuego to the Antarctic continent; a line from Cape Virgins (52°21′S 68°21′W / 52.350°S 68.350°W / -52.350; -68.350) to Cape Espititu Santo, Tierra del Fuego, the Eastern entrance to Magellan Strait. (These limits have not yet been officially accepted by Argentina and Chile.)
On the South. The Antarctic continent.
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Gulf of Alaska and Coral Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Pacific Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Pacific Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60°S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.)[10] While the name "Southern Ocean" is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition's "Southern Ocean", omitted from the 3rd edition.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "By the ridge joining Japan to the Bonin, Volcano and Ladrone (Mariana) Islands, all these being included in the Philippine Sea".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "In the Tsugaru Kaikô. From the extremity of Siriya Saki (141°28'E) to the extremity of Esan Saki (41°48'N)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running from Nosyappu Saki (Cape Noshap, 43°23'N) in the Islanad of Hokusyû (Yezo) through the Kuril or Tisima Islands to Cape Lopatka (South point of Kamchatka) in such a way that all the narrow waters between Hokusyû and Kamchatka are included in the Sea of Okhotsk".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running from Kabuch Point (54°48′N 163°21′W / 54.800°N 163.350°W / 54.800; -163.350) in the Alaskan Peninsula, through the Aleutian Islands to the South extremes of the Komandorski Islands and on to Cape Kamchatka in such a way that all the narrow waters between Alaska and Kamchatka are included in the Bering Sea".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line drawn from Cape Spencer, the Northern limit of [the Coastal Waters of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia] to Kabuch Point, the Southeast limit of [the Bering Sea], in such a way that all the adjacent islands are included in the Gulf of Alaska".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line running westerly from Black Rock Point (50°44',5N) in Vancouver Island through the Scott Islands in such a way that all the narrow waters between these islands are included in the Coastal Waters, thence to Cape St. James (Southern extremity of Queen Charlotte Islands), through this group in the same way, then from Cape Knox (54°10′N 133°06′W / 54.167°N 133.100°W / 54.167; -133.100) Northward to the Western extreme of Langara Island and on to Point Cornwallis (132°52'W) in the Prince of Wales group, thence along the Western shores of this group, of Baranof, Kruzof, Chicagof, and Yakobi Islands, so that all the narrow waters between them are included in the coastal waters, and, finally, from Cape Bingham (58°04'N) in Yakobi Island to Cape Spencer (58°12′N 136°39′W / 58.200°N 136.650°W / 58.200; -136.650)".
Jump up ^ Defined by IHO as "A line joining Piastla Point (23°38'N) in Mexico, and the Southern extreme of Lower California".
Jump up ^ Southern limit defined by IHO as "A line joining the Southern point of Auckland Island (50°55′S 166°0′E / 50.917°S 166.000°E / -50.917; 166.000) to South East Cape, the Southern point of Tasmania"
Jump up ^ Eastern limit defined by IHO as "In Cook Strait. A line joining the South extreme of the foul ground off Cape Palliser (Ngawi) and the Lighthouse on Cape Campbell (Te Karaka)" and "In Foveaux Strait (46°45'S). A line joining the Light on Waipapapa Point [sic] (168°33'E) with East Head (47'02'S) of Stewart Island (Rakiura)."
Jump up ^ Northeastern limit defined by IHO as "From the South East Rock to the North point of Three Kings Islands (34°10′S 172°10′E / 34.167°S 172.167°E / -34.167; 172.167) thence to North Cape in New Zealand".
Jump up ^ Southeastern limit defined by IHO as "A line from the Southeastern extreme of Aneityum Island to Southeast (Nokanhui) Islets (22°46′S 167°34′E / 22.767°S 167.567°E / -22.767; 167.567) off the Southeast extreme of New Caledonia, thence through the East point of Middleton Reef to the Eastern extreme of Elizabeth Reef (29°55′S 159°02′E / 29.917°S 159.033°E / -29.917; 159.033) and down this meridian to Latitude 30° South".
Jump up ^ Northeastern limit defined by IHO as "From the Northernmost island of the Duff or Wilson Group through these islands to their Southeastern extreme, thence a line to Mera Lava, New Hebrides Islands [Vanuatu] (14°25′S 163°03′E / 14.417°S 163.050°E / -14.417; 163.050) and down the Eastern coasts of the islands of this Group to Aneityum Island (20°11′S 169°51′E / 20.183°S 169.850°E / -20.183; 169.850) in such a way that all the islands of these Groups, and the straits separating them, are included in the Coral Sea".
Jump up ^ Southern limit defined by IHO as "The Northern limit of the Coral Sea between San Cristobal Island [Makira], Solomons, and Gado-Gadoa Island, off the Southeast extreme of New Guinea, thence a line to the Southern extreme of Rennell Island and from its Eastern point to Cape Surville, the Eastern extreme of San Cristobal Island".
Jump up ^ Eastern limit definied by IHO as "By a line from the Southern point of New Ireland to the North point of Buka Island, through this island to the Northwest point of Bougainville Island, along the Southern coasts of Bougainville, Choisel [Choiseul], Ysabel [Santa Isabel], Malaita and San Cristobal Islands".
Jump up ^ North and Eastern limit defined by IHO as "By the Northern and Northeastern coasts of the islands of New Ireland, New Hanover, the Admiralty Islands, Hermit Island, and the Ninigo Group, through Manu and Aua Islands to Wuvulu Island and thence a line to Baudissin Point in New Guinea (142°02'E)".
Southern or Antarctic Ocean[edit]
The Southern Ocean according to the CIA The World Factbook[13]
The Southern Ocean contains the waters that surround Antarctica and sometimes is considered an extension of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.[8]
In 1928, the first edition of the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas publication included the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. The Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits - the continent of Antarctica to the south, and the continents of South America, Africa, and Australia plus Broughton Island, New Zealand in the north. The detailed land-limits used were Cape Horn in South America, Cape Agulhas in Africa, the southern coast of Australia from Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, to South East Cape, Tasmania, via the western edge of the water body of Bass Strait, and then Broughton Island before returning to Cape Horn.[14]
The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. The Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northwards to latitude 40° south between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20° east) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115° east), and extended to latitude 55° south between Auckland Island of New Zealand (long. 165° or 166° east) and Cape Horn in South America (long. 67° west).[15]
The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition because "...the northern limits ... are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change ... Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits. (Great Britain uses the Latitude of 55° South)". Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.[16]
The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's northern limit at 60°S (with no land interruptions at this latitude), with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly 50°S, but a few for as far north as 35°S.
The 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas has yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world. The IHB circulated a new draft of the 4th edition of the publication in August 2002, however there were still various changes, 60 seas were added or renamed from the 3rd edition, and even the name of the publication was changed.[17] A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits.[10] Effectively, the 3rd edition (which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices) has yet to be superseded and IHO documents declare that it remains "currently in force."
Despite this, the 4th edition definition has de facto usage by many organisations, scientists and nations - even at times by IHO committees.[18] Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55°S parallel for example.[16]
Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans as extending to Antarctica, although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean.[19]
In Australia, cartographic authorities defined the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand. This delineation is basically the same as the original (first) edition of the IHO publication and effectively the same as the second edition. In the second edition, the Great Australian Bight was defined as the only geographical entity between the Australian coast and the Southern Ocean. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean,[20] while Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet.[21]
See also[edit]
Environment portal
Ecology portal
Geography portal
Weather portal
List of seas
International Maritime Organization
Marginal sea
Oceanography
Polar seas
Sea
Seven Seas
World Ocean Atlas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ " "Ocean", The Columbia Encyclopedia, New York: Columbia University Press, 2002, archived from the original on 26 January 2011
Jump up ^ "Distribution of land and water on the planet", UN Atlas of the Oceans, archived from the original on 31 May 2008
Jump up ^ Spilhaus, Athelstan F. (July 1942). "Maps of the whole world ocean". 32 (3). American Geographical Society).: 431–5.
Jump up ^ European Marine Gazetteer browser, MarBEF Data System - European Marine Gazetteer
Jump up ^ "Arctic Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Jump up ^ The Ocean, The MarineBio Conservation Society
Jump up ^ Arctic Ocean, Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Atlantic Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Darby, Andrew (22 December 2003). "Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean". The Age. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Indian Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Pacific Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Southern Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Map accompanying first edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23". NOAA Photo Library. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 19 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Map accompanying second edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23". NOAA Photo Library. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 18 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "IHO Special Publication 23". Korean Hydrographic and Oceanographic Administration. Retrieved 2017-05-24.
Jump up ^ Schenke, Hans Werner (September 2003). "Proposal for the preparation of a new International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean" (PDF). IHO International Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA). Third HCA Meeting, 8–10 September 2003. Monaco: International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). Retrieved 17 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Southern Ocean - News Watch". National Geographic. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
Jump up ^ For example: Chart Aus343: Australia South Coast - South Australia - Whidbey Isles to Cape Du Couedic, Australian Hydrographic Service, 10 April 2015, retrieved 2017-05-24 , Chart Aus792: Australia - Tasmania - Trial Harbour to Low Rocky Point, Australian Hydrographic Service, 18 July 2008, retrieved 11 October 2010
Jump up ^ "- Assessment Documentation for Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse" (PDF). Register of Heritage Places. 13 May 2005. p. 11. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
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text:
Neeraj Pandey
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Neeraj Pandey
Neeraj Pandey at the premiere of Baby (2015)
Born
(1973-12-17) 17 December 1973 (age 44)
Arrah, Bihar, India
Nationality
Indian
Alma mater
Sri Aurobindo College, University of Delhi
Occupation
Film director, writer, producer
Years active
2008-Present
Neeraj Pandey (born 17 December 1973) is an Indian film director, producer and screenwriter. Pandey made his directoral debut in A Wednesday!, which was largely praised by audiences as well as critics and which later became a recipient of many accolades. His second film was Special 26 (2013), which was followed by Baby (2015), the latter of which received critical acclaim and became a huge commercial success. He served as a producer in Rustom (2016). Pandey returned to directing in 2017 helming the biopic M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story based on renowned Indian cricketer M.S.Dhoni which fared well critically and commercially. Besides being a filmmaker, Pandey is also a writer and has written a novel names Ghalib Danger in 2013.
In 2016, his Production House Friday Filmworks and Reliance Entertainment entered into a joint venture and formed Plan C Studios.
He has also directed a Web Short 'Ouch' with Manoj Bajpayee and Pooja Chopra which is nominated for Filmfare Short Film Award 2017. As the co-producer, his recent blockbuster Toilet- Ek Prem Katha is getting critical appreciation from the film industry and the audience. His next release was Aiyaary which starred Sidharth Malhotra and Manoj Bajpayee and was both critically and commercially flop emerging as his first failure.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Career
3 Filmography
4 Bibliography
5 Awards
6 References
7 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Pandey was born and brought up in Howrah, West Bengal.[1] His father, who originally came from Arrah, Bihar and worked for Bosch in Calcutta.[2] He did his schooling from St. Aloysius High School, Howrah (till Class X) and then St. Thomas' Howrah (Class XI and XII).[3] Pandey moved to New Delhi, where he graduated in English from Sri Aurobindo college(University of Delhi) .[citation needed]
Career[edit]
Pandey started his career working with Delhi-based 'Legacy Entertainment', a company started by the Dalmia Group to make television programs.
In 2000, he moved to Mumbai, where a friend got a grant to produce a documentary, and offered him the project.[3] Soon he started making documentaries and ad films. Thereafter, he formed a production company 'Quarter Inch Productions', along with his colleague Shital Bhatia which specialized in making television programmes, ad films and documentaries. In 2008, Neeraj and Shital Bhatia formed a production house named Friday Filmworks, which was the original producer of his debut film, A Wednesday!. The film's script was inspired by the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings.[4]
In 2011, Neeraj produced the film Taryanche Bait.
After directing his first movie in 2008, Neeraj directed his second movie Special 26 in 2013, starring Akshay Kumar and Kajal Aggrawal. Neeraj is very fluent in Bengali and also produced a Bengali film, The Royal Bengal Tiger in 2014. In the same year he also produced the film Total Siyappa starring Yami Gautam and Ali Zafar. In 2015, he directed the movie Baby starring Akshay Kumar. In 2016, he produced the film Saat Uchakkey which was a comedy film starring Manoj Bajpayee, Kay Kay Menon and Aditi Sharma.
In 2016, Anil Ambani-owned Reliance Entertainment announced a joint venture with Pandey and Friday Filmworks to form Plan C studios for production of films. Akshay Kumar starrer Rustom was the first film under the banner, Plan C Studios. It is an equal partnership joint venture between the two.
Pandey has also written his debut novel titled Ghalib Danger which was launched on 6 December 2013. The novel is soon going to be made into a motion picture.
In 2017, having co-produced Toilet- Ek Prem Katha, a satirical take on the open defecation scenario in India went on to become both a critically acclaimed and a hit among the audience movie.
He has also directed the short film Ouch with Manoj Bajpayee and Pooja Chopra which is nominated for the Filmfare Short Film Award 2017.
His next release was Aiyaarywhich starred Sidharth Malhotra and Manoj Bajpayee and was both critically and commercially flop emerging as his first failure. This film was written, directed by himself and produced under the banner of Plan C Studios, the film was a crime drama thriller on the Indian borders. Sidharth Malhotra and Manoj Bajpayee played the lead characters Jai Bakshi and Abhay Singh respectively. Naseeruddin Shah reunited with the filmmaker after their first venture, A Wednesday!. Anupam Kher is also played a major role in the film. The film was tentatively scheduled to hit the theatres on 26 January 2018, Republic Day but, was released on 16 February 2018 due to delay by the CBFC in providing the certification.The film was based on true incidents, a theme we have witnessed in his previous creations as well.
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Director
Screenplay
Producer
2008 A Wednesday! Yes Yes
2011 Taryanche Bait Yes
2013 Special 26 Yes Yes
2014 The Royal Bengal Tiger Yes Yes
2014 Total Siyapaa Yes Yes
2015 Baby Yes Yes
2016 Rustom Yes
2016 M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story Yes Yes
2016 Saat Uchakkey Yes
2017 Naam Shabana Yes Yes
2017 Toilet: Ek Prem Katha Yes
2018 Aiyaary Yes Yes Yes
2018 Missing Yes
Bibliography[edit]
Ghalib Danger : Ghalib Danger is a novel written by Neeraj Pandey in 2013. The novel is based on the life of a young taxi driver in Mumbai who dreams of bigger things for himself. Ghalib Danger was launched on 6 December 2013 at the Times of India Literary Carnival in at Mehboob Studio, Bandra, Mumbai.
Awards[edit]
Awards List
Film
Award Name
Year
Notes
A Wednesday! National Film Award. Best First Film of a Director: 2008 [4]
A Wednesday! Star Screen Award, Best Film, Best Story 2009
A Wednesday! IIFA Awards Best Story. Best Dialogue 2009
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Times of India
Jump up ^ "'I grew up on Bengali films'". The Telegraph. 17 June 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
Jump up ^ https://www.telegraphindia.com/1170416/jsp/t2/story_146526.jsp
Jump up ^ "56th National Film Awards for 2008" (pdf). Directorate of Film Festivals. 23 January 2010. p. 1. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neeraj Pandey.
Neeraj Pandey on IMDb
Neeraj Pandey at Bollywood Hungama
hide
v
t
e
Screen Award for Best Director
Sooraj Barjatya (1995)
Aditya Chopra (1996)
Dharmesh Darshan (1997)
J. P. Dutta (1998)
Karan Johar (1999)
Sanjay Leela Bhansali (2000)
Rakesh Roshan (2001)
Ashutosh Gowariker (2002)
Sanjay Leela Bhansali (2003)
Rakesh Roshan (2004)
Kunal Kohli (2005)
Sanjay Leela Bhansali (2006)
Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra (2007)
Aamir Khan & Shimit Amin (2008)
Ashutosh Gowariker & Neeraj Pandey (2009)
Rajkumar Hirani (2010)
Vikramaditya Motwane (2011)
Milan Luthria (2012)
Anurag Basu (2013)
Shoojit Sircar (2014)
Vikas Bahl (2015)
Kabir Khan (2016)
Ram Madhvani (2017)
Nitesh Tiwari (2018)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
SUDOC: 183025172
VIAF: 103504092
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neeraj_Pandey&oldid=846588508"
Categories:
1973 births
Living people
Film directors from Kolkata
University of Delhi alumni
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Indian male screenwriters
21st-century Indian film directors
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People from Bhojpur district, India
Director whose film won the Best Debut Feature Film National Film Award
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List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Member of Parliament (India).
As per the Fourth Schedule (Articles 4(1) and 80(2)) of the Constitution of India, 12 members are nominated by President for term of six years for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services.
Current Nominated Members of Rajya Sabha[edit]
This is a Current list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
No.
Name[1]
Field
Affiliation [2]
Date of
Appointment[3]
Date of
Retirement[3]
1
Roopa Ganguly Art Bharatiya Janata Party 04-Oct-2016 03-Oct-2022
2
Sambhaji Raje Social work Bharatiya Janata Party 07-Jun-2016 03-May-2022
3
Suresh Gopi Art Bharatiya Janata Party 25-Apr-2016 24-Apr-2022
4
Subramanian Swamy Economics Bharatiya Janata Party 25-Apr-2016 24-Apr-2022
5
Narendra Jadhav Economics Nominated 25-Apr-2016 24-Apr-2022
6
Mary Kom Sport Nominated 25-Apr-2016 24-Apr-2022
7
Swapan Dasgupta Journalism Nominated 25-Apr-2016 24-Apr-2022
8
K. T. S. Tulsi Law Nominated 25-Feb-2014 24-Feb-2020
9
K. Parasaran Law Nominated 09-Jun-2012 28-Jun-2018
10
Rekha Art Nominated 27-Apr-2012 26-Apr-2018
11
Sachin Tendulkar Social service Nominated 27-Apr-2012 26-Apr-2018
12
Anu Aga Business Nominated 27-Apr-2012 26-Apr-2018
Complete List of Nominated Members of Rajya Sabha[edit]
This is a Complete list of Members of the Rajya Sabha who have been nominated by the President.
Sr. No.
Image
Name
Tenure
1 – Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer 1952–1953
2 Satyendranath Bose 1952–1960
3 Prithviraj Kapoor 1952–1960
4 – Jagadisan Mohandas Kumarappa 1952–1954
5 – Kalidas Nag 1952–1954
6 Rukmini Devi Arundale 1952–1962
7 – N.R. Malkani 1952–1962
8 – Sahib Singh Sokhey 1952–1956
9 – Zakir Hussain 1952–1962
10 – Maithili Sharan Gupt 1952–1964
11 – Kakasaheb Kalelkar 1952–1964
12 – Radha Kumud Mukherjee 1952–1958
13 P.V. Kane 1953–1964
14 – Moturi Satyanarayana 1954–1966
15 – Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia 1954–1966
16 – Bhargavram Vitthal Warerkar 1956–1968
17 – Tara Chand 1956–1968
18 – Ajudhia Nath Khosla 1958–1964
19 – K.M. Panikkar 1959–1966
20 – Jairamdas Daulatram 1959–1976
21 – Mohanlal Saksena 1959–1964
22 – Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay 1960–1966
23 – V.T. Krishnamachari 1961–1967
24 – R.R. Diwakar 1962–1968
25 – Gopal Singh 1962–1968
26 – M. Ajmal Khan 1964–1972
27 – Satyavrata Siddhantalankar 1964–1968
28 Shakuntala Paranjpye 1964–1970
29 – Badri Nath Prasad 1964–1970
30 – G. Ramachandran 1964–1970
31 – M. N. Kaul 1964–1972
32 – Harivanshrai Bachchan 1966–1972
33 – Dhananjay Ramchandra Gadgil 1966–1972
34 – M.C. Setalvad 1966–1972
35 G. Sankara Kurup 1968–1972
36 Joachim Alva 1968–1974
37 S. Nurul Hasan 1968–1974
38 – K. Ramiah 1968–1974
39 – Ganga Sharan Sinha 1968–1974
40 – Maragatham Chandrasekhar 1970–1988
41 – Umashankar Joshi 1970–1976
42 – Rasheeduddin Khan 1970–1982
43 – Vidya Prakash Dutt 1971–1980
44 – Abu Abraham 1972–1978
45 – Pramathanath Bishi 1972–1978
46 – C. K. Daphtary 1972–1978
47 – Habib Tanvir 1972–1978
48 – Krishna Kriplani 1974–1980
49 Lokesh Chandra 1974–1986
50 – Scato Swu 1974–1986
51 – B.N. Banerjee 1976–1982
52 – Malcolm Adiseshiah 1978–1984
53 – Fathema Ismail 1978–1984
54 – Pandurang Dharmaji Jadhav 1978–1984
55 – Bhagwati Charan Varma 1978–1984
56 Nargis Dutt 1980–1986
57 Khushwant Singh 1980–1986
58 – Asima Chatterjee 1982–1990
59 Sivaji Ganesan 1982–1986
60 – Hayatullah Ansari 1982–1988
61 – Madan Bhatia 1982–1994
62 – V.N. Tiwari 1982–1984
63 – Ghulam Rasool Kar 1984–1987
64 – Tindivanam K. Ramamurthy 1984–1990
65 – H.L. Kapur 1985–1988
66 Salim Ali 1985–1988
67 – Purushottam Kakodkar 1985–1991
68 Ela Bhatt 1986–1988
69 – Amrita Pritam 1986–1992
70 M.F. Husain 1986–1992
71 R.K. Narayan 1986–1992
72 Ravi Shankar 1986–1992
73 – Syeda Anwara Taimur 1988–1990
74 – Sat Paul Mittal 1988–1994
75 – Bishambhar Nath Pande 1988–1994
76 – Mohammad Yunus 1989–1995
77 Prakash Ambedkar 1990–1996
78 Jagmohan 1990–1996
79 – Bhupinder Singh Mann 1990–1996
80 – Russi Karanjia 1991–1997
81 – Mahendra Prasad 1993–1994
82 – M. Aram 1993–1999
83 Vyjayantimala Bali 1993–1999
84 – B.B. Dutta 1993–1999
85 – Maulana Habibur Rahman Nomani 1993–1999
86 Nirmala Deshpande 1997 – 1999 and 2004 – 2010
87 Shabana Azmi 1997–2003
88 – P. Selvie Das 1997–2003
89 – Kartar Singh Duggal 1997–2003
90 Kuldip Nayyar 1997–2003
91 – Raja Ramanna 1997–2003
92 C. Narayana Reddy 1997–2003
93 Mrinal Sen 1997–2003
94 – Chaudhary Harmohan Singh Yadav 1997–2003
95 – Nanaji Deshmukh 1999–2005
96 Lata Mangeshkar 1999–2005
97 – Fali Nariman 1999–2005
98 – Cho Ramaswamy 1999–2005
99 Hema Malini 2003–2009
100 – Bimal Jalan 2003–2009
101 K. Kasturirangan 2003–2009
102 – Narayan Singh Manaklao 2003–2009
103 – Vidya Niwas Misra 2003–2009
104 – Chandan Mitra 2003–2009
105 Dara Singh 2003–2009
106 Kapila Vatsyayan 2006–2012
107 Ram Jethmalani 2006–2009
108 – Shobhana Bhartia 2006–2012
109 Shyam Benegal 2006–2012
110 M.S. Swaminathan 2007–2013
111 – C. Rangarajan 2008–2010
112 – H. K. Dua 2009–2015
113 – Ashok Sekhar Ganguly 2009–2015
114 – Mani Shankar Aiyar 2010–2016
115 Javed Akhtar 2010–2016
116 B. Jayashree 2010–2016
117 Ram Dayal Munda 2010–2011
118 – Bhalchandra Mungekar 2010–2016
119 – Mrinal Miri 2012–2016
120 – Anu Aga 2012–2018
121 – K. Parasaran 2012–2018
122 Rekha 2012–2018
123 Sachin Tendulkar 2012–2018
124 – K. T. S. Tulsi 2014-2020
125 Subramanian Swamy 2016-2022
126 M C Mary Kom 2016-2022
127 Narendra Jadhav 2016-2022
129 Suresh Gopi 2016-2022
130 – Swapan Dasgupta 2016-2022
131 – Sambhaji Raje 2016-2022
132 – Roopa Ganguly 2016-2022
References[edit]
Nominated Members since 1952 Narender Kumar
Current list of Nominated Members
Specific
Jump up ^ "Statewise List". 164.100.47.5. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ http://164.100.47.5/Newmembers/partymemberlist.aspx
^ Jump up to: a b "Statewise Retirement". 164.100.47.5. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Scheme of a liposome formed by phospholipids in an aqueous solution.
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes (not to be confused with lysosomes). If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Vesicles perform a variety of functions. Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control,[1] and temporary storage of food and enzymes . They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
Sarfus image of lipid vesicles.
IUPAC definition
Closed structure formed by amphiphilic molecules that contains solvent (usually water).[2]
The 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by James Rothman, Randy Schekman and Thomas Südhof for their roles in elucidating (building upon earlier research, some of it by their mentors) the makeup and function of cell vesicles, especially in yeasts and in humans, including information on each vesicle's parts and how they are assembled. Vesicle dysfunction is thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, some hard-to-treat cases of epilepsy, some cancers and immunological disorders and certain neurovascular conditions.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of vesicles
1.1 Vacuoles
1.2 Lysosomes
1.3 Transport vesicles
1.4 Secretory vesicles
1.4.1 Types
1.5 Extracellular vesicles
1.5.1 Types
1.6 Other types
2 Formation and transport
2.1 Vesicle coat and cargo molecules
2.2 Vesicle docking
2.3 Vesicle fusion
2.4 In receptor downregulation
2.5 Preparation
2.5.1 Isolated vesicles
2.6 Artificial vesicles
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Types of vesicles[edit]
Electron micrograph of a cell containing a food vacuole (fv) and transport vacuole (TV) in a malaria parasite.
Vacuoles[edit]
Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole in the center of the cell that is used for osmotic control and nutrient storage.
Contractile vacuoles are found in certain protists, especially those in Phylum Ciliophora. These vacuoles take water from the cytoplasm and excrete it from the cell to avoid bursting due to osmotic pressure.
Lysosomes[edit]
Lysosomes are involved in cellular digestion. Food can be taken from outside the cell into food vacuoles by a process called endocytosis. These food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes which break down the components so that they can be used in the cell. This form of cellular eating is called phagocytosis.
Lysosomes are also used to destroy defective or damaged organelles in a process called autophagy. They fuse with the membrane of the damaged organelle, digesting it.
Transport vesicles[edit]
Transport vesicles can move molecules between locations inside the cell, e.g., proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
Membrane-bound and secreted proteins are made on ribosomes found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Most of these proteins mature in the Golgi apparatus before going to their final destination which may be to lysosomes, peroxisomes, or outside of the cell. These proteins travel within the cell inside of transport vesicles.
Secretory vesicles[edit]
Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed.
Types[edit]
Synaptic vesicles are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons and store neurotransmitters. When a signal comes down an axon, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane releasing the neurotransmitter so that it can be detected by receptor molecules on the next nerve cell.
In animals endocrine tissues release hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones are stored within secretory vesicles. A good example is the endocrine tissue found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This tissue contains many cell types that are defined by which hormones they produce.
Secretory vesicles hold the enzymes that are used to make the cell walls of plants, protists, fungi, bacteria and Archaea cells as well as the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
Bacteria, Archaea, fungi and parasites release membrane vesicles (MVs) containing varied but specialized toxic compounds and biochemical signal molecules, which are transported to target cells to initiate processes in favour of the microbe, which include invasion of host cells and killing of competing microbes in the same niche.[5]
Extracellular vesicles[edit]
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life including complex eukaryotes, both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi.
Types[edit]
Exosomes: membraneous vesicles of endocytic origin (50-100 nm diameter)[6]:Table 1 enriched in CD63 and CD81.[6]
microvesicle (also referred to as shedding microvesicles, SMVs[citation needed]), that are shed directly from the plasma membrane (20–1000 nm[6]:Table 1).
membrane particles (50–80 nm), or large membranous vesicles (~600 nm) CD133+, CD63−[6]
Apoptotic blebs or blebbing vesicles (1000–5000 nm diameter): released by dying cells.[7][6]:Table 1
These are often separated by density[6]:Table 1 by differential centrifugation.
Ectosomes were named in 2008, but in 2012 are not considered a separate type.[6]
In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management.[6] The extracellular vesicles of (mesenchymal) stem cells, also known as the secretome of stem cells, are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly degenerative, auto-immune and/or inflammatory diseases.[8]
In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host-pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.[9]
Ocean cyanobacteria have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open-ocean seawater samples.[10]
Other types[edit]
Main article: Gas vesicle
Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. These vesicles are typically lemon-shaped or cylindrical tubes made out of protein;[11] their diameter determines the strength of the vesicle with larger ones being weaker. The diameter of the vesicle also affects it's volume and how efficiently it can provide buoyancy. In cyanobacteria natural selection has worked to create vesicles that are at the maximum diameter possible while still being structurally stable. The protein skin is permeable to gasses but not water, keeping the vesicles from flooding.[12]
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy they were discovered independently in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson[13] and Ermanno Bonucci.[14] These cell-derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self-destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium-loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine:calcium:phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue's matrix unless the Golgi are non-existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane-bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.
Formation and transport[edit]
Cell biology
The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome (little dots)
Vesicle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
Cytoskeleton
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the cytoplasm)
Lysosome
Centrosome
Cell membrane
Some vesicles are made when part of the membrane pinches off the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi complex. Others are made when an object outside of the cell is surrounded by the cell membrane.
Vesicle coat and cargo molecules[edit]
The vesicle "coat" is a collection of proteins that serve to shape the curvature of a donor membrane, forming the rounded vesicle shape. Coat proteins can also function to bind to various transmembrane receptor proteins, called cargo receptors. These receptors help select what material is endocytosed in receptor-mediated endocytosis or intracellular transport.
There are three types of vesicle coats: clathrin, COPI and COPII. The various types of coat proteins help with sorting of vesicles to their final destination. Clathrin coats are found on vesicles trafficking between the Golgi and plasma membrane, the Golgi and endosomes and the plasma membrane and endosomes. COPI coated vesicles are responsible for retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER, while COPII coated vesicles are responsible for anterograde transport from the ER to the Golgi.
The clathrin coat is thought to assemble in response to regulatory G protein. A protein coat assembles and disassembles due to an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) protein.
Vesicle docking[edit]
Surface proteins called SNAREs identify the vesicle's cargo and complementary SNAREs on the target membrane act to cause fusion of the vesicle and target membrane. Such v-SNARES are hypothesised to exist on the vesicle membrane, while the complementary ones on the target membrane are known as t-SNAREs.
Often SNAREs associated with vesicles or target membranes are instead classified as Qa, Qb, Qc, or R SNAREs owing to further variation than simply v- or t-SNAREs. An array of different SNARE complexes can be seen in different tissues and subcellular compartments, with 36 isoforms currently identified in humans.
Regulatory Rab proteins are thought to inspect the joining of the SNAREs. Rab protein is a regulatory GTP-binding protein and controls the binding of these complementary SNAREs for a long enough time for the Rab protein to hydrolyse its bound GTP and lock the vesicle onto the membrane.
Vesicle fusion[edit]
Further information: Vesicle fusion
Vesicle fusion can occur in one of two ways: full fusion or kiss-and-run fusion. Fusion requires the two membranes to be brought within 1.5 nm of each other. For this to occur water must be displaced from the surface of the vesicle membrane. This is energetically unfavorable and evidence suggests that the process requires ATP, GTP and acetyl-coA. Fusion is also linked to budding, which is why the term budding and fusing arises.
In receptor downregulation[edit]
Membrane proteins serving as receptors are sometimes tagged for downregulation by the attachment of ubiquitin. After arriving an endosome via the pathway described above, vesicles begin to form inside the endosome, taking with them the membrane proteins meant for degradation; When the endosome either matures to become a lysosome or is united with one, the vesicles are completely degraded. Without this mechanism, only the extracellular part of the membrane proteins would reach the lumen of the lysosome and only this part would be degraded.[15]
It is because of these vesicles that the endosome is sometimes known as a multivesicular body. The pathway to their formation is not completely understood; unlike the other vesicles described above, the outer surface of the vesicles is not in contact with the cytosol.
Preparation[edit]
Isolated vesicles[edit]
Producing membrane vesicles is one of the methods to investigate various membranes of the cell. After the living tissue is crushed into suspension, various membranes form tiny closed bubbles. Big fragments of the crushed cells can be discarded by low-speed centrifugation and later the fraction of the known origin (plasmalemma, tonoplast, etc.) can be isolated by precise high-speed centrifugation in the density gradient. Using osmotic shock, it is possible temporarily open vesicles (filling them with the required solution) and then centrifugate down again and resuspend in a different solution. Applying ionophores like valinomycin can create electrochemical gradients comparable to the gradients inside living cells.
Vesicles are mainly used in two types of research:
To find and later isolate membrane receptors that specifically bind hormones and various other important substances.[16]
To investigate transport of various ions or other substances across the membrane of the given type.[17] While transport can be more easily investigated with patch clamp techniques, vesicles can also be isolated from objects for which a patch clamp is not applicable.
Artificial vesicles[edit]
Phospholipid vesicles have also been studied in biochemistry. For such studies, a homogeneous phospholipid vesicle suspension can be prepared by extrusion or sonication,[18] injection of a phospholipid solution into the aqueous buffer solution membranes.[19] In this way aqueous vesicle solutions can be prepared of different phospholipid composition, as well as different sizes of vesicles.
See also[edit]
Bleb (cell biology)
DODAB
Host-pathogen interface
Membrane contact sites
Membrane nanotube
Membrane vesicle trafficking
Micelle
Microsome
Protocell
Spitzenkörper, a structure of many small vesicles found in fungal hyphae
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Walsby AE (1994). "Gas vesicles". Microbiological Reviews. 58 (1): 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173.
Jump up ^ "Terminology of polymers and polymerization processes in dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (12): 2229–2259. 2011. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Nobel medical prize goes to 2 Americans, 1 German". CNN. 2005-10-19. Retrieved 2013-10-09.
Jump up ^ 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, press release 2013-10-07
Jump up ^ Deatherage, B. L.; Cookson, B. T. (2012). "Membrane Vesicle Release in Bacteria, Eukaryotes, and Archaea: a Conserved yet Underappreciated Aspect of Microbial Life". Infection and Immunity. 80 (6): 1948–1957. doi:10.1128/IAI.06014-11. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 3370574  . PMID 22409932.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h van der Pol, Edwin; Böing, Anita N.; Harrison, Paul; Sturk, Augueste; Nieuwland, Rienk (2012-07-01). "Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (3): 676–705. doi:10.1124/pr.112.005983. ISSN 1521-0081. PMID 22722893. Free full text
Jump up ^ van der Pol, E.; Böing, A. N.; Gool, E. L.; Nieuwland, R. (1 January 2016). "Recent developments in the nomenclature, presence, isolation, detection and clinical impact of extracellular vesicles". Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 14: 48–56. doi:10.1111/jth.13190.
Jump up ^ Teixeira, Fábio G.; Carvalho, Miguel M.; Sousa, Nuno; Salgado, António J. (2013-10-01). "Mesenchymal stem cells secretome: a new paradigm for central nervous system regeneration?". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 70 (20): 3871–3882. doi:10.1007/s00018-013-1290-8. ISSN 1420-682X.
Jump up ^ Kuehn, Meta J.; Kesty, Nicole C. (2005-11-15). "Bacterial outer membrane vesicles and the host-pathogen interaction". Genes & Development. 19 (22): 2645–2655. doi:10.1101/gad.1299905. ISSN 0890-9369. PMID 16291643.
Jump up ^ Biller, Steven J.; Schubotz, Florence; Roggensack, Sara E; Thompson, Anne W.; Summons, Roger E.; Chisholm, Sallie W. (2014-01-10). "Bacterial Vesicles in Marine Ecosystems". Science. 343 (6167): 183–186. doi:10.1126/science.1243457. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 24408433.
Jump up ^ Pfeifer F (2012). "Distribution, formation and regulation of gas vesicles". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 10 (10): 705–15. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2834. PMID 22941504.
Jump up ^ Walsby, Anthony (March 1994). "Gas Vesicles" (PDF). Microbiological Reviews. 58: 94–144. PMC 372955  . PMID 8177173. Retrieved Jan 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Anderson HC (1967). "Electron microscopic studies of induced cartilage development and calcification". J. Cell Biol. 35 (1): 81–101. doi:10.1083/jcb.35.1.81. PMC 2107116  . PMID 6061727.
Jump up ^ Bonucci E (1967). "Fine structure of early cartilage calcification". J. Ultrastruct. Res. 20 (1): 33–50. doi:10.1016/S0022-5320(67)80034-0. PMID 4195919.
Jump up ^ Katzmann DJ, Odorizzi G, Emr SD (2002). "Receptor downregulation and multivesicular-body sorting" (PDF). Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3 (12): 893–905. doi:10.1038/nrm973. PMID 12461556.
Jump up ^ Sidhu VK, Vorhölter FJ, Niehaus K, Watt SA (2008). "Analysis of outer membrane vesicle associated proteins isolated from the plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris". BMC Microbiol. 8: 87. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-8-87. PMC 2438364  . PMID 18518965.
Jump up ^ Scherer GG, Martiny-Baron G (1985). "K+
/H+
exchange transport in plantmembranevesicles is evidence for K+
transport". Plant Science. 41 (3): 161–8. doi:10.1016/0168-9452(85)90083-4.
Jump up ^ Barenholz, Y.; Gibbes, D.; Litman, B. J.; Goll, J.; Thompson, T. E.; Carlson, F. D. (1977). "A simple method for the preparation of homogeneous phospholipid vesicles". Biochemistry. 16 (12): 2806–10. doi:10.1021/bi00631a035. PMID 889789.
Jump up ^ Batzri S, Korn ED (April 1973). "Single bilayer liposomes prepared without sonication". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 298 (4): 1015–9. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(73)90408-2. PMID 4738145.
Further reading[edit]
Alberts, Bruce; et al. (1998). Essential Cell Biology: An Introduction to the Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Pub. ISBN 978-0-8153-2971-8.
External links[edit]
Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
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