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Tours
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Tours
Prefecture and commune
Town hall and Place Jean Jaurès

Coat of arms
Tours
Location within Centre-Val de Loire region [show]
Tours
Coordinates: 47°23′37″N 0°41′21″E / 47.3936°N 0.6892°E / 47.3936; 0.6892Coordinates: 47°23′37″N 0°41′21″E / 47.3936°N 0.6892°E / 47.3936; 0.6892
Country
France
Region
Centre-Val de Loire
Department
Indre-et-Loire
Arrondissement
Tours
Canton
4 cantons
Intercommunality
Tours Métropole Val de Loire
Government
• Mayor (2014–2020)
Serge Babary
Area1
34.36 km2 (13.27 sq mi)
Population (2012)2
134,978
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
INSEE/Postal code
37261 /37000, 37100, 37200
Elevation
44–109 m (144–358 ft)
1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
2 Population without double counting: residents of multiple communes (e.g., students and military personnel) only counted once.
Tours (French pronunciation: [tuʁ]) is a city located in the centre-west of France. It is the administrative centre of the Indre-et-Loire department and the largest city in the Centre-Val de Loire region of France (although it is not the capital, which is the region's second-largest city, Orléans). In 2012, the city of Tours had 134,978 inhabitants, while the population of the whole metropolitan area was 483,744.
Tours stands on the lower reaches of the Loire river, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. The surrounding district, the traditional province of Touraine, is known for its wines, for the alleged perfection (as perceived by some speakers and for historical reasons) of its local spoken French, and for the Battle of Tours (732). The city is also the end-point of the annual Paris–Tours cycle race.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Middle Ages
1.2 16th–18th centuries
1.3 19th–20th centuries
1.3.1 First World War
1.3.2 Inter-war years
1.3.3 Second World War
1.3.4 Post-war developments
2 Climate
3 Sights
3.1 Tours Cathedral
3.2 Other points of interest
4 Language
5 City
6 Transport
7 Sport
8 Catholics from Tours
9 Notable natives and residents
9.1 11th-18th century
9.2 19th century
9.3 20th century
10 International relations
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
History[edit]
See also: Timeline of Tours and Tours amphitheatre in the ancient city
In Gallic times the city was important as a crossing point of the Loire. Becoming part of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD, the city was named "Caesarodunum" ("hill of Caesar"). The name evolved in the 4th century when the original Gallic name, Turones, became first "Civitas Turonum" then "Tours". It was at this time that the amphitheatre of Tours, one of the five largest amphitheatres of the Empire, was built. Tours became the metropolis of the Roman province of Lugdunum towards 380–388, dominating the Loire Valley, Maine and Brittany. One of the outstanding figures of the history of the city was Saint Martin, second bishop who shared his coat with a naked beggar in Amiens. This incident and the importance of Martin in the medieval Christian West made Tours, and its position on the route of pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, a major centre during the Middle Ages.
Middle Ages[edit]
In the 6th century Gregory of Tours, author of the Ten Books of History, made his mark on the town by restoring the cathedral destroyed by a fire in 561. Saint Martin's monastery benefited from its inception, at the very start of the 6th century from patronage and support from the Frankish king, Clovis, which increased considerably the influence of the saint, the abbey and the city in Gaul. In the 9th century, Tours was at the heart of the Carolingian Rebirth, in particular because of Alcuin abbot of Marmoutier.
In 732 AD, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi and a large army of Muslim horsemen from Al-Andalus advanced 500 kilometres (311 miles) deep into France, and were stopped at Tours by Charles Martel and his infantry igniting the Battle of Tours. The outcome was defeat for the Muslims, preventing France from Islamic conquest. In 845, Tours repulsed the first attack of the Viking chief Hasting (Haesten). In 850, the Vikings settled at the mouths of the Seine and the Loire. Still led by Hasting, they went up the Loire again in 852 and sacked Angers, Tours and the abbey of Marmoutier.
During the Middle Ages, Tours consisted of two juxtaposed and competing centres. The "City" in the east, successor of the late Roman 'castrum', was composed of the archiepiscopal establishment (the cathedral and palace of the archbishops) and of the castle of Tours, seat of the authority of the Counts of Tours (later Counts of Anjou) and of the King of France. In the west, the "new city" structured around the Abbey of Saint Martin was freed from the control of the City during the 10th century (an enclosure was built towards 918) and became "Châteauneuf". This space, organized between Saint Martin and the Loire, became the economic centre of Tours. Between these two centres remained Varennes, vineyards and fields, little occupied except for the Abbaye Saint-Julien established on the banks of the Loire. The two centres were linked during the 14th century.
Place Plumereau, Medieval buildings
Tours became the capital of the county of Tours or Touraine, territory bitterly disputed between the counts of Blois and Anjou – the latter were victorious in the 11th century. It was the capital of France at the time of Louis XI, who had settled in the castle of Montils (today the castle of Plessis in La Riche, western suburbs of Tours), Tours and Touraine remained until the 16th century a permanent residence of the kings and court. The rebirth gave Tours and Touraine many private mansions and castles, joined together to some extent under the generic name of the Châteaux of the Loire. It is also at the time of Louis XI that the silk industry was introduced – despite difficulties, the industry still survives to this day.
16th–18th centuries[edit]
Charles IX passed through the city at the time of his royal tour of France between 1564 and 1566, accompanied by the Court and various noblemen: his brother the Duke of Anjou, Henri de Navarre, the cardinals of Bourbon and Lorraine. At this time, the Catholics returned to power in Angers: the intendant assumed the right to nominate the aldermen. The Massacre of Saint-Barthelemy was not repeated at Tours. The Protestants were imprisoned by the aldermen – a measure which prevented their extermination. The permanent return of the Court to Paris and then Versailles marked the beginning of a slow but permanent decline. Guillaume the Metayer (1763–1798), known as Rochambeau, the well known counter-revolutionary chief of Mayenne, was shot there on Thermidor 8, year VI.
19th–20th centuries[edit]
However, it was the arrival of the railway in the 19th century which saved the city by making it an important nodal point. The main railway station is known as Tours-Saint-Pierre-des-Corps. At that time, Tours was expanding towards the south into a district known as the Prébendes. The importance of the city as a centre of communications contributed to its revival and, as the 20th century progressed, Tours became a dynamic conurbation, economically oriented towards the service sector.
First World War[edit]
Tours Cathedral: 15th-century Flamboyant Gothic west front with Renaissance pinnacles, completed 1547.
The city was greatly affected by the First World War. A force of 25,000 American soldiers arrived in 1917, setting up textile factories for the manufacture of uniforms, repair shops for military equipment, munitions dumps, an army post office and an American military hospital at Augustins. Thus Tours became a garrison town with a resident general staff. The American presence is remembered today by the Woodrow Wilson bridge over the Loire, which was officially opened in July 1918 and bears the name of the man who was President of the USA from 1913 to 1921. Three American air force squadrons, including the 492nd, were based at the Parçay-Meslay airfield, their personnel playing an active part in the life of the city. Americans paraded at funerals and award ceremonies for the Croix de Guerre; they also took part in festivals and their YMCA organised shows for the troops. Some men married girls from Tours.
Inter-war years[edit]
In 1920, the city was host to the Congress of Tours, which saw the creation of the French Communist Party.
Second World War[edit]
Tours was also marked by the Second World War. In 1940 the city suffered massive destruction, and for four years it was a city of military camps and fortifications. From 10 to 13 June 1940, Tours was the temporary seat of the French government before its move to Bordeaux. German incendiary bombs caused a huge fire which blazed out of control from 20 to 22 June and destroyed part of the city centre. Some architectural masterpieces of the 16th and 17th centuries were lost, as was the monumental entry to the city. The Wilson Bridge (known locally as the 'stone bridge') carried a water main which supplied the city; the bridge was dynamited to slow the progress of the German advance. With the water main severed and unable to extinguish the inferno, the inhabitants had no option but to flee to safety. More heavy air raids by Allied forces devastated the area around the railway station in 1944, causing several hundred deaths.
Post-war developments[edit]
A plan for the rebuilding of the downtown area drawn up by the local architect Camille Lefèvre was adopted even before the end of the war. The plan was for 20 small quadrangular blocks of housing to be arranged around the main road (la rue Nationale), which was widened. This regular layout attempted to echo, yet simplify, the 18th-century architecture. Pierre Patout succeeded Lefèvre as the architect in charge of rebuilding in 1945. At one time there was talk of demolishing the southern side of the rue Nationale in order to make it in keeping with the new development.
The recent history of Tours is marked by the personality of Jean Royer, who was Mayor for 36 years and helped to save the old town from demolition by establishing one of the first Conservation Areas. This example of conservation policy would later inspire the Malraux Law for the safeguarding of historic city centres. In the 1970s, Jean Royer also extended the city to the south by diverting the course of the River Cher to create the districts of Rives du Cher and des Fontaines; at the time, this was one of the largest urban developments in Europe. In 1970, the François Rabelais University was founded; this is centred on the bank of the Loire in the downtown area, and not – as it was then the current practice – in a campus in the suburbs. The latter solution was also chosen by the twin university of Orleans. Royer's long term as Mayor was, however, not without controversy, as exemplified by the construction of the practical – but aesthetically unattractive – motorway which runs along the bed of a former canal just 1,500 metres (4,900 feet) from the cathedral. Another bone of contention was the original Vinci Congress Centre by Jean Nouvel. This project incurred debts although it did, at least, make Tours one of France's principal conference centres.
Jean Germain, a member of the Socialist Party, became Mayor in 1995 and made debt reduction his priority. Ten years later, his economic management is regarded as much wiser than that of his predecessor, the financial standing of the city having returned to a stability. However, the achievements of Jean Germain are criticised by the municipal opposition for a lack of ambition: no large building projects comparable with those of Jean Royer have been instituted under his double mandate. This position is disputed by those in power, who affirm their policy of concentrating on the quality of life, as evidenced by urban restoration, the development of public transport and cultural activities.
Climate[edit]
Tours has an oceanic climate that is very mild for such a northerly latitude. Summers are influenced by its inland position, resulting in frequent days of 25 °C (77 °F) or warmer, whereas winters are kept mild by Atlantic air masses.
[hide]Climate data for Tours (1981–2010 averages)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
16.9
(62.4) 20.8
(69.4) 23.7
(74.7) 29.2
(84.6) 31.8
(89.2) 36.7
(98.1) 37.5
(99.5) 39.8
(103.6) 34.5
(94.1) 29.0
(84.2) 22.3
(72.1) 18.5
(65.3) 39.8
(103.6)
Average high °C (°F)
7.3
(45.1) 8.5
(47.3) 12.3
(54.1) 15.2
(59.4) 19.1
(66.4) 22.8
(73) 25.5
(77.9) 25.4
(77.7) 21.8
(71.2) 16.8
(62.2) 10.9
(51.6) 7.5
(45.5) 16.1
(61)
Average low °C (°F)
2.0
(35.6) 1.9
(35.4) 3.9
(39) 5.6
(42.1) 9.2
(48.6) 12.1
(53.8) 14.0
(57.2) 13.7
(56.7) 11.1
(52) 8.6
(47.5) 4.6
(40.3) 2.5
(36.5) 7.5
(45.5)
Record low °C (°F)
−17.4
(0.7) −14.2
(6.4) −10.3
(13.5) −3.4
(25.9) −0.6
(30.9) 2.6
(36.7) 4.3
(39.7) 4.8
(40.6) 0.9
(33.6) −2.3
(27.9) −7.1
(19.2) −18.5
(−1.3) −18.5
(−1.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
66.2
(2.606) 55.8
(2.197) 50.3
(1.98) 55.8
(2.197) 62.3
(2.453) 46.1
(1.815) 53.2
(2.094) 42.5
(1.673) 53.2
(2.094) 70.9
(2.791) 68.0
(2.677) 71.3
(2.807) 695.6
(27.386)
Average precipitation days
11.9 9.5 9.9 9.6 9.8 7.0 6.9 6.2 7.8 10.5 11.2 11.4 111.6
Average snowy days
2.4 2.9 1.8 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.7 10.6
Average relative humidity (%)
87 84 79 74 77 75 72 73 77 84 87 89 79.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours
69.9 90.3 144.2 178.5 205.6 228.0 239.4 236.4 184.7 120.6 76.7 59.2 1,833.3
Source #1: Météo France[1][2]
Source #2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity and snowy days, 1961–1990)[3]
Sights[edit]
Place Jean Jaurès
St Gatien Cathedral, from Rue Lavoisier, just north of the Rue Colbert intersection.
Pont Wilson
Tours Cathedral[edit]
Main article: Tours Cathedral
The cathedral of Tours, dedicated to Saint Gatien, its canonized first bishop, was begun about 1170 to replace the cathedral that was burnt out in 1166, during the dispute between Louis VII of France and Henry II of England. The lowermost stages of the western towers (illustration, above left) belong to the 12th century, but the rest of the west end is in the profusely detailed Flamboyant Gothic of the 15th century, completed just as the Renaissance was affecting the patrons who planned the châteaux of Touraine. These towers were being constructed at the same time as, for example, the Château de Chenonceau.
When the 15th-century illuminator Jean Fouquet was set the task of illuminating Josephus's Jewish Antiquities, his depiction of Solomon's Temple was modeled after the nearly-complete cathedral of Tours. The atmosphere of the Gothic cathedral close permeates Honoré de Balzac's dark short novel of jealousy and provincial intrigues, Le Curé de Tours (The Curate of Tours) and his medieval story Maitre Cornélius opens within the cathedral itself.
Other points of interest[edit]
Jardin botanique de Tours, the municipal botanical garden
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Tours
Hôtel Goüin
Language[edit]
Before the French Revolution, the inhabitants of Tours (Les Tourangeaux) were renowned for speaking the "purest" form of French in the entire country.[4] As their accent was that of the court, the pronunciation of Touraine was traditionally regarded as the most standard pronunciation of the French language, until the 19th century when the standard pronunciation of French shifted to that of Parisian bourgeoisie.[5] This is explained by the fact that the court of France was living in Touraine between 1430 and 1530 and concomitantly French, the language of the court, has become the official language of the entire kingdom.
A Council of Tours in 813 decided that priests should preach sermons in vulgar languages because the common people could no longer understand classical Latin.This was the first official recognition of an early French language distinct from Latin, and can be considered as the birth date of French.
The ordinance of Montils-lès-Tours, promulgated by Charles VII in 1454, made it mandatory to write, in the native language of the area, the oral customs which have force of law.
An ordinance of Charles VIII (born in Amboise, near Tours) in 1490 and one of Louis XII (born in Blois, near Tours) in 1510 broaden the scope of the ordinance of Charles VII.
Finally the ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts, signed into law by Francis I in 1539, called for the use of French in all legal acts, notarised contracts and official legislation to avoid any linguistic confusion.
Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century that some people in this area could still speak Gaulish.
City[edit]
The city of Tours has a population of 140,000 and is called "Le Jardin de la France" ("The Garden of France"). There are several parks located within the city. Tours is located between two rivers, the Loire to the north and the Cher to the south. The buildings of Tours are white with blue slate (called Ardoise) roofs; this style is common in the north of France, while most buildings in the south of France have terracotta roofs .
Tours is famous for its original medieval district, called le Vieux Tours. Unique to the Old City are its preserved half-timbered buildings and la Place Plumereau, a square with busy pubs and restaurants, whose open-air tables fill the centre of the square. The Boulevard Beranger crosses the Rue Nationale at the Place Jean-Jaures and is the location of weekly markets and fairs.
Tours is famous for its many bridges crossing the river Loire. One of them, the Pont Wilson, collapsed in 1978, but was rebuilt just like it was before.
Near the cathedral, in the garden of the ancient Palais des Archevêques (now Musée des Beaux-Arts), is a huge cedar tree planted by Napoleon[citation needed]. The garden also has in an alcove a stuffed elephant, Fritz. He escaped from the Barnum and Bailey circus during their stay in Tours in 1902. He went mad and had to be shot down, but the city paid to honor him, and he was stuffed as a result.
Tours is home to François Rabelais University, the site of one of the most important choral competitions, called Florilège Vocal de Tours International Choir Competition, and is a member city of the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing.
Transport[edit]
Tram model, design by the French agency RCP Design Global
Today, with its extensive rail (including TGV) and autoroute links to the rest of the country, Tours is a jumping-off point for tourist visits to the Loire Valley and the royal châteaux.
Tours is on one of the main lines of the TGV. It is possible to travel to the west coast at Bordeaux in two and a half hours, to the Mediterranean coast via Avignon and from there to Spain and Barcelona, or to Lyon, Strasbourg and Lille. It takes less than one hour by train from Tours to Paris by TGV and one hour and a half to Charles de Gaulle airport. Tours has two main stations: the central station Gare de Tours, and Gare de Saint-Pierre-des-Corps, just outside the centre, the station used by trains that do not terminate in Tours.
Tours Loire Valley Airport connects the Loire Valley to London Stansted Airport, Marseille and Porto. Scheduled flights to Dublin and Manchester as well as charter flights to Ajaccio and Figari are also available during the summer.
Tours has a tram system, which started service at the end of August 2013. 21 Citadis trams were ordered from Alstom designed by RCP Design Global.[6] There is also a bus service, the main central stop being Jean Jaures, which is next to the Hôtel de Ville, and rue Nationale, the high street of Tours. The tram and bus networks are operated by Fil Bleu and they share a ticketing system.
Tours does not have a metro rail system.
Sport[edit]
The city's football team, Tours FC, currently play in Ligue 2, the second level of French football.
Catholics from Tours[edit]
Venerable Leo Dupont, Holy Man of Tours
Tours is a special place for Catholics who follow the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus and the adoration of the Blessed Sacrament. It was in Tours in 1843 that a Carmelite nun, Sister Marie of St Peter reported a vision which started the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus, in reparation for the many insults Christ suffered in His Passion. The Golden Arrow Prayer was first made public by her in Tours.
The Venerable Leo Dupont also known as The Holy Man of Tours lived in Tours at about the same time. In 1849 he started the nightly adoration of the Blessed Sacrament in Tours, from where it spread within France. Upon hearing of Sister Marie of St Peter’s reported visions, he started to burn a vigil lamp continuously before a picture of the Holy Face of Jesus and helped spread the devotion within France. The devotion was eventually approved by Pope Pius XII in 1958 and he formally declared the Feast of the Holy Face of Jesus as Shrove Tuesday (the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday) for all Roman Catholics.[7] The Oratory of the Holy Face on Rue St. Etienne in Tours receives many pilgrims every year.
Tours was the site of the episcopal activity of St. Martin of Tours and has further Christian connotations in that the pivotal Battle of Tours in 732 is often considered the very first decisive victory over the invading Islamic forces, turning the tide against them. The battle also helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire[8]
Notable natives and residents[edit]
Historical population
Year
Pop.
±%
1793
21,000 —
1800
20,240 −3.6%
1806
21,703 +7.2%
1821
21,928 +1.0%
1831
23,235 +6.0%
1836
26,669 +14.8%
1841
30,072 +12.8%
1846
30,766 +2.3%
1851
33,530 +9.0%
1856
38,055 +13.5%
1861
41,061 +7.9%
1866
42,450 +3.4%
1872
43,368 +2.2%
1876
48,325 +11.4%
1881
52,209 +8.0%
1886
59,585 +14.1%
1891
60,335 +1.3%
1896
63,267 +4.9%
1901
64,695 +2.3%
1906
67,601 +4.5%
1911
73,398 +8.6%
1921
75,096 +2.3%
1926
77,192 +2.8%
1931
78,585 +1.8%
1936
83,753 +6.6%
1946
80,044 −4.4%
1954
83,618 +4.5%
1962
92,944 +11.2%
1968
128,120 +37.8%
1975
140,686 +9.8%
1982
132,209 −6.0%
1990
129,509 −2.0%
1999
132,677 +2.4%
2006
136,942 +3.2%
2009
135,218 −1.3%
2011
134,633 −0.4%
2013
134,803 +0.1%
11th-18th century[edit]
Berengarius of Tours (999–1088), theologian
Bernard of Tours (fl. 1147, d. before 1178), philosopher and poet
Jean Fouquet (1420–1481), painter
Abraham Bosse (1604–1676), artist
Louise de la Vallière (1644–1710), courtesan
Philippe Néricault Destouches (1680–1754), dramatist
Jean Baudrais (1749–1832), 18th-century French playwright
Nicolas Heurteloup (1750–1812), surgeon
Philippe Musard (1792-1859), conductor and composer
Gabriel Lamé (1795–1870), mathematician
Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), novelist
Honoré de Balzac (1842)
Gabriel Lamé
19th century[edit]
André-Michel Guerry (1802-1866), lawyer and statistician
Théophile Archambault (1806-1863), psychiatrist
Ernest Goüin (1815–1885), French engineer
Marie of St Peter (1816–1848), mystic carmelite nun
Philippe de Trobriand (1816–1897), author, American military officer
Émile Delahaye (1843–1905), automobile pioneer
Georges Courteline (1858–1929), dramatist and novelist
Emile B. De Sauzé (1878-1964), language educator
Daniel Mendaille (1885–1963), stage and film actor
20th century[edit]
Paul Nizan (1905–1940), novelist and philosopher
Yves Bonnefoy (1923–2016), poet
Paul Guers (1927) (Paul Jacques Dutron), actor
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe (1940–2007), philosopher, literary critic and translator
Jean-Louis Bruguière (born 1943), top French investigating judge
Jean Chalopin (born 1950), television and movie producer, director and writer
Jacques Villeret (1951–2005), actor
Dominique Bussereau (born 1952), politician
Yves Ker Ambrun (born 1954), known as YKA, cartoonist
Laurent Petitguillaume (born 1960), radio and television host
Luc Delahaye (born 1962), photographer
Stéphane Audeguy (born 1964), writer, literary critic and teacher
Pascal Hervé (born 1964), cyclist
Laurent Mauvignier (born 1967), writer
Xavier Gravelaine (born 1968), football player
Nâdiya (born 1973), singer
Harry Roselmack (born 1973), television presenter
Ludovic Roy (born 1977), footballer
Zaz (born 1980), singer
Luc Ducalcon (born 1984), rugby union player
Biga Ranx (born 1988), reggae singer, producer and writer
General Régis de Trobriand
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by René Clair
Feature films
The Phantom of the Moulin Rouge (1925)
The Imaginary Voyage (1926)
The Prey of the Wind (1927)
The Italian Straw Hat (1928)
Two Timid Souls (1928)
Under the Roofs of Paris (1930)
Le Million (1931)
À Nous la Liberté (1931)
Bastille Day (1933)
The Ghost Goes West (1935)
The Last Billionaire (1935)
Break the News (1938)
The Flame of New Orleans (1941)
I Married a Witch (1942)
It Happened Tomorrow (1944)
And Then There Were None (1945)
Man About Town (1947)
Beauty and the Devil (1950)
Beauties of the Night (1952)
The Grand Maneuver (1955)
Gates of Paris (1957)
All the Gold in the World (1961)
The Lace Wars (1965)
Short films &
Anthologies
Entr'acte (1924)
The Crazy Ray (1924)
Forever and a Day (1943, segment "1897")
Three Fables of Love (1962, segment "Les Deux Pigeons")
International relations[edit]
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Tours is twinned with:
Mülheim, Germany, since 1962
Segovia, Spain, since 1972
Parma, Italy, since 1976
Luoyang, People's Republic of China, since 1982
Springfield, Missouri, USA, since 1984
Trois-Rivières, Canada, since 1987
Takamatsu, Japan, since 1988
Brașov, Romania, since 1990
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA, since 1991
Jardin de la Préfecture (central park).
Giant Cedar tree.
Hôtel Goüin.
Place Plumereau.
Slate rooves of Tours.
Looking towards central Tours from the north bank of the Loire, adjacent to the Pont Mirabeau.
See also[edit]
France portal
Bishop of Tours
Tours FC – a soccer club based in the town
The Turonian Age in the Cretaceous Period of geological time is named for the city of Tours
Listing of the work of Jean Antoine Injalbert-French sculptor Sculptor of Tours railway station statues also those on Tours Hotel de Ville.
Marcel Gaumont. Sculptor of war memorial
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Données climatiques de la station de Tours" (in French). Meteo France. Retrieved December 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Climat Centre-Val de Loire" (in French). Meteo France. Retrieved December 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Normes et records 1961-1990: Tours - St Symphorien (37) - altitude 112m" (in French). Infoclimat. Retrieved December 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tours, France". Retrieved 3 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Montvalon, Jean-Baptiste de. "Pourquoi les accents régionaux résistent en France". Le Monde.fr (in French). ISSN 1950-6244. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
Jump up ^ "Tours selects Citadis and APS". Railway Gazette International. London. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Dorothy Scallan. "The Holy Man of Tours." (1990) ISBN 0-89555-390-2
Jump up ^ Davis, Paul K. (1999) "100 Decisive Battles From Ancient Times to the Present" ISBN 0-19-514366-3
Further reading[edit]
See also: Bibliography of the history of Tours
Practical Tours, the comprehensive guide to living in Tours, Tours: Stéphanie Ouvrard, 2013
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tours.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Tours.
Official website (in French)
INSEE commune file
Tours on French version of Wikipedia
Architecture of Tours
François Rabelais University, Tours
Satellite picture by Google Maps
[show]
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[show]
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Communes of the Indre-et-Loire department
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Crotelles
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Cussay
Dame-Marie-les-Bois
Descartes
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Draché
Druye
Épeigné-les-Bois
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Saint-Avertin
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 244753929
GND: 4060530-9
SUDOC: 029526086
BNF: cb152578097 (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tours&oldid=817310531"
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Coat of arms of Tours

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St. Martin of Tours

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Louise de la Vallière

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values: تور (مدينة) – Arabic

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values: Тур (горад) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teurgn
Teurgn – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Τουρ – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: تور (فرانسه) – Persian

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Տուր (քաղաք) – Armenian

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: ტური (საფრანგეთი) – Georgian

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turones
Turones – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%ABra
Tūra – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Malagasy
mg
mg
interlanguage-link-target

values: तुर, फ्रान्स – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: トゥール (アンドル＝エ＝ロワール県) – Japanese

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
Tours – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours
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text:
Women in baseball
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Women playing baseball at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1928.
Part of a series on the
History of baseball
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Women have a long history in American baseball and many women's teams have existed over the years. Baseball was played at women's colleges in New York and New England as early as the mid-nineteenth century;[1] teams were formed at Vassar College, Smith College, Wellesley College, and Mount Holyoke College.[2] An African American women's team, the Philadelphia Dolly Vardens, was formed in 1867.[3]
A number of women's barnstorming teams have existed,[4] and women have played alongside major league players in exhibition games. On April 2, 1931, 17-year-old Jackie Mitchell (originally known as "Virne Beatrice Mitchell Gilbert") of the Chattanooga Lookouts struck out both Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig in an exhibition game. Commissioner of Baseball Kenesaw Mountain Landis voided her contract as a result.[5]
In 1946, former player Edith Houghton became the first woman to work as an independent scout in Major League Baseball when she was hired by the Philadelphia Phillies of the National League.[6] In 1989, NBC's Gayle Gardner became the first woman to regularly host Major League Baseball games for a major television network. In 2015, Jessica Mendoza was the first female analyst for a Major League Baseball game in the history of ESPN, Margaret Donahue was the first female front office executive in Major League Baseball who was not an owner.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history
2 1920s–present
2.1 World War II
2.2 2000s
3 Broadcasting
4 Umpires
5 Executives
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Early history[edit]
There is some evidence that women were playing base ball (as it was then called) as far back as the 1860s,[7] but it was not normal for young ladies to play what was considered a man's sport. In fact, until the early 1890s, when the bicycle craze hit America, women who wanted to get some outdoor exercise were usually discouraged from doing so.[8] But in the late 1890s, there were some organized efforts to have all-female baseball teams, several of which enjoyed success. One of the most successful was the Boston Bloomer Girls baseball club; they took their name from the comfortable pants that some sports-minded young women had begun to wear instead of a long skirt. Young women who went against traditional fashion norms and chose bloomers were often called "bloomer girls".[9] While in some cities, local authorities banned women's baseball teams, including the Bloomer Girls,[10] in other cities, the club was welcomed by curious fans who had never seen female ballplayers.[11] The Bloomer Girls toured the United States in 1897; the press referred to them as the "champion women's club of the world",[12] although this may have been marketing hyperbole, given that the team often seemed inexperienced and did not play very well. One regular standout for the Bloomers was pitcher Maud Nelson, whose talents as a player were praised by reporters; but her teammates did not seem to have as much polish or skill as she did.[13] As they gained more experience, they began to play with more confidence; while still regarded as a novelty, the club often drew large crowds of appreciative fans, many of whom came to see Maud Nelson and her curve ball.[14] The Boston Bloomers were still touring and playing baseball in the early 1900s; by 1907–1908, their team also included several male players, but the majority of the team continued to be female.[15]
1920s–present[edit]
Although female teams like the Bloomers were always considered a novelty, by the early 1920s, there were several female players who were attracting attention at the amateur and semi-pro level and were considered talented enough to play for all-male teams. Perhaps the best known young woman playing baseball in the early 1920s was Rhode Island's Lizzie Murphy. A first baseman, she played for the Providence (RI) Independents, and was praised by newspaper reporters for her fielding skills. Sportswriters said she was every bit as talented as a male player, and noted that she was paid $300 a week, more than many minor league players of the 1920s received.[16] Murphy, who had begun playing baseball when she was only ten, had dreams of becoming a major league player, but she was not able to achieve that goal.[17] She was, however, able to have a long career in the semi-pro leagues, leading a touring team that played all over the eastern United States. According to newspaper accounts, she developed a loyal following, with numerous fans who came out to watch her and her team play.[18] Lizzie Murphy's baseball career lasted from 1918 to 1935, and included one charity exhibition game in which she was part of a team of all-stars who played against the Boston Red Sox.[19] While Murphy was perhaps the best-known woman playing for an all-male team in the 1920s, there was at least one other woman athlete whose abilities included playing baseball. Philadelphia's Betty Schenkel not only played baseball with the boys during high school, but she was said to be adept in other sports, including basketball, soccer, and cycling.[20]
World War II[edit]
During World War II, over 500 baseball players, including super-stars like Ted Williams, Stan Musial and Joe DiMaggio, were drafted.[21] This left major league rosters depleted and severely diminished the level of talent in the league. The owner of the Chicago Cubs, Philip K. Wrigley formed a committee to come up with ideas to keep baseball financially afloat during the war. The result of that committee was the organization of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, which operated from 1943 to 1954. At the height of its popularity, it had teams in twelve cities.[22] One of the most successful of the teams in the league was the Rockford (IL) Peaches, which won four championships. The Peaches, and the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, were commemorated in a 1992 movie, A League of Their Own, starring Geena Davis.[23]
2000s[edit]
In 2008, Eri Yoshida, at 16 years old, became Japan's first professional female baseball player to play in a men's league by signing a professional contract with a new Japanese independent league. In April 2010, she signed a contract with the Chico Outlaws, becoming the first woman to play professionally in two countries. In 2009, Justine Siegal became the first female coach of a men's professional baseball team.[24] In 2011, she was the first woman to throw batting practice to an MLB team, the Cleveland Indians at spring training.[25] She also threw BP to the Oakland Athletics, Tampa Bay Rays, St. Louis Cardinals, Houston Astros, and New York Mets.[26][27][28][29] In 2015, Justine Siegal became the Oakland Athletics guest instructor for their Instructional League Club, thus making her the first female coach in major league baseball history.[30] For one day in May 2016, Jennie Finch was a guest manager for the Atlantic League's Bridgeport Bluefish, thus becoming the first woman to manage a professional baseball team.[31] The team played and won one game that day.[31]
In 2008, Mamie "Peanut" Johnson was drafted (at age 72) by the Washington Nationals in a special Negro leagues honorary draft that preceded 2008 Major League Baseball draft, marking the first time a woman was draft in the MLB's yearly new player draft.
Broadcasting[edit]
In 1989, NBC's Gayle Gardner became the first woman to regularly host Major League Baseball games for a major television network. In 1990, CBS Sports' Lesley Visser became the first woman to cover the World Series, serving as their lead field reporter. In addition to working the World Series from 1990-1993 for CBS, Visser covered the 1995 World Series for ABC Sports via The Baseball Network.
On August 3, 1993, Gayle Gardner became the first woman to do television play-by-play for a Major League Baseball game. It was the Colorado Rockies vs. Cincinnati Reds on KWGN-TV in Denver. Also in 1993, CBS' Andrea Joyce became the first woman to co-host the network television coverage of the World Series. Joyce co-hosted that particular World Series with Pat O'Brien.
In 1995, NBC's Hannah Storm not only became the first woman to serve as solo host a World Series game, but also the first woman to preside over the World Series Trophy presentation. In 2009, New York Yankees broadcaster Suzyn Waldman[32] became the first woman to work a World Series game from the broadcast booth.
On August 24, 2015, Jessica Mendoza was the first female analyst for a Major League Baseball game in the history of ESPN, during a game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Arizona Diamondbacks.[33] John Kruk, Dan Shulman and Jessica Mendoza called the 2015 American League Wild Card Game on October 6, and Mendoza became the first female analyst in MLB postseason history.[34]
Umpires[edit]
There is evidence that at least one woman, Amanda Clement, was umpiring semi-professional games as early as 1905.[35] "Mandy," as she was called, grew up near a ballpark in her hometown of Hudson, South Dakota, where was introduced to baseball by her brother Henry.[36] Miss Clement began umpiring while a student at Yankton College, and gained fame nationwide for her knowledge of baseball and her accuracy in umpiring the games. She was paid between $10 and $15 per game, which helped pay her tuition.[37] She umpired games in North Dakota, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, and South Dakota until at least 1909, and later became a physical education instructor for high school and college women's teams.[38] She still would umpire an occasional semi-pro game in South Dakota even during the 1910s.[39] There were several other woman umpires in the early 1920s: one was Mrs. Deana Ernest of Toledo, Ohio, who umpired semi-pro games in the area, and also managed a city league team there.[40] Another was Nina Belle Hurst, a resident of Sawtelle, California, who umpired in the Southern California Baseball Managers Association.[41] During World War II, there were also some women who umpired, including some the press jokingly referred to as "WUMPS" (women umpires). Among them was Lorraine Heinisch, of Kenosha WI, who umpired semi-pro games in 1943, including a championship game in Wichita, Kansas.[42] The first woman to umpire a professional game was Bernice Gera. A former Little League coach and a passionate fan of baseball, she entered umpiring school in 1967 (the first woman ever to attend the Fort Lauderdale Baseball School).[43] After a lengthy court battle with major league baseball, she finally won the right to umpire. Her first pro game was in the minor leagues in June 1972—a game between the Auburn Phillies and Geneva Rangers in the New York-Penn League, but after several disputed calls, she decided to resign and never umpired another professional game.[44]
Executives[edit]
The first woman to own a baseball team was Helene Hathaway Britton, who owned the St. Louis Cardinals National League baseball team from 1911 through 1916.[45] Margaret Donahue was the first female front office executive in Major League Baseball who was not an owner. She worked for the Chicago Cubs from 1919 to 1958 and introduced marketing concepts such as the season ticket and reduced prices for children under 12, both still used in the 2000s.[46] Since then, many women have held executive positions in business and financial areas of Major League Baseball. However, there have not been many women who have become player personnel. Though there are many women who have been hired as general managers (GMs) for Minor League affiliates, these positions are not responsible for player personnel moves. This is handled at the Major League level.
One woman who has a position in player personnel at the Major League level is Kim Ng. She first worked for the Chicago White Sox, where she successfully presented an arbitration case. After working for the American League as director of waivers and records, she was hired as Assistant GM by the New York Yankees. When she left the Yankees in 2001 for the same position with the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Yankees hired another woman to replace her, Jean Afterman. Afterman still holds the same position as of July 2015. Kim Ng has since moved on to work for Major League Baseball as Senior Vice President of Baseball Operations.[47][48][49]
See also[edit]
Baseball Hall of Fame
The Colorado Silver Bullets (1994–1997)[50]
Mo'ne Davis
Carey Schueler
Alta Weiss
Women's baseball
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ring (2009), 33.
Jump up ^ Ring (2009), 34.
Jump up ^ Gems, Borish, and Pfister (2008), 145.
Jump up ^ Cahn (1995), 38.
Jump up ^ Ring (2009), 18.
Jump up ^ Clark, Vernon (February 12, 2013). "Edith G. Houghton, 100, pro baseball's first female scout". Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "A Female Baseball Club at Peterboro". Chicago Tribune, August 29, 1868, p. 4.
Jump up ^ "Thirty Thousand Women Cyclists". New York Herald, November 20, 1892, p. 30.
Jump up ^ "A Pair of Bloomer Girls in Wisconsin". New York Tribune, August 23, 1869, p. 2.
Jump up ^ "Rooters Ready for Baseball to Begin". San Francisco Chronicle, October 14, 1895, p. 10.
Jump up ^ "Bloomers Were Beaten". Portland Oregonian, October 4, 1897, p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Bloomer Baseball Club". Seattle Daily Times, September 18, 1897, p. 8.
Jump up ^ "They Hail from Boston and Can't Play Ball". San Francisco Chronicle, October 25, 1897, p. 5.
Jump up ^ "Women Ball Twirlers". Fresno (CA) Weekly Republican, November 5, 1897, p. 8.
Jump up ^ "Bloomer Girls Will Play at Broadway Park". Denver Daily News, July 23, 1908, p. 9.
Jump up ^ "Draws Large Salary". Cincinnati Enquirer, April 29, 1923, p. 22.
Jump up ^ "Sport Snap Shots". Olean (NY) Evening Herald, October 24, 1923, p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Lizzie Murphy Will Play Here". North Adams (MA) Transcript, June 24, 1926, p. 15.
Jump up ^ "Lizzie Murphy, 70, Former Baseball Star". Newport (RI) Daily News, July 29, 1964, p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Women of Today No Longer Mollycoddles in the World Of Sports". Colorado Springs Gazette, August 27, 1922, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Weintraub, Robert (2013-05-25). "Remembering the Major Leaguers Who Died in World War II". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ "Skirting a Forgotten Era". Boston Herald, July 20, 1988, p. 94.
Jump up ^ "Rockford's Baseball Past May Appear in 'Civil War' Producer's Next TV Series". Rockford (IL) Register Star, December 13, 1991, p. 29.
Jump up ^ Justine Siegal (PDF), Baseball Glory
Jump up ^ "Breaking down barriers, one pitch at a time", Sports, Yahoo!, 2011-02-21
Jump up ^ "Baseball Video Highlights & Clips", Siegal moves onto Athletics batting practice (Video), MLB
Jump up ^ Advocate for Women in Baseball Finally Gets to Be One, The New York Times, Sports, Baseball, Pitcher, 2011-02-22, retrieved 11 October 2013
Jump up ^ "2011 spring training: Cleveland Indians put first woman on MLB mound — for batting practice", ESPN, Go
Jump up ^ Dream Comes True For Female Pitcher, NPR, 2011-02-23
Jump up ^ Lisk, Jason. "Oakland A's Hire First Female Coach in MLB History". The Big Lead. Retrieved 2015-09-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Eisenberg, Matt (2013-07-16). "Guest manager Jennie Finch leads Bridgeport Bluefish to win". Espn.go.com. Retrieved 2016-05-31.
Jump up ^ Suzyn Waldman makes history
Jump up ^ "Jessica Mendoza becomes first woman to fill analyst role for MLB game on ESPN". Yahoo Sports. August 25, 2015. Retrieved August 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Miller, Doug (October 6, 2015). "Mendoza makes TV history in AL Wild Card". MLB.com. Retrieved October 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Girl Will Umpire in Western League". Salt Lake City Tribune, October 1, 1905, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Katie Hunhoff. "Exploring South Dakota". Platte (SD) Enterprise, July 9, 2009, p. 9.
Jump up ^ "Miss Clement is Fond of Baseball". Minneapolis Journal, September 8, 1906, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Bernie Barnes. "Comments on Sports". Mitchell (SD) Daily Republic, July 14, 1972, p. 8.
Jump up ^ "Woman Umpire Recovering". Lincoln (NE) Daily News, January 18, 1915, p. 2.
Jump up ^ "Latest in World Sport-- A Woman Umpire". Bismarck (ND) Tribune, May 6, 1922, p. 7
Jump up ^ "First Female Plate Duster". Yuma (AZ) Morning Sun, May 27, 1923, p. 7.
Jump up ^ "Enter the WUMPS". Newsweek, August 16, 1943, p. 99.
Jump up ^ Will Grimsley. "Lady Umpire? Bernice Will Try It". Greenfield (MA) Recorder, May 10, 1967, p. 25.
Jump up ^ "Woman Ump Bernice Gera Resigns After Just 1 Game". Meriden (CT) Morning Record, June 26, 1972, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Joan M. Thomas. Baseball's First Lady. St Louis: Reedy Press, 2010, p. 3.
Jump up ^ "Margaret Donahue | Society for American Baseball Research". sabr.org. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ Owens, John. "Female Cubs executive left her mark on the big leagues".
Jump up ^ Fluke, Cecily J. "Female Execs Step Up To The Plate".
Jump up ^ Borzi, Pat. "Women GMs mean business in Minors".
Jump up ^ Ring (2009), 169.
References[edit]
Cahn, Susan K (1995). Coming on strong: gender and sexuality in twentieth-century women's sport. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-14434-1.
Gems, Gerald; Linda Borish; Gertrud Pfister (2008). Sports in American History: From Colonization to Globalization. Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-7360-5621-1.
Ring, Jennifer (2009). Stolen Bases. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03282-0.
External links[edit]
The American Women's Baseball Federation
Photographs of the Colorado Silver Bullets, 1994–1997
Women In Sports
Women In Sports Timeline
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text:
Tigris–Euphrates river system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Tigris–Euphrates river system
Ecology
Realm
Palearctic
Biome
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Geography
Area
35,600 km2 (13,700 sq mi)
Countries
Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait[1][2][3][4]
Oceans or seas
None
Rivers
Tigris, Euphrates, Greater Zab, Lesser Zab.
Climate type
Subtropical, hot and arid
Conservation
Conservation status
Critical/endangered
The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia. From sources originating in the Armenian Highlands[5] of eastern Turkey they flow by/through Syria through Iraq into the Persian Gulf.[6] The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris–Euphrates ecoregion, which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan.
From their sources and upper courses in the mountains of eastern Anatolia, the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. The rivers flow in a south-easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al-Qurnah to form the Shatt al-Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf.[5]
The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region, in which civilization is believed to have first emerged.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 General description
3 Ecological threats
4 Water dispute
5 Conservation
6 In media
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Geography[edit]
The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes, swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in the Uruk period, for which reason it is often described as a "Cradle of Civilization".
In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the Iran–Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were almost completely dried out, and have only recently[when?] shown signs of recovery.
The Tigris–Euphrates Basin is shared by Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Kuwait.[4] Many Tigris tributaries originate in Iran and a Tigris–Euphrates confluence forms part of the Kuwait–Iraq border.[7] Since the 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
General description[edit]
Marsh Arabs poling a mashoof in the marshes of southern Iraq
The general climate of the region is subtropical, hot and arid. At the northern end of the Persian Gulf is the vast floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers, featuring huge permanent lakes, marshes, and forest. The aquatic vegetation includes reeds, rushes, and papyrus, which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and the Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo, two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals.
Ecological threats[edit]
Play media
This visualization shows variations in total water storage from normal, in millimeters, in the Tigris and Euphrates river basins, from January 2003 through December 2009. Reds represent drier conditions, while blues represent wetter conditions. The effects of the seasons are evident, as is the major drought that hit the region in 2007. The majority of the water lost was due to reductions in groundwater caused by human activities.
Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein's government water-control projects drained the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water.
The marshlands were an extensive natural wetlands ecosystem which developed over thousands of years in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and once covered 15–20,000 square kilometers. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation, between 84% and 90% of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of the wetlands were destroyed by Hussein's regime – drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs. Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying.
The drying of the marshes led to the disappearance of the salt-tolerant vegetation; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar, red fox, buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat.
Water dispute[edit]
The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in the 1960s when Turkey implemented a public-works project (the GAP project) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War. However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria.[8]
The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans-boundary river flows. Although the drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large amount of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect.[9]
In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart the Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris–Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water-flow-monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m³/s, but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey's last large GAP dams on the Tigris – the Ilisu Dam – is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife.[10]
Conservation[edit]
The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with the breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four-year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50% of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes.[11]
This table is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this table to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2016)
Conservation status: critical/endangered
Protected area
Endemic species: Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis), Iraq babbler (Turdoides altirostris)
Threatened species: Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) - endangered
Possibly extinct species: Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat (Nesokia bunnii)
In media[edit]
Dawn of the World, film, 2008.
Zaman, The Man From The Reeds, film, 2003
See also[edit]
Wetlands portal
Soil salinity
Mesopotamian Marshes
Shatt al-Arab
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Matthew Zentner (2012). Design and impact of water treaties: Managing climate change. p. 144. The Tigris-Euphrates-Shatt al Arab is shared between Iraq, Iran, Syria, Kuwait and Turkey.
Jump up ^ "Lower Tigris & Euphrates". feow.org. 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mesopotamia (2/3/2003)".
^ Jump up to: a b Deniz Bozkurt; Omer Lutfi Sen (2012). "Hydrological response of past and future climate changes in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin" (PDF). p. 1. The Euphrates-Tigris Basin, covering areas in five countries (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Kuwait), is a major water resource of the Middle East.
^ Jump up to: a b "Euphrates River". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 December 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Gibson, McGuire (17 March 2014). "Tigris-Euphrates river system". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Dan Caldwel (2011). Vortex of Conflict: U.S. Policy Toward Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Uzgel I., 1992. GÜVENSİZLİK ÜÇGENİ: TÜRKİYE, SURİYE, IRAK VE SU SORUNU, MÜLKİYELİLER BİRLİĞİ DERGİSİ, 162, p.47-52
Jump up ^ https://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE54M0XG20090523 Turkey lets more water out of dams to Iraq: MP
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20101231233038/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5giDgd3ukLR8UcfziUQcNToKyM_tw Turkey to up Euphrates flow to Iraq
Jump up ^ Iraqi Marshlands: Steady Progress to Recovery Archived 2011-06-08 at the Wayback Machine. (UNEP)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Tigris–Euphrates river system
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mesopotamia (Middle East).
Persian Gulf image
BBC: Iraq marshes' recovery 'in doubt'
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