text:
Beaches (film)
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This article is about the 1988 film. For the 2017 remake, see Beaches (2017 film).
Beaches
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Garry Marshall
Produced by
Bonnie Bruckheimer-Martell
Bette Midler
Margaret Jeuth
Written by
Mary Agnes Donoghue
Based on
Beaches
by Iris Rainer Dart
Starring
Bette Midler
Barbara Hershey
Music by
Georges Delerue
Cinematography
Dante Spinotti
Edited by
Richard Halsey
Production
companies
Touchstone Pictures
Silver Screen Partners IV
All Girl Productions
Distributed by
Buena Vista Pictures
Release date
December 21, 1988 (1988-12-21)
Running time
123 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$20 million[2]
Box office
$57 million
Beaches (also known as Forever Friends) is a 1988 American comedy-drama film adapted by Mary Agnes Donoghue from the Iris Rainer Dart novel of the same name. It was directed by Garry Marshall, and stars Bette Midler, Barbara Hershey, Mayim Bialik, John Heard, James Read, Spalding Gray, and Lainie Kazan.
Despite generally negative reviews from critics, the film was a commercial success, grossing $59 million in the box office, and gained a cult following.
A sequel, based on the novel Beaches II: I'll Be There was planned with Barbara Eden but never filmed.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Music
4 Box office
5 Home media
6 Accolades
7 Television remake
8 Stage adaptation
9 References
10 External links
Plot[edit]
The story of two friends from different backgrounds, whose friendship spans more than 35 years through childhood, love, and tragedy: Cecilia Carol "C.C." Bloom (Bette Midler), a New York actress and singer, and Hillary Whitney (Barbara Hershey), a San Francisco heiress and lawyer. The film begins with middle-aged C.C. receiving a note during a rehearsal for her upcoming Los Angeles concert. She leaves the rehearsal in a panic and tries frantically to travel to her friend's side. Unable to get a flight to San Francisco because of fog, she rents a car and drives overnight, reflecting on her life with Hillary.
It is 1958; a rich little girl Hillary (Marcie Leeds) meets child performer C.C. (Mayim Bialik) under the boardwalk on the beach in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Hillary is lost and C.C. is hiding from her overbearing stage mother (Lainie Kazan). They become fast friends, growing up and bonding through letters of support to each other. A grown-up Hillary goes on to become a human rights lawyer, while C.C.'s singing career is not exactly taking off. They write to each other regularly and give updates on their lives. Hillary shows up at the New York City dive bar where C.C. is performing, their first meeting since Atlantic City. She moves in with C.C. and gets a job with the ACLU. C.C. is now performing singing telegrams, leading to a job offer from John (John Heard), the artistic director of the Falcon Players, after she sings his birthday telegram.
A love triangle ensues as Hillary and John are instantly attracted to one another, leaving C.C. in the cold and feeling resentment toward her best friend. Matters are made worse when Hillary and John sleep together on the opening-night of C.C.'s first lead in an off-Broadway production. When Hillary returns home to care for her ailing father, the two friends resolve their issues about John, as John does not have romantic feelings for C.C. After her father passes away, Hillary spends time at her family beach house with lawyer Michael Essex (James Read), eventually marrying him. C.C. and John spend a lot of time together, start dating and eventually marry. Hillary and Michael travel to New York to see C.C. perform on Broadway, where she has become a star. When C.C. finds out that Hillary has stopped working as a lawyer, she accuses Hillary of giving up on her dreams. Hillary responds that C.C. has become no more than a "pretentious social climber" who is obsessed with her career. After the argument, Hillary ignores C.C.'s letters, throwing herself into being a dutiful, but unchallenged, wife.
John tells C.C. that her self-centeredness and obsession with her career has him feeling left behind and he asks for a divorce. Despite the separation, John tells her, 'I love you, I'll always love you. I just want to let go of us before us gets bad.' Upset at the thought of her marriage failing, C.C. turns to her mother, who lives in Miami Beach. Her mother tells her that she has given up a lot for her daughter, and C.C. starts to understand when her mother tells her the effect that her selfishness has had on those closest to her. Meanwhile, Hillary returns home from a trip earlier than expected to find her husband having breakfast with another woman, both wearing pajamas. When Hillary learns that C.C. is performing in San Francisco, she makes contact for the first time in years. They learn of each other's divorces, then discover that they have been secretly jealous of each other for years: Hillary is upset that she has none of the talent or charisma that C.C. is noted for, while C.C. admits she has always been envious of Hillary's beauty and intelligence. The two then realize that their feud could have been avoided by honest communication.
Hillary tells C.C. that she is pregnant and that she has already decided to keep the baby and raise the child as a single parent, a decision that wins her much admiration from the feisty and independent C.C., who promises she will stay and help her out. C.C. even starts talking of settling down and having a family of her own, having become engaged to Hillary's obstetrician. However, when C.C.'s agent calls with the perfect comeback gig for her, C.C. quickly abandons her fiancé and any notions of the domestic life and races back to New York City, discovering that the comeback gig is at her ex-husband John's theater, bringing her full circle to where she began her theatrical career. Hillary eventually gives birth to a daughter, whom she names Victoria Cecilia (Grace Johnston). When Victoria is a young girl, Hillary finds herself easily exhausted and breathless, a state she attributes to her busy schedule as a mother and a lawyer. When she collapses while at court she is diagnosed with viral cardiomyopathy, requiring a heart transplant if she is to live. Having a rare tissue type, she realizes she will most likely die before a heart is found.
In the meantime C.C. has become a big star, having won a Tony award and completed her latest hit album. When she learns of Hilary's illness she agrees to accompany Hillary and Victoria to the beach house for the summer. Hillary becomes depressed due to her debilitated state and inadvertently takes her frustration out on C.C. who she sees having fun with and connecting with Victoria. Hillary eventually begins to accept her prognosis bravely, appreciating her time with Victoria and C.C. Hillary and Victoria return to San Francisco, while C.C. heads to Los Angeles for her concert. While Victoria is packing to travel to the concert, Hillary collapses, leading to the note C.C. receives at the start of the movie which prompted her overnight drive to San Francisco. C.C. takes Hillary and Victoria to the beach house. The two friends watch the sun setting over the beach, transitioning directly to a scene of C.C. and Victoria at a cemetery (all with C.C. singing "Wind Beneath My Wings" in the background). After the funeral, C.C. tells Victoria that her mother wanted her to live with her. C.C. admits that she is very selfish and has no idea what kind of a mother she will make, but also tells her: "there's nothing in the world that I want more than to be with you". She then takes Victoria into her arms and the two console each other in their grief. C.C. goes forward with her concert, and after the show, she leaves hand-in-hand with Victoria, and begins telling stories of when she first met her mother. C.C.'s and Victoria's voices fade as we hear the younger C.C. and Hillary from 1958: "Be sure to keep in touch, C.C., OK?" "Well sure, we're friends aren't we?" The film ends with a young C.C. and Hillary taking pictures together, in a photo booth, on the day they first met.
Cast[edit]
Bette Midler as Cecilia Carol "C.C." Bloom
Mayim Bialik as 11-year-old Cecilia Carol "C.C." Bloom
Barbara Hershey as Hillary Whitney
Marcie Leeds as 11-year-old Hillary Whitney
John Heard as John Pierce
Spalding Gray as Dr. Richard Milstein
James Read as Michael Essex
Lainie Kazan as Leona Bloom
Grace Johnston as Victoria Essex
Lynda Goodfriend as Mrs. Myandowski
Tracy Reiner as Department Store Clerk
Jenifer Lewis as Diva
Joe Grifasi as Otto Titsling
Phil Leeds as Sammy Pinkers
Frank Campanella as Doorman
Kathleen Marshall as Delivery Room Nurse #1
Barbara Marshall as I.C. U. Nurse #2
Scott Marshall as Car Rental Agent
Hector Elizondo as Judge
Garry Marshall as Audition Director
Marc Shaiman as Pianist
Music[edit]
Main article: Beaches (soundtrack)
The film's theme song, "Wind Beneath My Wings", hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 charts and won Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Song of the Year in 1990.
Box office[edit]
The film took in $5,160,258 during its opening weekend beginning January 21, 1989. It grossed $57,041,866 domestically.[3]
Home media[edit]
The film was released on VHS by Touchstone Home Video in August 1989, with a DVD release on August 13, 2002, followed by a special-edition DVD on April 26, 2005.
Accolades[edit]
Included on the soundtrack was Midler's performance of "Wind Beneath My Wings", which became an immediate smash hit. The song went on to win Grammys for Record of the Year and Song of the Year in 1990.
It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Albert Brenner and Garrett Lewis).[4]
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Wind Beneath My Wings" – #44[5]
Television remake[edit]
Lifetime announced a remake of the film, which aired on January 22, 2017. The updated version was directed by Allison Anders with the script by Bart Barker and Nikole Beckwith, and Idina Menzel plays the role of C.C.[6][7] Nia Long plays the role of Hillary alongside Menzel. The film includes the songs "Wind Beneath My Wings" and "The Glory of Love".[8] [9]
Stage adaptation[edit]
A musical stage adaptation has been written, based on the book by Iris Rainer Dart, with lyrics and book by Dart and Thom Thomas (book) and music by David Austin. The musical premiered at the Signature Theatre, Arlington, Virginia in February 2014. The musical was directed by Eric D. Schaeffer, with Alysha Umphress as Cee Cee Bloom and Mara Davi as Bertie White.[10][11]
The musical next opened at the Drury Lane Theatre, Oakbrook, Illinois in June 2015 (previews). Again directed by Schaeffer, Shoshana Bean plays Cee Cee and Whitney Bashor plays Bertie.[12] The choreographer is Lorin Latarro, with scenic design by Derek McLane, lighting design by Howell Binkley, costume design by Alejo Vietti and sound design by Kai Harada.[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Beaches (15)". British Board of Film Classification. March 13, 1989. Retrieved November 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Beaches (1988)". The Wrap. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Beaches (1988)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The 61st Academy Awards (1989) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs" (PDF). American Film Institute. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (July 28, 2016). "'Beaches' Movie Remake Starring Idina Menzel Greenlighted By Lifetime". Deadline.com. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rice, Lynette (July 28, 2016). "Idina Menzel to play Bette Midler's 'Beaches' role for Lifetime". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gioia, Michael (August 25, 2016). "Will 'Beaches' Remake, Starring Idina Menzel, Include New Scenes?". Playbill. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://globalnews.ca/news/3187712/beaches-lifetime-movie-2017-remake-puts-new-spin-on-old-classic/
Jump up ^ Marzullo, Joseph (February 11, 2014). "PHOTO EXCLUSIVE: Alysha Umphress and Mara Davi Rehearse Signature Theatre's 'Beaches'". Playbill. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Draut, Tiffany (March 4, 2014). "'Beaches' at Signature Theatre". DC Metro Theater Arts. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Hedy (July 3, 2015). "Test Of True Friendship Drives Emotional 'Beaches' Musical". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 9, 2015. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gioia, Michael (July 2, 2015). "Broadway-Bound 'Beaches', Starring Shoshana Bean and Whitney Bashor, Opens Tonight". Playbill. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Beaches (film)
Beaches on IMDb
Beaches at AllMovie
Beaches at Box Office Mojo
Beaches at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Garry Marshall
Young Doctors in Love (1982)
The Flamingo Kid (1984)
Nothing in Common (1986)
Overboard (1987)
Beaches (1988)
The Lottery (1989)
Pretty Woman (1990)
Frankie and Johnny (1991)
Exit to Eden (1994)
Dear God (1996)
The Other Sister (1999)
Runaway Bride (1999)
The Princess Diaries (2001)
Raising Helen (2004)
The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement (2004)
Georgia Rule (2007)
Valentine's Day (2010)
New Year's Eve (2011)
Mother's Day (2016)
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Chromosomal crossover
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Crossing over occurs between prophase 1 and metaphase 1 and is the process where homologous chromosomes pair up with each other and exchange different segments of their genetic material to form recombinant chromosomes. It can also happen during mitotic division,[1] which may result in loss of heterozygosity. Crossing over is essential for the normal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis.[citation needed] Crossing over also accounts for genetic variation, because due to the swapping of genetic material during crossing over, the chromatids held together by the centromere are no longer identical. So, when the chromosomes go on to meiosis II and separate, some of the daughter cells receive daughter chromosomes with recombined alleles. Due to this genetic recombination, the offspring have a different set of alleles and genes than their parents do. In the diagram, genes B and b are crossed over with each other, making the resulting recombinants after meiosis Ab, AB, ab, and aB.
Thomas Hunt Morgan's illustration of crossing over (1916)
A double crossing over
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.
Crossing over was described, in theory, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He relied on the discovery of Frans Alfons Janssens who described the phenomenon in 1909 and had called it "chiasmatypie". The term chiasma is linked, if not identical, to chromosomal crossover. Morgan immediately saw the great importance of Janssens' cytological interpretation of chiasmata to the experimental results of his research on the heredity of Drosophila. The physical basis of crossing over was first demonstrated by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.[2]
The linked frequency of crossing over between two gene loci (markers) is the crossing-over value . For fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (chromosome) tends to be constant and the same is then true for the crossing-over value which is used in the production of genetic maps.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 DNA repair theory
1.2 Links to bacterial transformation
2 Chemistry
2.1 MSH4 and MSH5
2.2 Chiasma
3 Consequences
4 Non-homologous crossover
5 See also
6 References
Origins[edit]
There are two popular and overlapping theories that explain the origins of crossing-over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing-over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA.[5] The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating diversity.[6]
DNA repair theory[edit]
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes.[5][7][8] Recombinases and primases lay a foundation of nucleotides along the DNA sequence. One such particular protein complex that is conserved between processes is RAD51, a well conserved recombinase protein that has been shown to be crucial in DNA repair as well as cross over.[9] Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci cannot undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei-41, mei-9, hdm, spnA, and brca2.[5] This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the theory of a close evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, DNA repair and crossover have been found to favor similar regions on chromosomes. In an experiment using radiation hybrid mapping on wheat’s (Triticum aestivum L.) 3B chromosome, crossing over and DNA repair were found to occur predominantly in the same regions.[10] Furthermore, crossing over has been correlated to occur in response to stressful, and likely DNA damaging, conditions [11][12]
Links to bacterial transformation[edit]
The process of bacterial transformation also shares many similarities with chromosomal cross over, particularly in the formation of overhangs on the sides of the broken DNA strand, allowing for the annealing of a new strand. Bacterial transformation itself has been linked to DNA repair many times.[5] The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating genetic diversity.[6] .[13] Thus, this evidence suggests that it is a question of whether cross over is linked to DNA repair or bacterial transformation, as the two do not appear to be mutually exclusive. It is likely that crossing over may have evolved from bacterial transformation, which in turn developed from DNA repair, thus explaining the links between all three processes.
Chemistry[edit]
A current model of meiotic recombination, initiated by a double-strand break or gap, followed by pairing with an homologous chromosome and strand invasion to initiate the recombinational repair process. Repair of the gap can lead to crossover (CO) or non-crossover (NCO) of the flanking regions. CO recombination is thought to occur by the Double Holliday Junction (DHJ) model, illustrated on the right, above. NCO recombinants are thought to occur primarily by the Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing (SDSA) model, illustrated on the left, above. Most recombination events appear to be the SDSA type.
Meiotic recombination may be initiated by double-stranded breaks that are introduced into the DNA by exposure to DNA damaging agents[5] or the Spo11 protein.[14] One or more exonucleases then digest the 5’ ends generated by the double-stranded breaks to produce 3’ single-stranded DNA tails (see diagram). The meiosis-specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single-stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments.[15] The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single-stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3’ end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing displacement of the complementary strand, which subsequently anneals to the single-stranded DNA generated from the other end of the initial double-stranded break. The structure that results is a cross-strand exchange, also known as a Holliday junction. The contact between two chromatids that will soon undergo crossing-over is known as a chiasma. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral structure which can be 'pulled' by other recombinases, moving it along the four-stranded structure.
Holliday Junction
Molecular structure of a Holliday junction.
Molecular structure of a Holliday junction. From PDB: 3CRX.
MSH4 and MSH5[edit]
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero-oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans.[16][17][18] In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.[16] The MSH4/MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30% genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes.[19] Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs.
Chiasma[edit]
The grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum was exposed to an acute dose of X-rays during each individual stage of meiosis, and chiasma frequency was measured.[20] Irradiation during the leptotene-zygotene stages of meiosis (that is, prior to the pachytene period in which crossover recombination occurs) was found to increase subsequent chiasma frequency. Similarly, in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus, exposure to X-irradiation during the zygotene-early pachytene stages caused a significant increase in mean cell chiasma frequency.[21] Chiasma frequency was scored at the later diplotene-diakinesis stages of meiosis. These results suggest that X-rays induce DNA damages that are repaired by a crossover pathway leading to chiasma formation.
Consequences[edit]
The difference between gene conversion and chromosomal crossover.
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.
Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment" of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance.[22] However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. This leads to the notion of "genetic distance", which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer.[23]
Non-homologous crossover[edit]
Crossovers typically occur between homologous regions of matching chromosomes, but similarities in sequence and other factors can result in mismatched alignments. Most DNA is composed of base pair sequences repeated very large numbers of times.[24] These repetitious segments, often referred to as satellites, are fairly homogenous among a species.[24] During DNA replication, each strand of DNA is used as a template for the creation of new strands using a partially-conserved mechanism; proper functioning of this process results in two identical, paired chromosomes, often called sisters. Sister chromatid crossover events are known to occur at a rate of several crossover events per cell per division in eukaryotes. [24] Most of these events involve an exchange of equal amounts of genetic information, but unequal exchanges may occur due to sequence mismatch. These are referred to by a variety of names, including non-homologous crossover, unequal crossover, and unbalanced recombination, and result in an insertion or deletion of genetic information into the chromosome. While rare compared to homologous crossover events, these mutations are drastic, affecting many loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome.[25]
Many proteins are implicated in DSB repair; this figure shows a probable, simplified mechanism.
The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. One common vector leading to unbalanced recombination is the repair of double-strand breaks (DSBs).[26] DSBs are often repaired using non-homologous end joining, a process which involves invasion of a template strand by the DSB strand (see figure below). Nearby homologous regions of the template strand are often used for repair, which can give rise to either insertions or deletions in the genome if a non-homologous but complementary part of the template strand is used.[26] Sequence similarity is a major player in crossover – crossover events are more likely to occur in long regions of close identity on a gene.[27] This means that any section of the genome with long sections of repetitive DNA is prone to crossover events.
The presence of transposable elements is another influential element of non-homologous crossover. Repetitive regions of code characterize transposable elements; complementary but non-homologous regions are ubiquitous within transposons. Because chromosomal regions composed of transposons have large quantities of identical, repetitious code in a condensed space, it is thought that transposon regions undergoing a crossover event are more prone to erroneous complementary match-up;[28] that is to say, a section of a chromosome containing a lot of identical sequences, should it undergo a crossover event, is less certain to match up with a perfectly homologous section of complementary code and more prone to binding with a section of code on a slightly different part of the chromosome. This results in unbalanced recombination, as genetic information may be either inserted or deleted into the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred.
While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well-known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating mismatched sequences of DNA during replication and escape regulation.[29] The operative goal of MMRs is the restoration of the parental genotype. One class of MMR in particular, MutSβ, is known to initiate the correction of insertion-deletion mismatches of up to 16 nucleotides.[29] Little is known about the excision process in eukaryotes, but E. coli excisions involve the cleaving of a nick on either the 5’ or 3’ strand, after which DNA helicase and DNA polymerase III bind and generate single-stranded proteins, which are digested by exonucleases and attached to the strand by ligase.[29] Multiple MMR pathways have been implicated in the maintenance of complex organism genome stability, and any of many possible malfunctions in the MMR pathway result in DNA editing and correction errors.[30] Therefore, while it is not certain precisely what mechanisms lead to errors of non-homologous crossover, it is extremely likely that the MMR pathway is involved.
See also[edit]
Unequal crossing over
Coefficient of coincidence
Genetic distance
Independent assortment
Mitotic crossover
Recombinant frequency
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Griffiths, AJF; Gelbart, WM; Miller, JH; et al. (1999). "Modern Genetic Analysis: Mitotic Crossing-Over". New York: W. H. Freeman.
Jump up ^ Creighton H, McClintock B (1931). "A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea Mays". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 17 (8): 492–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.17.8.492. PMC 1076098  . PMID 16587654. (Original paper)
Jump up ^ Rieger R. Michaelis A., Green M. M. (1976). Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular. Heidelberg - New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-07668-9. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ King R. C., Stransfield W. D. (1998): Dictionary of genetics. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-50944-1-7; ISBN 0-19-509442-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Harris Bernstein, Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19 in DNA Repair. Inna Kruman, editor. InTech Open Publisher. doi:10.5772/25117 http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair
^ Jump up to: a b Bernstein, H; Bernstein, C (2010). "Evolutionary origin of recombination during meiosis". BioScience. 60 (7): 498–505. doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.7.5.
Jump up ^ Dangel, NJ; Knoll, A; Puchta, H (2014). "MHF1 plays Fanconi anaemia complementation group M protein (FANCM)-dependent and FANCM-independent roles in DNA repair and homologous recombination in plants". Plant J. 78 (5): 822–33. doi:10.1111/tpj.12507. PMID 24635147.
Jump up ^ Saponaro, M; Callahan, D; Zheng, X; Liberi, G (2010). "Cdk1 Targets Srs2 to Complete Synthesis-Dependent Strand Annealing and to Promote Recombinational Repair". PLoS Genet. 6 (2): e1000858. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000858. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Esposito, M (September 1978). "Evidence that Spontaneous Mitotic Recombination Occurs at the Two-Strand Stage". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 75 (9): 4436–4440. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.9.4436.
Jump up ^ Kumar, A; Bassi, F; Paux, E (2012). "DNA repair and crossing over favor similar chromosome regions as discovered in radiation hybrid of Triticum". BMC Genomics. 13 (339). doi:10.1186/1471-2164-13-339. PMC 3443642  . PMID 22827734. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Steinboeck, F (2010). "The relevance of oxidative stress and cytotoxic DNA lesions for spontaneous mutagenesis in non-replicating yeast cells". Mutat Res. 688 (1–2): 47–52. doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2010.03.006. PMID 20223252.
Jump up ^ Nedelcu, M; Marcu, O; Michod, RE (2004). "Sex as a response to oxidative stress: a twofold increase in cellular reactive oxygen species activates sex genes". Proc. R. Soc. B. 271: 1591–1596. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2747. PMC 1691771  . PMID 15306305. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Charpentier, X (2010). "Antibiotics and UV Radiation Induce Competence for Natural Transformation in Legionella pneumophila". Journal of Bacteriology. 193 (5): 1114–1121. doi:10.1128/JB.01146-10. PMC 3067580  . PMID 21169481. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Keeney, S; Giroux, CN; Kleckner, N (1997). "Meiosis-Specific DNA Double-Strand Breaks Are Catalyzed by Spo11, a Member of a Widely Conserved Protein Family". Cell. 88 (3): 375–84. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81876-0. PMID 9039264.
Jump up ^ Sauvageau, S; Stasiak, Az; Banville, I; Ploquin, M; Stasiak, A; Masson, Jy (June 2005). "Fission Yeast Rad51 and Dmc1, Two Efficient DNA Recombinases Forming Helical Nucleoprotein Filaments" (Free full text). Molecular and Cellular Biology. 25 (11): 4377–87. doi:10.1128/MCB.25.11.4377-4387.2005. ISSN 0270-7306. PMC 1140613  . PMID 15899844.
^ Jump up to: a b Pochart P, Woltering D, Hollingsworth NM (1997). "Conserved properties between functionally distinct MutS homologs in yeast". J. Biol. Chem. 272 (48): 30345–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.272.48.30345. PMID 9374523.
Jump up ^ Winand NJ, Panzer JA, Kolodner RD (1998). "Cloning and characterization of the human and Caenorhabditis elegans homologs of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH5 gene". Genomics. 53 (1): 69–80. doi:10.1006/geno.1998.5447. PMID 9787078.
Jump up ^ Bocker T, Barusevicius A, Snowden T, Rasio D, Guerrette S, Robbins D, Schmidt C, Burczak J, Croce CM, Copeland T, Kovatich AJ, Fishel R (1999). "hMSH5: a human MutS homologue that forms a novel heterodimer with hMSH4 and is expressed during spermatogenesis". Cancer Res. 59 (4): 816–22. PMID 10029069.
Jump up ^ Krishnaprasad GN, Anand MT, Lin G, Tekkedil MM, Steinmetz LM, Nishant KT (2015). "Variation in crossover frequencies perturb crossover assurance without affecting meiotic chromosome segregation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Genetics. 199 (2): 399–412. doi:10.1534/genetics.114.172320. PMC 4317650  . PMID 25467183.
Jump up ^ Church K, Wimber DE (1969). "Meiosis in the grasshopper: chiasma frequency after elevated temperature and x-rays". Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 11 (1): 209–16. doi:10.1139/g69-025. PMID 5797806.
Jump up ^ Westerman M (1971). "The effect of x-irradiation on chiasma frequency in Chorthippus brunneus". Heredity. 27 (1): 83–91. doi:10.1038/hdy.1971.73. PMID 5289295.
Jump up ^ "genetic recombination".
Jump up ^ Genetic Recombination
^ Jump up to: a b c Smith, George P. (1976-01-01). "Evolution of Repeated DNA Sequences by Unequal Crossover". Science. 191 (4227): 528–535. doi:10.1126/science.1251186. JSTOR 1741301.
Jump up ^ Graur, Dan; Li, Wen-Hsiung (2000-01-01). Fundamentals of Molecular Evolution. Sinauer. ISBN 9780878932665.
^ Jump up to: a b Puchta, Holger (2005-01-01). "The repair of double-strand breaks in plants: mechanisms and consequences for genome evolution". Journal of Experimental Botany. 56 (409): 1–14. doi:10.1093/jxb/eri025. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 15557293.
Jump up ^ Metzenberg, Ab; et al. (May 1991). "Homology Requirements for Unequal Crossing Over in Humans". Genetics.
Jump up ^ Robberecht, Caroline; Voet, Thierry; Esteki, Masoud Zamani; Nowakowska, Beata A.; Vermeesch, Joris R. (2012-12-03). "Non-allelic homologous recombination between retrotransposable elements is a driver of de novo unbalanced translocations". Genome Research. 23: gr.145631.112. doi:10.1101/gr.145631.112. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 3589530  . PMID 23212949.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kunkel, Thomas A.; Erie, Dorothy A. (2005-01-01). "Dna Mismatch Repair". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 74 (1): 681–710. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133243. PMID 15952900.
Jump up ^ Surtees, J. A., J.A.; Argueso, J.L.; Alani, E. (2004). "Mismatch Repair Proteins: Key Regulators of Genetic Recombination". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 107: 146–59. doi:10.1159/000080593.
[hide]
v
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Genetics: homologous recombination / mobile genetic elements
Primarily prokaryotic
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation
Occurs in eukaryotes
Transfection
Chromosomal crossover
Gene conversion
Fusion gene
Horizontal gene transfer
Sister chromatid exchange
Transposon
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Downtime
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Downtime (disambiguation).
The term downtime is used to refer to periods when a system is unavailable. Downtime or outage duration refers to a period of time that a system fails to provide or perform its primary function. Reliability, availability, recovery, and unavailability are related concepts. The unavailability is the proportion of a time-span that a system is unavailable or offline. This is usually a result of the system failing to function because of an unplanned event, or because of routine maintenance (a planned event).
The term is commonly applied to networks and servers. The common reasons for unplanned outages are system failures (such as a crash) or communications failures (commonly known as network outage).
The term is also commonly applied in industrial environments in relation to failures in industrial production equipment. Some facilities measure the downtime incurred during a work shift, or during a 12- or 24-hour period. Another common practice is to identify each downtime event as having an operational, electrical or mechanical origin.
The opposite of downtime is uptime.
Contents
1 Types
2 Characteristics
2.1 Telecommunication outage classifications
3 Impact
4 Famous outages
5 Service levels
6 Response and reduction of impact
7 Planning
8 Avoidance
9 Other usage
10 Measuring downtime
11 See also
12 References
Types[edit]
Industry standards for the term "Outage Duration" or "Maintenance Duration" can have different point of initiation and completion thus the following clarification should be used to avoid conflicts in contract execution:
"Turnkey" this is the most engrossing of all outage types. Outage or Maintenance starts with operator of the plant or equipment pressing the shutdown or stop button to initiate a halt in operation. Unless otherwise noted, Outage or Maintenance is considered completed when the plant or equipment is back in normal operation ready to begin manufacturing or ready be synchronized with system or grid or ready to perform duties as pump or compressor.
"Breaker to Breaker" This Outage or Maintenance starts with operator of the plant or equipment removing the power circuit (Main power breaker at "off" or "disengaged" or "On-Cooldown"), not the control circuit from operation. This still would allow for the equipment to be cooled down or brought to ambient such that outage/maintenance work can be prepared or initiated. Depending on equipment types, "Breaker to Breaker" outage can be advantageous if contracting out controls related maintenance as this type of maintenance work can be performed while main equipment is still on cool-down or on stand-by. Unless otherwise noted, this type of outage is considered complete when power circuit is re-energized via engaging of the power breaker.
"Completion of Lock-out/Tag-out" This Outage or Maintenance (sometimes mistaken for "Off-Cooldown" but not the same) starts with operator of the plant or equipment removing the power circuit, disengaging the control circuit and performing other neutralization of potential power and hazard sources (typically called Lock-Out, Tag-Out "LOTO") This point of maintenance period is typically the last phase of the outage initiation stage before actual work starts on the facility, plant or equipment. Safety briefing should always follow the LOTO activity, before any work is conducted. Unless otherwise noted, this type of outage is considered complete when the equipment has reached mechanical completion and ready to be placed on slow-roll for many heavy rotating equipment, Bump-test or rotation check for motors, etc., but must follow return or work permit per LOTO procedures.
Any on-line testing, performance testing and tuning required should not count towards the outage duration as these activities are typically conducted after the completion of outage or maintenance event and are out of control of most maintenance contractors.
Characteristics[edit]
Unplanned downtime may be the result of a software bug, human error, equipment failure, malfunction, high bit error rate, power failure, overload due to exceeding the channel capacity, a cascading failure, etc.
Telecommunication outage classifications[edit]
Downtime can be caused by failure in hardware (physical equipment), software (logic controlling equipment), interconnecting equipment (such as cables, facilities, routers,...), wireless transmission (wireless, microwave, satellite), and/or capacity (system limits).
The failures can occur because of damage, failure, design, procedural (improper use by humans), engineering (how to use and deployment), overload (traffic or system resources stressed beyond designed limits), environment (support systems like power and HVAC), scheduled downtime (outages designed into the system for a purpose such as software upgrades and equipment growth), other (none of the above but known), or unknown.
The failures can be the responsibility of customer/service provider, vendor/supplier, utility, government, contractor, end customer, public individual, act of nature, other (none of the above but known), or unknown.[1]
Impact[edit]
Outages caused by system failures can have a serious impact on the users of computer/network systems, in particular those industries that rely on a nearly 24-hour service:
Medical informatics
Nuclear power and other infrastructure
Banks and other financial institutions
Aeronautics, airlines
News reporting
E-commerce and online transaction processing
Persistent online games
Also affected can be the users of an ISP and other customers of a telecommunication network.
Corporations can lose business due to network outage or they may default on a contract, resulting in financial losses. According to Veeam Availability Report, organizations encounter unplanned downtime, on average, 13 times per year with the average cost of one hour of downtime for a mission-critical applications equal to $82,864.
Those people or organizations that are affected by downtime can be more sensitive to particular aspects:
some are more affected by the length of an outage - it matters to them how much time it takes to recover from a problem
others are sensitive to the timing of an outage - outages during peak hours affect them the most
The most demanding users are those that require high availability.
Famous outages[edit]
This article or section appears to be slanted towards recent events. Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective and add more content related to non-recent events. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
On Mother's Day, Sunday, May 8, 1988, a fire broke out in the main switching room of the Hinsdale Central Office of the Illinois Bell telephone company. One of the largest switching systems in the state, the facility processed more than 3.5 million calls each day while serving 38,000 customers, including numerous businesses, hospitals, and Chicago's O'Hare and Midway Airports.[2]
Virtually the entire AT&T network of 4ESS toll tandems switches went in and out of service over and over again on Jan. 15, 1990 disrupting long distance service for the entire United States. The problem dissipated by itself when traffic slowed down. A software bug was found.[3]
AT&T lost its frame relay network for 26 hours on April 13, 1998.[4] This affected many thousands of customers, and bank transactions were one casualty. AT&T failed to meet the service level agreement on their contracts with customers and had to refund[5] 6,600 customer accounts, costing millions of dollars.
Xbox Live had intermittent downtime during the 2007–2008 holiday season which lasted thirteen days.[6] Increased demand from Xbox 360 purchasers (the largest number of new user sign-ups in the history of Xbox Live) was given as the reason for the downtime; in order to make amends for the service issues, Microsoft offered their users the opportunity to receive a free game.[7]
Sony's PlayStation Network April 2011 outage, began on April 20, 2011, and was gradually restored on May 14, 2011 starting in the United States. This outage is the longest amount of time the PSN has been offline since its inception in 2006. Sony has stated the problem was caused by an external intrusion which resulted in the confiscation of personal information.[8] Sony reported on April 26, 2011 that a large amount of user data had been obtained by the same hack that resulted in the downtime.
Telstra's Ryde switch failed in late 2011 after water egressed into the electrical switch board from continuing wet weather. The Ryde switch is one of the largest by area switches in Australia, and affected more than 720,000 services.[citation needed]
The Miami datacenter of ServerAxis went offline unannounced on February 29, 2016 and was never restored. This impacted multiple providers and hundreds of websites. The outage impacted coverage of the 2016 NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Tournament as WBBState, one of the affected sites, was by far the most comprehensive provider of women's basketball statistics available.[9]
Service levels[edit]
In service level agreements, it is common to mention a percentage value (per month or per year) that is calculated by dividing the sum of all downtimes timespans by the total time of a reference time span (e.g. a month). 0% downtime means that the server was available all the time.
For Internet servers downtimes above 1% per year or worse can be regarded as unacceptable as this means a downtime of more than 3 days per year. For e-commerce and other industrial use any value above 0.1% is usually considered unacceptable.[citation needed]
Response and reduction of impact[edit]
It is the duty of the network designer to make sure that a network outage does not happen. When it does happen, a well-designed system will further reduce the effects of an outage by having localized outages which can be detected and fixed as soon as possible.
A process needs to be in place to detect a malfunction - network monitoring - and to restore the network to a working condition - this generally involves a help desk team that can troubleshoot a problem, one composed of trained engineers; a separate help desk team is usually necessary in order to field user input, which can be particularly demanding during a downtime.
A network management system can be used to detect faulty or degrading components prior to customer complaints, with proactive fault rectification.
Risk management techniques can be used to determine the impact of network outages on an organisation and what actions may be required to minimise risk. Risk may be minimised by using reliable components, by performing maintenance, such as upgrades, by using redundant systems or by having a contingency plan or business continuity plan. Technical means can reduce errors with error correcting codes, retransmission, checksums, or diversity scheme.
One of the biggest causes of downtime is misconfiguration, where a planned change goes wrong. Typically organisations rely on manual effort to manage the process of configuration backups, but this requires highly skilled engineers with the time to manage the process across a multi-vendor network. Automation tools are available to manage backups, but there are very few solutions that handle configuration recovery which is needed to minimize the overall impact of the outage.
Planning[edit]
A planned outage is the result of a planned activity by the system owner and/or by a service provider. These outages, often scheduled during the maintenance window, can be used to perform tasks including the following:
Deferred maintenance, e.g., a deferred hardware repair or a deferred restart to clean up a garbled memory
Diagnostics to isolate a detected fault
Hardware fault repair
Fixing an error or omission in a configuration database or omission in a recent configuration database change
Fixing an error in application database or an error in a recent application database change
Software patching/software updates to fix a software fault.
Outages can also be planned as a result of a predictable natural event, such as Sun outage.
Maintenance downtimes have to be carefully scheduled in industries that rely on computer systems. In many cases, system-wide downtimes can be averted using what is called a "rolling upgrade" - the process of incrementally taking down parts of the system for upgrade, without affecting the overall functionality.
Avoidance[edit]
For most websites, website monitoring is available. Website monitoring (synthetic or passive) is a service that "monitors" downtime and users on the site.
Other usage[edit]
Downtime can also refer to time when human capital or other assets go down. For instance, if employees are in meetings or unable to perform their work due to another constraint, they are down. This can be equally expensive, and can be the result of another asset (i.e. computer/systems) being down. This is also commonly known as "dead time".
This term is used also in factories or industrial use. See total productive maintenance (TPM).
Measuring downtime[edit]
There are many external services which can be used to monitor the uptime and downtime as well as availability of a service or a host.
See also[edit]
High availability
Uptime
Mean down time
Planned downtime
Carrier grade
References[edit]
Website Downtime Intro and Tips
Jump up ^ ATIS 0100012.2007 Standard Outage Classification
Jump up ^ Risk Digest Volume 6: Issue 82 1988
Jump up ^ "The Crash of the AT&T Network in 1990".
Jump up ^ Agilent Preventing IP Network Service Outages Archived October 17, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Risk digest Volume 19 Issue 72 1998
Jump up ^ "DAY 13 of Xbox Outage". Engadget. 2008-01-03. Retrieved 2011-04-27.
Jump up ^ Microsoft offers free game for Xbox Live holiday problems. PC World, January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5j9AacQSaJXBQ3JUqZWxemjT8nMPw?docId=916344d02c284103af70f845db4befc1
Jump up ^ A Website Went Offline And Took Most Of Women's College Basketball Analytics With It FiveThirtyEight
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Non-sufficient funds
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Non-sufficient funds (NSF) is a term used in the banking industry to indicate that a cheque cannot be honored because insufficient funds are available in the account on which the instrument was drawn.[1] An NSF check is often referred to as a bad check, dishonored check, bounced check, cold check, rubber check, returned item, or hot check. In England and Wales and Australia, such checks are typically returned marked "Refer to Drawer", an instruction to contact the person issuing the check for an explanation as to why the check was not honored.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Reasons for dishonored checks
2 Consequences
2.1 Financial institutions
2.2 Civil consequences
2.3 Criminal consequences
3 Prevention
4 Legal issues
4.1 India
4.2 United States
5 United Kingdom
6 Metaphorical use
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Reasons for dishonored checks[edit]
The reasons for receipt of bad checks mostly relate to the party issuing the check not having sufficient funds available in the amount presented for withdrawal from the checking account. Other reasons that checks may not be honored include the account holder cancelling the check to deliberately withhold payment; the account holder's funds being frozen; the account not actually existing due to a false check being presented; and damage to the check.
Consequences[edit]
Among the consequences of issuing a NSF check are actions by financial institutions, civil liability to the drawee, and possible criminal penalties. When a bad check is negotiated, the recipient of the check may choose to take action against the drawer. The action that is taken may be a civil collection action or lawsuit, or seeking criminal charges, depending on the amount of the check and the laws in the jurisdiction where the check is drawn.
Financial institutions[edit]
When a bad check is drawn, the check writer may be charged a fee by their own financial institution. If paying the item puts the account holder in a negative status by a relatively small amount, the bank may choose to honor the check. When this occurs, the account will be overdrawn, and the fees charged by the bank will place an extra burden on the account until the overdraft is covered. If the paying of the item would render the account significantly overdrawn, the bank may choose not to honor the check. The item will be returned to the depositor's bank, and ultimately to the depositor. The amount of the check plus the depositor's bank's fee will be debited from the depositor's account. The depositor then may choose to re-submit the check, hoping it will clear on a second attempt, or else proceed immediately with collection activities, civil or criminal.
Civil consequences[edit]
If the dishonored check has been scanned and replaced by a substitute check, the original check is not returned to the depositor, but instead the substitute check will be marked "not sufficient funds" and returned to the depositor.[3] The recipient may choose not to accept checks in the future from the writer (typically recorded on a paper or electronic "Do not accept checks from..." list), or may suspend the check-writer's privileges until the check-writer has made good on the debt.
The recipient may also choose to report the writer to a database service. This may lead to other merchants in the future refusing to accept checks from the writer or a joint account holder, or the writer having trouble obtaining a checking account at another bank. If a merchant or other place of business receives too many bad cheques from customer§, it may simply decide to not accept any cheques at all from anyone.[4]
Criminal consequences[edit]
In some cases the issuance of a NSF check may result in criminal prosecution of the drawer of the cheque. Criminal charges are more likely where the drawer can be shown to have issued the cheque knowing that it would not be honored. Charges are also more likely when the NSF check is for a large amount, or where the drawer issues multiple NSF checks.[5]
Prevention[edit]
Steps that can be taken to reduce the likelihood of a bad check include:
Carrying a higher balance in the checking account; that is to always have a "buffer" amount just in case an unexpected check does clear.
Better balancing techniques
Overdraft protection - This may be in the form of a link to a savings account from which funds will be automatically transferred, a credit card, or, a line of credit designed specially for this purpose.
Using a credit/debit card or cash instead of checks.
Legal issues[edit]
India[edit]
In India, a bounced check is a criminal offense, punishable by fines and/or jail term, under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.[6][7] Until January 2013, a bounced check was a criminal offense in the United Arab Emirates that led to imprisonment of the person who wrote it.[8]
United States[edit]
In many jurisdictions in the United States, a bad check restitution program exists that allows recipients of bad checks to collect the funds from the local district attorney's office, regardless of the amount. An agency run by the district attorney will pursue the drawer of the check by attempting to collect the funds in exchange for avoiding criminal prosecution. The check drawer will be responsible to cover the amount of the check, plus all fees to which the recipient is legally entitled, plus a program fee. The drawer will also be required to take a course designed to improve check-writing habits. These programs are controversial and in recent years, have come under fire in lawsuits. Normally, if check writer can cover up their bad credits in sixty days, all charges will be dropped.
In some jurisdictions, for a criminal prosecution on a bad check there must be some element of fraud involved in the issuance of the check. In some U.S. states, if the check drawer informs the party they are uttering the check to that it will not clear at the current time (such as asking someone to “hold” a check for a few days), if the check bounces, they can still be sued for the value of the check, but warning the recipient before acceptance that the check will not clear immediately negates the element of fraud and prevents criminal prosecution. For similar reasons, a post-dated check will not normally support a conviction for issuing a NSF check.[1]
United Kingdom[edit]
Use of the term "Refer to Drawer" became standard in England and Wales after bank was successfully sued for libel after returning a cheque with the phrase "Insufficient Funds" after making an error; the court ruled that, as there were sufficient funds, the statement was demonstrably false and damaging to the reputation of the person issuing the cheque.[2] Even with the use of this revised phrase, the mere implication that funds were insufficient has been ruled to be libelous in other cases of banks mistakenly refusing to pay cheques.[9][10]
Metaphorical use[edit]
Martin Luther King used the concept as a metaphor in his I Have a Dream speech. He compared the Declaration of Independence to a bad check.[11]
Another example is the phrase "Don't let your mouth write a check your ass can't cash." (alternatively, "checks" or "body" (instead of "ass" (alteratively, "bum" or "arse" (with "drum" or "grass" to continue the rhyme))) is used to mean, "Don't make brash boasts you can't back up," and originates in urban English, being attested since the 1960s,[12] though today it's found more generally, as in the 1993 movie Dazed and Confused.
See also[edit]
Bad check restitution program
Check fraud
ChexSystems
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Larson, Aaron (18 August 2016). "What to Do if You Receive a Bad Check". ExpertLaw. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Ward, Paul (2010). Tort Law in Ireland. Kluwer Law International, 2010. p. 129. ISBN 9041133321. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Anatomy of a Substitute Check" (PDF). Federal Reserve Banks. 2004. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Wood, Leslie (2005-06-29). "DA explains consequences of writing bad checks in Gallup". Independent. Archived from the original on 22 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
Jump up ^ See, e.g., "Bad Check Questions". Hall County, Georgia. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "THE NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT, 1881 ACT NO. 26 OF 1881". 1881.
Jump up ^ "The legal consequences with bounced cheques! - Yahho India Finance".
Jump up ^ Clancy, Rebecca (2013-01-01). "UAE stops jailing expats for bounced cheques". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Bounced cheques yield libel damages". The Independent. 21 July 1992. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
Jump up ^ Ackland, Richard (6 August 2010). "Cheques and free speech get bounced - Aktas v. Westpac". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Martin Luther King I Have a Dream Speech - American Rhetoric". www.americanrhetoric.com.
Jump up ^ "Don't let your mouth write checks your body can't cash", The Big Apple, February 10, 2010
External links[edit]
National Check Fraud Center. Explains the laws pertaining to bad checks in all fifty U.S. states.
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