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Induction cooking
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Top view of an induction cooktop
Induction cooking heats a cooking vessel by magnetic induction, instead of by thermal conduction from a flame, or an electrical heating element. Because inductive heating directly heats the vessel, very rapid increases in temperature can be achieved.
In an induction cooktop ("induction hob" or "induction stove"), a coil of copper wire is placed under the cooking pot and an alternating electric current is passed through it. The resulting oscillating magnetic field induces a magnetic flux which repeatedly magnetises the pot, treating it like the lossy magnetic core of a transformer. This produces large eddy currents in the pot, which because of the resistance of the pot, heats it.
For nearly all models of induction cooktops, a cooking vessel must be made of, or contain, a ferromagnetic metal such as cast iron or some stainless steels. However, copper, glass, non magnetic stainless steels, and aluminum vessels can be used if placed on a ferromagnetic disk which functions as a conventional hotplate.
Induction cooking is quite efficient, which means it puts less waste heat into the kitchen, can be quickly turned off, and has safety advantages compared to gas stoves. Cooktops are also usually easy to clean, because the cooktop itself does not get very hot.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cooking properties
1.1 Resilience
1.2 Noise
1.3 Other considerations
1.4 Efficiency
1.5 Ventilation
2 Design
2.1 Applications
2.2 Controls
2.3 Cookware
2.4 "All-metal" models
3 History
3.1 Vendors
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Cooking properties[edit]
An induction cooking surface boiling water through several layers of newsprint. The paper is undamaged since heat is produced only in the bottom of the pot
Induction cooking provides faster heating, improved thermal efficiency, and more consistent heating than cooking by thermal conduction, with precise control similar to gas.[1] The induction element has heating performance comparable to a gas burner, but is significantly more energy-efficient.[2] The surface of the cooker is heated only by the pot and so does not usually reach a hazardous temperature. Because the temperature of the cooking surface matches that of the pot, this permits precise control of the cooking temperature. The control system shuts down the element if a pot is not present or not large enough. Induction cookers are easy to clean because the cooking surface is flat and smooth and does not get hot enough to make spilled food burn and stick.
The unit can detect whether cookware is present by monitoring power delivered. This allows it to keep a pot just simmering, or automatically turn an element off when cookware is removed.
Because the cook top is shallow compared to a gas-fired or electrical coil cooking surface, wheelchair access can be improved; the user's legs can be below the counter height and the user's arms can reach over the top.[1]
Resilience[edit]
Induction cookers usually have glass ceramic tops that can be damaged by sufficient impact although they are required to meet minimum specified product safety standards with regard to impact.[3] Aluminum foil can melt onto the top and cause permanent damage or cracking of the top. Surfaces can be scratched by sliding pans across the cooking surface. As with other electric ceramic cooking surfaces, a maximum pan size may be specified by the manufacturer.
Noise[edit]
A small amount of noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Audible electromagnetic noise (a hum or buzz) may be produced by cookware exposed to high magnetic fields, especially at high power if the cookware has loose parts; cookware with welded-in cladding layers and solid riveting is less likely to produce this type of noise. Some users may detect a whistling or whining sound from the cookware or from the powered electronic devices.
Other considerations[edit]
Some cooking techniques available when cooking over a flame are not applicable. Persons with implanted cardiac pacemakers or other electronic medical implants are usually instructed to avoid sources of magnetic fields; the medical literature seems to suggest that proximity to induction cooking surfaces is safe, but individuals with such implants should always check first with their cardiologists.[4] Radio receivers near the induction-cooking unit may pick up some electromagnetic interference.
Efficiency[edit]
Cooking methods that use flames or hot heating elements have a significantly higher loss to the ambient; induction heating directly heats the pot. Because the induction effect does not directly heat the air around the vessel, induction cooking results in further energy efficiencies. Cooling air is blown through the electronics beneath the surface but is only slightly warm.
The purpose of a cooktop is to prepare food; for example, long periods of simmering may be required. A rational measure of efficiency would be to compare the actual energy input to the cooktop compared to some theoretical value require to prepare the specified foodstuffs. Since experiments to make these measurements would be difficult to replicate, energy efficiency measurements that are published concentrate on the ability of a cooktop to transfer energy to a metal test block, which is much easier to measure in a repeatable fashion.
Energy transfer efficiency, as defined by U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), is the percentage of the energy consumed by a cooker that, at the end of a simulated cooking cycle, appears to having been transferred as heat to a standardized aluminum test block.
The DOE test cycle starts with both the block and the cooktop at room temperature: 77 °F ± 9 °F (25 °C ± 5 °C). The cooktop is then switched to maximum heating power. When the test block temperature reaches + 144 °F (+80 °C) above the initial room temperature, the cooktop power is immediately reduced to 25% ± 5% of its maximum power. After 15 minutes of operation at this lower power setting, the cooktop is turned off and the heat energy in the test block is measured.[5] Efficiency is given by the ratio between energy in the block and input (electric) energy.
Such a test, using a combination of two different power levels, was conceived to mimic real life use. Wasted energy terms such as residual unused heat (retained by solid hot-plates, ceramic or coil at the end of the test), and losses from convection and radiation by hot surfaces (including the ones of the block itself) are simply disregarded and don't contribute to efficiency.
In typical cooking, the energy delivered by the cooker is only partly used to heat the food up to temperature; once that has occurred, all the subsequent energy input is delivered to the air as loss through steam or convection and radiation from the pan sides. Since there is no increase in the food temperature, the DOE test procedure would consider the efficiency substantially zero. Cooking procedures such as reduction of a sauce, braising meat, simmering, and so on are significant uses of a cooker, but efficiency of these practices is not modelled by the DOE test procedure.
In 2013 and 2014 DOE developed and proposed new test procedures for cooking products to allow direct comparison of energy transfer efficiency measurements among induction, electric resistance, and gas cooking tops and ranges. The procedures use a new hybrid test block made of aluminum and stainless steel, so it is suitable for tests on induction cookers. The proposed rule lists results of real lab tests conducted with the hybrid block. For comparable (large) cooking elements the following efficiencies were measured with ±0.5% repeatability: 70.7% - 73.6% for induction, 71.9% for electric coil, 43.9% for gas. Summarizing the results of several tests, DOE affirms that "induction units have an average efficiency of 72.2%, not significantly higher than the 69.9% efficiency of smooth—electric resistance units, or the 71.2% of electric coil units".[6] Moreover, DOE reminds that the 84% induction efficiency, cited in previous Technical Support Documents, was not measured by DOE laboratories but just "referenced from an external test study" performed in 1992.[6]
In addition independent tests conducted by manufacturers,[7] research laboratories[8] and other subjects seem to demonstrate that actual induction cooking efficiencies stays usually between 74% and 77% and reach occasionally 81% (although these tests could follow procedures different from that of DOE). These clues indicate that the 84% induction average efficiency reference value should be taken with caution.
Just for comparison and in agreement with DOE findings, cooking with gas has an average energy efficiency of about 40%. It can be raised only by using special pots with fins whose first design and commercialization came years ago,[9] but that have been recently rediscovered, redesigned in a different way and put again on the market.[10] So for environmental considerations dealing with induction versus gas, a 40% gas efficiency will be used.
When comparing with gas, the relative cost of electrical and gas energy, and the efficiency of the process by which electricity is generated, affect both overall environmental efficiency[11] (as explained in more detail below) and cost to the user.
Ventilation[edit]
Energy lost from gas cooking heats the kitchen, whereas with induction cooking, the losses are much lower. This results in less heating of the kitchen itself and can affect the amount of ventilation required.
Gas cooking efficiencies may be lower if waste heat generation is taken into account. Especially in restaurants, gas cooking can significantly increase the ambient temperature in localized areas. Not only may extra cooling be required, but zoned venting may be needed to adequately condition hot areas without overcooling other areas. Costs must be considered on an individual situation due to numerous variables in temperature differences, facility layout or openness, and heat generation schedule. Induction cooking using grid electricity may surpass gas efficiencies when waste heat and air comfort are quantified.
In a commercial setting, induction cookers do not require interlocks between the fuel source and the ventilation, as may be required with gas systems.
Design[edit]
Inside view of an induction cooker: the large copper coil forms the magnetic field, a cooling fan is visible below it, and power supply and line filter surround the coil. In the centre of the coil is a temperature sensor, covered in white thermal grease
Side view of an induction stove
An induction cooker transfers electrical energy by induction from a coil of wire into a metal vessel that must be ferromagnetic. The coil is mounted under the cooking surface, and a high frequency (e.g. 24 kHz) alternating current is passed through it. The current in the coil creates a dynamic magnetic field. When an electrically conductive pot is brought close to the cooking surface, and the pan is thicker than the skin depth, the magnetic field induces large eddy currents in the pot. The eddy currents flow through the electrical resistance of the pot to produce heat through Joule heating; the pot then in turn heats its contents by heat conduction.
The cooking vessel typically needs to be made of a suitable stainless steel or iron. The increased magnetic permeability of the material decreases the skin depth, concentrating the current near the surface of the metal, and so the electrical resistance will be further increased. Some energy will be dissipated wastefully by the current flowing through the resistance of the coil. To reduce the skin effect and consequent heat generation in the coil, it is made from litz wire, which is a bundle of many smaller insulated wires in parallel. The coil has many turns, while the bottom of the pot effectively forms a single shorted turn. This forms a transformer that steps down the voltage and steps up the current. The resistance of the pot, as viewed from the primary coil, appears larger. In turn, most of the energy becomes heat in the high-resistance steel, while the driving coil stays cool.
Often a thermostat is present to measure the temperature of the pan. This helps prevent the pan from severely overheating if accidentally heated empty or boiled dry, but also can allow the induction cooker to maintain a target temperature.
Applications[edit]
Induction equipment may be a built-in surface, part of a range, or a standalone surface unit. Built-in and rangetop units typically have multiple elements, the equivalent of separate burners on a gas-fueled range. Stand-alone induction modules are usually single-element, or sometimes have dual elements. All such elements share a basic design: an electromagnet sealed beneath a heat-resisting glass-ceramic sheet that is easily cleaned. The pot is placed on the ceramic glass surface and begins to heat up, along with its contents.
In Japan, some models of rice cookers are powered by induction. In Hong Kong, power companies list a number of models.[12] Asian manufacturers have taken the lead in producing inexpensive single-induction-zone surfaces; efficient, low-waste-heat units are advantageous in densely populated cities with little living space per family, as many Asian cities are. Induction cookers are less frequently used in other parts of the world.
Induction ranges may be applicable in commercial restaurant kitchens. Electric cooking avoids the cost of natural gas piping and in some jurisdictions may allow simpler ventilation and fire suppression equipment to be installed.[13] Drawbacks for commercial use include possible breakages of the glass cook-top, higher initial cost and the requirement for magnetic cookware.
Controls[edit]
The ferromagnetic properties of a steel vessel concentrate the induced current in a thin layer near its surface, which results in a strong heating effect. In paramagnetic materials like aluminum, the magnetic field penetrates deeper, and the induced current encounters little resistance in the metal.[14] According to Lenz's law the efficiency of the induction in the pot may be sensed, so that the induction may be attained accordingly with special electronics devices. At least one high-frequency "all-metal" cooker is available, that works with lower efficiency on non-ferromagnetic metal cookware.
The cooking surface is made of a glass-ceramic material which is a poor heat conductor, so only a little heat is lost through the bottom of the pot. In normal operation the cooking surface stays significantly cooler than with other stove cooking methods, but still needs to cool down before it can be safely touched.
Units may have one, two, three, four or five induction zones, but four (normally in a 30-inch-wide unit) is the most common in the US and Europe. Two coils are most common in Hong Kong and three are most common in Japan. Some have touch-sensitive controls. Some induction stoves have a memory setting, one per element, to control the time that heat is applied. At least one manufacturer makes a "zoneless" induction cooking surface with multiple induction coils. This allows up to five utensils to be used at once anywhere on the cooking surface, not just on pre-defined zones.[15]
Small stand-alone portable induction cookers are relatively inexpensive, priced from around US$20 in some markets.
Cookware[edit]
Cookware may carry a symbol that identifies it as compatible with an induction cooktop.
Cookware must be compatible with induction heating; in most models, only ferrous metal can be heated. Cookware usually have a flat bottom since the magnetic field drops rapidly with distance from the surface. (Special and costly wok-shaped tops are available for use with round-bottom woks.) Induction disks are metal plates that are heated by induction and heat non-ferrous pots by thermal contact, but these are much less efficient than ferrous cooking vessels.
Induction compatible cookware for an induction cooking surface can nearly always be used on other stoves. Some cookware or packaging is marked with symbols to indicate compatibility with induction, gas, or electric heat. Induction cooking surfaces work well with any pans with a high ferrous metal content at the base. Cast iron pans and any black metal or iron pans will work on an induction cooking surface. Stainless steel pans will work on an induction cooking surface if the base of the pan is a magnetic grade of stainless steel. If a magnet sticks well to the sole of the pan, it will work on an induction cooking surface. An "all-metal" cooker will work with non-ferrous cookware, but available models are limited.
Aluminum or copper alone does not work on an induction stove because of the materials’ magnetic and electrical properties.[16] Aluminum and copper cookware are more conductive than steel, but the skin depth in these materials is larger since they are non-magnetic. The current flows in a thicker layer in the metal, encounters less resistance and so produces less heat. The induction cooker will not work efficiently with such pots. However, aluminum and copper are desirable in cookware, since they conduct heat better. Because of this 'tri-ply' pans often have an induction-compatible skin of stainless steel containing a layer of thermally conductive aluminum.
For frying, a pan with a base that is a good heat conductor is needed to spread the heat quickly and evenly. The sole of the pan will be either a steel plate pressed into the aluminum, or a layer of stainless steel over the aluminum. The high thermal conductivity of aluminum pans makes the temperature more uniform across the pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminum base will not have the same temperature at their sides as an aluminum sided pan will have. Cast iron frying pans work well with induction cooking surfaces but the material is not as good a thermal conductor as aluminum.
When boiling water, the circulating water spreads the heat and prevents hot spots. For products such as sauces, it is important that at least the base of the pan incorporates a good heat conducting material to spread the heat evenly. For delicate products such as thick sauces, a pan with aluminum throughout is better, since the heat flows up the sides through the aluminum, allowing the cook to heat the sauce rapidly but evenly.
Household foil is much thinner than the skin depth in aluminum at the frequencies used by an induction cooker. Here the foil has melted where it was exposed to the air after steam formed under it. Cooking surface manufacturers prohibit the use of aluminum foil in contact with an induction cooking surface.
The heat that can be produced in a pot is a function of the surface resistance. A higher surface resistance produces more heat for similar currents. This is a “figure of merit” that can be used to rank the suitability of a material for induction heating. The surface resistance in a thick metal conductor is proportional to the resistivity divided by the skin depth. Where the thickness is less than the skin depth, the actual thickness can be used to calculate surface resistance.[16] Some common materials are listed in this table.
Skin depth at 24 kHz[16]
Material
Resistivity
(10−6 ohm-inches)
Relative
permeability
Skin depth,
inches (mm)
Surface resistance,
10−3 ohms/square
(thick material)
Surface resistance,
relative to copper
Carbon steel 1010 9 200 0.004 (0.10) 2.25 56.25
Stainless steel 432 24.5 200 0.007 (0.18) 3.5 87.5
Stainless steel 304 29 1 0.112 (2.8) 0.26 6.5
Aluminum 1.12 1 0.022 (0.56) 0.051 1.28
Copper 0.68 1 0.017 (0.43) 0.04 1
To get the same surface resistance as with carbon steel would require the metal to be thinner than is practical for a cooking vessel; at 24 kHz a copper vessel bottom would need to be 1/56th the skin depth of carbon steel. Since the skin depth is inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency, this suggests that much higher frequencies (say, several megahertz) would be required to obtain equivalent heating in a copper pot as in an iron pot at 24 kHz. Such high frequencies are not feasible with inexpensive power semiconductors; in 1973 the silicon-controlled rectifiers used were limited to no more than 40 kHz.[16] Even a thin layer of copper on the bottom of a steel cooking vessel will shield the steel from the magnetic field and make it unusable for an induction top.[16] Some additional heat is created by hysteresis losses in the pot due to its ferromagnetic nature, but this creates less than ten percent of the total heat generated.[17]
"All-metal" models[edit]
New types of power semiconductors and low-loss coil designs have made an all-metal cooker possible, but the electronic components are relatively bulky.
Panasonic Corporation in 2009 developed a consumer induction cooker that uses a higher-frequency magnetic field, and a different oscillator circuit design, to allow use with non-ferrous metals.[18][19]
History[edit]
An early induction cooker patent from 1909 illustrates the principle. The coil of wire S induces a magnetic field in the magnetic core M. The magnetic field passes through the bottom of the pot A, inducing eddy currents within it. Unlike this concept, a modern cooking surface uses electronically generated high-frequency current
First patents date from the early 1900s.[20] Demonstration stoves were shown by the Frigidaire division of General Motors in the mid-1950s[21] on a touring GM showcase in North America. The induction cooker was shown heating a pot of water with a newspaper placed between the stove and the pot, to demonstrate the convenience and safety. This unit, however, was never put into production.
Modern implementation in the USA dates from the early 1970s, with work done at the Research & Development Center of Westinghouse Electric Corporation at Churchill Borough, near Pittsburgh,[16] That work was first put on public display at the 1971 National Association of Home Builders convention in Houston, Texas, as part of the Westinghouse Consumer Products Division display.[citation needed] The stand-alone single-burner range was named the Cool Top Induction Range. It used paralleled Delco Electronics transistors developed for automotive electronic ignition systems to drive the 25 kHz current.
The Westinghouse Electric CT-2; the first production induction range from 1973
Westinghouse decided to make a few hundred production units to develop the market. Those were named Cool Top 2 (CT2) Induction ranges. The development work was done at the same R&D location, by a team led by Bill Moreland and Terry Malarkey. The ranges were priced at $1,500 ($8,260 in 2017 dollars), including a set of high quality cookware made of Quadraply, a laminate of stainless steel, carbon steel, aluminum and another layer of stainless steel (outside to inside).
Production took place in 1973 through to 1975 and stopped, coincidentally, with the sale of Westinghouse Consumer Products Division to White Consolidated Industries Inc.
CT2 had four burners of about 1,600 watts each, measured by calorimetry. The range top was a Pyroceram ceramic sheet surrounded by a stainless-steel bezel, upon which four magnetic sliders adjusted four corresponding potentiometers set below. That design, using no through-holes, made the range proof against spills. The electronic section was made in four identical modules cooled by fans.
In each of the electronics modules, the 240V, 60 Hz domestic line power was converted to between 20V to 200V of continuously variable DC by a phase-controlled rectifier. That DC power was in turn converted to 27 kHz 30 A (peak) AC by two arrays of six paralleled Motorola automotive-ignition transistors in a half-bridge configuration driving a series-resonant LC oscillator, of which the inductor component was the induction-heating coil and its load, the cooking pan. The circuit design, largely by Ray Mackenzie,[22] successfully dealt with certain bothersome overload problems.
Control electronics included functions such as protection against over-heated cook-pans and overloads. Provision was made to reduce radiated electrical and magnetic fields.[23][24] There was also magnetic pan detection.[25]
CT2 was UL Listed and received Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval, both firsts. Numerous patents were also issued. CT2 won several awards, including Industrial Research Magazine's IR-100 1972 best-product award [26] and a citation from the United States Steel Association. Raymond Baxter demonstrated the CT2 on the BBC series Tomorrow's World. He showed how the CT2 could cook through a slab of ice.
Sears Kenmore sold a free-standing oven/stove with four induction-cooking surfaces in the mid-1980s (Model Number 103.9647910). The unit also featured a self-cleaning oven, solid-state kitchen timer and capacitive-touch control buttons (advanced for its time). The units were more expensive than standard cooking surfaces.
In 2009 Panasonic developed an all-metal induction cooker that used a different[clarification needed] coil design and a higher[clarification needed] operating frequency to allow operation with non-ferrous metal cookware.[citation needed] However, the units operate with somewhat reduced coupling efficiency and so have reduced power compared to operation with ferrous cookware.
Vendors[edit]
The market for induction stoves is dominated by German manufacturers, such as Bosch, Fissler, Miele, Siemens and ELAG. The Spanish company Fagor, The Turkish Company Beko, Italian firm Smeg, Sweden's Electrolux (also using the brand AEG), French ARPA and Slovenia's Gorenje are also key players in the European market. Prices range from about £250 to £1,000 within the United Kingdom.[citation needed] In 2006, Stoves launched the UK's first domestic induction range cooker at a slightly lower cost than those imported.
Single ring portable hobs have become popular in the UK, with prices as low as £30 from discounters such as Aldi.[citation needed]
The European induction cooking market for hotels, restaurants and other caterers is primarily satisfied by smaller specialist commercial induction catering equipment manufacturers such as Adventys of France, Induced Energy of Brackley in the UK, Control Induction and Target Catering Equipment of the UK and Scholl of Germany.
Taiwanese and Japanese electronics companies are the dominant players in induction cooking for East Asia. After aggressive promotions by utilities in HK like CLP Power HK Ltd, many local brands like UNIVERSAL, icMagIC, Zanussi, iLighting, German Pool also emerged. Their power and ratings are high, more than 2,800 watts. They are multiple zone and capable of performing better than their gas counterpart. The efficiency is as high as 90% and saves a lot of energy and is environmentally friendly. Their use by local Chinese for wok cooking is becoming popular. Some of these companies have also started marketing in the West. However, the product range sold in Western markets is a subset of that in their domestic market; some Japanese electronics manufacturers only sell domestically.
In the United States, as of early 2013 there are over five dozen brands of induction-cooking equipment available, including both build-in and countertop residential equipment and commercial-grade equipment. Even restricting to build-in residential-use units, there are over two dozen brands being sold; residential countertop units add another two-dozen-plus brands to the count.
The National Association of Home Builders in 2012 estimated that, in the United States, induction cooktops held only 4% of sales, compared to gas and other electric cooktops.[27]
In April 2010, The New York Times reported that "In an independent survey last summer by the market research company Mintel of 2,000 Internet users who own appliances, only 5 percent of respondents said they had an induction range or cooktop. . . . Still, 22 percent of the people Mintel surveyed in connection to their study last summer said their next range or cooktop would be induction."[28]
See also[edit]
Glass-ceramic
Microwave oven
Electrodeless lamp
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Induction Cooking: Pros and Cons". Theinductionsite.com. 2010-11-03. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
Jump up ^ "So How Much Power Is What?". Theinductionsite.com. 2010-03-08. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
Jump up ^ Hans Bach, Dieter Krause, Low thermal expansion glass ceramics, Springer, 2005 ISBN 3-540-24111-6 page 77, lists IEC, UL, Canadian, Australian and other standards with impact resistance requirements
Jump up ^ "Induction Cooking: Radiation Hazards?". Theinductionsite.com. 2013-02-17. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
Jump up ^ "Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Chapter II, Subchapter D, Part 430, Subpart B, Appendix I: Uniform test method for measuring the energy consumption of conventional ranges, conventional cooking tops, conventional ovens, and microwave ovens" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-09-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "Federal Register, Vol. 79 No. 232, December 3 2014, Part III, Department of Energy, Energy Conservation Program: Test Procedures for Conventional Cooking Products; Proposed Rule" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-14.
Jump up ^ "Electrolux sustainability" (PDF). Archived from the original (pdf) on 2016-09-19. Retrieved 2016-09-19. See slide # 57
Jump up ^ "Induction Cooking Technology Design and Assessment; M. Sweeney, J. Dols, B. Fortenbery, F. Sharp; Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)" (PDF). Archived from the original (pdf) on 2015-09-10. Retrieved 2016-09-19. Paper presented at the 2014 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings
Jump up ^ Greg Sorensen; David Zabrowski (August 2009). "Improving Range-Top Efficiency with Specialized Vessels". Appliance Magazine. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ "Oxford-designed Flare pan uses 40 per cent less heat than conventional pans — Department of Engineering Science — University of Oxford". Retrieved 2016-09-17.
Jump up ^ Shopping guide to Gas & Electric Cookers, Ovens & Hobs, from Ethical Consumer. "The low CO2 choice is pretty much always gas, where it is available. Although gas ovens and hobs use more energy, gas generates less carbon dioxide per kWh."
Jump up ^ "Induction Cookers". Heh.com. Retrieved 2011-02-21.
Jump up ^ Roger Fields, Restaurant Success by the Numbers: A Money-Guy's Guide to Opening the Next Hot Spot, Random House of Canada, 2007 ISBN 1-58008-663-2, pp. 144–145
Jump up ^ Llorente, S.; Monterde, F.; Burdio, J.M.; Acero, J. (2002). "A comparative study of resonant inverter topologies used in induction cookers" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ DeDietrich "Piano" cooktop specifications, retrieved 2012 May 9 Archived 2014-05-02 at the Wayback Machine., dedietrich.co.uk
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f , W. C.Moreland, The Induction Range: Its Performance and Its Development Problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. TA-9, no. 1, January/February 1973 pages 81–86
Jump up ^ Fairchild Semiconductors (July 2000). "AN9012 Induction Heating System Topology Review" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ Fujita, Atsushi; Sadakata, Hideki; Hirota, Izuo; Omori, Hideki; Nakaoka, Mutsuo (17–20 May 2009). Latest developments of high-frequency series load resonant inverter type built-in cooktops for induction heated all metallic appliances. Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2009. IPEMC '09. IEEE 6th International. pp. 2537–2544. ISBN 978-1-4244-3557-9. doi:10.1109/IPEMC.2009.5157832. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Tanuki Soup (9 October 2010). "Big news for fans of induction cooktops". Chow. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
Jump up ^ for example see UK Patent Application GB190612333, entitled "Improvements in or relating to Apparatus for the Electrical Production of Heat for Cooking and other purposes", applied for by Arthur F. Berry on 26 May 1906
Jump up ^ Kitchen of the Future has Glass-Dome Oven and Automatic Food Mixer, Popular Mechanics Apr 1956, page 88
Jump up ^ Induction Heat Cooking Apparatus
Jump up ^ Cooking vessel capacitive decoupling for induction cooking apparatus
Jump up ^ Induction heating coil assembly for heating cooking vessels
Jump up ^ Pan detector for induction heating cooking unit
Jump up ^ Archive, retrieved 2012 Aug 22, rdmag.com[dead link]
Jump up ^ Kitchen Appliance Upgrades that Shine, retrieved 2012 Aug 15, nahb.org[dead link]
Jump up ^ Is Induction Cooking Ready to Go Mainstream? , retrieved 2013 Jan 31, nytimes.com
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Vahana
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The eight Matrikas riding different vahanas like (top row, second from left to right) Garuda, a peacock, Nandi bull, a hamsa (goose/swan); (bottom row, from left) buffalo, elephant and lion
Vahana (Sanskrit: वाहन, Vāhana, literally "that which carries, that which pulls") denotes the being, typically an animal or mythical entity, a particular Hindu deity is said to use as a vehicle. In this capacity, the vahana is often called the deity's "mount". Upon the partnership between the deity and his vahana is woven much iconography and mythology. Deities are often depicted riding (or simply mounted upon) the vahana. Other times, the vahana is depicted at the deity's side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute. The vahana may be considered an accoutrement[1] of the deity: though the vahana may act independently, they are still functionally emblematic or even syntagmatic of their "rider". The deity may be seen sitting or standing on the vahana. They may be sitting on a small platform called a howdah, or riding on a saddle or bareback.[2] Vah in Sanskrit means to carry or to transport.
Contents
[hide]
1 Symbolism
2 Origin folklore
3 Origin theories
4 Compared to other belief systems
5 List of Vahanas
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
Symbolism[edit]
In Hindu iconography, positive aspects of the vehicle are often emblematic of the deity that it carries. Nandi the bull, vehicle of Shiva, represents strength and virility. Parvani the peacock, vehicle of Skanda, represents splendor and majesty. The hamsa, vehicle of Saraswati, represents wisdom, grace and beauty.
However, the vehicle animal also symbolizes the evil forces over which the deity dominates. Mounted on Parvani, Skanda reins in the peacock's vanity. Seated on Mushika, Ganesh crushes useless thoughts, which multiply like rats in the dark. Shani, protector of property, has a vulture, raven or crow in which he represses thieving tendencies. Under Shani's influence, the vahana can make even malevolent events bring hope.
Origin folklore[edit]
A Bhagavata Purana manuscript page depicting the story of Atri and Anasuya meeting the Trimurti riding on their respective vahanas. (PhP 4.1.21-25). (Paper, late 18th century, Jaipur).
The vehicle of a deity can vary according to the source, the time, and the place. In popular tradition, the origin of each vehicle is told in thousands of different ways.[citation needed] Three examples:
While the god Ganesha was still a child, a giant mouse began to terrorize all his friends. Ganesha trapped him with his lasso and made him his mount. Mushika was originally a gandharva, or celestial musician. After absent mindedly walking over the feet of a rishi (sage) named Vamadeva, Mushika was cursed and transformed into a mouse. However, after the rishi recovered his temper, he promised Mushika that one day, the gods themselves would bow down before him. The prophecy was fulfilled when the mouse became the vahana of Ganesha.
Before becoming the vehicle of Shiva, Nandi was a deity called Nandikeshvara, lord of joy and master of music and dance. Then, without warning, his name and his functions were transferred to the aspect of Shiva known as the deity Nataraja. From half-man, half-bull, he became simply a bull. Since that time, he has watched over each of Shiva's temples, always looking towards him.
Kartikeya, the war-god known as Murugan in Southern India, is also mounted on a peacock. This peacock was originally a demon called Surapadma, while the rooster was called the angel[Krichi]. After provoking Murugan in combat, the demon repented at the moment his lance descended upon him. He took the form of a tree and began to pray. The tree was cut in two. From one half, Murugan pulled a rooster, which he made his emblem, and from the other, a peacock, which he made his mount. In another version, Karthikeya was born to kill the demon, Tarakasura. He was raised by the Krittikas and led the divine armies when he was 6 days old. It is said that after defeating Tarakasura, the god forgave him and transformed him into his ride, the peacock.
Origin theories[edit]
The vahana and deity to which they support are in a reciprocal relationship. Vahana serve and are served in turn by those who engage them. Many vahana may also have divine powers or a divine history of their own. Case in point, the aforementioned Nataraja story, represents a conflation of Hindu gods with local gods, syncretizing their mythos as their territories began to overlap. According to one source, "they could be a synthesis between Vedic deities and autochthonous Dravidian totemic deities.[citation needed]
Compared to other belief systems[edit]
The animal correspondences of Hindu vehicles are not consistent with Greek and Roman mythology, or other belief systems which may tie a particular animal to a particular deity. For example, the goddess Lakshmi of the Hindus has elephants, or an owl, or (a rare instance of a non-animal vehicle) the lotus blossom as her vehicle. The goddess Athena of ancient Greece also had an owl as her emblematic familiar, but the meanings invested in the owls by the two different belief systems are not the same, nor are the two goddesses themselves similar, despite their mutual identification with owls.
Lakshmi is, among other things, primarily the goddess of wealth, and her owl is a warning against distrust and isolationism, even selfishness. Athena, though also a goddess of prosperity, is primarily the goddess of wisdom, and her owl symbolizes secret knowledge and scholarship. Perhaps due to their shared geography, the Greco-Roman interpretation is paralleled in Roman Catholic iconography, in which St. Jerome, most famed for editing the New Testament, is often (though not always) depicted with an owl as a symbol of wisdom and scholarship.[3] Depending on the tribe, Native American religious iconography attributes a wide range of attributes to the owl, both positive and negative, as do the Ainu and Russian cultures, but none parallel the Hindu attributes assigned to the owl as Lakshmi's divine vehicle.[4]
Some hold that similar analyses could be performed cross-culturally for any of the other Hindu divine vehicles, and in each case, any parallels with the values assigned to animal totems in other cultures are likely to be either coincidence, or inevitable (as in linking bulls to fertility), rather than evidence of parallel development. In dialectic, this is countered by the retort that each totem or vahana, as an aspect of ishta-devata (or an ishta-devata or asura in its own right), has innumerable ineffable teachings, insights and spiritual wisdom; comparative analysis yields benefit, though knowledge and understanding is not served by collapsing their qualities into homogenous signification.
List of Vahanas[edit]
Vahana
Deities associated
Image
Mouse / shrew named Mushika Ganesha (pictured)
Horse Swaminarayan(female horse named "manki"), Ayyappan, Budha, Revanta, Chandra (chariot of 10 white horses), Indra (chariot pulled by a horse named Uchchaihshravas - pictured), Surya (chariot pulled by seven horses or a seven-headed horse), Kubera, Bali, Kalki.
Garuda (pictured) Vishnu, Krishna, Vaishnavi.
Ram Agni (pictured), mangala .
Nandi bull (pictured) Shiva, Parvati, Maheshvari.
Peacock Kartikeya (peacock named Parvani, pictured), Sarasvati,[5] Kaumari
Dog Bhairava (a form of Shiva pictured with dog in background), Hadkai Maa, Khandoba, Svapathi (Shiva)
Hamsa (goose or swan) Brahma (pictured), Sarasvati,[2] Brahmani, Hingraj Mata, Vishvakarman
Makara Ganga, Varuna (pictured), Kama, Khodiyar, Narmada
Tiger (a form of the Vahana, Dawon) Durga or Parvati (pictured),
Lion (a form of the Vahana, Dawon) Durga or Parvati (lion named Manasthala), Rahu (blue or black lion), Mariamman, Jagaddhatri (pictured), Budha.
Elephant Lakshmi,[2][6] Indra (elephant named Airavata, pictured), Indrani, Brihaspati.
Parrot Kama (named Sukha)
Antelope Chandra (chariot of), Vayu (pictured)
Water buffalo Yama (buffalo named Paundraka, pictured), Varahi, Vihot Mata
Cat[7] Shashthi
Donkey Kaalratri, Shitala (pictured), Kali (demon)
Owl Lakshmi[2][6] (pictured with the owl on her left, named Uluka), Chamunda
Vulture Ketu
Eagle Shani[8]
Crow Shani, Alakshmi, Dhumavati (pictured)
Tortoise Yamuna (pictured standing on it), Varuna
Cockerel Bahuchara Mata
Cow Ushas (chariot of seven cows) -
Snake Kamakhya, Manasa (picture)
Pigeon Rati -
Rhinoceros Dhavdi -
Goats Pushan (chariot of), Meladi Maa -
Crocodile Shukra, Khodiyar
Camel Momai Maa (aka Dashaa Maa), Ushtravahini Devi -
Man Kubera
These correspondences are not always consistent. Ganesh, for example, is sometimes shown with a peacock as his vehicle, although a peacock is the customary vehicle of his brother Skanda (also known as Kartikeya and other names) as well as the vehicle sometimes associated with the goddess Saraswati. Even more rarely, the elephant-bodied Ganesh may be seen riding another elephant, or a lion, or a many-headed serpent.[9]
As the assistant of a deity, the vahana serves the function of doubling his or her powers. Durga the warrior could not have destroyed the demon Mahishasura without the aid of her vehicle, Manashthala the lion. Lakshmi, goddess of fortune, dispenses both material and spiritual riches from her mount, Uluka the owl. Ganesh, remover of obstacles, cannot go everywhere despite his elephant-like strength. However, his vehicle, Mushika the mouse or Ulaka the rat, can slide into the smallest crevice and overcome the greatest obstacles.
See also[edit]
Hindu deities
Hindu iconography
Hindu mythology
List of Hindu deities
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Accoutrement = "that which accompanies".
^ Jump up to: a b c d Glossary: Vahana. Undated. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ The Collection: St. Jerome, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Owl and Mythology, p. 3. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hindu Devotion: Saraswati. Accessed August 10, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Hindu Devotion: Lakshmi. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Margaret Stutley's The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography , p. 127
Jump up ^ Holy Vehicles: Shani. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Forms of Ganesh: The Mouse Mount and Other Ganesh Mounts. Accessed August 10, 2007.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vahana.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Yoga oracle#129 Power Animal
Holy Vehicles, an illustrated list. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Karthikeyan / Subramanian Riding His Peacock Accessed August 10, 2007.
Hindu Deities and Their Vehicles, a partial list at About.Com. Accessed August 10, 2007.
Symbolism of the Vehicles of Gods and Goddesses. Accessed August 10, 2007.
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