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Mound Builders
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For other uses, see Mound builder (disambiguation).
Monks Mound, built c. 950-1100 CE and located at the Cahokia Mounds UNESCO World Heritage Site near Collinsville, Illinois, is the largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in America north of Mesoamerica.
The various cultures collectively termed Mound Builders were inhabitants of North America who, during a 5,000-year period, constructed various styles of earthen mounds for religious and ceremonial, burial, and elite residential purposes. These included the Pre-Columbian cultures of the Archaic period; Woodland period (Adena and Hopewell cultures); and Mississippian period; dating from roughly 3500 BCE (the construction of Watson Brake) to the 16th century CE, and living in regions of the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and the Mississippi River valley and its tributary waters.[1]
Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has been that the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers met natives living in a number of later Mississippian cities, described their cultures, and left artifacts.[2] Research and study of these cultures and peoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Woodland culture
2 Archaeological surveys
3 Reports of early European explorers
4 Mound building cultures
4.1 Archaic era
4.2 Woodland period
4.3 Coles Creek culture
4.4 Mississippian cultures
4.5 Fort Ancient culture
4.6 Plaquemine culture
4.7 Archaeological culture maps
5 Alternative explanations
5.1 Effects of alternative explanations
6 Hoaxes
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Woodland culture[edit]
During the 16th through 19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that a people other than one related to the historic Native Americans had built the mounds.
The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and other earthworks. These burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of complex villages. The early earthworks built in Louisiana c. 3500 BCE are the only ones known to have been built by a hunter-gatherer culture.
The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which at more than 100 feet (30 m) tall is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia in present-day Collinsville, Illinois. At its maximum about CE 1150, Cahokia was an urban settlement with 20,000-30,000 people; this population was not exceeded by North American European settlements until after 1800.
A depiction of the Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, as published in the magazine The Century, April 1890
Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals. The most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from 1 to just over 3 feet tall (30–100 cm)., 20 feet (6 m) wide, more than 1,330 feet (405 m) long, and shaped as an undulating serpent.
Many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures over thousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, "mound builder," covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction. This practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building was an early marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America. It is one of eleven mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley.[3]
A depiction of the Portsmouth Earthworks in Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley
We can conclude that these mound builders were organized. Hundreds or even thousands of workers had to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available, the dirt had to be moved long distances, and finally workers had to create the shape the builder had planned.
Archaeological surveys[edit]
The most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, written by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis. It was published during 1848 by the Smithsonian Institution. Since many of the features which the authors documented have since been destroyed or diminished by farming and development, their surveys, sketches, and descriptions are still used by modern archaeologists. All of the sites which they identified as located in Kentucky came from the manuscripts of C. S. Rafinesque.
A smaller regional study during 1931 by author and archaeologist Fred Dustin charted and examined the mounds and Ogemaw Earthworks near Saginaw, Michigan. Archaeological survey and recording of mounds is an ongoing scholarly task.
A mound diagram of the Mississippian cultural period showing the multiple layers of mound construction, mound structures such as temples or mortuaries, ramps with log stairs, and prior structures under later layers, multiple terraces, and intrusive burials.
Illustration of the Nodena Site, possibly the Province of Pacaha encountered by de Soto
Reports of early European explorers[edit]
Hernando de Soto, the Spanish conquistador who during 1540-1542 traversed what became the southeast United States, encountered many different mound-builder peoples, perhaps descendants of the great Mississippian culture. The mound-building tradition still existed in the southeast during the mid-sixteenth century. De Soto observed people living in fortified towns with lofty mounds and plazas, and surmised that many of the mounds served as foundations for priestly temples. Near present-day Augusta, Georgia, de Soto encountered a mound-building group ruled by a queen, Cofitachequi. She told him that the mounds within her territory served as the burial places for nobles.
Engraving after Jacques Le Moyne, showing the burial of a Timucua chief
The artist Jacques Le Moyne, who had accompanied French settlers to northeastern Florida during the 1560s, likewise noted many Native American groups using existing mounds and constructing others. He produced a series of watercolor paintings depicting scenes of native life. Although most of his paintings have been lost, some engravings were copied from the originals and published during 1591 by a Flemish company. Among these is a depiction of the burial of an aboriginal Floridian tribal chief, an occasion of great mourning and ceremony. The original caption reads:
“ Sometimes the deceased king of this province is buried with great solemnity, and his great cup from which he was accustomed to drink is placed on a tumulus with many arrows set about it. ”
— Jacques Le Moyne, 1560s
Maturin Le Petit, a Jesuit priest met the Natchez people as did Le Page du Pratz (1758), a French explorer. Both observed them in the area that later became Mississippi. The Natchez were devout worshippers of the sun. Having a population of some 4,000, they occupied at least nine villages and were presided over by a paramount chief, known as the Great Sun, who wielded absolute power. Both observers noted the high temple mounds which the Natchez had built so that the Great Sun could commune with God, the sun. His large residence was built atop the highest mound, from “which, every morning, he greeted the rising sun, invoking thanks and blowing tobacco smoke to the four cardinal directions.”[4][5][6]
Later explorers to the same regions, only a few decades after mound-building settlements had been reported, found the regions largely depopulated, the residents vanished, and the mounds untended. Since there had been little violent conflict with Europeans in that area during that period, the most plausible explanation is that infectious diseases from the Old World, such as smallpox and influenza, had decimated most of the Native Americans who had comprised the last mound-builder civilization.[7][8][9][10]
Mound building cultures[edit]
Archaic era[edit]
Main article: Archaic period in the Americas
Illustration of Watson Brake, the oldest mound complex in North America
Modern illustration of Poverty Point in West Carroll Parish, Louisiana
Radiocarbon dating has established the age of the earliest Archaic mound complex in southeastern Louisiana. One of the two Monte Sano Site mounds, excavated during 1967 before being destroyed for new construction at Baton Rouge, was dated at 6220 BP (plus or minus 140 years).[11] Researchers at the time thought that such societies were not organizationally capable of this type construction.[11] It has since been dated as about 6500 BP, or 4500 BCE,[12] although not all agree.[13]
Watson Brake is located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe in northern Louisiana. Securely dated to about 5,400 years ago (approx. 3500 BCE), in the Middle Archaic period, it consists of a formation of 11 mounds from 3 to 25 feet (1-8m) tall, connected by ridges to form an oval nearly 900 feet (270m) across.[14] In the Americas, building of complex earthwork mounds started at an early date, well before the pyramids of Egypt were constructed. Watson Brake was being constructed nearly 2,000 years before the better-known Poverty Point, and building continued for 500 years.[14] Middle Archaic mound construction seems to have ceased about 2800 BC, and scholars have not ascertained the reason, but it may have been because of changes in river patterns or other environmental factors.[15]
With the 1990s dating of Watson Brake and similar complexes, scholars established that pre-agricultural, pre-ceramic American societies could organize to accomplish complex construction during extended periods of time, invalidating scholars' traditional ideas of Archaic society.[16] Watson Brake was built by a hunter-gatherer society the people of which occupied the area on only a seasonal basis, but where successive generations organized to build the complex mounds over a 500-year period. Their food consisted mostly of fish and deer, as well as available plants.
Poverty Point, built about 1500 BC in what is now Louisiana, is a prominent example of Late Archaic mound-builder construction (c. 2500 BCE - 1000 BCE). It is a striking complex of more than one square mile, where six earthwork crescent ridges were built in concentric arrangement, interrupted by radial aisles. Three mounds are also part of the main complex, and evidence of residences extends for about 3 miles along the bank of Bayou Macon. It is the major site among 100 associated with the Poverty Point culture and is one of the best-known early examples of earthwork monumental architecture. Unlike the localized societies during the Middle Archaic, this culture showed evidence of a wide trading network outside its area, which is one of its distinguishing characteristics.
Grave Creek Mound, Moundsville, West Virginia, Adena culture
Digital illustration of Kings Crossing Site in Warren County, Mississippi
Woodland period[edit]
Main article: Woodland period
The Archaic period was followed by the Woodland period (c. 1000 BCE). Some well-understood examples are the Adena culture of Ohio, West Virginia, and parts of nearby states. The subsequent Hopewell culture built monuments from present-day Illinois to Ohio; it is renowned for its geometric earthworks. The Adena and Hopewell were not the only mound-building peoples during this time period. There were contemporaneous mound-building cultures throughout what is now the eastern United States, stretching as far south as Crystal River in western Florida. During this time period, in parts of present-day Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana, the Hopewellian Marksville culture degenerated and was succeeded the Baytown culture.[17] Reasons for degeneration include attacks from other tribes or the impact of severe climatic changes undermining agriculture.
Coles Creek culture[edit]
Main article: Coles Creek culture
The Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland culture (700-1200 CE) in the Lower Mississippi Valley in the southern United States that marks a significant change of the cultural history of the area. Population and cultural and political complexity increased, especially by the end of the Coles Creek period. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet manifested, by CE 1000 the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi and Texas. The Coles Creek culture is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.[18][19]
Modern illustration of Cahokia with the large Monks Mound in the central precinct, encircled by a palisade, surrounded by four plazas, especially the Grand Plaza to the south
Mississippian cultures[edit]
Main article: Mississippian culture
Around 900–1450 CE, the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys.[20] The largest regional center where the Mississippian culture is first definitely developed is located in Illinois near the River Mississippi and is referred to presently as Cahokia. It was perhaps the capital of a large region stretching from Louisiana to Wisconsin.[21] It had several regional variants including the Middle Mississippian culture of Cahokia, the South Appalachian Mississippian variant at Moundville and Etowah, the Plaquemine Mississippian variant in south Louisiana and Mississippi,[22] and the Caddoan Mississippian culture of northwestern Louisiana, eastern Texas, and southwestern Arkansas.[23] Like the Mound Builders of the Ohio, these people built gigantic mounds as burial and ceremonial places.[24]
Fort Ancient culture[edit]
Main article: Fort Ancient culture
SunWatch Indian Village in Dayton, Ohio
Fort Ancient is the name for a Native American culture that flourished from 1000-1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River in areas of modern-day southern Ohio, northern Kentucky and western West Virginia. Scholars once thought this was an expansion of the Mississippian cultures, but they now believe the Fort Ancient culture was developed from the Hopewell culture.
Plaquemine culture[edit]
Main article: Plaquemine culture
Modern illustration of the Holly Bluff Site in Yazoo County, Mississippi
A continuation of the Coles Creek culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Examples include the Medora Site in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana; and the Anna and Emerald Mound sites in Mississippi. Sites inhabited by Plaquemine peopless continued to be used as vacant ceremonial centers without large village areas much as their Coles Creek ancestors had done; although their layout began to show influences from Middle Mississippian peoples to the north. The Winterville and Holly Bluff (Lake George) sites in western Mississippi are good examples that exemplify this change of layout but continuation of site usage.[25] During the Terminal Coles Creek period (CE 1150 to 1250) contact increased with Mississippian cultures centered upriver near St. Louis, Missouri. This resulted in the adaption of new pottery techniques, as well as new ceremonial objects and possibly new social patterns during the Plaquemine period.[26] As more Mississippian culture influences were absorbed the Plaquemine area as a distinct culture began to shrink after CE 1350. Eventually the last enclave of purely Plaquemine culture was the Natchez Bluffs area, while the Yazoo Basin and adjacent areas of Louisiana became a hybrid Plaquemine-Mississippian culture.[27] This division was recorded by Europeans when they first arrived in the area. In the Natchez Bluffs area, the Taensa and Natchez people had held out against Mississippian influence and continued to use the same sites as their ancestors, and the Plaquemine culture is considered directly ancestral to these historic period groups encountered by Europeans.[28] Groups who appear to have absorbed more Mississippian influence were identified as those tribes speaking the Tunican, Chitimachan, and Muskogean languages.[26]
Archaeological culture maps[edit]
Hopewell traditions
Adena culture
Troyville culture and Baytown culture
Coles Creek culture
Mississippian culture
Caddoan Mississippian culture
Fort Ancient culture
Plaquemine culture
Alternative explanations[edit]
Through the mid-nineteenth century, European Americans did not recognize that ancestors of the Native Americans had built the prehistoric mounds of the eastern U.S. They believed that the massive earthworks and large ceremonial complexes were built by a different people. A New York Times article from 1897 described a mound in Wisconsin in which a giant human skeleton measuring over nine feet in length was found.[29] From 1886, another New York Times article described water receding from a mound in Cartersville, Georgia which uncovered acres of skulls and bones, some of which were said to be gigantic. Two thigh bones were measured with the height of their owners estimated at 14 feet.[30] President Lincoln made reference to the giants whose bones fill the mounds of America. "But still there is more. It calls up the indefinite past. When Columbus first sought this continent---when Christ suffered on the cross---when Moses led Israel through the Red-Sea---nay, even, when Adam first came from the hand of his Maker---then as now, Niagara was roaring here. The eyes of that species of extinct giants, whose bones fill the mounds of America, have gazed on Niagara, as ours do now. Co[n]temporary with the whole race of men, and older than the first man, Niagara is strong, and fresh to-day as ten thousand years ago. The Mammoth and Mastodon---now so long dead, that fragments of their monstrous bones, alone testify, that they ever lived, have gazed on Niagara. In that long---long time, never still for a single moment. Never dried, never froze, never slept, never rested."[31]
The antiquarian author William Pidgeon created fraudulent surveys of mound groups that did not exist possibly tainting this opinion which was replaced by others.[32][33][34]
A major factor in increasing public knowledge of the origins of the mounds was the 1894 report by Cyrus Thomas of the Bureau of American Ethnology. He concluded that the prehistoric earthworks of the eastern United States were the work of early cultures of Native Americans. A small number of people had earlier made similar conclusions: Thomas Jefferson, for example, excavated a mound and from the artifacts and burial practices, noted similarities between mound-builder funeral practices and those of Native Americans in his time. In addition, Theodore Lewis during 1886 had refuted Pidgeon's fraudulent claims of pre-Native American moundbuilders.[35]
Writers and scholars have proposed many alternative origins for the Mound Builders:
Vikings
During 1787, Benjamin Smith Barton proposed the theory that the Mound Builders were Vikings who came to North America and eventually disappeared.[36]
Ancient world immigrants
Other people believed that Greeks, Africans, Chinese or assorted Europeans built the mounds. Some Euro-Americans thought the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel had built the mounds.[36]
Book of Mormon inhabitants
See also: Archaeology and the Book of Mormon
During the 19th century a common belief was that the Jews, particularly the Lost Ten Tribes, were the ancestors of Native Americans and the Mound Builders.[37] The Book of Mormon (published first during 1830) provides a related belief, as its narrative describes two major immigrations to the Americas from Mesopotamia: the Jaredites (ca. 3000 - 2000 BCE) and an Israelite group during 590 BCE (termed Nephites, Lamanites and Mulekites). While the Nephites, Lamanites, and Mulekites were all of Jewish origin coming from Israel around 590 BCE, the Jaradites were a non-Abrahamic people separate in all aspects, except in a belief in Jehovah, from the Nephites. The Book of Mormon depicts these settlers building magnificent cities, which were destroyed by warfare about CE 385.
Some Mormon scholars[who?] have considered The Book of Mormon narrative a description of the mound-building cultures; other Mormon apologists argue for a Mesoamerican or South American setting.[38] Theories about a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon did not develop until after Latter-day Saints were influenced by publicized findings about the Central American stone ruins. This occurred after the Book of Mormon was published.[39]
Black civilizations
During the 20th century, certain sects affiliated with the Black nationalist Moorish Science philosophy theorized an association with the Mound Builders. They argue that the Mound Builders were an ancient advanced Black civilization that developed the legendary continents of Atlantis and Mu, as well as ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica. These black groups claim that the American Indians were too primitive to have developed the sophisticated societies and the technology believed necessary to build the mounds.[citation needed]
Divine creation
The Reverend Landon West claimed that Serpent Mound in Ohio was built by God, or by man inspired by him. He believed that God built the mound and placed it as a symbol of the story of the Garden of Eden.[40][41]
Mythical cultures
Some people attributed the mounds to mythical cultures: Lafcadio Hearn suggested that the mounds were built by people from the Lost Continent of Atlantis.[36][42]
Effects of alternative explanations[edit]
The mound builder explanations were often honest misinterpretations of real data from valid sources. Both scholars and laymen accepted some of these explanations. Reference to an alleged race appears in the poem "The Prairies" (1832) by William Cullen Bryant.[43]
Assumption that construction was too complex for Indians
One belief was that American Indians were too unsophisticated to have constructed such complex earthworks and artifacts. The associated stone, metal, and clay artifacts were thought to be too complex for the Indians to have made. In the American Southeast, and Midwest, numerous Indian cultures were sedentary and used agriculture. Numerous Indian towns had built surrounding stockades for defense. Capable of this type of construction, they and ancestors could have built mounds, but people who believed that the Indians did not build the earthworks did not analyze it in this manner. They thought the Native American nomadic cultures would not organize to build such monuments, for failure to devote the time and effort to construct such time-consuming projects.[36]
When most British colonists first arrived in America, they never witnessed the American Indians building mounds, and they found that few Indians knew of their history when asked. Yet earlier Europeans, especially the Spanish, had written numerous non-English-language accounts about the Indians' construction of mounds. Garcilaso de la Vega reported how the Indians built the mounds and placed temples on top of them. A few French expeditions reported staying with Indian societies who built mounds.[36]
Assumption construction older than Indians
People also claimed that the Indians were not the Mound Builders because the mounds and related artifacts were older than Indian cultures. Caleb Atwater's misunderstanding of stratigraphy caused him to believe that the Mound Builders were a much older civilization than the Indians. In his book, Antiquities Discovered in the Western States (1820), Atwater claimed that Indian remains were always found right beneath the surface of the earth. Since the artifacts associated with the Mound Builders were found fairly deep in the ground, Atwater argued that they must be from a different group of people. The discovery of metal artifacts further convinced people that the Mound Builders were not Native Americans. The Indians encountered by the Europeans and Americans were not thought to engage in metallurgy. Some artifacts that were found in relation to the mounds were inscribed with symbols. As the Europeans did not know of any Indian cultures that had a writing system, they assumed a different group had created them.[36]
Hoaxes[edit]
Panoramic view from within the Great Circle at the Newark Earthworks in Newark, Ohio (wall of which can be seen in the background)
Several hoaxes were associated with the Mound Builder cultures.
Newark Holy Stones
During 1860, David Wyrick discovered the "Keystone tablet", containing Hebrew language inscriptions written on it, in Newark, Ohio. Soon afterward, he found the "Newark Decalogue Stone" nearby, also claimed to be inscribed in Hebrew. The authenticity of the "Newark Holy Stones" and the circumstances of their discovery are disputed.[36]
Davenport tablets
Reverend Jacob Gass discovered what were called the Davenport tablets. These bore inscriptions that later were determined to be fake.[36]
Walam Olum hoax
The Walam Olum hoax had considerable influence on perceptions of the Mound Builders. During 1836 Constantine Samuel Rafinesque published his translation of a text he claimed had been written in pictographs on wooden tablets. This text explained that the Lenape Indians originated in Asia, told of their passage over the Bering Strait, and narrated their subsequent migration across the North American continent. This "Walam Olum" tells of battles with native peoples already in America before the Lenape arrived. People hearing of the account believed that the "original people" were the Mound Builders, and that the Lenape overthrew them and destroyed their culture. David Oestreicher later asserted that Rafinesque's account was a hoax. He argued that the Walam Olum glyphs were derived from Chinese, Egyptian, and Mayan alphabets. Meanwhile, the belief that the Native Americans destroyed the mound builder culture had gained widespread acceptance.[36]
Kinderhook plates
The Kinderhook plates, "discovered" during 1843, were another hoax, consisting of material planted by a contemporary in Native American mounds. This hoax was intended to discredit the account of the Mormon prophet Joseph Smith having translated an ancient book.[44][45]
See also[edit]
List of burial mounds in the United States
Petroforms
Serpent Mound
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Southwestern Moundbuilders, athletic teams of Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas
Tumulus, mounds (or barrows) of Europe and Asia
Tumulus culture
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See Squier p. 1
Jump up ^ Constance E. Richards, "Contact and Conflict", American Archaeologist, Spring 2004, accessed 26 Jun 2008
Jump up ^ Robert W. Preucel, Stephen A. Mrozowski, Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism, John Wiley & Sons, 2010, p. 177
Jump up ^ Mallory O'Connor, Lost Cities of the Ancient Southeast (University Press of Florida, 1995).
Jump up ^ Ephraim Squier and Edwin Davis, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. 1. Washington DC, 1848)
Jump up ^ Biloine Young and Melvin Fowler, Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis (University of Illinois Press, 2000).
Jump up ^ Davis Brose and N'omi Greber (eds.), Hopewell Archaeology (Kent State UP, 1979)
Jump up ^ Roger Kennedy, Hidden Cities: The Discovery and Loss of Ancient North American Civilization (Free Press, 1994)
Jump up ^ Robert Silverberg, "...And the Mound-Builders Vanished from the Earth", originally in the 1969 edition of American Heritage, collected in the anthology A Sense of History [Houghton-Mifflin, 1985]; available online here.
Jump up ^ Gordon M. Sayre, "The Mound Builders and the Imagination of American Antiquity in Jefferson, Bartram, and Chateaubriand", Early American Literature 33 (1998): 225-249.
^ Jump up to: a b Rebecca Saunders, "The Case for Archaic Period Mounds in Southeastern Louisiana", Southeastern Archaeology, Vol. 13, No. 2, Winter 1994, accessed 4 November 2011
Jump up ^ "Important new findings in Louisiana". Archaeo News. Stone Pages. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Joe W. Saunders, "Middle Archaic and Watson Brake", in Archaeology of Louisiana, edited by Mark A. Rees, Ian W. (FRW) Brown, LSU Press, 2010, p. 67
^ Jump up to: a b Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, pp. 69-76
Jump up ^ Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, pp. 73-74
Jump up ^ Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, p. 63
Jump up ^ "Southeastern Prehistory-Late Woodland Period". Retrieved 2008-09-23.
Jump up ^ Kidder, Tristram (1998). R. Barry Lewis, Charles Stout, eds. Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0947-0. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Troyville-Coles Creek". Louisiana prehistory. 2010-07-01.
Jump up ^ Adam King (2002). "Mississippian Period: Overview". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
Jump up ^ Nash, Gary B. Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early North America Los Angeles 2015. Chapter 1, p. 7
Jump up ^ "Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period". Retrieved 2010-07-01.
Jump up ^ Peter N. Peregrine (1995). Archaeology of the Mississippian culture: a research guide. Garland Publishing. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8153-0336-7.
Jump up ^ Nash, Gary B. Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early North America Los Angeles 2015. Chapter 1, p. 6
Jump up ^ "Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period". Retrieved 2016-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plaquemine-Mississippian". Retrieved 2016-10-20.
Jump up ^ Guy E. Gibbon; Kenneth M. Ames (1998-08-01). Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 657–658. ISBN 978-0-8153-0725-9.
Jump up ^ "The Plaquemine Culture, A.D 1000". Retrieved 2008-09-08.
Jump up ^ "WISCONSIN MOUND OPENED.; Skeleton Found of a Man Over Nine Feet High with an Enormous Skull.". New York Times. December 20, 1897.
Jump up ^ "MONSTER SKULLS AND BONES.". New York Times. April 5, 1886.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Abraham (1953). "Fragment: Niagara Falls [c. September 25–30, 1848]". In Basler, Roy P. Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. 2. pp. 10–11.
Jump up ^ Pidgeon, William (1858) Traditions of Dee-Coo-Dah and Antiquarian Researches. Horace Thayer, New York.
Jump up ^ Finney, Fred (2008) William Pidgeon and T.H. Lewis. Minnesota Archaeologist 67: 89-105
Jump up ^ Birmingham, Robert A. and Leslie E. Eisenberg (2000) Indian Mounds of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, pp 24-27.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Theodore H. (1886) "The 'Monumental Tortoise' Mounds of 'Dee-Coo-Dah'" The American Journal of Archaeology 2(1):65-69.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Feder, Kenneth L. (2005). "The Myth of the Moundbuilders". Frauds, Myths, And Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology (PDF). Central Connecticut State Univ: McGraw Hill. pp. 151–155, 159–160, 164–166. ISBN 978-0-07-286948-4. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Chapman, Jefferson. "Prehistoric American Indians in Tennessee". University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
Jump up ^ Jon Daniels. "The Book of Mormon and Mesoamerican Archeology". Stanford University. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
Jump up ^ See the anonymous newspaper article titled "ZARAHEMLA", Mormon Times and Seasons, October 1842, excerpts from John Lloyd Stephens, Incident of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatán (1841). Stephens' conclusion that the Central American stone ruins were not of any great antiquity was overlooked by excited LDS readers.
Jump up ^ Ohio Historical Society. Ohio history, Volume 10. Retrieved 2011-07-25. The Garden of Eden, it seems, is now definitely located. The site is in Ohio, "Adams" county, to be more precise...The Rev. Landon West of Pleasant Hill, O., a prominent and widely known minister of the Baptist church... arrives at the conclusion that this great work was created either by God himself or by man inspired by Him to make an everlasting object lesson of man's disobedience, Satan's perfidy and the results of sin and death. In support of this startling claim the Rev. Mr. West quotes Scripture and refers to Job 16:13: "By His spirit. He hath garnished the heavens; His hand hath formed the crooked serpent."
Jump up ^ BROOK WILENSKY-LANFORD (May 23, 2011). "ADAM AND EVE--AND REVEREND WEST--IN OHIO". The Common. The Eden I found in a 1909 pamphlet by Reverend Landon West—the Serpent Mound earthwork that is now an Ohio state park—was still preserved for all to see, so I went...Details that fell outside of West's lifetime were hard to fit into the book: his son Dan West became the founder of the Heifer Project charity, and his accomplishments no doubt helped preserve the memory of his father's Garden of Eden.
Jump up ^ Hearn, Lafcadio (April 24, 1876). "The Mound Builders". The Commercial. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bryant, William Cullen, "The Prairies" (1832)
Jump up ^ Kimball, Stanley B. (Aug. 1981). "Kinderhook Plates Brought to Joseph Smith Appear to Be a Nineteenth-Century Hoax". Ensign (LDS Church). Retrieved May 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Evans, Glenn; Groat, Joel B. (2003). "Joseph Smith and the Kinderhook Plates: Overview and Current Perspectives". Mormons in Transition (IRR). Retrieved May 17, 2012.
References[edit]
Abrams, Elliot M.; Freter, AnnCorinne, eds. (2005). The Emergence of the Moundbuilders: The Archaeology of Tribal Societies in Southeastern Ohio. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1609-9.
Thomas, Cyrus. Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology. Pp. 3–730. Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890–91, by J. W. Powell, Director. XLVIII+742 pp., 42 pls., 344 figs. 1894.
Feder, Kenneth L. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006.
Squier, E.G.; Davis, E.H. (1847). Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Further reading[edit]
Gale, George (1867). Upper Mississippi: or, Historical Sketches of the Mound-builders, the Indian tribes and the Progress of Civilization in the North-west, from A.D. 1600 to the Present Time. Chicago: Clarke.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Mound-builders.
Lost Race Myth
LenaweeHistory.com | Mound Builders section, The Western Historical Society 1909, reprint.
Artist Hideout, Art of the Ancients
Ancient Monuments Placemarks
The Mound Builders at Project Gutenberg
With Climate Swing, a Culture Bloomed in Americas (mound builders in Peru)
Science 19 September 1997 (a mound complex in Louisiana at 5400-5000 years ago)
Bruce Smith video on the 1880s Smithsonian explorations to determine who built the ancient earthen mounds in eastern North America can be viewed as part of the series 19th Century Explorers and Anthropologists: Developing the Earliest Smithsonian Anthropology Collections

[show]
v
t
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Pre-Columbian North America
Periods
Lithic
Archaic
Formative
Classic
Post-Classic
Archaeological
cultures
Adena
Alachua
Ancient Pueblo (Anasazi)
Baytown
Belle Glade
Buttermilk Creek Complex
Caborn-Welborn
Calf Creek
Caloosahatchee
Clovis
Coles Creek
Comondú
Deptford
Folsom
Fort Ancient
Fort Walton
Fremont
Glacial Kame
Glades
Hohokam
Hopewell
List of Hopewell sites
La Jolla
Las Palmas
Leon-Jefferson
Mississippian
List of Mississippian sites
Mogollon
Monongahela
Old Cordilleran
Oneota
Paleo-Arctic
Paleo-Indians
Patayan
Plano
Plaquemine
Poverty Point
Red Ocher
Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
St. Johns
Steed-Kisker
Tchefuncte
Tocobaga
Troyville
Archaeological
sites
Angel Mounds
Anzick Clovis burial
Bandelier National Monument
The Bluff Point Stoneworks
Cahokia
Candelaria Cave
Casa Grande
Chaco Canyon
Coso Rock Art District
Crystal River Archaeological State Park
Cuarenta Casas
Cueva de la Olla
Eaker
El Fin del Mundo
El Vallecito
Effigy Mounds National Monument
Etowah Indian Mounds
Eva
Folsom Site
Fort Ancient
Fort Center
Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
Glenwood
Grimes Point
Holly Bluff Site
Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Huápoca
Kimball Village
Kincaid Mounds
Kolomoki Mounds
L'Anse aux Meadows
Marksville
Marmes Rockshelter
Meadowcroft Rockshelter
Mesa Verde
Moaning Cavern
Moorehead Circle
Moundville
Mummy Cave
Nodena Site
Ocmulgee National Monument
Old Stone Fort
Paquime
Parkin Park
Pinson Mounds
Portsmouth Earthworks
Poverty Point
Pueblo Bonito
Recapture Canyon
Rock Eagle
Rock Hawk
Russell Cave National Monument
Salmon Ruins
Serpent Mound
Sierra de San Francisco
Spiro Mounds
SunWatch
Taos Pueblo
Toltec Mounds
Town Creek Indian Mound
Turkey River Mounds
Upward Sun River site
West Oak Forest Earthlodge
Winterville
Wupatki National Monument
Human
remains
Anzick-1
Arlington Springs Man
Buhl Woman
Kennewick Man
La Brea Woman
Leanderthal Lady
Minnesota Woman
Spirit Cave mummy
Miscellaneous
Aridoamerica
Black drink
Ceremonial pipe
Chunkey
Clovis point
Container Revolution
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Eden point
Effigy mound
Falcon dancer
Folsom point
Green Corn Ceremony
Horned Serpent
Kiva
Medicine wheel
Metallurgy
Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
Mound Builders
N.A.G.P.R.A.
Norse colonization of North America
Oasisamerica
Piasa
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Stickball
Three Sisters agriculture
Thunderbird
Underwater panther
Water glyphs
Related
Genetic history
Portal of Indigenous peoples of North America
Pre-Columbian era
[show]
v
t
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Adena Culture
List of Adena culture sites
Woodland period
Mound builder (people)
List of archaeological periods (North America)
Ohio sites
Adena
Austin Brown
Arledge
Beam Farm
Clemmons
Conrad
Coon Hunters
George Deffenbaugh
Enon
Fortner
Great Mound
Highbanks Metro Park
Hillside Haven
Hodgen's Cemetery
Horn
Hurley
Jackson
Karshner
Kinzer
Luthor List
McDaniel
Miamisburg
Mound Cemetery
Odd Fellows' Cemetery
Old Maid's Orchard
Orators
Carl Potter
Raleigh
Reeves
D.S. Rose
Ross Trails Circle
Short Woods Park
Snead
Spruce Run
David Stitt
Story (Cincinnati)
Story (Chillicothe)
Williamson
Wolf Plains
Wright-Patterson
Zaleski
Kentucky sites
Biggs
Gaitskill
Mound Hill
Mount Horeb
Ramey
Round Hill
West Virginia sites
Criel
Grave Creek
Indiana sites
Mounds State Park
Related topics
Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley
burial mound
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Hopewell tradition
[show]
v
t
e
Hopewellian peoples
Woodland period
List of Hopewell sites
Mound builder (people)
List of archaeological periods (North America)
Ohio Hopewell
Beam Farm
Benham Mound
Cary Village Site
Cedar-Bank Works
Dunns Pond Mound
Ellis Mounds
Ety Enclosure
Ety Habitation Site
Fort Ancient
Fortified Hill Works
Great Hopewell Road
High Banks Works
Hopeton Earthworks
Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Indian Mound Cemetery
Keiter Mound
Marietta Earthworks
Moorehead Circle
Mound of Pipes
Nettle Lake Mound Group
Newark Earthworks
Oak Mounds
Orators
Perin Village Site
Pollock Works
Portsmouth Earthworks
Rocky Fork Enclosures
Rocky Fork Mounds
Seip Earthworks and Dill Mounds District
Shawnee Lookout
Tremper Mound and Works
Williamson Mound Archeological District
Crab Orchard culture
Carrier Mills Archaeological District
Cleiman Mound
Hubele Site
Mann Site
O'byams Fort site
Wilson Site
Yankeetown Site
Goodall Focus
Goodall Site
Norton Mound Group
Havana Hopewell culture
Albany Mounds State Historic Site
Dickson Mounds
Duncan Farm
Golden Eagle-Toppmeyer Site
Kamp Mound Site
Mound House site
Naples Archeological District
Naples Mound 8
Ogden-Fettie Site
Rockwell Mound
Sinnissippi Mounds
Toolesboro Mound Group
Kansas City Hopewell
Cloverdale archaeological site
Renner Village Archeological Site
Trowbridge Archeological Site
Marksville culture
Crooks Mound
Grand Gulf Mound
Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site
Mott Archaeological Preserve
Miller culture
Bynum Mound and Village Site
Ingomar Mound
Miller Site
Pharr Mounds
Pinson Mounds
Point Peninsula Complex
Lewiston Mound
Serpent Mounds Park
LeVescounte Mounds
Swift Creek culture
Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture
Crystal River Archaeological State Park
Etowah Indian Mounds
Leake Mounds
Kolomoki Mounds Historic Park
Miner's Creek site
Pierce Site
Swift Creek mound site
Third Gulf Breeze
Yearwood site
Yent Mound
Other Hopewellian peoples
Armstrong culture
Copena culture
Fourche Maline culture
Laurel Complex
Saugeen Complex
Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)
Exotic trade items
Copper
Galena
Mica
Fresh water pearls
Obsidian
Pipestone
Sea shells
Related topics
Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley
Black drink
burial mound
Ceremonial pipe
Effigy mound
Hopewell pottery
Horned Serpent
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Underwater panther
[show]
v
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Late Woodland cultures
Mound builder (people)
List of archaeological periods (North America)
Sites
Baum site
Beattie Park Mound Group
Book Site
Bowen Site (12 MA 61)
Brinsfield I Site
Brokaw Site
Clampitt Site (12-LR-329)
Fisher Site
Hoye Site
Little Maquoketa River Mounds State Preserve
Man Mound
Memorial Park Site
Nottingham Site
Ormond Mound
St. Croix River Access Site
Sommerheim Park
University of Tennessee Agriculture Farm Mound
Cultures
Alachua culture
Clemson Island culture
Manahoac
Monongahela culture
Oliver Phase
Springwells Phase
Weeden Island culture
Related topics
Steuben point
Belle Glade culture
Extreme weather events of 535–536
Fort Ancient culture
Mississippian culture
Oneota
St. Johns culture
[show]
v
t
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Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures
Late Woodland period
List of archaeological periods (North America)
Coles Creek sites
Aden Site
Balmoral Mounds
Churupa Plantation Mound
Coles Creek Site
Crippen Point site
Cypress Grove Mound
DePrato Mounds
Greenhouse Site
Feltus Mound Site
Filhiol Mound Site
Fisher Site
Flowery Mound
Frogmore Mound Site
Ghost Site Mounds
Greenhouse Site
Insley Mounds
Kings Crossing Site
Lamarque Landing Mound
Marsden Mounds
Mazique Archeological Site
Mott Mounds
Mound Plantation
Peck Mounds
Raffman Site
Scott Place Mounds
Shackleford Church Mounds
Spanish Fort
Sundown Mounds
Transylvania Mounds
Troyville Earthworks
Venable Mound
Wade Landing Mound
Coastal Coles Creek sites
Atchafalaya Basin Mounds (16SMY10)
Bayou Black Mound (16TR78)
Bayou Cypremont (16SMY7)
Bayou Grande Cheniere Mounds
Bayou L’Ours Site
Bayou Portage Mounds
Bayou Sorrel Mounds (16IV4)
Clovelly Site (16LF64)
Cypress Point Site (16VM112)
Eagle Point Site (16IB123)
Gibson Mounds (16TR5)
Greenwood Cemetery Site (16SMY10)
Kleinpeter Mounds
Little Cheniere Site (16CM22)
Little Pecan Island Site (16CM43)
Jerry Haas Site (16SJ51)
Machias Lake (16SB2)
Morgan Mounds (16VM9)
Pecan Mounds (16SM37)
Pennison Mounds (16AS16)
Portage Mounds (16SM5)
Richeau Field Site (16TR82)
Schwing Place Mound (16IV13)
Sims Site
Southwest of Cut Off Lagoon (16SB50)
St. Gabriel Mounds (16IV128)
Temple Mounds Site (16LF4)
Plum Bayou sites
Baytown Site
Chandler Landing Site
Coy Site
Dogtown Site
Hayes site
Maberry Site
Roland Site
Toltec Mounds
Related topics
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Fourche Maline culture
Mississippian culture
Natchez
Plaquemine culture
Platform mound
Taensa
Troyville culture
[show]
v
t
e
Mississippian and related cultures
List of Mississippian sites
Mound builder (people)
Timeline of Mississippi valley
Middle Mississippian
American Bottom
and Upper Mississippi
Aztalan
Big Eddy
Cahokia
Monks Mound
Mound 34
Mound 72
Woodhenge
Cloverdale
Dickson Mounds
Emerald Mound and Village
Emmons Cemetery
Horseshoe Lake
John Chapman
Kuhn Station
Larson
Lunsford-Pulcher
McCune
Mitchell
Orendorf
Sleeth
Steed-Kisker culture
Sugarloaf Mound
Lower Ohio River and
Confluence area
Adams
Dogtooth Bend
Kincaid Mounds
Marshall
Millstone Bluff
Orr-Herl
Rowlandton Mound
Towosahgy
Turk
Twin Mounds
Ware
Wickliffe Mounds
Middle Ohio River
Angel Mounds
Angel Phase
Annis Mound
Bone Bank
Caborn-Welborn culture
Ellerbusch
Hovey Lake-Klein
Hovey Lake District
Murphy
Prather
Slack Farm
Tolu
Welborn Village
Yankeetown
Tennessee and
Cumberland
Backusburg
Beasley Mounds
Brentwood Library
Brick Church
Castalian Springs
Dunbar Cave
Fewkes Group
Mound Bottom
Riverview Mounds Archaeological Site
Sellars Indian Mound
Obion Mounds
Old Town
Swallow Bluff Island Mounds
Central and Lower
Mississippi
Belle Meade Phase
Boyd Mounds
Campbell
Chucalissa
Eaker
Menard-Hodges
Murphy Mound
Parkin
Nodena Phase
Nodena Site
Tipton Phase
Tunica
Walls Phase
South Appalachian
Mississippian
Adamson Mounds Site
Avery
Beaverdam Creek
Bell Field Mound
Bessemer
Bussell Island
Chauga Mound
Chiaha
Chota
Citico
Coosa chiefdom
Dallas Phase
Dyar
Etowah Mounds
Garden Creek
Hoojah Branch
Irene
Jere Shine
Joara
Joe Bell
King
Lamar
Lamar Phase
Liddell
Little Egypt
Long Swamp Site
Mabila
Mandeville
McMahan
Moccasin Bend
Moundville
Mouse Creek Phase
Mulberry
Muscogee (Creek)
Nacoochee Mound
Nikwasi
Ocmulgee
Park Mound
Pisgah Phase
Punk Rock Shelter
Rembert Mounds
Roods Landing
Rucker's Bottom
Savannah
Shiloh
Sixtoe Mound
Summerour
Toqua
Town Creek Indian Mound
Waddells Mill Pond
Wilbanks
Fort Walton culture
Anhaica
Apalachee
Apalachee Province
Cayson
Corbin-Tucker
Fort Walton Mound
Lake Jackson Mounds
Leon-Jefferson Culture
Letchworth Mounds
Velda Mound
Yon
Pensacola culture
Bottle Creek Indian Mounds
Dauphin Island
Fort Walton Mound
Hickory Ridge Cemetery
Naval Live Oaks Cemetery
Pensacola people
Plaquemine
Mississippian
Anna
Emerald Mound
Fitzhugh Mounds
Flowery Mound
Foster's Mound
Ghost Site Mounds
Grand Village of the Natchez
Holly Bluff
Jaketown
Jordan Mounds
Julice Mound
Mangum
Mazique
Medora
Mott Mounds
Natchez
Pocahontas Mounds
Routh Mounds
Scott Place Mounds
Sims
Taensa
Transylvania Mounds
Venable Mound
Winterville
Caddoan
Mississippian
Battle Mound
Belcher Mound
Bluffton Mound
Caddo
Caddoan Mounds
Gahagan Mounds
Ka-Do-Ha Indian Village
Spiro Mounds
Upper Mississippian
cultures
Oneota
Beattie Park Mound Group
Blood Run
Hartley Fort State Preserve
Roche-a-Cri Petroglyphs
Fort Ancient culture
Alligator Effigy Mound
Clover
Dodge
Leo Petroglyph
Serpent Mound
SunWatch Indian Village
Culture
Artwork
Emmons mask
Long-nosed god maskette
Mississippian copper plates
Rogan plates
Spiro plates
Wulfing cache
Mississippian culture pottery
Mississippian stone statuary
Shell gorget
Languages
Caddoan languages
Central Algonquian languages
Cherokee language
Mobilian Jargon
Muskogean languages
Natchez language
Siouan languages
Timucua language
Tunica language
Yuchi language
Religion
Ballgame
Black drink
Ceremonial pipe
Chunkey
Earth/fertility cult
Green Corn Ceremony
Horned Serpent
Platform mound
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Stone box grave
Thunderbird
Underwater panther
Related topics
Chevron bead
Clarksdale bell
Maize
Mill Creek chert
de Soto Expedition
[show]
v
t
e
Fort Ancient culture
List of archaeological periods (North America)
Mound builder (people)
Anderson Focus
Fort Ancient Site
Hine Site
Kemp Site
State Line Site
SunWatch Indian Village
Baum Focus
Alligator Effigy Mound
Baldwin Site
Baum Site
Gartner Site
Serpent Mound
Feurt Focus
Buffalo Indian Village Site
Feurt Mounds and Village Site
Hardin Village Site
Leo Petroglyph
Hobson Site
Madisonville Focus
Buckner Site
Clay Mound
Cleek-McCabe Site
Clover Site
Fox Farm Site
Hahns Field Site
Larkin Site
Lower Shawneetown
Madisonville Site
Ronald Watson Gravel Site
Sand Ridge Site
Turpin Site
Related topics
Bone Stone Graves
Bone Mound II
Cole culture
Mississippian culture
Monongahela culture
Oliver Phase
Oneota
Owasco culture
Springwells Phase
[show]
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Prehistoric technology
Prehistory
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founder crops
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Granaries
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Aşıklı Höyük
Qesem Cave
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Quern-stone
Storage pit
Hunting
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Boomerang
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Bow and arrow
history
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harpoon
woomera
Schöningen Spears
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Arrowhead
Bare Island
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Cresswell
Cumberland
Eden
Folsom
Lamoka
Manis Site
Plano
Transverse arrowhead
Systems
Game drive system
Buffalo jump
Toolmaking
Earliest toolmaking
Oldowan
Acheulean
Mousterian
Clovis culture
Cupstone
Fire hardening
Gravettian culture
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Grooves
Langdale axe industry
Levallois technique
Lithic core
Lithic reduction
analysis
debitage
flake
Lithic technology
Magdalenian culture
Metallurgy
Microblade technology
Mining
Prepared-core technique
Solutrean industry
Striking platform
Tool stone
Uniface
Yubetsu technique
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Adze
Awl
bone
Axe
Bannerstone
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prismatic
Bone tool
Bow drill
Burin
Canoe
Oar
Pesse canoe
Chopper
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Cleaver
Denticulate tool
Fire plough
Fire-saw
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Microlith
Quern-stone
Racloir
Rope
Scraper
side
Stone tool
Tally stick
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[show]
Architecture
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Quiggly hole
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Neolithic long house
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Pueblitos
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Abri de la Madeleine
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Wattle and daub
Water management
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fulacht fiadh
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List of Stone Age art
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list
British Isles and Brittany
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Mound Builders culture
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wedge-shaped
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unchambered
Grønsalen
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lunar calendar
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trepanning
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music archaeology
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Alligator drum
flutes
Divje Babe flute
gudi
Prehistoric numerals
Origin of religion
Paleolithic religion
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symbolism
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Isosceles triangle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Isosceles" redirects here. For other uses, see Isosceles (disambiguation).
Isosceles triangle
Isosceles triangle with vertical axis of symmetry
Type
triangle
Edges and vertices
3
Schläfli symbol
( ) ∨ { }
Symmetry group
Dih2, [ ], (*), order 2
Dual polygon
Self-dual
Properties
convex, cyclic
In geometry, an isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two sides of equal length. Sometimes it is specified as having two and only two sides of equal length, and sometimes as having at least two sides of equal length, the latter version thus including the equilateral triangle as a special case.
By the isosceles triangle theorem, the two angles opposite the equal sides are themselves equal, while if the third side is different then the third angle is different.
By the Steiner–Lehmus theorem, every triangle with two angle bisectors of equal length is isosceles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Terminology
3 Symmetry
4 Acute, right and obtuse
5 Euler line
6 Steiner inellipse
7 Formulas
7.1 Area
8 The isosceles triangle theorem
9 Partitioning into isosceles triangles
10 Miscellaneous
11 Fallacy of the isosceles triangle
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
Etymology[edit]
The compound is made from "isos"(equal) and skelos (leg).
Terminology[edit]
In an isosceles triangle that has exactly two equal sides, the equal sides are called legs and the third side is called the base. The angle included by the legs is called the vertex angle and the angles that have the base as one of their sides are called the base angles.[1] The vertex opposite the base is called the apex.
Euclid defined an isosceles triangle as one having exactly two equal sides,[2] but modern treatments prefer to define them as having at least two equal sides, making equilateral triangles (with three equal sides) a special case of isosceles triangles.[3] In the equilateral triangle case, since all sides are equal, any side can be called the base, if needed, and the term leg is not generally used.
Symmetry[edit]
A triangle with exactly two equal sides has exactly one axis of symmetry, which goes through the vertex angle and also goes through the midpoint of the base. Thus the axis of symmetry coincides with (1) the angle bisector of the vertex angle, (2) the median drawn to the base, (3) the altitude drawn from the vertex angle, and (4) the perpendicular bisector of the base.[4]
Acute, right and obtuse[edit]
Isosceles right triangle
Whether the isosceles triangle is acute, right or obtuse depends on the vertex angle. In Euclidean geometry, the base angles cannot be obtuse (greater than 90°) or right (equal to 90°) because their measures would sum to at least 180°, the total of all angles in any Euclidean triangle. Since a triangle is obtuse or right if and only if one of its angles is obtuse or right, respectively, an isosceles triangle is obtuse, right or acute if and only if its vertex angle is respectively obtuse, right or acute.
Euler line[edit]
The Euler line of any triangle goes through the triangle's orthocenter (the intersection of its three altitudes), its centroid (the intersection of its three medians), and its circumcenter (the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of its three sides, which is also the center of the circumcircle that passes through the three vertices). In an isosceles triangle with exactly two equal sides, the Euler line coincides with the axis of symmetry. This can be seen as follows. Since as pointed out in the previous section the axis of symmetry coincides with an altitude, the intersection of the altitudes, which must lie on that altitude, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry; since the axis coincides with a median, the intersection of the medians, which must lie on that median, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry; and since the axis coincides with a perpendicular bisector, the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors, which must lie on that perpendicular bisector, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry.
If the vertex angle is acute (so the isosceles triangle is an acute triangle), then the orthocenter, the centroid, and the circumcenter all fall inside the triangle. If the vertex angle, and therefore the triangle, is obtuse, then the centroid still falls in the triangle's interior, but the circumcenter falls outside it (beyond the base), and the orthocenter also falls outside the triangle (beyond the apex).
In an isosceles triangle the incenter (the intersection of its angle bisectors, which is the center of the incircle, that is, the circle which is internally tangent to the triangle's three sides) lies on the Euler line.
Steiner inellipse[edit]
The Steiner inellipse of any triangle is the unique ellipse that is internally tangent to the triangle's three sides at their midpoints. In an isosceles triangle, if the legs are longer than the base then the Steiner inellipse's major axis coincides with the triangle's axis of symmetry; if the legs are shorter than the base, then the ellipse's minor axis coincides with the triangle's axis of symmetry.
Formulas[edit]
For an isosceles triangle with equal sides of length a and base of length b, the general triangle formulas for (1) the length of the triangle-interior portion of the angle bisector of the vertex angle, (2) the length of the median drawn to the base, (3) length of the altitude drawn to the base, and (4) the length of the triangle-interior portion of the perpendicular bisector of the base all simplify to 1 2 4 a 2 − b 2 . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {4a^{2}-b^{2}}}.}
For any isosceles triangle with area T and perimeter p, we have[5]:Eq.(1)
2 p b 3 − p 2 b 2 + 16 T 2 = 0. {\displaystyle 2pb^{3}-p^{2}b^{2}+16T^{2}=0.}
Area[edit]
The area of an isosceles triangle can be derived using the Pythagorean Theorem: The sum of the squares of half the base b {\displaystyle b} and the height h {\displaystyle h} is the square of either of the other two sides of length a {\displaystyle a} :
( b 2 ) 2 + h 2 = a 2 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {b}{2}}\right)^{2}+h^{2}=a^{2}} ,
h = 4 a 2 − b 2 2 {\displaystyle h={\frac {\sqrt {4a^{2}-b^{2}}}{2}}} .
By substituting the height, the formula for the area of an isosceles triangle can be derived from the general formula one-half the base times the height:
T = b 4 4 a 2 − b 2 {\displaystyle T={\frac {b}{4}}{\sqrt {4a^{2}-b^{2}}}} .
This is what Heron's formula reduces to in the isosceles case.
If the apex angle ( θ ) {\displaystyle (\theta )} and leg lengths ( a ) {\displaystyle (a)} of an isosceles triangle are known, then the area of that triangle is:
T = 2 ( 1 2 a sin  ( θ 2 ) a cos  ( θ 2 ) ) {\displaystyle T=2\left({\frac {1}{2}}a\sin \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)a\cos \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\right)}
= a 2 sin  ( θ 2 ) cos  ( θ 2 ) {\displaystyle =a^{2}\sin \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)} .
This is derived by drawing a perpendicular line from the base of the triangle, which bisects the vertex angle and creates two right triangles. The bases of these two right triangles are both equal to the hypotenuse times the sine of the bisected angle by definition of the term "sine". For the same reason, the heights of these triangles are equal to the hypotenuse times the cosine of the bisected angle. Using the trigonometric identity sin  θ = 2 sin  ( θ 2 ) cos  ( θ 2 ) {\displaystyle \sin \theta =2\sin {\left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)}\cos {\left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)}} , we get
T = 1 2 a 2 sin  θ {\displaystyle T={\frac {1}{2}}a^{2}\sin \theta } ,
which is a special case of the general triangle area formula one-half the product of two sides times the sine of the included angle.
The isosceles triangle theorem[edit]
The theorem which states that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal appears as Proposition I.5 in Euclid.[6] This result has been called the pons asinorum (the bridge of asses). Some say that this is probably because of the diagram used by Euclid in his demonstration of the result. Others claim that the name stems from the fact that this is the first difficult result in Euclid, and acts to separate those who can understand Euclid's geometry from those who can't.[7]
Partitioning into isosceles triangles[edit]
For any integer n ≥ 4 {\displaystyle n\geq 4} , any triangle can be partitioned into n {\displaystyle n} isosceles triangles.[8]
In a right triangle, the median from the hypotenuse (that is, the line segment from the midpoint of the hypotenuse to the right-angled vertex) divides the right triangle into two isosceles triangles. This is because the midpoint of the hypotenuse is the center of the circumcircle of the right triangle, and each of the two triangles created by the partition has two equal radii as two of its sides.[9]:p.24
The golden triangle is isosceles and has a ratio of either leg to the base equal to the golden ratio, and has angles 72°, 72°, and 36° in the ratios 2:2:1. It can be partitioned into another golden triangle and a golden gnomon, also isosceles, with ratio of base to leg equaling the golden ratio and with angles 36°, 36°, and 108° in the ratios 1:1:3.[9]:p.30–31
Miscellaneous[edit]
If a cubic equation has two complex roots and one real root, then when these roots are plotted in the complex plane they are the vertices of an isosceles triangle whose axis of symmetry coincides with the horizontal (real) axis. This is because the complex roots are complex conjugates and hence are symmetric about the real axis.
Either diagonal of a rhombus divides it into two congruent isosceles triangles.
The Calabi triangle, which is isosceles, is the unique non-equilateral triangle in which the largest square that fits in its interior can be positioned in any of three different ways.
If an isosceles triangle ABC with equal legs AB and BC has a segment drawn from A to a point D on ray BC, and if the reflection of AD around AC intersects ray BC at E, then BC2 = BD × BE.[10]
There are exactly two distinct isosceles triangles with given area T and perimeter p if the isoperimetric inequality holds strictly as p 2 > 12 3 T . {\displaystyle p^{2}>12{\sqrt {3}}T.} If the inequality is replaced by the corresponding equality, there is only one such triangle, which is equilateral.[5]:Thm.2
If the two equal sides have length a and the other side has length c, then the internal angle bisector t from one of the two equal-angled vertices satisfies[11]:p.169,# η {\displaystyle \eta } 44
2 a c a + c > t > a c 2 a + c {\displaystyle {\frac {2ac}{a+c}}>t>{\frac {ac{\sqrt {2}}}{a+c}}}
as well as[12]
t < 4 a 3 {\displaystyle t<{\frac {4a}{3}}} ;
and conversely, if the latter condition holds, an isosceles triangle parametrized by a and t exists.
Fallacy of the isosceles triangle[edit]
A well known fallacy is the false proof of the statement that all triangles are isosceles. This argument has been attributed to Lewis Carroll,[13] but W.W. Rouse Ball claims priority in this matter.[14] The fallacy is rooted in Euclid's lack of recognition of the concept of betweenness and the resulting ambiguity of inside versus outside of figures.[15]
See also[edit]
Equilateral triangle
Golden triangle, an isosceles triangle with sides in the golden ratio
Isosceles right triangle
Dragon's Eye (symbol)
Scalene triangle
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Jacobs 1974, p. 144
Jump up ^ Heath 1956, p. 187, Definition 20
Jump up ^ Stahl 2003, p. 37
Jump up ^ Ostermann & Wanner 2012, p. 55, Exercise 7
^ Jump up to: a b George Baloglou and Michel Helfgott. "Angles, area, and perimeter caught in a cubic", Forum Geometricorum 8, 2008, 13-25. http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2008volume8/FG200803.pdf
Jump up ^ Heath 1956, p. 251
Jump up ^ Venema 2006, p. 89
Jump up ^ Lord, N. J. (June 1982), "Isosceles subdivisions of triangles", Mathematical Gazette, 66: 136–137, doi:10.2307/3617750
^ Jump up to: a b Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2012). The Secrets of Triangles. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-61614-587-3.
Jump up ^ Dutta, Surajit (2014). "A simple property of isosceles triangles with applications". Forum Geometricorum. 14: 237–240.
Jump up ^ Inequalities proposed in “Crux Mathematicorum”, [1].
Jump up ^ Oxman, Victor (2005). "On the existence of triangles with given lengths of one side, the opposite and one adjacent angle bisectors" (PDF). Forum Geometricorum. 5: 21–22.
Jump up ^ Robin Wilson (2008). Lewis Carroll in Numberland. Penguin Books. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-0-14-101610-8.
Jump up ^ Ball, W.W. Rouse; Coxeter, H.S.M. (1987) [1892], Mathematical Recreations and Essays (13th ed.), Dover, p. 77 footnote, ISBN 0-486-25357-0
Jump up ^ A description of the fallacy is given in "Fallacy of the Isosceles Triangle".
References[edit]
Heath, Thomas L. (1956), The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, 1 (2nd ed. [Facsimile. Original publication: Cambridge University Press, 1925] ed.), New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-60088-2
Jacobs, Harold R. (1974), Geometry, W. H. Freeman and Co., ISBN 0-7167-0456-0
Ostermann, Alexander; Wanner, Gerhard (2012), Geometry by Its History, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-29162-3
Stahl, Saul (2003), Geometry from Euclid to Knots, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-032927-4
Venema, Gerard A. (2006), Foundations of Geometry, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-143700-3
Weisstein, Eric W. "Isosceles triangle". MathWorld.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isosceles_triangle&oldid=827610337"
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Do You Remember the First Time? (The Vampire Diaries)
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"Do You Remember the First Time?"
The Vampire Diaries episode
Episode no.
Season 6
Episode 7
Directed by
Darren Genet
Written by
Rebecca Sonnenshine
Production code
2J7857
Original air date
November 13, 2014
Guest appearance(s)
Colin Ferguson (Tripp Fell)
Penelope Mitchell (Liv Parker)
Marguerite MacIntyre (Liz Forbes)
Chris Brochu (Luke Parker)
Jodi Lyn O'Keefe (Jo Laughlin-Parker)
Marco James (Liam Davis)
Chris Wood (Kai Parker)
Episode chronology
← Previous
"The More You Ignore Me, the Closer I Get" Next →
"Fade Into You"
The Vampire Diaries (season 6)
List of The Vampire Diaries episodes
"Do You Remember the First Time?" is the 7th episode of the sixth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series' 118th episode overall. "Do You Remember the First Time?" was originally aired on November 13, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Rebecca Sonnenshine and directed by Darren Genet.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Feature music
3 Reception
3.1 Ratings
3.2 Reviews
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Elena, after everyone continues to convince her that she had once loved damon decides to run through the magic free, mystic falls border. So she does, and she gets glimpses of her and Damon but never fully remembers yet that she loves him. Damon pulls her back across the line and she asks about a kiss in the rain. He continues to try to get her to remember.
Feature music[edit]
In the episode "Do You Remember the First Time?" we can hear the songs:[1]
"Another Love" by Tom Odell
"The Hardest Part" by Nina Nesbitt
"MSK" by Yellowcard
"Belong" by Cary Brothers
"Two Weeks" by Grizzly Bear
Reception[edit]
Ratings[edit]
In its original American broadcast, "Do You Remember the First Time?" was watched by 1.54 million; slightly down by 0.05 from the previous episode.[2]
Reviews[edit]
"Do You Remember the First Time?" received positive reviews.
Stephanie Flasher from TV After Dark gave a B+ rating to the episode saying that it was a nice one, especially for the fans of Damon and Elena. "Bittersweet trip down the couple's history and an epic rain kiss. Finally, Caroline and Stefan have the feelings conversation and Alaric gets his groove back now that he's a human again. And the music was good."[3]
Rebecca Jane Stokes of Den of Geek rated the episode with 4/5 saying that it was a sweet episode and that Stefan finally found out about Caroline's feelings. "The show did what it does best this week. It married romance and longing with the deliberate if piecemeal doling out of key plot points."[4]
Ashley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation rated the episode with 7.9/10 saying that the episode "forced Damon and Elena to explore the new status of their relationship in another slow drawn out episode. However, it was made interesting by not relying on flashbacks, but let them be in the moment."[5]
Sara Ditta of Next Projection rated the episode with 7.2/10 saying that the episode "satisfied because of its tempered tone. The drama wasn’t taken overboard, and viewers could relate to each of our main characters who tried to grasp on to friendships and relationships that had already fallen apart."[6]
Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with 3.5. "All in all, a decent episode, with minor developments but not enough."[7]
Caroline Preece of Den of Geek gave a good review to the episode saying that the show has improved greatly since it stopped paying attention only to Damon and Elena's relationship. "The Damon/Elena storyline is still a frustrating mess, but it’s also not the only thing on the show anymore – and that gives viewers no longer interested in Elena’s love life a reason to come back. Just that simple thing is what fans have been asking for and, now that we have it, it’s glorious."[8]
Lindsay Sperling from We Got This Covered gave a mixed review to the episode saying that this episode was the first filler one for season six. "This season of The Vampire Diaries is arguably already better than the last two combined, but there’s a limit to the amount of Elena and Damon drama that fans should have to endure. Either let them be together, or let them move on. [...] There were a few notable plot twists in [the episode] despite the overwhelming feeling that nothing really happened to move the story along."[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Vampire Diaries Season 6 Episode 7: "Do You Remember the First Time?" Music". TV Fanatic. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (November 14, 2014). "Thursday Final Ratings: 'Bones' Adjusted Up; 'Mom', 'Two and a Half Men', 'The McCarthys' & 'Elementary' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Flasher, Stephanie (November 14, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries 6×07 "Do You Remember the First Time?" REVIEW". TV After Dark. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Stokes, Rebecca Jane (November 14, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries: Do You Remember The First Time? Review". Den of Geek. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Dominique, Ashley (November 14, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries: "Do You Remember The First Time" Review". Geeked Out Nation. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Ditta, Sara (November 14, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries, "Do You Remember The First Time?" (6.7) – TV Review". Next Projection. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Raines, Leigh (November 13, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries Season 6 Episode 7 Review: Do You Remember the First Time?". TV Fanatic. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Preece, Caroline (November 18, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries season 6 episode 7 review: Do You Remember The First Time?". Den of Geek. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Sperling, Lindsay (November 13, 2014). "The Vampire Diaries Review: "Do You Remember The First Time?" (Season 6, Episode 7)". We Got This Covered. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
External links[edit]
List of The Vampire Diaries episodes on IMDb
Afterbuzz's discussion about "Do You Remember the First Time?" on YouTube
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The Vampire Diaries
Episodes
Season 1
"Pilot"
"The Night of the Comet"
"Friday Night Bites"
"Family Ties"
"You're Undead to Me"
"Lost Girls"
"Haunted"
"162 Candles"
"History Repeating"
"The Turning Point"
"Bloodlines"
"Unpleasantville"
"Children of the Damned"
"Fool Me Once"
"A Few Good Men"
"There Goes the Neighborhood"
"Let the Right One In"
"Under Control"
"Miss Mystic Falls"
"Blood Brothers"
"Isobel"
"Founder's Day"
Season 2
"The Return"
"Brave New World"
"Bad Moon Rising"
"Memory Lane"
"Kill or Be Killed"
"Plan B"
"Masquerade"
"Rose"
"Katerina"
"The Sacrifice"
"By the Light of the Moon"
"The Descent"
"Daddy Issues"
"Crying Wolf"
"The Dinner Party"
"The House Guest"
"Know Thy Enemy"
"The Last Dance"
"Klaus"
"The Last Day"
"The Sun Also Rises"
"As I Lay Dying"
Season 3
"The Birthday"
"The Hybrid"
"The End of the Affair"
"Disturbing Behavior"
"The Reckoning"
"Smells Like Teen Spirit"
"Ghost World"
"Ordinary People"
"Homecoming"
"The New Deal"
"Our Town"
"The Ties That Bind"
"Bringing Out the Dead"
"Dangerous Liaisons"
"All My Children"
"The Departed"
Season 4
"Growing Pains"
"Memorial"
"The Rager"
"The Five"
"The Killer"
"We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes"
"My Brother's Keeper"
"We'll Always Have Bourbon Street"
"O Come, All Ye Faithful"
"After School Special"
"Catch Me If You Can"
"A View to a Kill"
Season 5
"I Know What You Did Last Summer"
"True Lies"
"Original Sin"
"For Whom the Bell Tolls"
"Monster's Ball"
"Handle with Care"
"Death and the Maiden"
"Dead Man on Campus"
"The Cell"
"Fifty Shades of Grayson"
"500 Years of Solitude"
"The Devil Inside"
"Total Eclipse of the Heart"
"No Exit"
"Gone Girl"
"While You Were Sleeping"
"Rescue Me"
"Resident Evil"
"Man on Fire"
"What Lies Beneath"
"Promised Land"
"Home"
Season 6
"I'll Remember"
"Yellow Ledbetter"
"Welcome to Paradise"
"Black Hole Sun"
"The World Has Turned and Left Me Here"
"The More You Ignore Me, the Closer I Get"
"Do You Remember the First Time?"
"Fade Into You"
"I Alone"
Season 7
"Gods and Monsters"
Season 8
"I Was Feeling Epic"
Characters
Elena Gilbert
Katherine Pierce
Stefan Salvatore
Damon Salvatore
Related
Awards and nominations
Novel series
L. J. Smith
Original Vampires
The Originals
episodes
season 1
2
3
4
5
characters
Legacies
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Do_You_Remember_the_First_Time%3F_(The_Vampire_Diaries)&oldid=838119714"
Categories:
2014 American television episodes
The Vampire Diaries (season 6) episodes
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