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Insulating concrete form
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This insulated concrete form is cut away to show the inner structure of the formwork and the reinforcing bar (rebar). The cavity is filled with concrete to create the permanent wall.
Insulating concrete form or insulated concrete form (ICF) is a system of formwork for reinforced concrete usually made with a rigid thermal insulation that stays in place as a permanent interior and exterior substrate for walls, floors, and roofs. The forms are interlocking modular units that are dry-stacked (without mortar) and filled with concrete. The units lock together somewhat like Lego bricks and create a form for the structural walls or floors of a building. ICF construction has become commonplace for both low rise commercial and high performance residential construction as more stringent energy efficiency and natural disaster resistant building codes are adopted. ICFs may be used with frost protected shallow foundations (FPSF).
Contents
1 Development
2 Construction
3 Categorization
3.1 By concrete shape
3.1.1 Flat Wall System
3.1.2 Grid System
3.1.2.1 Screen Grid System
3.1.2.2 Waffle Grid System
3.1.3 Post and Lintel System
3.2 By form characteristic
3.2.1 Block
3.2.2 Panel
3.2.3 Plank
4 Characteristics
4.1 Energy efficiency
4.2 Strength
4.3 Sound absorption
4.4 Fire protection
4.5 Indoor air quality
4.6 Environmental sensitivity
4.7 Vermin
5 Building design considerations
6 Building process
6.1 Floors and foundations
6.2 Walls
6.3 Plumbing and electrical
7 Cost
8 Advantages and drawbacks
9 References
10 External links
Development[edit]
The ICF construction technique was first developed in Europe following World War II as an inexpensive and durable way to rebuild damaged structures. The first patent for an insulated stay-in-place formwork for concrete was registered in the early 1940s using recycled waste wood and cement as the insulating material. This patent was registered by August Schnell and Alex Bosshard in Switzerland. The first polystyrene ICF forms were developed in the late 1960s with the expiration of the original patent and the advent of modern foam plastics. Canadian contractor Werner Gregori filed the first patent for a foam concrete form in 1966 with a block "measuring 16 inches high by 48 inches long with a tongue-and-groove interlock, metal ties, and a waffle-grid core."[1]
The adoption of ICF construction has steadily increased since the 1970s, though it was initially hampered by lack of awareness, building codes, and confusion caused by many different manufacturers selling slightly different ICF designs rather than focusing on industry standardization. ICF construction is now part of most building codes and accepted in most jurisdictions in the developed world.
Construction[edit]
Insulating concrete forms are manufactured from any of the following materials:
Polystyrene foam (most commonly expanded or extruded)
Polyurethane foam (including soy-based foam)[2]
Cement-bonded wood fiber
Cement-bonded polystyrene beads
Cellular concrete
Reinforcing steel bars (rebar) are usually placed inside the forms before concrete is poured to give the concrete flexural strength, similar to bridges and high-rise buildings made of reinforced concrete. Like other concrete formwork, the forms are filled with concrete in 1-foot to 4-foot high "lifts" to manage the concrete pressure and reduce the risk of blowouts.
After the concrete has cured, the forms are left in place permanently to provide a variety of benefits, depending on materials used:
Thermal insulation
Soundproofing
Good Surface burning characteristics rating
Space to run electrical conduit and plumbing. The form material on either side of the walls can easily accommodate electrical and plumbing installations.
Backing for drywall or other finishes on the interior and stucco, brick, or other siding on the exterior
Improved indoor air quality
Regulated humidity levels and mitigated mold growth (hygric buffer)
Categorization[edit]
Insulating concrete forms are commonly categorized in two manners. Organizations whose first concern relates to the concrete classify them first by the shape of the concrete inside the form.[3][4] Organizations whose first concern relates to the fabrication of the forms classify them first by the characteristics of the forms themselves.[5]
By concrete shape[edit]
Flat Wall System[edit]
For Flat Wall System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of a flat wall of solid reinforced concrete, similar to the shape of a concrete wall constructed using removable forms.
Grid System[edit]
Screen Grid System[edit]
For Screen Grid System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of the metal in a screen, with horizontal and vertical channels of reinforced concrete separated by areas of solid form material.
Waffle Grid System[edit]
For Waffle Grid System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of a hybrid between Screen Grid and Flat Wall system concrete, with a grid of thicker reinforced concrete and having thinner concrete in the center areas where a screen grid would have solid ICF material.
Post and Lintel System[edit]
For Post and Lintel System ICFs, the concrete has a horizontal member, called a lintel, only at the top of the wall (Horizontal concrete at the bottom of the wall is often present in the form of the building's footer or the lintel of the wall below.) and vertical members, called posts, between the lintel and the surface on which the wall is resting.
By form characteristic[edit]
Block[edit]
For Block ICFs, the exterior shape of the ICF is similar to that of a Concrete masonry unit, although ICF blocks are often larger in size as they are made from a material having a lower specific gravity. Very frequently, the edges of block ICFs are made to interlock, reducing or eliminating the need for the use of a bonding material between the blocks.
Panel[edit]
Panel ICFs have the flat rectangular shape of a section of flat wall they are often the height of the wall and have a width limited by the manipulability of the material at larger sizes and by the general usefulness of the panel size for constructing walls.
Plank[edit]
Plank ICFs have the size of Block ICFs in one dimension and Panel ICFs in the other dimension.
Characteristics[edit]
Energy efficiency[edit]
Minimal, if any, air leaks, which improves comfort and reduces heat loss compared to walls without a solid air barrier
High thermal resistance (R-value) typically above 3 K·m²/W (in American customary units: R-17[6]); this results in saving energy compared with uninsulated masonry (see comparison)
Continuous insulation without thermal bridges or "insulation gaps", as is common in framed construction
Thermal mass, when used well and combined with passive solar design, can play an important role in further reductions in energy use, especially in climates where it's common to have outside temperatures swing above inside temperatures during the day and below at night.
Strength[edit]
Insulating concrete forms create a structural concrete wall, either monolithic or post and beam, that is up to ten times stronger than wood framed structures.
Structural integrity for better resistance to forces of nature, compared to framed walls.
The components of ICF systems — both the poured concrete and the material used to make the ICF — do not rot when they get wet.
Insulating concrete forms structural system, if used in high seismic risk zones, has an acceptable ductility.[7]
Sound absorption[edit]
ICF walls have much lower rates of acoustic transmission. Standard thickness ICF walls have shown sound transmission coefficients (STC) between 46 and 72 compared to 36 for standard fiberglass insulation and drywall. The level of sound attenuation achieved is a function of wall thickness, mass, component materials and air tightness.
Fire protection[edit]
ICF walls can have four- to six-hour fire resistance rating and negligible surface burning properties. It is worth pointing out that the International Building Code: 2603.5.2[8] requires plastic foam insulation (e.g. Polystyrene foam, Polyurethane foam) to be separated from the building interior by a thermal barrier (e.g. drywall), regardless of the fire barrier provided by the central concrete. Forms made from cement bonded – wood fibers (eg[9]), polystyrene beads (e.g.[10][11]), or air (i.e. cellular concrete – e.g.[12]) have a fire rating inherently.
Indoor air quality[edit]
Because they are generally constructed without a sheet plastic vapor barrier, ICF walls can regulate humidity levels, mitigate the potential for mold and facilitate a more comfortable interior while maintaining high thermal performance. Foams, however, can give off gasses, something that is not well studied.
Environmental sensitivity[edit]
ICF walls can be made with a variety of recycled materials that can minimize the environmental impact of the building. The large volume of concrete used in ICF walls has been criticized, as concrete production is a large contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.[13]
Vermin[edit]
Because the entire interior space of ICF walls is continuously occupied (no gaps as can occur between blown or fiberglass insulation and a wood frame wall) they pose more difficulty for casual transit by insects and vermin. Additionally, while plastic foam forms can occasionally be tunneled through, interior concrete wall, and the Portland cement of cement-bonded type forms create a much more challenging barrier to insects and vermin than do walls made of wood.
Building design considerations[edit]
When designing a building to be constructed with ICF walls, consideration must be given to supporting the weight of any walls not resting directly on other walls or the building's foundation. Consideration must also be given to the understanding that the load bearing part of an ICF wall is the concrete, which, without special preparations, does not extend in any direction to the edge of the form. For grid and post & lintel systems, the placement of vertical members of the concrete must be organized in such a fashion (e.g., starting at opposite corners or breaks (e.g. doorways) and working to meet in unbroken wall) as to properly transfer load from the lintel (or bond beam) to the surface supporting the wall.
Building process[edit]
ICF construction is less demanding, owing to its modularity. Less-skilled labor can be employed to lay the ICF forms, though careful consideration must be made when pouring the concrete to make sure it consolidates fully and cures evenly without cracking. Unlike traditional wood beam construction, no additional structural support other than temporary scaffolding is required for openings, doors, windows, or utilities, though modifying the structure after the concrete cures requires special concrete cutting tools.
Floors and foundations[edit]
ICF walls are conventionally placed on a monolithic slab with embedded rebar dowels connecting the walls to the foundation.
ICF decking is becoming an increasingly popular addition to general ICF wall construction. ICF decking weighs up to 40% less than standard concrete flooring and provides superior insulation. ICF decking can also be designed in conjunction with ICF walls to form a continuous monolithic structure joined together by rebar. ICF deck roofs are popular in storm-areas[14], but it is harder to build complex roof shapes and concrete can be poured only up to a point on angled surfaces, often 7:12 maximum pitch.[15]
Walls[edit]
ICF walls are constructed one row at a time, usually starting at the corners and working toward the middle of the walls. End blocks are then cut to fit so as to waste the least material possible. As the wall rises, blocks are staggered to avoid long vertical seams that can weaken the polystyrene formwork.[16] Structure frames known as bucks are placed around openings to give added strength to the openings and to serve as attachment points for windows and doors.
Interior and exterior finishes and facades are affixed directly to the ICF surface or tie ends, depending on the type of ICF. Brick and masonry facades require an extended ledge or shelf angle at the main floor level, but otherwise no modifications are necessary. Interior ICF polystyrene wall surfaces must be covered with drywall panels or other wall coatings.[17] During the first months immediately after construction, minor problems with interior humidity may be evident as the concrete cures, which can damage the drywall. Dehumidification can be accomplished with small residential dehumidifiers or using the building's air conditioning system.
Depending on the experience of the contractor and their quality of work, improperly installed exterior foam insulation could be easy access for groundwater and insects. To help prevent these problems, some manufacturers make insecticide-treated foam blocks and promote installation of drainage sheeting and other methods for waterproofing. Drain tiles are installed to eliminate water.
Plumbing and electrical[edit]
Plumbing and electrical conduit can be placed inside the forms and poured into place, though settling problems could cause pipes to break, creating costly repairs. For this reason, plumbing and conduit as well as electrical cables are usually embedded directly into the foam before the wall coverings are applied. A hot knife or electric chainsaw is commonly used to create openings in the foam to lay piping and cabling. electrical cables are inserted into the ICF using a Cable Punch.[18] while ICFs made from other materials are typically cut or routed with simple carpentry tools. Versions of simple carpentry tools suitable for cement-bonded type forms are made for similar use with autoclaved aerated concrete.
Cost[edit]
The initial cost of using ICFs rather than conventional construction techniques is sensitive to the price of materials and labor, but building using ICF may add 3 to 5 percent to the total purchase price over building using wood frame.[19] In most cases ICF construction will cost about 40% less than conventional (basement) construction because of the labor savings from combining multiple steps into one step. Above grade, ICF construction is typically more expensive, but when adding large openings, ICF construction becomes very cost effective. Large openings in conventional construction require large headers and supporting posts, whereas ICF construction reduces the cost, as only reinforcing steel is needed directly around the opening.
ICF construction can allow up to 60% smaller heating and cooling units to service the same floor area, which can cut the cost of the final house by an estimated $0.75 per square foot. So, the estimated net extra cost can be as much as $0.25 to $3.25.[20][21] ICF homes can also qualify for tax credits, further lowering the costs.
ICF buildings are less expensive over time, as they require less energy to heat and cool the same size space compared to a variety of other common construction methods. Additionally, insurance costs can be much lower, as ICF homes are much less susceptible to damage from earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, fires, and other natural disasters. Maintenance and upkeep costs are also lessened, as ICF buildings do not contain wood, which can rot over time or be attacked by insects and rodents.[22]
Advantages and drawbacks[edit]
In seismic and hurricane-prone areas, ICF construction provides strength, impact-resistance, durability, excellent sound insulation, and airtightness. ICF construction is ideal in moderate and mixed climates with significant daily temperature variations, in buildings designed to benefit from thermal mass strategies.[23]
Insulating R-Value alone (R-value) of ICFs range from R-12 to R-28, which can be a good R-value for walls.[24] The energy savings compared to framed walls is in a range of 50% to 70%.[25] [26]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History of ICFs". ICF Mag. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Haefs, Brian. "Forms and Function". Green Building Solutions. American Chemistry Council, Inc. Archived from the original on 2010-04-07. Retrieved 2010-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Insulating Concrete Forms". The Portland Cement Association. Retrieved 2014-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Commercial Construction Concrete Buildings, Design for Tilt Up and ICF". The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. Retrieved 2014-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Types of ICF". The Expanded PolyStyrene – Industry Alliance. Retrieved 2014-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Insulating Concrete Forms". EERE Consumer's Guide. U.S. Department of Energy.
Jump up ^ Asadi, Pouria (March 2016). "Response modification factor due to ductility of screen-grid ICF wall system in high seismic risk zones". KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering. doi:10.1007/s12205-016-0083-7. ISSN 1226-7988.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 26 – Plastic". Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Property Value Units Test Standard – Durisol Material Properties" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Rastra Technical Data". Retrieved 2014-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Performwall Panel System Testing". Archived from the original on 2015-06-10. Retrieved 2014-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Greisel Klimanorm:Cellular Concrete shows what it is made of in the event of a fire". Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-04.
Jump up ^ Mahasenan, Natesan; Steve Smith; Kenneth Humphreys; Y. Kaya (2003). "The Cement Industry and Global Climate Change: Current and Potential Future Cement Industry CO2 Emissions". Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies – 6th International Conference. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 995–1000. doi:10.1016/B978-008044276-1/50157-4. ISBN 978-0-08-044276-1.
Jump up ^ Resilient, Insulated Roofs with Concrete http://www.insuldeck.com/resilient-insulated-roofs/ retrieved 2018-08-16
Jump up ^ Panushev, Ivan S.; Pieter A. Vanderwerf (2004). Insulating Concrete Forms Construction. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-143057-1."> Panushev, p. 58
Jump up ^ Panushev, p.80
Jump up ^ http://www.icfmag.com/articles/features/icf_interior_finishes.html
Jump up ^ "Cable Punch". JourneymanTools. Journeyman Tools. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/destech/icfbenefits.html
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-08-01. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
Jump up ^ http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete-homes/cost.html
Jump up ^ Panushev, p. 16
Jump up ^ ["The homeowner’s handbook to energy efficiency, p. 166"], John Krigger and Chris Dorsi
Jump up ^ [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Designation: C976]
Jump up ^ ["The ICF Effect"] ICFA access at http://www.forms.org/images/cmsIT/fckeditorfile/ICFA%20Tech%20-%20ICF%20Effect(1).pdf
Jump up ^ "Energy Comparisons of Concrete Homes vs Wood Frame Homes"], RP119 Vanderwerf
External links[edit]
Insulating Concrete Form Association (North America)
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Halt and Catch Fire (TV series)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Halt and Catch Fire
Genre
Period drama
Created by
Christopher Cantwell
Christopher C. Rogers
Starring
Lee Pace
Scoot McNairy
Mackenzie Davis
Kerry Bishé
Toby Huss
Aleksa Palladino
Theme music composer
Trentemøller
Composer(s)
Paul Haslinger
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
4
No. of episodes
40 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Christopher Cantwell
Christopher C. Rogers
Jonathan Lisco
Mark Johnson
Melissa Bernstein
Location(s)
Atlanta, Georgia
Running time
42–53 minutes
Production company(s)
AMC Studios
Lockjaw Productions
Gran Via Productions
Release
Original network
AMC
Original release
June 1, 2014 (2014-06-01) – October 14, 2017 (2017-10-14)
External links
Official website
Halt and Catch Fire is an American period drama television series created by Christopher Cantwell and Christopher C. Rogers that aired on AMC from June 1, 2014, to October 14, 2017.[1][2] Taking place over a period of ten years, the series depicts a fictionalized insider's view of the personal computer revolution of the 1980s and later the growth of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.[3] The show's title refers to computer machine code instruction HCF, the execution of which would cause the computer's central processing unit to stop working ("catch fire" was a humorous exaggeration).[4]
In season one, entrepreneur Joe MacMillan (Lee Pace) joins the company Cardiff Electric and leads them into the personal computing industry with computer engineer Gordon Clark (Scoot McNairy) and prodigy programmer Cameron Howe (Mackenzie Davis). Seasons two and three shift focus to an online community startup company, Mutiny, that is headed by Cameron and Gordon's wife Donna (Kerry Bishé), while Joe attempts to strike out on his own. The fourth and final season focuses on competing web search engines involving all the principal characters. Filmed in Atlanta, Georgia, the series is set in the Silicon Prairie of Dallas–Fort Worth for its first two seasons, and Silicon Valley for its latter two.[5][6]
Though it experienced low viewership ratings throughout its run, Halt and Catch Fire debuted to generally favorable reviews and grew in acclaim in each subsequent season.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Recurring cast
2 Production and development
3 Episodes
4 Distribution
4.1 Home media
4.2 International
5 Reception
5.1 Critical response
5.2 Accolades
5.3 Viewership ratings
6 References
7 External links
Cast[edit]
Main cast[edit]
Lee Pace as Joe MacMillan: A technology entrepreneur and former IBM sales executive. He joins Cardiff Electric where he provides the impetus for the IBM clone. Later in the series, he initiates projects involving time-sharing, NSFNET, antivirus software, a web browser and a search engine. He has limited technical expertise and has a difficult relationship with other characters, including a complicated romantic relationship with Cameron Howe, and he is estranged from his parents.[7]
Scoot McNairy as Gordon Clark: A computer engineer who is selected by Joe MacMillan to build the IBM clone in the first season after Joe reads an article Clark has written on open architecture. Motivated about the failure of Symphonic, a computer he created with his wife Donna,[8] Gordon works with Joe to build the hardware for the new computer. He suffers from a degenerative brain disorder caused by toxic encephalopathy throughout the later seasons and the breakdown of his marriage.[9]
Mackenzie Davis as Cameron Howe (born Catherine Howe): A technology prodigy who is recruited from university by Joe MacMillian to write the BIOS for the IBM clone. She later forms her own gaming company Mutiny with Donna Clark and creates Space Bike, a successful video game series for Atari.[10] Her father died in the Vietnam War and she has a difficult relationship with her mother.[7]
Kerry Bishé as Donna Clark (née Emerson): A computer engineer and wife of Gordon. She originally works for Texas Instruments, before joining Mutiny to support Cameron.[11] After Mutiny, she becomes a partner in a top Silicon Valley venture capital firm. Donna is shown to put her own ambition above her relationships, particularly the one she has with Cameron.[12]
Toby Huss as John Bosworth: The senior VP of Cardiff Electric who hired Joe at Cardiff. At the end of the first season, he is incarcerated for illegally funding the PC project. He is shown to be a good salesman and in season 2 he works for Mutiny. He sees himself as a father figure to Cameron Howe.[13]
Aleksa Palladino as Sara Wheeler (season 2): A freelance journalist and Joe's girlfriend during season 2.
Recurring cast[edit]
Morgan Hinkleman (season 1–3) and Kathryn Newton (seasons 3–4) as Joanie Clark
Alana Cavanaugh (season 1–3) and Susanna Skaggs (season 4) as Haley Clark
August Emerson as Malcolm "Lev" Levitan (seasons 1–3)
Cooper Andrews as Yo-Yo Engberk (seasons 1–3)
David Wilson Barnes as Dale Butler (seasons 1, 4)
Graham Beckel as Nathan Cardiff (seasons 1–2)
Annette O'Toole as Susan Emerson (seasons 1–2)
Mike Pniewski as Barry Shields (seasons 1–2)
Scott Michael Foster as Hunt Whitmarsh (season 1)
John Getz as Joe MacMillan, Sr. (season 1)
Mark O'Brien as Tom Rendon (seasons 2–4)
James Cromwell as Jacob Wheeler (season 2)
Annabeth Gish as Diane Gould (seasons 3–4)[14]
Manish Dayal as Ryan Ray (season 3)[15]
Matthew Lillard as Ken Diebold (season 3)[16]
Anna Chlumsky as Dr. Katie Herman (season 4)[17]
Molly Ephraim as Alexa Vonn (season 4)
Production and development[edit]
AMC ordered the pilot for Halt and Catch Fire in November 2012,[18] and production began on the pilot in April 2013 in Atlanta, Georgia.[19] AMC announced in July 2013 that it had ordered Halt and Catch Fire to a series of ten episodes.[20] The series was created by Christopher Cantwell and Christopher C. Rogers,[18] with Jonathan Lisco as showrunner.[21] In August 2014, AMC renewed the show for a second season of ten episodes, which premiered on May 31, 2015 and concluded on August 2, 2015.[22][23] Lisco stepped down as showrunner after the second season, with Cantwell and Rogers taking over the role for the third season.[24]
Influences on the show's development and production included works such as Steve Jobs' biography and Tracy Kidder's The Soul of a New Machine.[25]
In October 2015, AMC renewed the series for a 10-episode third season,[24] with the first episode airing on August 21, 2016,[26] ahead of the two-hour season premiere on August 23, 2016.[27] AMC renewed Halt and Catch Fire for a fourth and final season of 10 episodes on October 10, 2016.[28] The final season began with a two-hour premiere on August 19, 2017,[3] and concluded with a two-hour series finale on October 14, 2017.
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Halt and Catch Fire episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 10 June 1, 2014 (2014-06-01) August 3, 2014 (2014-08-03)
2 10 May 31, 2015 (2015-05-31) August 2, 2015 (2015-08-02)
3 10 August 21, 2016 (2016-08-21) October 11, 2016 (2016-10-11)
4 10 August 19, 2017 (2017-08-19) October 14, 2017 (2017-10-14)
Distribution[edit]
The pilot was screened at the South by Southwest festival on March 8, 2014;[29] it was also made available online for streaming on AMC's Tumblr page beginning May 19, 2014 and is the first TV series to premiere on Tumblr.[30]
Home media[edit]
The first season was released on DVD and Blu-ray in region 1 on May 5, 2015.[31] The second season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 9, 2016.[32]
Season 1 was released on Netflix and AMC.com for home streaming on April 8, 2015, for a limited time.[33] It is also available on Amazon Video in the UK and Germany.[34] As of December 2017, all four seasons are streaming on Netflix.[35]
International[edit]
The series premiered in Australia on June 23, 2015, on Showcase.[36] The series also appears on AMC's international channels in Asia, Europe and Latin America.[37]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
Season
Critical response
Rotten Tomatoes
Metacritic
1 78% (40 reviews) 69/100 (31 reviews)
2 90% (20 reviews) 73/100 (8 reviews)
3 96% (23 reviews) 83/100 (12 reviews)
4 100% (24 reviews) 92/100 (8 reviews)
The first season received generally positive reviews from critics and has a Metacritic rating of 69 out of 100, based on 31 reviews.[38] Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 78% rating with an average score of 7.27 out of 10 based on 40 reviews, with the consensus: "A refreshingly well-acted period drama, Halt and Catch Fire convincingly portrays the not-too-distant past."[39] Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe expressed promise after the series premiere, writing "it's easy to see why the network chose it. Set in Dallas in 1983, it has a distinctive visual style—something AMC, with the cinematic Breaking Bad and the elegant Mad Men, wants to make part of its brand identity". Speaking of the show's dynamic characters, Gilbert added, "Gordon is the Steve Wozniak to Joe's Steve Jobs, in a way. Add to that dynamic immature 22-year-old coding expert Cameron Howe (Mackenzie Davis)...and you've got a chemical mixture on the verge of exploding".[40]
The second season received generally positive reviews, with some critics noting the series had improved since the first season. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 8 reviews.[41] Rotten Tomatoes gave the second season a 90% rating with an average score of 8.32 out of 10, based on 20 reviews, with the critical consensus noting "Halt and Catch Fire version 2.0 has received some upgrades and improvements, including a welcome focus on its female leads."[42] Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave it a very positive review, calling the performances "terrific" and wrote that "those who stayed patient with Halt season 1, or those who come to the show now that the quality has gone up significantly, will be rewarded."[43] Willa Paskin of Slate wrote that the series has "become a different, better show".[44] James Poniewozik of Time also gave it a positive review, writing that the series has improved in many ways.[45]
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".[46] Rotten Tomatoes gave the third season a 96% rating with an average score of 8.62 out of 10, based on 23 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads "Halt and Catch Fire finds its footing in an optimistic third season that builds on the fascinating relationship between a pair of emerging protagonists."[47]
The fourth season received the strongest reviews of any season of the series. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 92 out of 100 based on 8 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".[48] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 100% approval rating with an average score 9.53 out of 10 based on 24 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Halt and Catch Fire's character-driven drama culminates in an optimistic ode to the early internet age that's bound to stand the test of time."[49] Many publications ranked the fourth season among the best television series of 2017 on their end-of-year lists; The New York Times, The Atlantic, and Vox Media shortlisted it on their lists of best TV shows,[50][51][52] while two critics at Variety included it in their top five,[53] Uproxx ranked it third-best,[54] The A.V. Club and Forbes fifth-best,[55][56] Paste ninth-best,[57] Rolling Stone 13th-best,[58] and The Guardian 39th-best.[59]
Accolades[edit]
Halt and Catch Fire was listed with six others for the Critics' Choice Television Award as one of the Most Exciting New Series of the year.[60] For the 19th Satellite Awards, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series and Lee Pace was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series.[61] For the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series was nominated for Outstanding Main Title Design.[62]

Viewership ratings[edit]
Halt and Catch Fire : U.S. viewers per episode (thousands)
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10
Average
1
1190 970 765 844 575 718 832 627 549 574 764
2
659 494 452 451 543 558 499 497 588 485 523
3
367 339 397 312 324 280 307 366 407 287 339
4
340 340 270 344 313 354 322 327 394 394 340
Source: Nielsen Media Research[63][64][65][66]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (July 26, 2013). "TCA: AMC Picks Up 'Halt & Catch Fire' & 'Turn' To Series". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "AMC Drama 'Halt and Catch Fire' to Bow June 1 After 'Mad Men' Finale". Variety. March 5, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Shapiro, Marissa (June 27, 2017). "Premiere Date for the Final Season Revealed". AMC. Retrieved June 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Roots, Kimberly (June 1, 2014). "Halt and Catch Fire: Does AMC's New Drama Compute?". TVLine. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Darling, Cary (May 31, 2014). "AMC does Dallas, and Fort Worth, in 'Halt and Catch Fire'". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ Labrecque, Jeff (June 1, 2014). "'Halt and Catch Fire': If Don Draper and Walter White met in 1983". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Seemangal, Robin (June 30, 2014). "'Halt and Catch Fire' 1×05: Daddy Issues". Observer. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Yarm, Mark (May 30, 2014). "Halt and Catch Fire Gets the '80s PC Revolution Perfectly Right. Here's How". Wired. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ McHenry, Jackson (October 11, 2016). "Halt and Catch Fire's Showrunners on Their Daring Season 3 Finale and Plans for the 4th Season They Didn't Expect to Get". Vulture. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ O'Neill, Phelim (October 12, 2016). "Halt and Catch Fire: not Mad Men in the 80s, but so much better". The Guardian. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Poniewozik, James (August 3, 2015). "Halt and Catch Fire Became the Next Mad Men When It Stopped Trying to Be". Time. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Herman, Alison (October 15, 2017). "'Halt and Catch Fire' Was Moving to the End". The Ringer. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Collins, Sean T. (August 21, 2017). "'Halt and Catch Fire' Season Premiere Recap: Live and Let Dial-Up". Decider. Retrieved December 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (March 16, 2016). "Annabeth Gish Joins 'Halt And Catch Fire'". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Stanhope, Kate (March 11, 2016). "'Halt and Catch Fire' Adds 'Hundred-Foot Journey' Star for Season 3 (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Snetiker, Marc (July 25, 2016). "Halt and Catch Fire installs Matthew Lillard for season 3". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (June 9, 2017). "'Halt And Catch Fire': Anna Chlumsky Set To Recur In Fourth & Final Season". Deadline.com. Retrieved June 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Andreeva, Nellie (November 27, 2012). "AMC Orders Period Drama Pilots From Craig Silverstein/Barry Josephson, Mark Johnson". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "AMC Set To Film New Pilot 'Halt & Catch Fire' In Atlanta This Month". FanBolt. April 8, 2013. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (July 26, 2013). "AMC greenlights drama series 'Halt & Catch Fire' and 'Turn'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (July 30, 2013). "Jonathan Lisco Inks Overall Deal With AMC". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (March 26, 2015). "'Halt and Catch Fire' Season Two Premieres Sunday May 31". TV by the Numbers (Press release). Retrieved March 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (August 20, 2014). "Surprise: AMC renews 'Halt and Catch Fire'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Ausiello, Michael (October 8, 2015). "Halt and Catch Fire Scores Season 3 Renewal Amid Showrunner Switch". TVLine. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Villarreal, Yvonne (May 23, 2014). "'Halt and Catch Fire' depicts the early days of the PC revolution". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 14, 2015. To familiarize themselves with the subject matter, the staff read Tracy Kidder's The Soul of a New Machine, Steve Jobs' biography, and watched documentaries such as Robert X. Cringely's Triumph of the Nerds.
Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb (August 21, 2016). "Halt and Catch Fire Gets Secret Sunday Sneak Peek Ahead of Tuesday Premiere". TVLine. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Roots, Kimberly (June 30, 2016). "Date for Halt and Catch Fire's Two-Hour Season 3 Premiere Set at AMC". TVLine. Retrieved June 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Holloway, Daniel (October 10, 2016). "'Halt and Catch Fire' Renewed for Fourth and Final Season at AMC". Variety. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "AMC Sets June Premiere Date For Drama Series 'Halt And Catch Fire'". Deadline.com. March 8, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Highfill, Samantha (May 19, 2014). "AMC drama to become first show to ever premiere on Tumblr". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (February 24, 2015). "Halt and Catch Fire – Press Release Announces 'The Complete 1st Season' for DVD, Blu-ray". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (May 16, 2016). "Halt and Catch Fire – 'The Complete 2nd Season' Press Release, Package Art". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ ""Halt and Catch Fire" Dials Up Season Two on Sunday, May 31 at 10:00 P.M. ET/PT" (Press release). AMC. March 26, 2015. Retrieved May 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Season 2 of "Halt and Catch Fire" for Amazon Prime Instant Video UK" (Press release). Advanced Television. March 31, 2015. Retrieved August 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Spelling, Claire (December 14, 2017). "Rejoice, AMC Fans! 'Halt and Catch Fire' Season 4 Is Now Streaming On Netflix". Decider.com. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Foxtel in June: 200+ new shows including Orange Is The New Black, True Detective, Suits, PLL, Wimbledon and more". The Green Room. Foxtel. June 1, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "AMC Networks Re-Brands MGM Channel As "AMC"". AMC Networks. August 4, 2014. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire : Season 1". Metacritic. Retrieved May 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season 1 (2014)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved June 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Matthew (May 29, 2014). "The promise of Halt and Catch Fire". The Boston Globe. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire : Season 2". Metacritic. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season 2". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved July 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (May 28, 2015). "Review: 'Halt and Catch Fire' upgrades in a big way for season 2". HitFix. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ Paskin, Willa (May 28, 2015). "The Perfect Pivot". Slate. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ Poniewozik, James (May 28, 2015). "Review: Halt and Catch Fire Works the Bugs Out in Version 2.0". Time. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire : Season 3". Metacritic. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season 3". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire : Season 4". Metacritic. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season 4". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Poniewozik, James; Hale, Mike; Lyons, Margaret (December 4, 2017). "The Best TV Shows of 2017". The New York Times. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Sophie (December 11, 2017). "The 20 Best TV Shows of 2017". The Atlantic. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ VanDerWerff, Todd (December 19, 2017). "The 18 best TV shows of 2017". Vox Media. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Variety Staff (December 13, 2017). "The Best TV Shows of 2017". Variety. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (December 18, 2017). "Alan Sepinwall Picks The 20 Best TV Shows Of 2017". Uproxx. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Murray, Noel (December 13, 2017). "The A.V. Club's 20 best TV shows of 2017". The A.V. Club. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ St. John, Allen (December 31, 2017). "The Best of Television 2017: The Deuce, The Handmaid's Tale, Jimmy Kimmel And More". Forbes. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Brennan, Matt (November 28, 2017). "The 25 Best TV Shows of 2017". Paste. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sheffield, Rob (December 5, 2017). "20 Best TV Shows of 2017". Rolling Stone. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ "The 50 best TV shows of 2017: 50-1". The Guardian. November 30, 2017. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (June 9, 2014). "Critics' Choice TV Awards Name Top New Series, Sets Ryan Murphy For Icon Honor". Deadline.com. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Pond, Steve (February 16, 2015). "Satellite Awards: Complete Winners List". The Wrap. Retrieved February 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (July 16, 2015). "Emmy Nominations 2015 – Full List". Deadline.com. Retrieved July 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season One Ratings". TV Series Finale. August 20, 2014. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season Two Ratings". TV Series Finale. October 8, 2015. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season Three Ratings". TV Series Finale. October 12, 2016. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Halt and Catch Fire: Season Four Ratings". TV Series Finale. October 17, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
Halt and Catch Fire on IMDb
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text:
Small intestine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Small Intestine
Diagram showing the small intestine and surrounding structures
Details
System
Digestive system
Artery
Superior mesenteric artery
Vein
Hepatic portal vein
Nerve
Celiac ganglia, vagus[1]
Lymph
Intestinal lymph trunk
Identifiers
Latin
Intestinum tenue
MeSH
D007421
TA
A05.6.01.001
FMA
7200
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger-like protrusions called villi.[2]
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Size
1.2 Parts
1.3 Blood supply
1.4 Histology
1.5 Development
2 Function
2.1 Digestion
2.2 Absorption
2.3 Immunological
3 Gene and protein expression
4 Clinical significance
5 Other animals
6 Society and culture
7 Additional images
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Structure[edit]
Size[edit]
The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft).[3] The typical length in a living person is 3m-5m.[4][5] The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured.[3] Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.[3]
It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age,[6] and 2.5–3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm.[7][8] On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated.[7][9] The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.[10]
Parts[edit]
The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.
The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm (7.9 inches) to 25 cm (9.8 inches) in length, and shaped like a "C".[11] It surrounds the head of the pancreas. It receives gastric chyme from the stomach, together with digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the liver (bile). The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme.
The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the plicae circulares, and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum.
The ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction.
The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.[12]
Blood supply[edit]
The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery.[13] Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.[13]
Histology[edit]
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn.
The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
Layer
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Serosa 1st part serosa, 2nd–4th adventitia Normal Normal
Muscularis externa Longitudinal and circular layers, with Auerbach's (myenteric) plexus in between Same as duodenum Same as duodenum
Submucosa Brunner's glands and Meissner's (submucosal) plexus No BG No BG
Mucosa: muscularis mucosae Normal Normal Normal
Mucosa: lamina propria No PP No PP Peyer's patches
Mucosa: intestinal epithelium Simple columnar. Contains goblet cells, Paneth cells Similar to duodenum ?
Development[edit]
See also: Development of the digestive system
The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube.[14] By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.[14]
Function[edit]
Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
Digestion[edit]
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:
Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption.[15] Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products.
Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them, which aids access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water-soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption.
Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria. Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase, which further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase and lactase. Lactase is absent in some adult humans and, for them, lactose (a disaccharide), as well as most polysaccharides, is not digested in the small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all, despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose, making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine.
Absorption[edit]
Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.
Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
Immunological[edit]
The small intestine supports the body's immune system.[16] The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system. Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.[17]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[18][19] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6. Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.[20]
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Gastrointestinal disease
The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10% of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.
Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders
Meconium ileus
Paralytic ileus
Volvulus
Hernia
Intussusception
Adhesions
Obstruction from external pressure
Obstruction by masses in the lumen (foreign bodies, bezoar, gallstones)
Infectious diseases
Giardiasis
Ascariasis
Tropical sprue
Tape worm (Diphyllobothrium latum, Taenia solium, Hymenolepsis nana)
Hookworm (e.g. Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale)
Nematodes (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides)
Other Protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, Entamoeba histolytica)
Bacterial infections
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Salmonella enterica
Campylobacter
Shigella
Yersinia
Clostridium difficile (antibiotic-associated colitis, Pseudomembranous colitis)
Mycobacterium (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Whipple's disease
Vibrio (cholera)
Enteric (typhoid) fever (Salmonella enterica var. typhii) and paratyphoid fever
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene)
Viral infections
Rotavirus
Norovirus
Astrovirus
Adenovirus
Calicivirus
Neoplasms (cancers)
Adenocarcinoma
Carcinoid
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)
Lymphoma
Sarcoma
Leiomyoma
Metastatic tumors, especially SCLC or melanoma
Developmental, congenital or genetic conditions
Duodenal (intestinal) atresia
Hirschsprung's disease
Meckel's diverticulum
Pyloric stenosis
Pancreas divisum
Ectopic pancreas
Enteric duplication cyst
Situs inversus
Cystic fibrosis
Malrotation
Persistent urachus
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Disaccharidase (lactase) deficiencies
Primary bile acid malabsorption
Gardner syndrome
Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome (FAP)
Other conditions
Crohn's disease, and the more general inflammatory bowel disease
Typhlitis (neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed
Coeliac disease (sprue or non-tropical sprue)
Mesenteric ischemia
Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein
Arteriovenous malformation
Gastric dumping syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome
Duodenal (peptic) ulcers
Gastrointestinal perforation
Hyperthyroidism
Diverticulitis
Radiation enterocolitis
Mesenteric cysts
Peritoneal Infection
Sclerosing retroperitonitis
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
Endometriosis
Other animals[edit]
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu [21]
In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.[21]
The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.[21]
There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.[21]
In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.[21]
Society and culture[edit]
In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.[22]
Additional images[edit]
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Small intestine.
Large intestine
Stomach
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (2014). Principles of Anatomy & Physiology. USA: Wiley. p. 913. ISBN 978-1-118-34500-9. ..its length is about 3m in a living person and about 6.5m in a cadaver due to loss of smooth muscle tone after death.
Jump up ^ Standring, Susan (2016). Gray's Anatomy. UK: Elsevier. p. 1124. ISBN 978-0-7020-5230-9. ..and has a mean length of 5 metres (3 - 8.5 metres) when measured intraoperatively in the living adult (Tietelbaum et al 2013).
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Bibliography[edit]
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External links[edit]
Small intestine at the Human Protein Atlas
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