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Latin influence in English
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English is a Germanic language, with a grammar and a core vocabulary inherited from Proto-Germanic. However, a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources. A portion of these borrowings come directly from Latin, or through one of the Romance languages, particularly Anglo-Norman and French, but some also from Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish; or from other languages (such as Gothic, Frankish or Greek) into Latin and then into English. The influence of Latin in English, therefore, is primarily lexical in nature, being confined mainly to words derived from Latin roots.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early Middle Ages
2 Middle Ages
3 Renaissance
4 Industrial Age
5 Consequences for English
5.1 Noun/adjective doublets
5.2 Indirect influence
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
Early Middle Ages[edit]
The Germanic tribes who would later give rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxon and Jutes) traded and fought with the Latin speaking Roman Empire. Many words (some originally from Greek) for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people via Latin even before the tribes reached Britain (what is known as the Continental or Zero Period): anchor, butter, camp, cheese, chest, cook, copper, devil, dish, fork, gem, inch, kitchen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pound (unit of weight), punt (boat), sack, street, wall, wine.[1] Cognates of virtually all of these English words exist in the other Germanic languages.
Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th century and 7th century brought with them Latin religious terms which entered the English language: abbot, altar, apostle, candle, clerk, mass, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, school, shrive. Some of these words are ultimately of Greek origin, as much of the technical language of Christianity developed from the Greek of the New Testament and the works of those Fathers of the Church who wrote in Greek.
During this time, the Catholic Church had great influence on the development and expansion of the Old English language. Catholic monks mainly wrote or copied text in Latin, the prevalent Medieval lingua franca of Europe. However, when monks occasionally wrote in the vernacular, Latin words were translated by finding suitable Old English equivalents. Often, a Germanic word was adopted and given a new shade of meaning in the process. Such was the case with Old English gōdspell ("gospel") for Latin evangelium. Previously, the Old English word simply meant "good news," but its meaning was extended in Old English to fit a religious context. The same occurred for the Old Germanic pagan word blētsian, which meant "to sacrifice, consecrate by shedding blood". It was adapted by Old English scribes and christened to become the word bless. Similarly fullwiht (literally, "full-being") and the verb fullian came to mean "baptism" and "to baptize" respectively, but probably originally referred to some kind of rite of passage.
Whenever a suitable Old English substitute could not be found, a Latin word could be chosen instead, and many Latin words entered the Old English lexicon in this way. Such words include: biscop "bishop" from Latin episcopus, Old English teped "carpet" from Latin tapetum, and Old English sigel "brooch" from Latin sigillum. Other words came in, even though an adequate Old English term already existed, and this caused enrichment of the Old English vocabulary: culcer and læfel "spoon" from Latin coclearium and labellum beside Old English spōn and hlædel (Modern English ladle); Old English forca from Latin furca "fork" next to Old English gafol; Old English scamol "chair, stool" from Latin scamellum beside native stōl, benc and setl. All told, approximately 600 words were borrowed from Latin during the Old English period.[2] Often, the Latin word was severely restricted in sense, and was not widespread in use among the general populace. Latin words tended to be literary or scholarly terms and were not very common. The majority of them did not survive into the Middle English Period.
Middle Ages[edit]
The Norman Conquest of 1066 gave England a two tiered society with an aristocracy which spoke Anglo-Norman and a lower class which spoke English. From 1066 until Henry IV of England ascended the throne in 1399, the royal court of England spoke a Norman language that became progressively Gallicised through contact with French. However, the Norman rulers made no attempt to suppress the English language, apart from not using it at all in their court. In 1204, the Anglo-Normans lost their continental territories in Normandy and became wholly English. By the time Middle English arose as the dominant language in the late 14th century, the Normans (French people) had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English of which 75% remain in use today. Continued use of Latin by the Church and centres of learning brought a steady, though dramatically reduced, influx of new Latin lexical borrowings.
Renaissance[edit]
Further information: Inkhorn term
During the English Renaissance, from around 1500–1650, some 10,000 to 12,000 words entered the English lexicon, including lexicon. Some examples include: aberration, allusion, anachronism, democratic, dexterity, enthusiasm, imaginary, juvenile, pernicious, sophisticated. Many of these words were borrowed directly from Latin, both in its classical and medieval forms. In turn, Late Latin also included borrowings from Greek.
Industrial Age[edit]
Further information: Classical compound
The dawn of the age of scientific discovery in the 17th and 18th centuries created the need for new words to describe newfound knowledge. Many words were borrowed from Latin, while others were coined from Latin roots, prefixes, and suffixes, and Latin word elements freely combine with elements from all other languages including native Anglo-Saxon words. Some of the words which entered English at this time are: apparatus, aqueous, carnivorous, component, corpuscle, data, experiment, formula, incubate, machinery, mechanics, molecule, nucleus, organic, ratio, structure, vertebra.
Consequences for English[edit]
In addition to the large number of historical borrowings and coinages, today Latinate words continue to be coined in English – see classical compounds – particularly in technical contexts. A number of more subtle consequences include: numerous doublets – two or more cognate terms from both a Germanic and Latinate source (or Latinate sources), such as cow/beef; numerous cases of etymologically unrelated terms for closely related concepts, notably Germanic nouns with a Latin adjective, such as bird/avian or hand/manual; complicated etymologies due to indirect borrowings (via Romance) or multiple borrowings; and usage controversies over the perceived complexity of Latinate terms.
Most of the vocabulary of pre-school children is made up of native English words, rather than foreign-derived words.
Noun/adjective doublets[edit]
As with Germanic/Latinate doublets from the Norman period, the use of Latinate words in the sciences gives us pairs with a native Germanic noun and a Latinate adjective:
animals: ant/formic, bee/apian, bird/avian, crow/corvine, cod/gadoid, carp/cyprine, fish/piscine, gull/larine, wasp/vespine, butterfly/papilionaceous, worm/vermian, spider/arachnid, snake/anguine, tortoise (or turtle)/testudinal, cat/feline, rabbit/cunicular, hare/leporine, dog/canine, deer/cervine, reindeer/rangiferine, fox/vulpine, wolf/lupine, goat/caprine, sheep/ovine, swan/cygnean, duck/anatine, starling/sturnine, goose/anserine, ostrich/struthious, horse/equine, chicken/gallinaceous, cattle/bovine, pig/porcine, whale/cetacean, ape/simian, bear/ursine, man/human or hominid (gender specific: man/masculine, woman/feminine).
physiology: head/capital, body/corporal, ear/aural, tooth/dental, tongue/lingual, lips/labial, neck/cervical, finger/digital, hand/manual, arm/brachial, foot/pedal, sole of the foot/plantar, leg/crural, eye/ocular or visual, mouth/oral, chest/pectoral, nipple/papillary, brain/cerebral, mind/mental, nail/ungual, hair/pilar, lung/pulmonary, kidney/renal, blood/sanguine.
astronomy: moon/lunar, sun/solar, earth/terrestrial, star/stellar.
sociology: son or daughter/filial, mother/maternal, father/paternal, brother/fraternal, sister/sororal, wife/uxorial.
other: book/literary, edge/marginal, fire/igneous, water/aquatic, wind/vental, ice/glacial, boat/naval, house/domestic, door/portal, town/urban, sight/visual, tree/arboreal, marsh/paludal, sword/gladiate, king/regal, fighter/military, bell/tintinnabulary, clothes/sartorial.
Note that this is a common linguistic phenomenon, called a stratum in linguistics – one sees analogous phenomena in Japanese (borrowing from Chinese for scientific vocabulary, and now English), and in Hindi/Urdu (Sanskrit, with many Persian borrowings), among many others.
Indirect influence[edit]
It is not always easy to tell at what point a word entered English, or in what form. Some words have come into English from Latin more than once, through French or another Romance language at one time and directly from Latin at another. Thus we have pairs like fragile/frail, army/armada, corona/crown, ratio/reason, and rotund/round. The first word in each pair came directly from Latin, while the second entered English from French (or Spanish, in the case of armada). In addition, some words have entered English twice from French, with the result that they have the same source, but different pronunciations reflecting changing pronunciation in French, for example chief/chef (the former a Middle English borrowing and the latter modern). Multiple borrowings explain other word pairs and groups with similar roots but different meanings and/or pronunciations: canal/channel, poor/pauper, coy/quiet, disc/disk/dish/desk/dais/discus.[3]
See also[edit]
Language portal
List of Latin words with English derivatives
List of English words of French origin
Classical compound
Hybrid word
List of Greek and Latin roots in English
List of Latin phrases
Latin mnemonics
Latin school
List of Latin abbreviations
List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
List of Latinised names
List of legal Latin terms
Medical terminology
Romanization (cultural)
Toponymy
Help:IPA/Latin
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Dennis Freeborn, From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variation Across Time, 2nd edn. (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1998), 73.
Jump up ^ Lounsbury, History of the English Language, page 42.
Jump up ^ With disc/disk some computing scientists make the distinction between disc and disk as being that the former is optical, such as: CD or DVD, and the latter is magnetic, such as a hard disk.[1]
References[edit]
Bryson, Bill. The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon, 1990.
Hughes, Geoffrey. Words in Time. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.
Kent, Roland G. Language and Philology. New York: Cooper Square, 1963.
McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The Story of English. New York: Elisabeth Sifton, 1986.
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Battle of Badr
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Battle of Badr
Part of the Muslim-Quraish Wars

Scene from Siyer-i Nebi, Hamza and Ali leading the Muslim armies at Badr. The writing is Ottoman Naskh.
Date
13 March 624 CE/17 Ramadan, 2 AH
Location
At the wells of Badr, 70 mi (110 km) southwest of Medina
Result
Decisive Muslim victory
Belligerents
Muslims of Medina Quraish of Mecca
Commanders and leaders
Muhammad
Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib
Ali ibn Abi Talib
Abu-Bakr
Umar ibn Al-Khattab Abu Jahl ⱶ
Utba ibn Rabi'ah ⱶ
Umayyah ibn Khalaf ⱶ
Hind al-Hunnud
Strength
313 infantry and cavalry: 2 horses and 70 camels 950 infantry and cavalry: 100 horses and 170 camels
Casualties and losses
14 killed 70 killed, 70 prisoners[citation needed]
[show]
v
t
e
Campaigns of Muhammad
Ghazwah (expeditions where he took part)
Abwa
Buwat
Safwan
Dul
1st Badr
Kudr
Sawiq
Qaynuqa
Thi
Bahran
Uhud
Asad
Nadir
2nd Nejd
2nd Badr
Jandal
Trench
Qurayza
Lahyan
Mustaliq
Treaty
Khaybar
Fadak
Qura
Dhat
Baqra
Mecca
Hunayn
Autas
Ta'if
Tabouk
The Battle of Badr (Arabic: غزوة بدر), fought on Tuesday, 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish[1] in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. All knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle. There is little evidence outside of these of the battle. There are no descriptions of the battle prior to the 9th Century.[2]
Prior to the battle, the Muslims and the Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624. Badr, however, was the first large-scale engagement between the two forces. Advancing to a strong defensive position, Muhammad's well-disciplined force broke the Meccan lines, killing several important Quraishi leaders including the Muslims' chief antagonist Abu Jahl.[3] For the early Muslims the battle was the first sign that they might eventually defeat their enemies among the Meccans. Mecca at that time was one of the richest and most powerful cities in Arabia, fielding an army three times larger than that of the Muslims.[4] The Muslim victory also signaled to the other tribes that a new power had arisen in Arabia and strengthened Muhammad's position as leader of the often fractious community in Medina.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Muslim participants of Badr
3 Battle
3.1 March to Badr
3.2 Muslim plan
3.3 Meccan plan
3.4 Day of battle
4 Aftermath
4.1 Prisoners
4.2 Executions
4.3 Muslims killed in the Battle of Badr
4.4 Implications
5 Islamic primary sources
5.1 Badr in the Quran
5.2 Hadith literature
5.3 Biographical literature
6 In modern culture
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 References
9.1 Books and articles
9.2 Online references
10 External links
Background
Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570 CE into the Quraish tribe. After Muhammad's revelation from Gabriel in 610 until his proclamation of monotheism to the Quraysh,Islam was practiced primarily in secret. The Quraiysh, who traditionally accepted religious practices other than their own, became increasingly more intolerant of the Muslims during the thirteen years of personal attacks against their (the Meccans) religions and gods.[6] In fear for their religion and economic viability, which heavily relied on annual pilgrimages, the Meccans began to mock and disrupt Muhammad's followers. In 622, Muhammad bade many of his followers to migrate from Mecca to the neighboring city of Medina, 320 km (200 mi) north of Mecca. Shortly thereafter, Muhammad himself left for Medina.[7][8] This migration is referred to as the Hijra.[9]
The Quranic Verse 22:39[10] uttered by Muhammad sometime shortly after the migration permitted Muslims, for the first time, to take up arms in defence. During this period Muhammad employed three broad military strategies against the Meccans. Firstly, to establish peace treaties with the tribes surrounding Medina, especially with those from whom the Meccans could derive most advantage against the Muslims. Secondly, to dispatch small groups to obtain intelligence on the Quraish and their allies and also provide, thereby, an opportunity for those Muslims still living in Mecca to leave with them. Thirdly, to intercept the trade caravans of the Meccans that passed close to Medina and to obstruct their trade route.[11][12] In September 623, Muhammad himself led a force of 200 in an unsuccessful raid against a large caravan.[citation needed] Shortly thereafter, the Meccans launched their own raid against Medina led by Kurz bin Jabir and fled with livestock belonging to the Muslims.[13] In January 624, Muhammad dispatched a group of eight men to Nakhlah, on the outskirts of Mecca, led by Abdullah bin Jahsh to obtain intelligence on the Quraysh.[14][15] However, Abdullah bin Jash and his party disguised as Pilgrims with shaved heads, upon being discovered by a Meccan caravan, decided to attack and kill as many of the caravan as possible, resulting in killing one of its men, Amr bin Al-Hadrami, the seizing of its goods and taking two as prisoners.[16] The situation was all the more serious since the killing occurred in the month of Rajab, a truce month sacred to the Meccans in which fighting was prohibited and a clear affront to Arab traditions. Upon their return to Medina, Muhammad initially disapproved of this decision on their part, rebuked them and refused to take any spoil until he claimed to have received revelation (Quran, 2:217) stating that the Meccan persecution was worse than this violation of the sacred month. After his revelation Muhammed took the goods and the prisoners.[17][18][19][20] The Muslims' raids on caravans prompted the Battle of Badr, the first major battle involving a Muslim army. This was the spot where the Meccans had sent their own army to protect their caravans from Muslim raiders.[21][22]
Muslim participants of Badr
Main article: List of participants at the Battle of Badr
Battle
A map of the Badr campaign
March to Badr
Muhammad's forces included Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali, Hamza, Mus`ab ibn `Umair, Az-Zubair bin Al-'Awwam, Ammar ibn Yasir, and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. The Muslims also brought seventy camels and two horses, meaning that they either had to walk or fit three to four men per camel.[23] The future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care for his sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of Muhammad.[24] Salman the Persian also could not join the battle, as he was still not a free man.[25]
Many of the Quraishi nobles, including Amr ibn Hishām, Walid ibn Utba, Shaiba, and Umayah ibn Khalaf, joined the Meccan army. Their reasons varied: some were out to protect their financial interests in the caravan; others wanted to avenge Ibn al-Hadrami, the guard killed at Nakhlah; finally, a few must have wanted to take part in what was expected to be an easy victory against the Muslims.[26] Amr ibn Hishām is described as shaming at least one noble, Umayah ibn Khalaf, into joining the expedition.[27]
By this time Muhammad's companions were approaching the wells where he planned to either waylay the caravan, or to fight the Meccan army at Badr, along the Syrian trade route where the caravan would be expected to stop or the Meccan army to come for its protection. However, several Muslim scouts were discovered by scouts from the caravan[28] and Abu Sufyan made a hasty turn towards Yanbu.[29]
Muslim plan
This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
“ Behold! Allah Promised you one of the two (enemy) parties, that it should be yours: Ye wished that the one unarmed should be yours, but Allah Willed to justify the Truth according to His Words and to cut off the roots of the Unbelievers; ”
— Quran: Al-Anfal 8:7
“ Behold! Allah Promised Me that He would definitely help me. I'm taking an oath by Allah's Excellent Name, Here will be the grave of Abu Jahl, and here will lay Utba ibn Rabiah (Prophet mentioned 14 different unbeliever leaders' names and signed they graves before the battle). ”
— Muhammad – Sahih Muslim
When the word reached the Muslim army about the departure of the Meccan army, Muhammad immediately called a council of war, since there was still time to retreat and because many of the fighters there were recent converts (called Ansar or "Helpers" to distinguish them from the Quraishi Muslims), who had only pledged to defend Medina. Under the terms of the Constitution of Medina, they would have been within their rights to refuse to fight and leave the army. However, according to tradition, they pledged to fight as well, with Sa'd ibn Ubadah declaring, "If you [Muhammad] order us to plunge our horses into the sea, we would do so."[30] So, the Muslims continued to march towards Badr.
By 11 March both armies were about a day's march from Badr. Several Muslim warriors (including, according to some sources, Ali) who had ridden ahead of the main column captured two Meccan water carriers at the Badr wells. Expecting them to say they were with the caravan, the Muslims were horrified to hear them say they were with the main Quraishi army.[30]Template:Wrong number in source Some traditions also say that, upon hearing the names of all the Quraishi nobles accompanying the army, Muhammad exclaimed "Mecca hath thrown unto you the best morsels of her liver."[31] The next day Muhammad ordered a forced march to Badr and arrived before the Meccans.[citation needed]
The Badr wells were located on the gentle slope of the eastern side of a valley called "Yalyal". The western side of the valley was hemmed in by a large hill called 'Aqanqal. When the Muslim army arrived from the east, Muhammad initially chose to form his army at the first well he encountered. Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, however, asked him if this choice was divine instruction or Muhammad's own opinion. When Muhammad responded in the latter, Hubab suggested that the Muslims occupy the well closest to the Quraishi army, and block off the other ones. Muhammad accepted this decision and moved right away.[citation needed]
Meccan plan
“ [The] Arabs will hear how we marched forth and of our mighty gathering, and they will stand in awe of us forever. ”
— Abu Jahl
By contrast, while little is known about the progress of the Quraishi army from the time it left Mecca until its arrival just outside Badr, several things are worth noting: although many Arab armies brought their women and children along on campaigns both to motivate and care for the men, the Meccan army did not. Also, the Quraish apparently made little or no effort to contact the many allies they had scattered throughout the Hijaz.[32] Both facts suggest the Quraish lacked the time to prepare for a proper campaign in their haste to protect the caravan. Besides, it is believed they expected an easy victory, knowing they outnumbered the Muslims by three to one.[citation needed]
When the Quraishi reached Juhfah, just south of Badr, they received a message from Abu Sufyan telling them the caravan was safely behind them, and that they could therefore return to Mecca.[33] At this point, according to Karen Armstrong, a power struggle broke out in the Meccan army. Abu Jahl wanted to continue, but several of the clans present, including Banu Zuhrah and Banu Adi, promptly went home. Armstrong suggests they may have been concerned about the power that Abu Jahl would gain from crushing the Muslims. The Banu Hashim tribe wanted to leave, but was threatened by Abu Jahl to stay.[34] Despite these losses, Abu Jahl was still determined to fight, boasting "We will not go back until we have been to Badr." During this period, Abu Sufyan and several other men from the caravan joined the main army.[35]
Day of battle
Further information: List of participants at the Battle of Badr
At midnight on 13 March, the Quraish broke camp and marched into the valley of Badr. It had rained the previous day and they struggled to move their horses and camels up the hill of 'Aqanqal. After they descended from 'Aqanqal, the Meccans set up another camp inside the valley. While they rested, they sent out a scout, Umayr ibn Wahb to reconnoitre the Muslim lines. Umayr reported that Muhammad's army was small, and that there were no other Muslim reinforcements which might join the battle.[36] However, he also predicted extremely heavy Quraishi casualties in the event of an attack (One hadith refers to him seeing "the camels of [Medina] laden with certain death").[37] This further demoralized the Quraish, as Arab battles were traditionally low-casualty affairs, and set off another round of bickering among the Quraishi leadership. However, according to Arab traditions Amr ibn Hishām quashed the remaining dissent by appealing to the Quraishi's sense of honor and demanding that they fulfill their blood vengeance.[38]
The death of Abu Jahl, and the casting of the Meccan dead into dry wells
The battle began with champions from both armies emerging to engage in combat. Three of the Medinan Ansar emerged from the Muslim ranks, only to be shouted back by the Meccans, who were nervous about starting any unnecessary feuds and only wanted to fight the Quraishi Muslims, keeping the dispute within clan. So Hamza approached forward and called on Ubayda and Ali to join him. The Muslims dispatched the Meccan champions in a three-on-three melee. Hamza killed his opponent Utba ibn Rabi'ah; Ali killed his opponent Walid ibn Utba; Ubayda was wounded by his opponent Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah, but eventually killed him. So this was a victorious traditional 3 on 3 combat for the Muslims.[citation needed]
Now both armies began showering each other with arrows. A few Muslims and an unknown number of Quraish warriors were killed. Before the battle, Muhammad had given orders for the Muslims to attack first with their ranged weapons and only afterword advance to engage the Quraish with melee weapons. Now he gave the order to charge, throwing a handful of pebbles at the Meccans in what was probably a traditional Arabian gesture while yelling "Defaced be those faces!"[39][40] The Muslim army yelled "Yā manṣūr amit!"[41] "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!" and rushed the Quraishi lines. The Meccans, understrength and unenthusiastic about fighting, promptly broke and ran. The battle itself only lasted a few hours and was over by the early afternoon.[39] The Quran describes the force of the Muslim attack in many verses, which refer to thousands of angels descending from Heaven at Badr to terrify the Quraish.[40][42] Muslim sources take this account literally, and there are several hadith where Muhammad discusses the Angel Jibreel and the role he played in the battle.[citation needed]
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After the battle Muhammad returned to Medina. Some seventy prisoners were taken captive and are noted to have been treated humanely including a number of Quraish leaders.[43][44] Most of the prisoners were released upon payment of ransom and those who were literate were released on the condition that they teach ten persons how to read and write and this teaching was to count as their ransom.[45][46]
William Muir wrote of this period:
In pursuance of Mahomet's commands, the citizens of Medîna, and such of the Refugees as possessed houses, received the prisoners, and treated them with much consideration. "Blessings be on the men of Medina!" said one of these prisoners in later days; "they made us ride, while they themselves walked: they gave us wheaten bread to eat when there was little of it, contenting themselves with dates. It is not surprising that when, some time afterwards, their friends came to ransom them, several of the prisoners who had been thus received declared themselves adherents of Islam...Their kindly treatment was thus prolonged, and left a favourable impression on the minds even of those who did not at once go over to Islam"[44]
—  William Muir, The Life of Mahomet
Executions
A painting from Siyer-i Nebi, Ali beheading Nadr ibn al-Harith in the presence of Muhammad and his companions.
Two of the prisoners taken at Badr, namely Nadr ibn al-Harith and ‘Uqbah ibn Abū Mu‘ayṭ are reported to have been executed upon the order of Muhammad. According to Muslim scholar Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, these two captives were executed by Ali. Mubarakpuri says that this incident is also mentioned in the Sunan Abu Dawud no 2686 and Anwal Ma'bud 3/12[47] However, according to numerous accounts deemed reliable, such as a number of narrations in Sahih Bukhari, and Ibn Sa'd's biographical compendium, the Tabaqat Al-Kubra, Uqba was not executed but was killed during fighting in the field of battle at Badr and was among those Quraysh leaders whose corpses were buried in a pit.[48][49][50]
Muslims killed in the Battle of Badr
Fourteen Muslims were killed in that battle.
Haritha bin Suraqa al-Khazraji
Dhush-shimaalayn ibn 'Abdi 'Amr al-Muhajiri
Rafi' bin al-Mu'alla al-Khazraji
Sa'd bin Khaythama al-Awsi
Safwan bin Wahb al-Muhajiri
Aaqil bin al-Bukayr al-Muhajiri
Ubayda bin al-Harith al-Muhajiri
Umayr bin al-Humam al-Khazraji
Umayr bin Abi Waqqas al-Muhajiri
Awf bin al-Harith al-Khazraji
Mubashshir bin 'Abdi'l Mundhir al-Awsi
Mu'awwidh bin al-Harith al-Khazraji
Mihja' bin Salih al-Muhajiri
Yazid bin al-Harith bin Fus.hum al-Khazraji
Implications
The Battle of Badr was extremely influential in the rise of two men who would determine the course of history on the Arabian peninsula for the next century. The first was Muhammad, who was transformed overnight from a Meccan outcast into a major leader. Marshall Hodgson adds that Badr forced the other Arabs to "regard the Muslims as challengers and potential inheritors to the prestige and the political role of the [Quraish]." Shortly thereafter he expelled the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the Jewish tribes at Medina that had been threatening his political position, and who had assaulted a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion for breaking the peace treaty. At the same time Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, Muhammad's chief opponent in Medina, found his own position seriously weakened. Henceforth, he would only be able to mount limited challenges to Muhammad.[51]
The other major beneficiary of the Battle of Badr was Abu Sufyan, safely away from the battle leading the caravan . The death of Amr ibn Hashim, as well as many other Quraishi nobles[52] gave Abu Sufyan the opportunity, almost by default, to become chief of the Quraish. As a result, when Muhammad marched into Mecca six years later, it was Abu Sufyan who helped negotiate its peaceful surrender. Abu Sufyan subsequently became a high-ranking official in the Muslim Empire, and his son Muawiya would later go on to found the Umayyad Caliphate.
In later days, the battle of Badr became so significant that Ibn Ishaq included a complete name-by-name roster of the Muslim army in his biography of Muhammad. In many hadiths, veterans who fought at Badr are identified as such as a formality, and they may have even received a stipend in later years.[53] The death of the last of the Badr veterans occurred during the First Islamic civil war.[54]
As Paul K. Davis sums up, "Mohammed's victory confirmed his authority as leader of Islam; by impressing local tribes that joined him, the expansion of Islam began."[55]
Islamic primary sources
The angelic host is sent to assist the Muslims
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Badr in the Quran
The Battle of Badr is one of the few battles explicitly discussed in the Quran. It is even mentioned by name as part of a comparison with the Battle of Uhud.
Quran: Al Imran 3:123–125 (Yusuf Ali). "Allah had helped you at Badr, when ye were a contemptible little force; then fear Allah; thus May ye show your gratitude. Remember thou saidst to the Faithful: "Is it not enough for you that Allah should help you with three thousand angels (Specially) sent down? "Yea, – if ye remain firm, and act aright, even if the enemy should rush here on you in hot haste, your Lord would help you with five thousand angels Making a terrific onslaught."
According to Abdullah Yusuf Ali, the term "gratitude" may be a reference to discipline. At Badr, the Muslim forces had allegedly maintained firm discipline, whereas at Uhud they broke ranks to pursue the Meccans, allowing Meccan cavalry to flank and rout their army. The idea of Badr as a furqan, an Islamic miracle, is mentioned again in the same surah.
Quran: Al Imran 3:13 (Yusuf Ali). "There has already been for you a Sign in the two armies that met (in combat): One was fighting in the cause of Allah, the other resisting Allah; these saw with their own eyes Twice their number. But Allah doth support with His aid whom He pleaseth. In this is a warning for such as have eyes to see."
Badr is also the subject of Sura 8: Al-Anfal, which details military conduct and operations. "Al-Anfal" means "the spoils" and is a reference to the post-battle discussion in the Muslim army over how to divide up the plunder from the Quraishi army. Though the Sura does not name Badr, it describes the battle, and several of the verses are commonly thought to have been from or shortly after the battle.
Hadith literature
This battle is also mentioned in the Sunni Hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari and Sunan Abu Dawud. Sahih al-Bukhari mentions that Uthman did not join the battle:
“ Narrated Ibn 'Umar: 'Uthman did not join the Badr battle because he was married to one of the daughters of Allah's Apostle and she was ill. So, the Prophet said to him. "You will get a reward and a share (from the war booty) similar to the reward and the share of one who has taken part in the Badr battle."
Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:359
”
It also mentions the war booty that each fighter who participated in the battle received in Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:357. Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:369 also mentions how Abu Jahl was killed:
“ Narrated 'Abdur-Rahman bin 'Auf: While I was standing in the row on the day (of the battle) of Badr, I looked to my right and my left and saw two young Ansari boys, and I wished I had been stronger than they. One of them called my attention saying, "O Uncle! Do you know Abu Jahl?" I said, "Yes, what do you want from him, O my nephew?" He said, "I have been informed that he abuses Allah's Apostle. By Him in Whose Hands my life is, if I should see him, then my body will not leave his body till either of us meet his fate." I was astonished at that talk. Then the other boy called my attention saying the same as the other had said. After a while I saw Abu Jahl walking amongst the people. I said (to the boys), "Look! This is the man you asked me about." So, both of them attacked him with their swords and struck him to death and returned to Allah's Apostle to inform him of that. Allah's Apostle asked, "Which of you has killed him?" Each of them said, "I Have killed him." Allah's Apostle asked, "Have you cleaned your swords?" They said, "No. " He then looked at their swords and said, "No doubt, you both have killed him and the spoils of the deceased will be given to Muadh bin Amr bin Al-Jamuh." The two boys were Muadh bin 'Afra and Muadh bin Amr bin Al-Jamuh.
Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:369
”
It is also mentioned in the Sunni hadith collection Sunan Abu Dawood, 14:2716
Biographical literature
The incident is also mentioned in Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad.[56]
In modern culture
"Badr" has become popular among Muslim armies and paramilitary organizations. "Operation Badr" was used to describe Egypt's offensive in the 1973 Yom Kippur War as well as Pakistan's actions in the 1999 Kargil War. Iranian offensive operations against Iraq in the late 1980s were also named after Badr.[57] During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the rebel leadership stated that they selected the date of the assault on Tripoli to be the 20th of Ramadan, marking the anniversary of the Battle of Badr.[58]
The Battle of Badr was featured in the 1976 film The Message, the 2004 animated movie Muhammad: The Last Prophet, and the 2012 TV series Omar.
See also
Book: Military career of Muhammad
Islamic military jurisprudence
Military career of Muhammad
Pre-Islamic Arabia
List of expeditions of Muhammad
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Quraish refers to the tribe in control of Mecca. The plural and adjective are Quraishi. The terms "Quraishi" and "Meccan" are used interchangeably between the Hijra in 622 and the Muslim Conquest of Mecca in 630.
Jump up ^ The development of exegesis in early Islam: the authenticity of Muslim ... By Herbert Berg.
Jump up ^ The Sealed Nectar, p. 274
Jump up ^ Noor Muhammad, Farkhanda. "Islamiat". Fifth Revised Edition, 2008, p. 61
Jump up ^ Dr. Iftikhar ul Haq and Maulvi Jahangir."O' Level Islamiyat [Endorsed by CIE]", Bookland Publishers, 2008, p. 74
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham 167
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham (326–328)
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq 299–301
Jump up ^ Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-253-21627-3. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
Jump up ^ Quran 22:39
Jump up ^ The Life of Muḥammad: A Translation of ibn Isḥāq's Sīrat Rasul Allāh with introduction & notes by Alfred Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955, pp. 281–86
Jump up ^ Mirza Bashir Ahmad. "The Life and Character of the Seal of Prophets", Volume II Islam International Publications, 2013, pp. 89–92
Jump up ^ Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) at the Wayback Machine
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham 425
Jump up ^ Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Rusul wa al-Mulūk, volume 3, p. 14, Lebanon, Bihī Dārul-Fikr, 2nd ed., (2002)
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham 424–425
Jump up ^ Quran 2:217
Jump up ^ The Life of Muḥammad: A Translation of ibn Isḥāq's Sīrat Rasul Allāh with introduction & notes by Alfred Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955, pp. 287–88
Jump up ^ Hodgson, pp. 174–75.
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham 424–426
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq/Hisham 428
Jump up ^ Ibn Kathir v. II p. 253
Jump up ^ Lings, pp. 138–39
Jump up ^ "Sahih al-Bukhari: Volume 4, Book 53, Number 359". Usc.edu. Archived from the original on 20 July 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Witness-pioneer.org". Witness-pioneer.org. 16 September 2002. Archived from the original on 5 February 2010. Retrieved 19 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Martin Lings, pp. 139–40.
Jump up ^ "Sahih al-Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 59, Number 286". Usc.edu. Archived from the original on 16 August 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Ibn Ishaq says that Abu Sufyan himself rode ahead to reconnoiter the area and discovered the Muslim scouts via the dates left in their camels' droppings
Jump up ^ Martin Lings, p. 140
^ Jump up to: a b "Sahih Muslim: Book 19, Number 4394". Usc.edu. Archived from the original on 20 August 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Martin Lings, p. 142
Jump up ^ Lings, p. 154.
Jump up ^ Lings, p. 142.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, p. 174
Jump up ^ Lings, pp. 142–43.
Jump up ^ Lings, pp. 143–44.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, pp. 174–75.
Jump up ^ Lings, pp. 144–146.
^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong, p. 176.
^ Jump up to: a b Lings, p. 148.
Jump up ^ "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!"
Jump up ^ Quran: Al-i-Imran 3:123–125 (Yusuf Ali). "Allah had helped you at Badr, when ye were a contemptible little force; then fear Allah; thus May ye show your gratitude. Remember thou saidst to the Faithful: "Is it not enough for you that Allah should help you with three thousand angels (Specially) sent down? "Yea, – if ye remain firm, and act aright, even if the enemy should rush here on you in hot haste, your Lord would help you with five thousand angels Making a terrific onslaught."
Jump up ^ "Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 52, Number 252". Archived from the original on 13 October 2012. Retrieved 20 September 2015. Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: When it was the day (of the battle) of Badr, prisoners of war were brought including Al-Abbas who was undressed. The Prophet looked for a shirt for him. It was found that the shirt of 'Abdullah bin Ubai would do, so the Prophet let him wear it. That was the reason why the Prophet took off and gave his own shirt to 'Abdullah. (The narrator adds, "He had done the Prophet some favor for which the Prophet liked to reward him.")
^ Jump up to: a b Muir, William (1861). The Life of Mahomet (Volume 3 ed.). London: Smith, Elder and Co. p. 122. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
Jump up ^ William Muir (1861). "The Life of Mahomet: With Introductory Chapters on the Original Sources for the Biography of Mahomet, and on the Pre-Islamite History of Arabia". London: Smith, Elder and Co. p. ix. Retrieved 19 January 2016.
Jump up ^ The Life of Muhammad The Prophet
Jump up ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Free Version), p. 129
Jump up ^ Sahih Bukhari: Volume 1, Book 4, Number 241
Jump up ^ Sahih Bukhari: Volume 1, Book 9, Number 499
Jump up ^ Al Tabaqat-al-Kubra, Muhammad Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2, p. 260, ghazwatul Badr, Darul Ihya'it-Turathil-'Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, First Edition, (1996)
Jump up ^ Hodgson, pp. 176–78.
Jump up ^ Including the elderly Abu Lahab, who was not at Badr but died within days of the army's return.
Jump up ^ "Sahih al-Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 59, Number 357". Usc.edu. Archived from the original on 16 August 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Sahih Al-Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 59, Number 358 Archived 16 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 95–96.
Jump up ^ Ibn Hisham; Ibn Ishaq (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of Isḥāq's Sīrat rasūl Allāh. Translated by Alfred Guillaume. Oxford University Press. p. 304. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
Jump up ^ Wright, Robin (1989). In the name of God: The Khomeini decade. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 133. ISBN 9780671672355.
Jump up ^ Laub, Karin (21 August 2011). "Libyan Rebels Say They Are Closing In on Tripoli". Associated Press (via The Atlanta Journal-Constitution). Retrieved 21 August 2011.
References
Books and articles
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1987). The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation & Commentary. Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an; Reissue edition. ISBN 0-940368-32-3.
Armstrong, Karen (1992). Muhmmad: Biography of the Prophet. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-250886-5.
Crone, Patricia (1987). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Blackwell.
Hodgson, Marshall (1974). The Venture of Islam: The Classical Age of Islam. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-34683-8.
Lings, Martin (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International. ISBN 0-89281-170-6.
Mubarakpuri, Safi-ul-Raḥmān (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al Makhtum: The Sealed Nectar. Darussalam. ISBN 9960-899-55-1. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
Nicolle, David (1993). Armies of the Muslim Conquest. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-279-X.
Ramadan, Tariq (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet. United States of America: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530880-8.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press.
Online references
"Translation of Malik's Muwatta". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved September 2010. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
"Translation of Sahih Muslim". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved September 2010. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
"Translation of Sahih al-Bukhari". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved September 2010. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
"Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved September 2010. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Battle of Badr
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Badr.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Holy Qur'an/Al-Anfal
Battle of Badr, 17th Ramadan 624 A.D
Badr at IslamAnswers.Net
The first battle of Islam at Badr: Islamic Occasions Network
Tafsir (Sura 8: verse 11 to 18) – Battle of Badr: Analysis of Qur'anic verses by Irshaad Hussain.
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mentioned
Amalek
Ahl al-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
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Banu Qurayza
Iranian people
Umayyad Dynasty
Aus & Khazraj
People of Quba
Religious groups
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Muslims
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Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
Ruhban (Christian monks)
Qissis (Christian priest)
Yahūd (Jews)
Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
Rabbani/Rabbi
Sabians
Polytheists
Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
Locations
Mentioned
Al-Arḍ Al-Mubārakah ("The Land The Blessed")
Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Land The Holy")
In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills")
Iram dhāṫ al-‘Imād (Iram of the Pillars)
Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
‘Arafāṫ
Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
Badr
Ḥunayn
Makkah (Mecca)
Bakkah
Ka‘bah (Kaaba)
Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
Safa and Marwah
Saba’ (Sheba)
‘Arim Saba’ (Dam of Sheba)
Rass
In Mesopotamia:
Al-Jūdiyy
Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed")
Bābil (Babylon)
Qaryaṫ Yūnus ("Township of Jonah," that is Nineveh)
Door of Hittah
Madyan (Midian)
Majma' al-Bahrain
Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
Sinai Region or Tīh Desert
Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor
Mu'tafikat (Sodom)
Implied
Antioch
Antakya
Arabia
Ayla
Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
Canaan
Cave of Seven Sleepers
Dār al-Nadwa
Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier")
Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
Cave of Hira & Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
Ta'if
Hudaybiyyah
Jordan River
Nile River
Palestine River
Paradise of Shaddad
Religious locations
Bay'a (Church)
Mihrab
Monastery
Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration")
Al-Mash‘ar Al-Ḥarām ("The Monument the Sacred")
Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Place-of-Prostration The Farthest")
Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
Masjid al-Dirar
A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
Masjid Qubâ’ (Quba Mosque)
The Prophet's Mosque
Salat (Synagogue)
Non-human
physical
entities
Religious texts
Al-Injîl (The Gospel of Jesus)
Al-Qur’ân (The book of Muhammad)
Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrâhîm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
Aṫ-Ṫawrâṫ (The Torah)
Ṣuḥuf-i-Mûsâ (Scroll(s) of Moses)
Tablets of Stone
Az-Zabûr (The Psalms of David)
Related objects
Forbidden fruit of Adam
Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles
Noah's Ark
Staff of Musa
Tabut al-Sakina (Casket of Shekhinah)
Throne of Bilqis
Trumpet of Israfil
Mentioned idols
(cult images)
'Ansāb
Idols of Israelites:
Baal
The ‘ijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
Idols of Noah's people:
Nasr
Suwā‘
Wadd
Yaghūth
Ya‘ūq
Idols of Quraysh:
Lāt
Manāṫ
'Uzza
Jibt and Taghut
Events
Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates")
Battle of Badr
Battle of Hunayn
Battle of Khaybar
Battle of Tabouk
Battle of Uhud
Conquest of Mecca
Incident of Ifk
Laylat al-Mabit
Mubahala
Sayl al-‘Arim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)
The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hujja al-Wada')
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Umrah al-Qaza
Yawm al-Dār
Implied
The event of Ghadir Khumm
Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)
Coordinates: 23°44′N 38°46′E / 23.733°N 38.767°E / 23.733; 38.767
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GND: 4428873-6
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text:
Arm swing in human locomotion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Walk cycle with arm swing
Arm swing in human bipedal walking is a natural motion wherein each arm swings with the motion of the opposing leg. Swinging arms in an opposing direction with respect to the lower limb reduces the angular momentum of the body, balancing the rotational motion produced during walking. Although such pendulum-like motion of arms is not essential for walking, recent studies point that arm swing improves the stability and energy efficiency in human locomotion. Those positive effects of arm swing have been utilized in sports, especially in racewalking and sprinting.
Contents
[hide]
1 Kinematics
2 Theories
2.1 Stability
2.2 Energy efficiency
2.3 Evolution
3 Athletic performance
4 Robotics
5 Neuromechanical considerations
6 Medical science
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Kinematics[edit]
Studies on the role of arm swing consist mainly of analysis of bipedal walking models[1] and treadmill experiments on human subjects. Bipedal walking models of various complexity levels provided an explanation for the effects of arm swing on human locomotion. On the course of bipedal walking, the leg swing results in an angular momentum that is balanced by the ground reaction moments on the stance foot. Swinging arms create an angular momentum in the opposing direction of lower limb rotation, reducing the total angular momentum of the body. Lower angular momentum of the body results in a decline on the ground reaction moment on the stance foot.[2]
Amplitude or frequency of arm movements is determined by the gait, meaning that the swing motion is adaptive to changing conditions and perturbations.[3] As the walking speed increases, the amplitude of the arm swing increases accordingly. The frequency of the arm movements changes with the speed as well. Studies showed that at speeds lower than approximately 0.8 m/s, the frequency ratio between arm and leg movements is 2:1 whereas above that speed the ratio becomes 1:1.[4]
Theories[edit]
Stability[edit]
Both simulations on skeletal models and experiments on force plate agree that the free arm swing limits the ground reaction moments effective on the stance foot during walking, because the total angular momentum is lowered by the counterbalancing swing of arms with respect to the lower-limb.[5] In other words, a subject exerts less reaction moment to the ground surface when there is arm swing. This implies that the friction force between the stance foot and the ground surface does not have to be as high as without the arm swing.[citation needed]
Energy efficiency[edit]
Whether arm swing is a passive, natural motion caused by the rotation of torso or is an active motion that requires active muscle work has been a critical discussion on arm swing that could illuminate its benefit and function. A recent study concentrated on the energy consumption during walking showed that at low speeds arm swing is a passive motion dictated by the kinematics of torso, no different from a pair of pendula hung from the shoulders. Active upper extremity muscle work, controlled by the brain, only takes part when there is a perturbation and restores that natural motion. However, at higher speeds, the passive motion is insufficient to explain the amplitude of the swing observed in the experiments. The contribution of active muscle work increases with the walking speed. Despite the fact that a certain amount of energy is consumed for the arm movements, the total energy consumption drops meaning that arm swing still reduces the cost of walking. That reduction in the energy is up to 12 percent at certain walking speeds, a significant saving.[6][non-primary source needed]
Evolution[edit]
The inter-limb coordination in human locomotion, questioning whether the human gait is based on quadruped locomotion, is another major topic of interest. A recent research indicates that inter-limb coordination during human locomotion is organized in a similar way to that in the cat, promoting the view that the arm swing may be a residual function from quadruped gait.[7] Another work on the control mechanisms of arm movements during walking corroborated the former findings, showing that central pattern generator (CPG) might be involved in cyclic arm swing. However, these findings do not imply vestigiality of arm swing, which appears to be debateful after the 2003 evidences on the function of arm swing in bipedal locomotion.[8]
Athletic performance[edit]
U.S. Army Sgt. John Nunn racewalks during the 2007 Military World Games competition in Hyderabad, India
Energy efficiency of arm swing and its potential in adjusting the momentum of the body have been utilized in sports. Sprinters make use of the contribution of arm swing on the linear momentum in order to get a higher forward acceleration. Racewalkers are also utilizing the arm swing for its energy efficiency. Rather than the rhythmic movements during walking, swinging arms in the right way helps athletic performance in different disciplines. Standing long jump performance is shown to be improved by swinging arms forward during the onset of the jump and back-and-forth during landing since the linear momentum of the body can be adjusted with the help of moving arms.[9] Use of arms in adjusting the rotational and linear momentum is also a common practice in somersaulting and gymnastics.[10]
Robotics[edit]
The literature on the arm swing is partly created by robotics researchers as the stability in locomotion is a significant challenge especially in humanoid robots. So far although many humanoid robots preserve static equilibrium during walking which does not require arm swing, arm movements has been added to a recent humanoid robot walking in dynamic equilibrium.[11][unreliable medical source?] The pendulum-like motion of arms is also utilized in passive dynamic walkers, a mechanism that can walk on its own.[12]
Neuromechanical considerations[edit]
Understanding the underlying neural mechanisms on the organization of rhythmic arm movement and its coordination with the lower limb could enable development of effective strategies for rehabilitation of spinal cord injury and stroke patients. Rhythmic arm movements for different tasks -arm swing during walking, cycling arms while standing and arm swing while standing- were investigated in this perspective and the results pointed a common central control mechanism.[13] Performing the left-lateralised Stroop task while walking on a treadmill tends to reduce arm swing on the right, particularly in older people, suggesting a significant supraspinal contribution to its maintenance.[14] Interestingly, while men of all ages demonstrate this interference effect between cognitive load and right arm swing, women appear to be resistant until the age of 60.
Medical science[edit]
The role of arm movements in unhealthy subjects is another popular direction investigating the strategies adopted by patients in order to maintain stability in walking. As an example, children with hemiparetic CP showed substantial increases in angular momentum generated by the legs, which were compensated by increased angular momentum of the unaffected arm showing the way arm swing is utilized in order to balance the rotational motion of the body.[15] Another interesting finding is that reduction in bilateral arm coordination may contribute to clinically observed asymmetry in arm swing behavior which could be a sign of Parkinson's disease.[16] A quantitative study on the level of asymmetry in arm swing is considered to have utility for early and differential diagnosis, and for tracking Parkinson's disease progression.[17][unreliable medical source?]
See also[edit]
Biomechanics of sprint running
Bipedalism
Central pattern generator
References[edit]
Jump up ^ F. C. Anderson, M. G. Pandy (2003). Dynamic Optimization of Human Walking. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 123, 381–390.
Jump up ^ J. Park (2008). Synthesis of natural arm swing motion in human bipedal walking. Journal of Biomechanics , 41, 1417–1426.
Jump up ^ S. F. Donker, Th. Mulder, B. Nienhuis, J. Duysens (2002). Adaptations in arm movements for added mass to wrist or ankle during walking. Experimental Brain Research, 146(1), 26–31.
Jump up ^ M. P. Ford, R. C. Wagenaar, K. M. Newell (2007). Arm constraint and walking in healthy adults. Gait & Posture, 26, 135–141.
Jump up ^ Yu Li, W. Wang, R. H. Crompton, M. M. Gunther (2001). Free vertical moments and transverse forces in human walking and their role in relation to arm-swing. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 47–58.
Jump up ^ S. H. Collins, P. G. Adamczyk, A. D. Kuo (2009). Dynamic arm swinging in human walking. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences , 276, 3679–3688.
Jump up ^ V. Dietz (2002). Do human bipeds use quadrupedal coordination? Trends in Neurosciences, 25, No. 9, 462–467.
Jump up ^ E. P. Zehr, C. Haridas (2003). Modulation of cutaneous reflexes in arm muscles during walking: further evidence of similar control mechanisms for rhythmic human arm and leg movements. Experimental Brain Research, 149, 260–266.
Jump up ^ B. M. Ashby, J. H. Heegard (2002). Role of arm motion in the standing long jump. Journal of Biomechanics , 35, 1631–1637.
Jump up ^ K. B. Cheng, M. Hubbard (2008). Role of arms in somersaulting from compliant surfaces: A simulation study of springboard standing dives. Human Movement Science, 27, 80–95.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mclbVTIYG8E
Jump up ^ S. Collins, A. Ruina, R. Tedrake, M. Wisse (2005). Efficient Bipedal Robots Based on Passive-Dynamic Walkers. "Science", 307, 1082.
Jump up ^ M. D. Klimstra, E. Thomas, R. H. Stoloff, D. P. Ferris, E. P. Zehr (2009). Neuromechanical considerations for incorporating rhythmic arm movement in the rehabilitation of walking. Chaos, 139.
Jump up ^ Killeen T, Easthope CS, Filli L et al (2017). Increasing cognitive load attenuates right arm swing in healthy human walking, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/1/160993.
Jump up ^ S. M. Bruijn, P. Meyns, I. Jonkers, D. Kaat, J. Duysens (2011). Control of angular momentum during walking in children with cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 2860–2866.
Jump up ^ X. Huang, J. M. Mahoney, M. M. Lewis, G. Du, S. J. Piazza, J. P. Cusumano (2012). Both coordination and symmetry of arm swing are reduced in Parkinson’s disease. Gait & Posture, 35, 373–377.
Jump up ^ M. D. Lewek, R. Poole, J. Johnson, O. Halawa, X. Huang (2010). Arm swing magnitude and asymmetry during gait in the early stages of Parkinson’s disease. Gait & Posture, 31, 256–260.
Further reading[edit]
Uner, Tan, ed. (2012). "Uner Tan Syndrome: Review and Emergence of Human Quadrupedalism in Self-organization, Attractors, and Evolutionary Perspectives". Latest Findings in intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research. InTech Publications. pp. 1–44.
External links[edit]
Arm Swinging – Experiment
‘LOCOMOTION NEUROMECHANICS’ course APPH 6232 at Georgia Institute of Technology
Arm Swing: Maximize Your Upper Body and Reduce Your Legwork
How Important is Arm Swing to Running Form and Speed?
The Art of Running
Scientists find a reason for arm-swinging as you walk
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