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It Ain't Half Hot Mum
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It Ain't Half Hot Mum
Created by
Jimmy Perry & David Croft
Written by
Jimmy Perry & David Croft
Directed by
David Croft
Graeme Muir
Bob Spiers
Ray Butt
Paul Bishop
John Kilby
Starring
Michael Bates
Windsor Davies
Melvyn Hayes
George Layton
Don Estelle
Donald Hewlett
Michael Knowles
Christopher Mitchell
John Clegg
Stuart McGugan
Kenneth MacDonald
Mike Kinsey
Dino Shafeek
Babar Bhatti
Opening theme
Meet the Gang
Ending theme
Meet the Gang
"Land of Hope and Glory"
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
8
No. of episodes
56 (list of episodes)
Production
Producer(s)
David Croft
Graeme Muir
Running time
30 minutes
Distributor
BBC Worldwide
2entertain
Release
Original network
BBC1
Original release
3 January 1974 (1974-01-03) – 3 September 1981 (1981-09-03)
It Ain't Half Hot Mum is a BBC television sitcom, about the adventures of a Royal Artillery Concert Party, broadcast on the BBC between 1974 and 1981, and written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft. It was set in India and Burma, during the last months of the Second World War, starting just prior to V-E Day in 1945 (the German surrender is announced in an early episode).
It Ain't Half Hot Mum was the second of the three sitcom series co-written by David Croft set in the Second World War, the first being Dad's Army (1968–1977) (with Jimmy Perry) and the third being 'Allo, 'Allo! (1982–1992) (with Jeremy Lloyd).
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Reception
3 Characters
3.1 Officers
3.2 Warrant Officer
3.3 Concert party
3.4 Natives
3.5 Others
3.5.1 Deolali, India
3.5.2 Tin Min, Burma
4 Series and episodes
5 DVD releases
6 Songs
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Set during the Second World War (in the period just after the German surrender when the Allies were trying to finish the war by defeating Japan in Asia), the show focuses on a group of British soldiers stationed at the Royal Artillery Depot in Deolali, India, where soldiers were kept before being sent to fight at the front lines. The main characters are performers in the base's Concert Party, which involved putting on comic acts and musical performances (similar to those seen in a music hall) for the other soldiers prior to their departure for the front lines. The soldiers in the Concert Party all love this particular job, as it keeps them out of combat duty, but some do harbour dreams of becoming world-famous actors when they leave the army.
The main characters include Gunner "Lofty" Sugden, a short, fat soldier who wears a pith helmet and possesses an incredible singing voice; Gunner "Parky" Parkin, a young recruit who, though eager, is slightly bumbling and has very little aptitude for the theatre; Gunner "La-de-dah"/"Paderewski" Graham, a bald-headed and intelligent Oxford graduate who plays the piano; Gunner "Atlas" Mackintosh, a short-tempered Scotsman who specialises in feats of strength; Gunner "Nobby" Clark, a not-very-bright soldier who does bird calls and whistling acts; and Gunner "Nosher" Evans, a soldier who does a paper-tearing act and tends to eat a lot, spraying food whenever he speaks. Rounding out the enlisted crew are Bombardier "Solly" Solomons, a soldier from London, who is a former theatrical agent, a Jew; and Gunner "Gloria" Beaumont, an effeminate, cowardly soldier who specialises in performing female roles in drag (as there are no women assigned to the Concert Party). Beaumont is later promoted to Bombardier after Solly is demobbed and sent back to Britain.
The soldiers are under the orders of Battery Sergeant Major "Shut Up" Williams, a belligerent Welshman who has spent almost all of his life as a professional soldier. In turn, Williams reports to the two officers in charge of the Concert Party: Captain Ashwood and Lieutenant-Colonel Reynolds. Both Ashwood and Reynolds are characterised as coming from upper-class backgrounds. Ashwood, the younger officer, is rather stupid and slightly excitable, while Reynolds is older and more worldly-wise and sensible. While often bemoaning the rough conditions of Army life, both Ashwood and Reynolds realise that keeping their Concert Party administrative duties (and thus remaining behind friendly lines) is infinitely preferable to combat duty at the front line.
A small contingent of Indian workers are also usually found alongside the Britons: Bearer Rangi Ram, who acts as their butler and porter, displaying an outwardly obsequious nature that hides a very savvy intelligence; he is a good friend of the concert party and helps them out when they are in trouble; Muhammad, the idealistic chai wallah who, in the traditional role, carries an urn of hot tea and a box of pastries for everyone to purchase, and Rumzam, the lazy punkah wallah whose job it is to fan the officers, who is often kicked and told off by everyone.
While both the enlisted men and the officers are extremely reluctant to give up their relatively cushy assignment behind the lines, Sergeant Major Williams hates being assigned to the Concert Party. Williams resents not only the lack of an active combat role, but also having to be in charge of men who perform what he considers to be effeminate duties (often deriding them as "poofs"), instead of being able to command men he considers to be "real soldiers". As a result, Williams is routinely found shouting orders at the men (both soldiers and native workers) in the manner of a drill sergeant, delighting in putting the enlisted men through endless drills, parades and PT sessions. His ultimate goal, and the focus of many of his schemes, is to have the Concert Party disbanded, and the men sent off to join other troops fighting at the front. However, the soldiers usually find a way to get out of these schemes (often with the unwitting help of the two officers), and so are able to continue performing their Concert Party duties. However, the Concert Party eventually finds themselves transferred to the village of Tin Min, Burma, which is located very near the front line.
The Sergeant Major is also depicted as being extremely proud of the British Empire (and being blind to the fact that it is in its last days), and disgusted by the idea of Home Rule that the British colonies will gain after the war, and by Asian nationalists who dream of India and Burma being independent from British control. As such, the Sergeant Major is often abusive to the Asian workers and people, and tries his best to treat them roughly, which often gets him into trouble. Rangi, the bearer, is also presented, in a hugely comedy way, as being extremely supportive of British imperialism, and considers himself British, despite his very Asian appearance, and frequently refers to his fellows Asians as "damn natives".
While Williams heaps scorn and derision upon all the enlisted men, he reserves particular contempt for Gloria (who he considers to be the most effeminate of the lot), Graham (who he mocks for having a "posh" accent and university education, although he sometimes needs and appreciates his intelligence), and Lofty (because of his height, weight and general lack of military bearing, despite admiring his voice). The sole, and notable, exception to Williams' usual callous treatment of the troops is Gunner Parkin, who Williams' believes is his illegitimate son as he had an affair with Parkin's mother, many years before. When the rest of the concert party discover what the Sgt Major believes, Parkin is welcomed into the party, as the Sgt Major would want to stop it being sent into battle as long as Parkin is a member. They change Parkin's blood group on his medical file to that of Williams so that the Sergeant Major will have 'proof' that Parkin is his son. As a result, Williams routinely compliments Parkin and praises him for even the most minor of successes and often goes to great lengths to defend Parkin to the officers whenever he bungles a task. Williams also routinely excuses Parkin from participating in any event that might be even the least bit dangerous, even when Parkin himself has eagerly volunteered to participate. At times, that means that Williams must intervene to foil a scheme that he himself came up with to disband the Concert Party when it becomes evident Parkin will get into the same trouble as the rest of the men. For his part, Parkin does not take advantage of his special relationship with Williams, preferring instead to be treated as just another member of the Concert Party. For their part, the Concert Party happily keeps Parkin around because they not only consider him to be a "nice bloke" but also know that Williams will be reluctant to send the Concert Party into danger if his (alleged) son is likely to have to go with them.
Reception[edit]
Some critics viewed the casting of the white actor Michael Bates as the Indian bearer Rangi Ram as an example of blackface,[1][2] "All Michael Bates [...] wore was a light tan", protested Jimmy Perry in a 2013 interview with the journalist Neil Clark, an admirer of the series.[3] In Clark's opinion, the series "delightfully lampooned the attitudes of the British in India", but is "wrongly attacked by the PC brigade for being racist and homophobic".[4] Such a perception, however, is believed to be at least partly responsible for the programme not being repeated on British television in later years,[2] along with, according to Darren Lee of the British Film Institute's Screenonline website, a belief it contains "national stereotyping and occasionally patronising humour". [5] According to Mark Duguid, writing for the same website, it suffers "from its narrow stereotypes of its handful of Indian supporting characters as alternately servile, foolish, lazy or devious".[6] Its flaws have not stopped it appearing in several "best of" lists.[5]
The show's producers had been aware the issues around the casting a white actor to play one of the Indian characters, but relented owing to the lack of suitable Indian actors at the time.[2] Jimmy Perry defended the casting as Bates "spoke fluent Urdu, and was a captain in the Gurkhas".[3]
Characters[edit]
Officers[edit]
Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Arthur Digby St John Reynolds (Donald Hewlett)
Lieutenant-Colonel Reynolds is the most senior member of the concert party and enjoys their shows immensely. He thinks army life in Asia is very hard, while all he does is sit around sipping pink gin and dining with the elite. He is having an affair with Daphne Waddilove-Evans, whose husband, Major Waddilove-Evans, has left for the Punjab. He is the stereotypical British Army Officer, very stiff upper lip and prim and proper. Captain Ashford's utter stupidity does occasionally infuriate him, but he is effectively good-natured and tries to avoid leaving the easy life he has at any cost. Reynolds is revealed to be a solicitor.
Captain Jonathan Tarquin 'Tippy' Ashwood (Michael Knowles)
Captain Ashwood is an even bigger fan of the concert party than Colonel Reynolds, especially when they dress up as girls. He is not very bright, and often unknowingly ruins other people's plans, especially the Sergeant Major's. His catchphrase is "It's a tricky one, sir", which he says in reply to Colonel Reynolds asking for his opinion when the concert party runs into a particular problem. He occasionally writes skits for the concert party, which they reluctantly accept, as they are, on the whole, absolutely awful. He has absolutely no military bearing in him, which makes it very easy for the Sergeant Major and the others to manipulate him into using his authority to achieve their own ends. He is known for his stupidity, high-pitched voice, and love of gardening. He is exceptionally devoted to his wife, Fiona.
Warrant Officer[edit]
Battery Sergeant Major Tudor Bryn 'Shut Up' Williams (Windsor Davies)
The Sergeant Major is the only real, professional soldier among the concert party and its officers. He is somewhat bigoted in his views, making every effort to bully the Indian camp staff and remind everyone of British supremacy in Asia. He has only one goal in life, namely, to get his soldiers posted up the jungle (and into action) as fast as he can. Williams has a cunning and fierce pirate-like look. He is disgusted by the fact that his soldiers prance about on the stage wearing dresses and make-up all the time, and frequently calls them a "bunch of poofs". He is sometimes portrayed as a stereotypical "devious" Welshman, using cunning schemes to turn events in his favour. He dislikes all members of the concert party equally, apart from Parkin, who he believes to be his son. He has a particular loathing for "Lah-De-Dah" Gunner Graham, owing to his university education, although Williams will praise Graham for it if it serves his purposes. Williams often mispronounces long words, turning "hysterical" into "hystorical, or "historectical", "misapprehension" into "mishappropriation", "education" into "heducation" and "ignorant" into "higorant". When he leaves the army, Williams plans on marrying a widow who owns a pub.
There is some inconsistency over Williams' full name. In the series 3 episode "Don't Take the Micky" we hear his thoughts and he uses the name Tudor Bryn Williams to refer to himself, but in the final episode he reads out the name on his newly-issued ration book as "B.H. Williams". It is possible that "Tudor" is a play on the actor's own name, but this is unconfirmed.
Concert party[edit]
Bombardier 'Solly' Solomons (George Layton)
'Solly' is a showbiz man who always plays the male leads in the concert party's shows and is also the party's producer. He is a very intelligent individual and often has some sort of devious plot to avoid being posted or getting one over on the Sergeant Major. His father was a pawnbroker in Bond Street and he is a Jew. He left at the end of Series 2 when he was demobbed back to England.
Gunner/Bombardier 'Gloria' Beaumont (Melvyn Hayes)
'Gloria' Beaumont is a very effeminate person who cannot handle the violence, heat and mosquitoes of army life in India too well. He considers himself an artiste, and doesn't believe he should be in the Army, often trying to emphasize his show-business angle and ignore the "soldier" parts of his job. He has a passion for show business and always dresses up as famous film stars during the concert party shows, especially as Ginger Rogers. He later succeeded Bombardier Solomon's rank when George Layton left the series. Despite Beaumont's effeminacy, he meets a nurse in the episode 'Ticket to Blightly' and they announce they are to be wed. However, no more is heard of this plot line.
Gunner 'Lofty' Harold Horace Herbert Willy Sugden (Don Estelle)
'Lofty' is a soldier whose appearance can be summarized by means of quoting the Sergeant Major: "Is it a mushroom? No. Is it a soldier? No. It's Gunner Sugden." Lofty is the tiny, rotund lead singer of the concert party usually seen in an old-fashioned pith helmet, and has an amazing tenor voice which even the Sergeant Major cannot resist when he sings. Unfortunately, he is always picked out by the Sergeant Major as a "volunteer" when there is a particularly nasty or dangerous task to be carried out. He has been married three times; his two previous wives were called Agatha and Betty, and according to a latter, Sugden's third and present wife shares a house with Betty.
Gunner 'Parky' Nigel Parkins (Christopher Mitchell)
'Parky' is the youngest member of the concert party and has tried everything to become part of them, including being a ventriloquist, comedian, and singer, although he is very clumsy and never does anything right. The Sergeant Major wrongly believes that Parkins is his son (Williams had a relationship with Parkins' mother Edith in Colchester), which is why he treats him much better than he treats the others, and keeps telling him he has "a fine pair of shoulders"; however, Parkins is not Williams' son but when the rest of the concert party discover what the Sgt Major believes Parkins is welcomed into the party, as the Sgt Major would want to stop it being sent into battle as long as Parkins is a member. They change Parkins' blood group on his medical file to that of Williams so that the Sergeant Major will have 'proof' that Parkins is his son. Consequently, Williams becomes very selective about Parkins' achievement – praising him when he does something right and ignoring when Parkins makes huge blunders. An example of such a situation comes when Parkins is appointed as Battery clerk – since he has no exploitable talent for the concert party – and, having misunderstood an order from the Sergeant-Major, proceeds to have the Officer's Mess demolished. (Sergeant-Major Williams had told him to "remove the mess by the Officer's lines", referring to a pile of old beds that were to be discarded, and he destroyed the officer's mess. Then Colonel Reynolds tells him to order 200 tent pegs and he orders 200 tents.) Parkins references the show's title in the first ever episode when he signs off a letter to his mother with the words "I've been in India now two days, and it ain't half hot, Mum." Parkins was born on 2 October 1924, making him 21 years old, a birth which he celebrates in at the end of Series 4 in the episode "Twenty-One".
'La-De-Dah' Gunner 'Paderewski' Jonathan Graham (John Clegg)
Gunner Graham is the concert party's pianist. His appearance – bald and bespectacled – marks him out as a stereotypical boffin. He has a university degree in English literature and is very clever, speaking with a very upper class accent. This is why the Sergeant Major always mockingly repeats what he says, as well as mockingly addressing him as Mister La-De-Dah Gunner Graham. Graham often has difficult and ingenious plans to solve the concert party's problems, but these plans never seem to work and often result in his saying "oh well, bang goes that theory". The others (even the Sergeant Major and the Officers) often rely on his intelligence to get them out of awkward situations.
Gunner 'Atlas' Mackintosh (Stuart McGugan)
'Atlas' Mackintosh does the strong man act in the show, which involves tearing telephone directories in half. He is rather short-tempered, especially when Beaumont calls him a "great, big, butch, hairy haggis". He is very masculine, and is a bit of a contradiction to what Beaumont thinks is right for the concert party. Nevertheless, Mackintosh always tries his best and copes with what is given to him.
Gunner 'Nobby' Clark (Kenneth MacDonald)
'Nobby' Clark does a whistling act in the show, and can do excellent bird impersonation. He is not particularly clever, and often makes nonsense comments or observations about situations they find themselves in.
Gunner 'Nosher' Evans (Mike Kinsey)
'Nosher' Evans does a paper tearing act. He is always eating something (and once stayed on punishment in the Canteen four hours after he was relieved as he was enjoying himself) resulting in him spraying the contents of his mouth all around him when he speaks.
Natives[edit]
Bearer Rangi Ram (Michael Bates)
Rangi Ram is the concert party's native bearer, and very proud to be of service to the army. A frequently recurring gag is his ironically referring to "we British". The Sergeant Major shouts at him more than at anyone else, but Rangi is also the one he confides in when he wants to talk about problems. Rangi often provides the audience with an "old Hindu proverb" at the end of the episode, such as "There is an old Hindu proverb which say that if you see two eyes looking at you in the dark, it is not always a Tiger. It might be two one-eyed Tigers!" He is a devious individual, who can often manipulate the situation for his own ends (usually money). Though he often speaks of himself as British, he will show divided loyalty when his Indian aspect is under threat – when asked to burn the Indian flag by the Sergeant Major, he refused. He disappears without mention after series 5 due to the death of Michael Bates and is never mentioned again.
Char Wallah Muhammad (Dino Shafeek)
Muhammed the char wallah walks around the camp all day, selling tea from his urn. We can also hear him sing the musical interruptions between the scenes, which are mostly popular American hits, accompanied by a sitar. At the end of the credits he starts to sing "Land of Hope and Glory" only to be interrupted by the Sergeant-major shouting "SHUTUPPP!!!". After Rangi leaves, he takes on the role as Bearer to the Concert Party as well as still being the Char Wallah.
Punkah Wallah Rumzan (Babar Bhatti)
Rumzan the punkah wallah always sits outside the officers' quarters, pulling a string that is attached to a large fan indoors. He comments on everything in Urdu, and always adds a few words in English at the end. Rangi often tells him to "sit up straight while you are punkah-ing" and not to "be such Clever Dickie". He is far more intelligent than the others give him credit, and much of what he observes early on is often borne out in the end, but no-one notices. He disappears after Series 7 without mention.
Others[edit]
Deolali, India[edit]
Mrs Daphne Waddilove-Evans (Margaret Courtenay/Frances Bennett)
Mrs Waddilove-Evans is the wife of a local colonel, who lives in a large house near the camp in Deolali. In the earlier episodes, she is the lover of Colonel Reynolds; the two have a strong relationship, to the point when she accompanies the patrol on a journey to a nearby town. However, the group's vehicle breaks down and Rangi recommends that they spend the night in a nearby fort. The Colonel and Mrs Waddilove-Evans agree to meet at midnight and they do so. As Colonel Reynolds is distracted, Mrs Waddilove-Evans is kidnapped by a group of Pathan tribesmen and the concert party, Rangi, Muhammed and Rumzan attempt to save her. They are surprised when they meet her on a horse further on, having gained her freedom. It is implied that she escaped by granting sexual favours to the smugglers.
Ling Soo (Yasuko Nagazumi)
Ling Soo is a local girl who works as a maid for Colonel and Mrs Waddilove-Evans. She and Sergeant Major Williams have a continuing relationship. Her father, the owner of the Deolali Chinese restaurant, arranges for Williams and Ling Soo to elope to the mountains and marry secretly. This horrifies Williams, as he would be classed as a deserter, which creates a dilemma for Williams; does he stay on at the camp, or does he marry Ling Soo? Eventually, he reluctantly chooses his profession and his relationship is not mentioned again.
Inspector Singh (Nick Zaran)
The Inspector is the head of police in Deolali, who warns Colonel Reynolds and Captain Ashwood on a few occasions when the locals are rioting, demanding that the British go home.
Tin Min, Burma[edit]
"Pretty Boy" Me Thant (Burt Kwouk)
Me Thant is a Burmese smuggler, who is bribed by GHQ at 20 pieces of gold a week to keep from assaulting and keeping away from the local British troops. Later on, he challenges Sergeant Major Williams to a test to see which of the two is more manly. Me Thant cheats to make sure he wins the test, but he and his gang is infiltrated by members of GHQ, resulting in him and his gang being tied against a small plank, "Burmese style".
Ah Syn (Andy Ho)
Ah Syn is the cook for the camp later in the series, a man of Chinese ethnicity who served food that Captain Ashwood describes as 'furniture stuffing'. Gunner Graham in particular moans that the food is inedible and disgusting. When Captain Ashwood asks if he knows about spotted dick and toad in the hole, he misses the point entirely and thinks that spotted dick is an illness.
Series and episodes[edit]
Main article: List of It Ain't Half Hot Mum episodes
DVD releases[edit]
All 8 Series have been released on DVD region code 2 by 2|entertain. All eight series have also been released in region 4. A Complete Series Collection Box Set containing all 8 series of the show was released on 4 October 2010.
Master copies of the fourth and sixth episodes of series one ('A Star is Born' and 'It's a Wise Child') were lost after first broadcast and have not been recovered. VHS copies recorded at home by a viewer in Australia were found in 1988. They are not of broadcast quality, but are included as extras on the series 1 DVD.
DVD Title
Code
No. of discs
Year
No. of episodes
Release date
Region 2
Region 4
Complete Series 1 CCTV 30213 1 1974 8 5 September 2005 2 March 2006
Complete Series 2 CCTV 30227 1 1975 8 10 October 2005 5 October 2006
Complete Series 3 CCTV 30269 1 1976 6 13 February 2006 7 March 2007
Complete Series 4 CCTV 30295 2 1976 8 1 May 2006 5 September 2007
Complete Series 5 CCTV 30328 1 1977 6 31 July 2006 5 March 2008
Complete Series 6 BBCDVD 2645 1 1978 7 9 June 2008 4 September 2008
Complete Series 7 BBCDVD 3008 1 1980 6 24 August 2009 3 September 2009
Complete Series 8 BBCDVD 3047 1 1981 7 5 October 2009 4 March 2010
Complete Series 1–4 CCTV 30532 5 1974–1976 30 30 October 2006 N/A
Complete Series 1–8 BBCDVD3329 9 1974–1981 56 4 October 2010 N/A
Songs[edit]
Because It Ain't Half Hot Mum was a sitcom about a concert party, many old music hall, musical and traditional songs were performed by the actors, including:
"An Apple for the Teacher"
"A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody"
"By a Waterfall"
"Dames"
"Gilbert the Filbert"
"Happy Days Are Here Again"
"I'll Be Seeing You"
"In a Monastery Garden"
"Love for Sale"
"Mandalay"
"Moonlight Becomes You"
"Music Hall Song"
"On the Good Ship Lollipop"
"Puttin' On the Ritz"
"Rule Britannia"
"South of the Border"
"Stout-Hearted Men"
"The Teddy Bears' Picnic"
"The White Cliffs of Dover"
"Top Hat"
"The Whiffenpoof Song"
Don Estelle and Windsor Davies released two in-character performances as singles. The first, "Whispering Grass" reached number one in the British singles chart for three weeks from 7 June 1975. The second "Paper Doll" reached number forty one later that year.[7]. They also recorded a top 10 LP called "Sing Lofty"[8]
See also[edit]
Privates on Parade (film)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See comments by actor Renu Setna in the documentary on Comedy Connections "It Ain't Half Hot, Mum" (#5.3), original air date: 26 January 2007
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeffries, Stuart (3 February 2003). "Some like it hot". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Clark, Neil (20 September 2013). "Jimmy Perry turns 90: a tribute to the genius behind Dad's Army". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Clark, Neil (1 September 2005). "Listen and repeat after me . ." The Times. Retrieved 16 February 2018. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Darren (2003–14). "It Ain't Half Hot Mum (1974-81)". BFI Screenonline. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Duguid, Mark (2003–14). "Race and the Sitcom". BFI Screenonline. Retrieved 1 May 2018.
Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/15343/windsor-davies-and-don-estelle/
Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/15343/windsor-davies-and-don-estelle/
External links[edit]
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at BBC Online
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at BBC Programmes
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at TV.com
It Ain't Half Hot Mum on IMDb
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at British Comedy Guide
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at the BFI's Screenonline
It Ain't Half Hot Mum at the British TV Comedy Guide
Rottentomatoes.com
Melvyn Hayes Official Website
[hide]
v
t
e
David Croft sitcoms
with Jimmy Perry
Dad's Army (1968–1977)
It Ain't Half Hot Mum (1974–1981)
Hi-de-Hi! (1980–1988)
You Rang, M'Lord? (1988–1993)
with Jeremy Lloyd
Are You Being Served? (1972–1985)
Come Back Mrs. Noah (1977–1978)
Oh Happy Band! (1980)
Are You Being Served? (Australian TV series) (1980–1981)
'Allo 'Allo! (1982–1992)
Grace & Favour (1992–1993)
Which Way to the War (1994)
Here Comes the Queen (2008)
with Richard Spendlove
Oh, Doctor Beeching! (1995–1997)
Others
Birds in the Bush (1972)
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Seafloor spreading
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Age of oceanic lithosphere; youngest (red) is along spreading centers.
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
Contents
[hide]
1 Significance
2 Spreading center
3 Incipient spreading
4 Continued spreading and subduction
5 Debate and search for mechanism
6 Sea floor global topography: half-space model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Significance[edit]
Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.[1] At a spreading center basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed. Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 9 cm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 5–9 cm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 5 cm/year.[2][3]:2
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift postulated that continents "ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s.[4] The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere, which is ductile, or plastic, and the brittle lithosphere (crust and upper mantle).[5][clarification needed]
Spreading center[edit]
Seafloor spreading occurs at spreading centers, distributed along the crests of mid-ocean ridges. Spreading centers end in transform faults or in overlapping spreading center offsets. A spreading center includes a seismically active plate boundary zone a few kilometers to tens of kilometers wide, a crustal accretion zone within the boundary zone where the ocean crust is youngest, and an instantaneous plate boundary - a line within the crustal accretion zone demarcating the two separating plates.[6] Within the crustal accretion zone is a 1-2 km-wide neovolcanic zone where active volcanism occurs.[7][8]
Incipient spreading[edit]
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Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today.[9] The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.
If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift'. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a "failed" arm that was opening somewhat more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the Ethiopian Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment[10] reported that in the Afar region, September 2005, a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters.[11] During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and eustasy. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to petroleum geologists.
Sea floor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
Continued spreading and subduction[edit]
Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge
As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centers (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "textbook" slow-spreading center, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. Spreading centers at slow and intermediate rates exhibit a rift valley while at fast rates an axial high is found within the crustal accretion zone.[2] The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.[12]
Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, sea level was so high that a Western Interior Seaway formed across North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean.
Debate and search for mechanism[edit]
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other areas), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.
Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading by the theory of plate tectonics. In the 1960s, the past record of geomagnetic reversals was noticed by observing the magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor.[13] This results in broadly evident "stripes" from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred by looking at the data gathered from simply towing a magnetometer on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. The seafloor must have originated on the Earth's great fiery welts, like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.
The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be "passive upswelling", which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs.[14][15] This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it.
Sea floor global topography: half-space model[edit]
The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a baselevel) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate[16][17] or mantle half-space in areas without significant subduction.[18]
In the half-space model,[18] the seabed height is determined by the oceanic lithosphere temperature, due to thermal expansion. Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the mid-ocean ridges. The source of the lithosphere has a half-plane shape (x = 0, z < 0) and a constant temperature T1. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at x > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity v, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (z=0) is a constant T0 = 0. Thus at x = 0 the temperature is the Heaviside step function T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} . Finally, we assume the system is at a quasi-steady state, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e. T=T(x,z).
By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity v), which have spatial coordinate x' = x-vt, we may write T = T(x',z,t) and use the heat equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 x ′ {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}} where κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is the thermal diffusivity of the mantle lithosphere.
Since T depends on x' and t only through the combination x = x ′ + v t {\displaystyle x=x'+vt} , we have: ∂ T ∂ x ′ = 1 v ⋅ ∂ T ∂ t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}
Thus: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ v 2 ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}
We now use the assumption that v {\displaystyle v} is large compared to other scales in the problem; we therefore neglect the last term in the equation, and get a 1-dimensional diffusion equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}} with the initial conditions T ( t = 0 ) = T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} .
The solution for z ≤ 0 {\displaystyle z\leq 0} is given by the error function erf {\displaystyle \operatorname {erf} } :
T ( x ′ , z , t ) = T 1 ⋅ erf  ( z 2 κ t ) {\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)} .
Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time t (i.e. of sea floor of age t) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over z:
h ( t ) = h 0 + α e f f ∫ 0 ∞ [ T ( z ) − T 1 ] d z = h 0 − 2 π α e f f T 1 κ t {\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}
where α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h0 is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference).
Note that the assumption the v is relatively large is equivalently to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is small compared to L 2 / T {\displaystyle L^{2}/T} , where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and T is its age.
The effective thermal expansion coefficient α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by:
α e f f = α ⋅ ρ ρ − ρ w {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}
where ρ ∼ 3.3 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3g/cm^{3}} is the rock density and ρ 0 = 1 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1g/cm^{3}} is the density of water.
By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates: κ ∼ 8 ⋅ 10 − 7 {\displaystyle \kappa \sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}} m2/s, α ∼ 4 ⋅ 10 − 5 {\displaystyle \alpha \sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}} °C−1 and T1 ~1220 °C (for the Atlantic and Indian oceans) or ~1120 °C (for the eastern Pacific), we have:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 350 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}}
for the eastern Pacific Ocean, and:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 390 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}}
for the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x/v ~ Tx/L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and T is the ocean age.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seafloor spreading.
Divergent boundary
Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tan, Yen Joe; Tolstoy, Maya; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. "Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 540 (7632): 261–265. doi:10.1038/nature20116.
^ Jump up to: a b Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 10 (1): 155–190. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103.
Jump up ^ Searle, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Hess, H. H. (November 1962). "History of Ocean Basins" (PDF). In A. E. J. Engel; Harold L. James; B. F. Leonard. Petrologic studies: a volume to honor A. F. Buddington. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Elsasser, Walter M. (1971). "Sea-Floor Spreading as Thermal Convection". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76: 1101. Bibcode:1971JGR....76.1101E. doi:10.1029/JB076i005p01101.
Jump up ^ Luyendyk, Bruce P.; Macdonald, Ken C. (1976-06-01). "Spreading center terms and concepts". Geology. 4 (6). doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4%3C369:sctac%3E2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
Jump up ^ Daignieres, Marc; Courtillot, Vincent; Bayer, Roger; Tapponnier, Paul (1975). "A model for the evolution of the axial zone of mid-ocean ridges as suggested by icelandic tectonics". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 26 (2): 222–232. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(75)90089-8.
Jump up ^ McClinton, J. Timothy; White, Scott M. (2015-03-01). "Emplacement of submarine lava flow fields: A geomorphological model from the Niños eruption at the Galápagos Spreading Center". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (3): 899–911. doi:10.1002/2014gc005632. ISSN 1525-2027.
Jump up ^ Makris, J.; Ginzburg, A. (1987-09-15). "Sedimentary basins within the Dead Sea and other rift zones The Afar Depression: transition between continental rifting and sea-floor spreading". Tectonophysics. 141 (1): 199–214. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(87)90186-7.
Jump up ^ Bastow, Ian D.; Keir, Derek; Daly, Eve (2011-06-01). "The Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE): Probing the transition from continental rifting to incipient seafloor spreading". Geological Society of America Special Papers. 478: 51–76. doi:10.1130/2011.2478(04). ISSN 0072-1077.
Jump up ^ Grandin, R.; Socquet, A.; Binet, R.; Klinger, Y.; Jacques, E.; Chabalier, J.-B. de; King, G. C. P.; Lasserre, C.; Tait, S. (2009-08-01). "September 2005 Manda Hararo-Dabbahu rifting event, Afar (Ethiopia): Constraints provided by geodetic data". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (B8). doi:10.1029/2008jb005843. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Bhagwat, S.B. (2009). Foundation of Geology Vol 1. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 83. ISBN 9788182202764.
Jump up ^ Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges". Nature. 199: 947–949. doi:10.1038/199947a0.
Jump up ^ Forsyth, Donald; Uyeda, Seiya (1975-10-01). "On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion". Geophysical Journal International. 43 (1): 163–200. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x. ISSN 0956-540X.
Jump up ^ Patriat, Philippe; Achache, José (1984). "India–Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates". Nature. 311 (5987): 615. Bibcode:1984Natur.311..615P. doi:10.1038/311615a0.
Jump up ^ Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (32): 7888–7915. doi:10.1029/jb076i032p07888. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". Journal of Geophysical Research. 82 (5): 803–827. doi:10.1029/jb082i005p00803. ISSN 2156-2202.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. North-Holland Publishing Company. 21: 405–413. Bibcode:1974E&PSL..21..405D. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Seafloor spreading
Animation of a mid-ocean ridge
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Oceanic lithosphere

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values: {\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)}

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values: T(x',z,t) = T_1 \cdot \operatorname{erf} \left(\frac{z}{2\sqrt{\kappa t}}\right)

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values: h(t) = h_0 + \alpha_\mathrm{eff} \int_0^{\infty} [T(z)-T_1]dz = h_0 - \frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}}\alpha_\mathrm{eff}T_1\sqrt{\kappa t}

values: {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }}

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/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridges
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Mid-ocean ridges

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values: \alpha_\mathrm{eff} = \alpha \cdot \frac{\rho}{\rho-\rho_w}

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values: {\displaystyle \kappa \sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}}

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values: {\displaystyle \alpha \sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}}

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values: {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}}

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values: {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}}

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/wiki/Morley-Vine-Matthews_hypothesis
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Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis

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Antarctic bottom water

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Marginal sea

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