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List of Java APIs
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There are two types of Java programming language application programming interfaces (APIs):
The official core Java API, contained in the Android (Google), SE (OpenJDK and Oracle), MicroEJ (IS2T). These packages (java.* packages) are the core Java language packages, meaning that programmers using the Java language had to use them in order to make any worthwhile use of the Java language.
Optional APIs that can be downloaded separately. The specification of these APIs are defined according to many different organizations in the world (Alljoyn, OSGi, Eclipse, JCP, E-S-R, etc.).
The following is a partial list of application programming interfaces (APIs) for Java.
Contents
[hide]
1 APIs
2 Real-Time Specification for Java
3 Notes
4 See also
5 External links
APIs[edit]
Name
Acronym
Description and Version History
Available from
Java Advanced Imaging JAI A set of interfaces that support a high-level programming model allowing to manipulate images easily.
Association for the standardization of embedded platforms E-S-R consortium here
Java Data Objects JDO A specification of Java object persistence.
Android API Google here
JavaHelp A full-featured, extensible help system that enables you to incorporate online help in applets, components, applications, operating systems, and devices. available here
Java Media Framework JMF An API that enables audio, video and other time-based media to be added to Java applications and applets.
Java Naming and Directory Interface JNDI An API for directory services.
Java Persistence API JPA A specification for object-relational mapping. JSR 338
Java Speech API JSAPI This API allows for speech synthesis and speech recognition.
Java 3D J3D A scene graph-based 3D API. available here
Java OpenGL JOGL A wrapper library for OpenGL. available here
Java USB for Windows (none) A USB communication of Java applications available here
Facebook4j (none) Facebook API wrapper in Java. available here
Twitter4j (none) Java library for the Twitter API available here
Name
Acronym
Java package(s) that contain the API
JavaBeans Activation Framework JAF javax.activation
JavaMail (none) javax.mail
Java Message Service JMS javax.jms
JavaServer Faces JSF javax.faces
Name
Acronym
Available from
Java API for XML-Based RPC JAX-RPC available here
XQuery API for Java XQJ here and here
Name
Acronym
Available from
Connected Limited Device Configuration CLDC Reference implementation is available here
Java Telephony API JTAPI available here
STM32 Java technology STM32Java available here
IS2T's MicroEJ embedded platforms MicroEJ available here
Following is a very incomplete list, as the number of APIs available for the Java platform is overwhelming.
Rich Client platforms
Eclipse Rich Client Platform (RCP)
NetBeans Platform
Office_compliant libraries
Apache POI
Aspose
JXL - for Microsoft Excel
JExcel - for Microsoft Excel
Compression
LZMA SDK, the Java implementation of the SDK used by the popular 7-Zip file archive software (available here)
JSON
Jackson (API)
Game engines
Slick
jMonkey Engine
JPCT Engine
LWJGL
Real-time libraries
Real time Java is a catch-all term for a combination of technologies that allows programmers to write programs that meet the demands of real-time systems in the Java programming language.
Java's sophisticated memory management, native support for threading and concurrency, type safety, and relative simplicity have created a demand for its use in many domains. Its capabilities have been enhanced to support real time computational needs:
Java supports a strict priority based threading model.
Because Java threads support priorities, Java locking mechanisms support priority inversion avoidance techniques, such as priority inheritance or the priority ceiling protocol.
To overcome typical real time difficulties, the Java Community introduced a specification for real-time Java, JSR001. A number of implementations of the resulting Real-Time Specification for Java (RTSJ) have emerged, including a reference implementation from Timesys, IBM's WebSphere Real Time, Sun Microsystems's Java SE Real-Time Systems,[1] Aonix PERC or JamaicaVM from aicas.
The RTSJ addressed the critical issues by mandating a minimum (only two) specification for the threading model (and allowing other models to be plugged into the VM) and by providing for areas of memory that are not subject to garbage collection, along with threads that are not preemptable by the garbage collector. These areas are instead managed using region-based memory management.
Real-Time Specification for Java[edit]
The Real-Time Specification for Java (RTSJ) is a set of interfaces and behavioral refinements that enable real-time computer programming in the Java programming language. RTSJ 1.0 was developed as JSR 1 under the Java Community Process, which approved the new standard in November, 2001. RTSJ 2.0 is being developed under JSR 282. A draft version is available at JSR 282 JCP Page. More information can be found at RTSJ 2.0
Javolution
Windowing libraries
The windowing library is a set of classes available in the Streams Processing Language (SPL) Runtime C++ API and the SPL Java™ Operator API. The library is used to implement primitive operators that need windows following the SPL window semantics. Using the windowing library provides a consistent window policy semantic across operators, and simplifies the operator implementation.
SPL offers both tumbling and sliding windows. Both types of windows keep all the incoming data in memory until its tuple eviction policy triggers. Use the SPL support for windows when the functionality required by the primitive operator can be built using the semantics provided by SPL window constructs.
One example operator from the SPL Standard Toolkit that uses the windowing library and syntax is the Aggregate operator. An example operator that buffers recently received tuples but that does not use the windowing library and syntax is the DeDuplicate operator. This action occurs because this operator has different eviction and trigger semantics than the ones provided by SPL. This operator needs to maintain only unique tuples and discards all repeated tuples that are received within a time window.
With the windowing library, developers can specify different eviction and trigger policies but can implement the event handling actions independently of the window policy details. There are a few differences when implementing primitive operators in C++ and Java that take advantage of the SPL window clause.
In the C++ implementation, developers have no obligation to use the window library (the preferred practice is to use library). They are free to use the SPL Operator Code Generation API just to get the specified window policy for a given operator instance. Then, they can generate code using other containers. In addition, developers can check for valid window configurations during code generation time.
In the Java implementation, developers must use the window library. This action can be achieved by registering a class that implements com.ibm.streams.operator.window.StreamWindowListener<T> that handles events generated by a window (com.ibm.streams.operator.window.StreamWindow<T>). This use is required because Java operators are not based on code generation. As a result, windows are automatically managed by the runtime to guarantee SPL window semantics. Developers can check for valid window configurations during runtime by checking the window policy associated to a given input port.
Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT)
Physics libraries
JBox2D
JBullet
Notes[edit]
See also[edit]
Java (programming language)
Java Platform
Application programming interface
Java ConcurrentMap
List of Java Frameworks
External links[edit]
Java popular APIs in GitHub
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Java_APIs&oldid=842733097"
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Flip-flops
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Flip-flop.
A pair of flip-flops
Flip-flops are a type of sandal typically worn as a form of casual wear. They consist of a flat sole held loosely on the foot by a Y-shaped strap that passes between the first and second toes and around both sides of the foot.
This style of footwear has been worn by the people of many cultures throughout the world, originating as early as the ancient Egyptians in 1,500 B.C. The modern flip-flop descends from the Japanese zōri, which became popular after World War II when soldiers returning to the United States brought them back. They became popular unisex summer footwear starting in the 1960s.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Design and custom
4 Health and medical implications and injuries
5 See also
6 References
Etymology[edit]
The term flip-flop has been used in American and British English since the 1970s to describe the thong or no-heel-strap sandal. It is an onomatopoeia of the sound made by the sandals when walking in them.[1] They are called thongs in Australia,[2] jandals (originally a trademarked name derived from "Japanese sandals") in New Zealand,[3] slops in South Africa[4] and tsinelas in the Philippines (or, in some Visayan localities, "smagul", from the word smuggled).
This footwear has a number of other names around the world. In India and Pakistan, flip-flops are commonly known as hawai chappal.[5] The Japanese wear similarly designed, traditional straw sandals known as zōri.[6] Throughout the world, they are known by a variety of other names, including dép tông or dép xỏ ngón in Vietnam, chinelos in Brazil, japonki in Poland, dacas in Somalia, sayonares (σαγιονάρες) in Greece, Schlapfen in Austria, slippers in Hawaii, Trinidad and Tobago and the Netherlands, infradito in Italy, djapanki (джапанки) in Bulgaria,"charlie wote" in Ghana and vietnamki in Russia and Ukraine.[4][7]
History[edit]
Pair of leather thong sandals from the New Kingdom of Egypt (ca. 1550–1307 BC)
Havaianas thong (flip-flop) vending machine in Sydney, Australia
Tabi
Thong sandals have been worn for thousands of years, dating back to pictures of them in ancient Egyptian murals from 4,000 BC. A pair found in Europe was made of papyrus leaves and dated to be approximately 1,500 years old. These early versions of flip-flops were made from a wide variety of materials. Ancient Egyptian sandals were made from papyrus and palm leaves. The Masai of Africa made them out of rawhide. In India, they were made from wood. In China and Japan, rice straw was used. The leaves of the sisal plant were used to make twine for sandals in South America, while the natives of Mexico used the yucca plant.[8]
The Ancient Greeks and Romans wore versions of flip-flops as well. In Greek sandals, the toe strap was worn between the first and second toes, while Roman sandals had the strap between the second and third toes. These differ from the sandals worn by the Mesopotamians, with the strap between the third and fourth toes. In India, a related chappal ("toe knob") sandal was common, with no straps but a small knob sitting between the first and second toes. They are known as Padukas[9]
The modern flip-flop became popular in the United States as soldiers returning from World War II brought Japanese zōri with them. It caught on in the 1950s during the postwar boom and after the end of hostilities of the Korean War. As they became adopted into American popular culture, the sandals were redesigned and changed into the bright colors that dominated 1950s design.[10] They quickly became popular due to their convenience and comfort, and were popular in beach-themed stores and as summer shoes.[11] During the 1960s, flip-flops became firmly associated with the beach lifestyle of California. As such, they were promoted as primarily a casual accessory, typically worn with shorts, bathing suits, or summer dresses. As they became more popular, some people started wearing them for dressier or more formal occasions.[9]
In 1962, Alpargatas marketed a version of flip-flops known as Havaianas in Brazil. By 2010, more than 150 million pairs of Havaianas were produced each year.[12] Flip-flops quickly became popular as casual footwear of young adults. Girls would often decorate their flip-flops with metallic finishes, charms, chains, beads, rhinestones, or other jewelry.[13] High-end flip-flops made of leather or sophisticated synthetic materials are commonly worn in place of sneakers or loafers as the standard, everyday article of casual footwear, particularly among teenagers and young adults, although it is not unusual to see older people wearing playful, thick-soled flip-flops in brilliant colors.
A minor controversy erupted in 2005 when some members of Northwestern University's national champion women's lacrosse team visited the White House wearing flip-flops. The team responded to critics by auctioning off their flip-flops on eBay, raising $1,653 for young cancer patient, Jaclyn Murphy of Hopewell Junction, New York, who was befriended by the team.[14] There is still a debate over whether this signaled a fundamental change in American culture — many youth feel that flip-flops are dressier and can be worn in a variety of social contexts, while older generations feel that wearing them at formal occasions signifies laziness and comfort over style.[9] In 2011, while vacationing in his native Hawaii, Barack Obama became the first President of the United States to be photographed wearing a pair of flip-flops.[15][16] The Dalai Lama of Tibet is also a frequent wearer of flip-flops and has met with several U.S. presidents, including George W. Bush and Barack Obama, while wearing the sandals.[17][18]
While exact sales figures for flip-flops are difficult to obtain due to the large number of stores and manufacturers involved, the Atlanta-based company Flip Flop Shops claimed that the shoes were responsible for a $20 billion industry in 2009. Furthermore, sales of flip-flops exceeded those of sneakers for the first time in 2006. If these figures are accurate, it is remarkable considering the low cost of most flip-flops.[19]
Design and custom[edit]
Flip-flops have a very simple design, consisting of a sole with a strap passing between the big and second toes.
The modern flip-flop has a very simple design, consisting of a thin rubber sole with two straps running in a Y shape from the sides of the foot to the gap between the big toe and the one beside it. They typically do not have a strap around the heel, although heeled varieties are available, as well as flip-flops designed for sports, which come with added support common to athletic shoes, with the thong between the toes. Most modern flip-flops are inexpensive, costing as little as $5, or less in some parts of the world.[9]
They are made from a wide variety of materials, as were the ancient thong sandals. The modern sandals are made of more modern materials, such as rubber, foam, plastic, leather, suede, and even fabric.[9] Thongs made of polyurethane have caused some environmental concerns; because polyurethane is a number 7 resin, they can't be easily discarded, and they persist in landfills for a very long time.[20] In response to these concerns, some companies have begun selling flip-flops made from recycled rubber, such as that from used bicycle tires, or even hemp,[21] and some offer a recycling program for used flip flops.[22]
Because of the strap between the toes, flip-flops are typically not worn with socks. In colder weather, however, some people wear flip-flops with toe socks.[23] The Japanese commonly wear tabi, a type of sock with a single slot for the thong, with their zōri.[24]
Health and medical implications and injuries[edit]
While flip-flops do provide the wearer with some mild protection from hazards on the ground, such as hot sand at the beach, glass, thumb tacks or even fungi and wart-causing viruses in locker rooms or community pools, their simple design is responsible for a host of other injuries of the foot and lower leg.[25] In the United Kingdom in 2002, 55,100 individuals went to hospital with flip-flop related injuries.[26] By 2010, there were 200,000 flip-flop related injuries costing the National Health Service in Britain £40 million.[27]
Walking for long periods in flip-flops can be very tough on the feet, resulting in pain in the ankles, legs, and feet.[28] A 2009 study at Auburn University found that flip-flop wearers took shorter steps and their heels hit the ground with less vertical force than those wearing athletic shoes.[29][30][31] Individuals with flat feet or other foot issues are advised to wear a shoe with better support.[32]
The lack of support provided by thong sandals is thought by some to be a major cause of injuries. Some flip-flops have a spongy sole, causing the foot to roll further inward than normal when it hits the ground — an action called over-pronation, which is responsible for many foot problems[citation needed]. Overpronation may also lead to flat feet[citation needed]. Flip-flops can cause a person to overuse the tendons in their feet, resulting in tendonitis.[33] The lack of an ankle strap that holds the foot in place is also a common reason for injury, as this causes wearers to scrunch their toes in an effort to keep the flip-flop in place, which can result in tendonitis.[26]
Ankle sprains or broken bones are also common injuries, due to stepping off a curb or tumbling — the ankle bends, but the flip-flop neither holds on to nor supports it.[33] The straps of the flip-flop may cause frictional issues, such as rubbing, during walking. The open-toed nature of the thongs may result in cuts, scrapes, bruises, or stubbed toes.[34] Despite all of these issues, flip-flops do not have to be avoided completely. Many podiatrists recommend avoiding the inexpensive, drug store varieties and spending more on sandals with thick-cushioned soles, as well as ones that have a strap that's not canvas and that comes back almost to the ankle.[35]
See also[edit]
Find more aboutFlip-flopsat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Sandal
Slipper
Hnyat-phanat (Burmese)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Flip-Flop". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ "IT Pro - Information Technology News & Reviews".
Jump up ^ "Morris Yock trademarks the jandal". New Zealand History. 4 October 1957. Retrieved 22 Feb 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Key, A.J. "Jandals, Thongs, Flip Flops & G-strings". Retrieved July 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Khanna, Parul (October 3, 2009). "Hawai chappal the new fashion accessory!". Hindustan Times. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Richmond, Simon; Dodd, Jan; Branscombe, Sophie; Goss, Robert (February 2011). The Rough Guide to Japan. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 9781405389266.
Jump up ^ Ribeiro, Patricia (August 6, 2011). "Havaianas - Brazilian Flip Flops". About.com. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kippen, Cameron (1999). The History of Footwear. Perth, Australia: Department of Podiatry, Curtin University of Technology.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e DeMello, Margo (2009). Feet and Footwear: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-0-313-35714-5.
Jump up ^ "The History of Flip-Flops". Peche Blu. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Cullen, Ed (2006). Letter in a Woodpile. Nashville, Tennessee: Cool Springs Press. ISBN 1591862493.
Jump up ^ Cain, Kathryn (July 30, 2010). "The Timeline: Flip-flops". The Independent. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Amy T.; Kellogg, Ann T. (2008). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through American History 1900 to the Present. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 372. ISBN 978-0-313-35855-5.
Jump up ^ Ward, Julie (September 13, 2005). "Next big step in team spirit: Flip-flops". USA Today. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Appropriate? Obama Becomes First Flip-Flop President". Fox News. January 5, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Fermino, Jennifer; Hurt, Charles. (January 5, 2011). "That's quite a feet! Bam first flip-flop president". New York Post. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Lister, Richard (February 19, 2010). "Flip-flop diplomacy with the Dalai Lama". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Weisman, Jonathan; Canaves, Skye (February 18, 2010). "Dalai Lama Meets With Obama". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bernhard, Blythe (June 18, 2009). "Flips-flops are bad for your sole". Seattle Times. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bloch, Michael. "Recycling Flip-Flops". Green Living Tips. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vasil, Adria (2007). Ecoholic: Your Guide to the Most Environmentally Friendly Information, Products and Services In Canada. Toronto: Random House Canada. ISBN 978-0-307-36613-9.
Jump up ^ "Flip-Flop Brigade". terracycle.com. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ Stoller, Debbie (2010). Stitch 'n Bitch Superstar Knitting: Go Beyond the Basics. New York City: Workman Publishing Company. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-7611-3597-5.
Jump up ^ Sosnoski, Daniel (1996). Flip-Flop BrigadeIntroduction to Japanese Culture. Boston, Massachusetts: Charles E. Tuttle Publishing Company. p. 85. ISBN 0-8048-2056-2.
Jump up ^ Csomor, Marina (July 18, 2012). "Flip-flops present feet with a painful problem". CNN. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Wheldon, Julie (August 3, 2006). "Flip flops can damage your health". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Borland, Sophie (July 29, 2010). "Flip-Flops 'injure 200,000 a year' costing the NHS an astonishing £40m". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kam, Katherine. "Flip-Flops Fun but Beware of Foot Pain". WebMD. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Shroyer, JF; Weimar, WH (2010). "Comparative analysis of human gait while wearing thong-style flip-flops versus sneakers". Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association. 100 (4): 251–7. PMID 20660875.
Jump up ^ Shroyer, Justin F.; Robinson, Leah E.; Weimar, Wendi (August 27, 2009). Influence of thong flip‐flops on running kinematics in preschoolers (PDF). Annual Meeting of the American Society of Biomechanics. Penn State University.
Jump up ^ Shroyer, Justin (September 9, 2009). Influence of Various Thong Style Flip-flops on Gait Kinematics and Lower Leg Electromyography (PhD Thesis). Auburn, Alabama: Auburn University. pp. 31–52. hdl:10415/1905.
Jump up ^ Willingham, Val (August 6, 2010). "Flip-flops aren't always easy on the feet". CNN. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Yara, Susan (May 4, 2006). "Skip the Flip-Flops". Forbes. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Watson, Nicole (July 18, 2012). "Study: Comfortable flip-flops causing painful health risks". ABC Action News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Doctors Warn About Flip-Flops". Click2Houston.com. October 10, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
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Autonomic nervous system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Autonomic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system innervation
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Autonomici systematis nervosi
TA
A14.3.00.001
FMA
9905
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs.[1] The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.[2] This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response.
Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation (the cardiac control center), vasomotor activity (the vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus, just above the brain stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving ANS regulatory input from the limbic system to do so.[3]
The autonomic nervous system has three branches: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system.[4][5][6][7] Some textbooks do not include the enteric nervous system as part of this system.[8] The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "fight or flight" system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system. In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite" actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as "excitory" and "inhibitory" was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a "quick response mobilizing system" and the parasympathetic is a "more slowly activated dampening system", but even this has exceptions, such as in sexual arousal and orgasm, wherein both play a role.[3]
There are inhibitory and excitatory synapses between neurons. Relatively recently, a third subsystem of neurons that have been named non-noradrenergic, non-cholinergic transmitters (because they use nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter) have been described and found to be integral in autonomic function, in particular in the gut and the lungs.[9]
Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side.[10] Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the somatic nervous system which provides voluntary control.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Sympathetic division
1.2 Parasympathetic division
1.3 Sensory neurons
1.4 Innervation
1.5 Motor neurons
2 Function
2.1 Sympathetic nervous system
2.2 Parasympathetic nervous system
2.3 Enteric nervous system
2.4 Neurotransmitters
3 Caffeine effects
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
Autonomic nervous system, showing splanchnic nerves in middle, and the vagus nerve as "X" in blue. The heart and organs below in list to right are regarded as viscera.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic division emerges from the spinal cord in the thoracic and lumbar areas, terminating around L2-3. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral “outflow”, meaning that the neurons begin at the cranial nerves (specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve) and sacral (S2-S4) spinal cord.
The autonomic nervous system is unique in that it requires a sequential two-neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the “outflow” and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second, neuron’s cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ.
Sympathetic division[edit]
Main article: Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the lateral grey column from T1 to L2/3. These cell bodies are "GVE" (general visceral efferent) neurons and are the preganglionic neurons. There are several locations upon which preganglionic neurons can synapse for their postganglionic neurons:
Paravertebral ganglia (3) of the sympathetic chain (these run on either side of the vertebral bodies)
cervical ganglia (3)
thoracic ganglia (12) and rostral lumbar ganglia (2 or 3)
caudal lumbar ganglia and sacral ganglia
Prevertebral ganglia (celiac ganglion, aorticorenal ganglion, superior mesenteric ganglion, inferior mesenteric ganglion)
Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla (this is the one exception to the two-neuron pathway rule: the synapse is directly efferent onto the target cell bodies)
These ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervation of target organs follows. Examples of splanchnic (visceral) nerves are:
Cervical cardiac nerves & thoracic visceral nerves, which synapse in the sympathetic chain
Thoracic splanchnic nerves (greater, lesser, least), which synapse in the prevertebral ganglia
Lumbar splanchnic nerves, which synapse in the prevertebral ganglia
Sacral splanchnic nerves, which synapse in the inferior hypogastric plexus
These all contain afferent (sensory) nerves as well, known as GVA (general visceral afferent) neurons.
Parasympathetic division[edit]
Main article: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations: the brainstem (Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X) or the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4). These are the preganglionic neurons, which synapse with postganglionic neurons in these locations:
Parasympathetic ganglia of the head: Ciliary (Cranial nerve III), Submandibular (Cranial nerve VII), Pterygopalatine (Cranial nerve VII), and Otic (Cranial nerve IX)
In or near the wall of an organ innervated by the Vagus (Cranial nerve X) or Sacral nerves (S2, S3, S4)
These ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervations of target organs follows. Examples are:
The postganglionic parasympathetic splanchnic (visceral) nerves
The vagus nerve, which passes through the thorax and abdominal regions innervating, among other organs, the heart, lungs, liver and stomach
Sensory neurons[edit]
Main article: Sensory neuron
The sensory arm is composed of primary visceral sensory neurons found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), in cranial sensory ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia, appended respectively to cranial nerves VII, IX and X. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and the chemical composition of the stomach and gut content. They also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, a small collection of chemosensors at the bifurcation of the carotid artery, innervated by the petrosal (IXth) ganglion. Primary sensory neurons project (synapse) onto “second order” visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the nucleus of the solitary tract (nTS), that integrates all visceral information. The nTS also receives input from a nearby chemosensory center, the area postrema, that detects toxins in the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid and is essential for chemically induced vomiting or conditional taste aversion (the memory that ensures that an animal that has been poisoned by a food never touches it again). All this visceral sensory information constantly and unconsciously modulates the activity of the motor neurons of the ANS.
Innervation[edit]
Autonomic nerves travel to organs throughout the body. Most organs receive parasympathetic supply by the vagus nerve and sympathetic supply by splanchnic nerves. The sensory part of the latter reaches the spinal column at certain spinal segments. Pain in any internal organ is perceived as referred pain, more specifically as pain from the dermatome corresponding to the spinal segment.[11]

Autonomic nervous supply to organs in the human body edit
Organ
Nerves[12]
Spinal column origin[12]
stomach
PS: anterior and posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
duodenum
PS: vagus nerves
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10
jejunum and ileum
PS: posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T5, T6, T7, T8, T9
spleen
S: greater splanchnic nerves
T6, T7, T8
gallbladder and liver
PS: vagus nerve
S: celiac plexus
right phrenic nerve
T6, T7, T8, T9
colon
PS: vagus nerves and pelvic splanchnic nerves
S: lesser and least splanchnic nerves
T10, T11, T12 (proximal colon)
L1, L2, L3, (distal colon)
pancreatic head
PS: vagus nerves
S: thoracic splanchnic nerves
T8, T9
vermiform appendix
nerves to superior mesenteric plexus
T10
kidneys and ureters
PS: vagus nerve
S: thoracic and lumbar splanchnic nerves
T11, T12
Motor neurons[edit]
Main article: Motor neuron
Motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system are found in ‘’autonomic ganglia’’. Those of the parasympathetic branch are located close to the target organ whilst the ganglia of the sympathetic branch are located close to the spinal cord.
The sympathetic ganglia here, are found in two chains: the pre-vertebral and pre-aortic chains. The activity of autonomic ganglionic neurons is modulated by “preganglionic neurons” located in the central nervous system. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the salivatory nuclei, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Function[edit]
Function of the autonomic nervous system [13]
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "fight or flight" system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.
However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity cannot be ascribed to "fight" or "rest" situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic tonus. Another example is the constant, second-to-second, modulation of heart rate by sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles. In general, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital functions, in usually antagonistic fashion, to achieve homeostasis. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are listed below.
Sympathetic nervous system[edit]
Main article: Sympathetic nervous system
Promotes a fight-or-flight response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and inhibits digestion
Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract and skin via vasoconstriction
Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs is enhanced (by as much as 1200% in the case of skeletal muscles)
Dilates bronchioles of the lung through circulating epinephrine, which allows for greater alveolar oxygen exchange
Increases heart rate and the contractility of cardiac cells (myocytes), thereby providing a mechanism for enhanced blood flow to skeletal muscles
Dilates pupils and relaxes the ciliary muscle to the lens, allowing more light to enter the eye and enhances far vision
Provides vasodilation for the coronary vessels of the heart
Constricts all the intestinal sphincters and the urinary sphincter
Inhibits peristalsis
Stimulates orgasm
Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]
Main article: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:[citation needed]
Dilating blood vessels leading to the GI tract, increasing the blood flow.
Constricting the bronchiolar diameter when the need for oxygen has diminished
Dedicated cardiac branches of the vagus and thoracic spinal accessory nerves impart parasympathetic control of the heart (myocardium)
Constriction of the pupil and contraction of the ciliary muscles, facilitating accommodation and allowing for closer vision
Stimulating salivary gland secretion, and accelerates peristalsis, mediating digestion of food and, indirectly, the absorption of nutrients
Sexual. Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are involved in the erection of genital tissues via the pelvic splanchnic nerves 2–4. They are also responsible for stimulating sexual arousal.
Enteric nervous system[edit]
Main article: Enteric nervous system
The enteric nervous system is the intrinsic nervous system of the gastrointestinal system. Its functions include:
Sensing chemical and mechanical changes in the gut
Regulation secretions in the gut
Control of peristalsis and some other movements
Neurotransmitters[edit]
Main articles: Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS and Non-noradrenergic, non-cholinergic transmitter
At the effector organs, sympathetic ganglionic neurons release noradrenaline (norepinephrine), along with other cotransmitters such as ATP, to act on adrenergic receptors, with the exception of the sweat glands and the adrenal medulla:
Acetylcholine is the preganglionic neurotransmitter for both divisions of the ANS, as well as the postganglionic neurotransmitter of parasympathetic neurons. Nerves that release acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic. In the parasympathetic system, ganglionic neurons use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter to stimulate muscarinic receptors.
At the adrenal medulla, there is no postsynaptic neuron. Instead the presynaptic neuron releases acetylcholine to act on nicotinic receptors. Stimulation of the adrenal medulla releases adrenaline (epinephrine) into the bloodstream, which acts on adrenoceptors, producing a widespread increase in sympathetic activity.
A full table is found at Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS.
Caffeine effects[edit]
Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.[14]
Caffeine is capable of increasing work capacity while individuals perform strenuous tasks. In one study, caffeine provoked a greater maximum heart rate while a strenuous task was being performed compared to a placebo. This tendency is likely due to caffeine's ability to increase sympathetic nerve outflow. Furthermore, this study found that recovery after intense exercise was slower when caffeine was consumed prior to exercise. This finding is indicative of caffeine's tendency to inhibit parasympathetic activity in non-habitual consumers. The caffeine-stimulated increase in nerve activity is likely to evoke other physiological effects as the body attempts to maintain homeostasis.[15]
The effects of caffeine on parasympathetic activity may vary depending on the position of the individual when autonomic responses are measured. One study found that the seated position inhibited autonomic activity after caffeine consumption (75 mg); however, parasympathetic activity increased in the supine position. This finding may explain why some habitual caffeine consumers (75 mg or less) do not experience short-term effects of caffeine if their routine requires many hours in a seated position. It is important to note that the data supporting increased parasympathetic activity in the supine position was derived from an experiment involving participants between the ages of 25 and 30 who were considered healthy and sedentary. Caffeine may influence autonomic activity differently for individuals who are more active or elderly.[16]
See also[edit]
Dysautonomia
International Society for Autonomic Neuroscience
Lövheim cube of emotion
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "autonomic nervous system" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370.
^ Jump up to: a b Allostatic load notebook: Parasympathetic Function - 1999, MacArthur research network, UCSF
Jump up ^ Langley, J.N. (1921). The Autonomic Nervous System Part 1. Cambridge: W. Heffer.
Jump up ^ Jänig, Wilfrid (2008). Integrative action of the autonomic nervous system : neurobiology of homeostasis (Digitally printed version. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978052106754-6.
Jump up ^ Furness, John (9 October 2007). "Enteric nervous system". Scholarpedia. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.4064. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Willis, William D. (2004). "The Autonomic Nervous System and its central control". In Berne, Robert M. Physiology (5. ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby. ISBN 0323022251.
Jump up ^ Pocock, Gillian (2006). Human Physiology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0.
Jump up ^ Belvisi, Maria G.; David Stretton, C.; Yacoub, Magdi; Barnes, Peter J. (1992). "Nitric oxide is the endogenous neurotransmitter of bronchodilator nerves in humans". European Journal of Pharmacology. 210 (2): 221–2. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(92)90676-U. PMID 1350993.
Jump up ^ Costanzo, Linda S. (2007). Physiology. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 37. ISBN 0-7817-7311-3.
Jump up ^ Essential Clinical Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 199
^ Jump up to: a b Unless specified otherwise in the boxes, the source is: Moore, Keith L.; Agur, A. M. R. (2002). Essential Clinical Anatomy (2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-7817-5940-3.
Jump up ^ Neil A. Campbell, Jane B. Reece: Biologie. Spektrum-Verlag Heidelberg-Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-8274-1352-4
Jump up ^ Zimmerman-Viehoff, Frank; Thayer, Julian; Koenig, Julian; Herrmann, Christian; Weber, Cora S.; Deter, Hans-Christian (May 1, 2016). "Short-term effects of espresso coffee on heart rate variability and blood pressure in habitual and non-habitual coffee consumers- a randomized crossover study". Nutritional Neuroscience. 19 (4): 169–175. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bunsawat, Kanokwan; White, Daniel W; Kappus, Rebecca M; Baynard, Tracy (2015). "Caffeine delays autonomic recovery following acute exercise". European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 22 (11): 1473–1479. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Monda, M.; Viggiano, An.; Vicidomini, C.; Viggiano, Al.; Iannaccone, T.; Tafuri, D.; De Luca, B. (2009). "Espresso coffee increases parasympathetic activity in young, healthy people". Nutritional Neuroscience. 12 (1): 43–48. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
External links[edit]
Autonomic nervous system article in Scholarpedia, by Ian Gibbins and Bill Blessing
ANS Medical Notes on rahulgladwin.com
NerveExpress is a fully automatic, non-invasive computer-based system designed for quantitative assessment of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) based on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) analysis.
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Photic sneeze reflex
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Photic sneeze reflex
Photic sneeze reflex is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner
Classification and external resources
OMIM
100820
DiseasesDB
30910
[edit on Wikidata]
The photic sneeze reflex (also known as photoptarmosis, Autosomal Dominant Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst Syndrome (ACHOO)[1] and colloquially sun sneezing) is a condition that causes variable difficulty to control sneezing in response to numerous stimuli, such as looking at bright lights or periocular (surrounding the eyeball) injection. The condition affects 18-35% of the population in the United States,[2] but its exact mechanism of action is not well understood.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Symptoms
1.1 Photic sneezing
1.2 Response to periocular injection
1.3 Sneezing after eating
1.4 Sonar sneezing
2 Pathophysiology
2.1 Optic-trigeminal summation
2.2 Parasympathetic generalization
2.3 Increased light sensitivity
2.4 Propofol-induced inhibitory suppression
3 Risks
3.1 Disease transmission
3.2 Vehicle operation
3.3 Medical procedures
4 Preventive measures
5 Management
6 History
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Symptoms[edit]
The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in response to a stimulus which would not produce a sneeze in people without the trait. The sneezes generally occur in bursts of 1 to 10 sneezes, followed by a refractory period that can be as long as 24 hours.
Photic sneezing[edit]
A photic sneeze is the most common manifestation of the photic sneeze reflex. A photic sneeze results from exposure to a bright light. The photic sneeze reflex seems to be caused by a change in light intensity rather than due to a specific wavelength of light.[3] Photic sneezes are harmless annoyances for the most part, but can pose physical risk to people who are operating vehicles or machinery that involve precise movement and reactions.
A study conducted by the School of Optometry at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, found that females represent 67% of photic sneezers, and Caucasians represent 94%. The study also found statistically significant correlations between photic sneezing and the presence of a deviated nasal septum. The study also showed that photic sneezing is more likely to be acquired than inherited.[4]
Response to periocular injection[edit]
During surgeries in and around the eye, such as corneal transplant surgery, the patient often requires injection of a local anesthetic into the eye. In patients who show the photic sneeze reflex, an injection into the eye, such as that undergone in a retrobulbar or peribulbar block, can often elicit a sneeze from the patient. During these procedures, the patient may be sedated prior to the periocular injection. The patient begins to sneeze just as the needle is inserted into the eye, often resulting in the anesthesiologist having to remove the needle before injecting the local anesthetic in order to avoid damaging the patient's eye.[5]
Sneezing after eating[edit]
A condition called gustatory rhinitis can cause some individuals to sneeze after eating, particularly after the consumption of spicy foods.[6] Stomach fullness is another example of a stimulus that can cause uncontrollable sneezing. Those who exhibit this symptom or disorder, called snatiation, undergo uncontrollable fits of 3–15 sneezes immediately after eating large meals that completely fill the stomach, regardless of the type of food eaten. Snatiation is not believed to be an allergic reaction of any kind.[7] Even less well understood than photic sneezing and sneezing in response to periocular injection, the trait appears to be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion.[8]
Sonar sneezing[edit]
Another related condition is sonar sneezing, in which exposure to loud noises or loud environments triggers a sneeze response.
Pathophysiology[edit]
There is much debate about the true cause and mechanism of the sneezing fits brought about by the photic sneeze reflex. Sneezing occurs in response to irritation in the nasal cavity, which results in an afferent signal propagating through the ophthalmic and maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve to the trigeminal nerve nuclei in the brainstem. The signal is interpreted in the trigeminal nerve nuclei, and an efferent signal goes to different parts of the body, such as mucous glands and the diaphragm, thus producing a sneeze.[9] The most obvious difference between a normal sneeze and one caused by the photic sneeze reflex is the stimulus – normal sneezes occur due to irritation in the nasal cavity, while the latter can result from a wide variety of stimuli. Some of the theories regarding the mechanism of a sneeze resulting from an unusual stimulus are below. There is also a genetic factor that increases the probability of photic sneeze reflex [19]. The C allele on the rs10427255 SNP is particularly implicated in this [19], although the mechanism by which this gene increases the probability of this response is unknown.
Optic-trigeminal summation[edit]
Stimulation of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve may enhance the irritability of the maxillary branch, resulting in an increased probability of sneezing. This is similar to the mechanism by which photophobia develops by persistent light exposure relaying signals through the optic nerve and trigeminal nerve to produce increased sensitivity in the ophthalmic branch. If this increased sensitivity occurred in the maxillary branch instead of the ophthalmic branch, a sneeze could result instead of photophobia.[9]
Parasympathetic generalization[edit]
The parasympathetic nervous system has many neighboring fibers that respond to different stimuli. When one stimulus activates multiple nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic generalization is occurring. There is a possibility that sensory input from the eyes could travel to the neurons in the cortex that interpret such signals, but neighboring neurons which are involved in sneezing are also activated, due to the generalization. This could lead to a sneeze in response to a stimulus other than nasal irritation.[9]
Increased light sensitivity[edit]
When the trigeminal nerve is directly stimulated, there is the possibility that increased light sensitivity in the ocular nerve could result. An example of directly stimulating would be plucking an eyebrow or pulling hair. In many people who show the photic sneeze reflex, even this direct stimulation can lead to a photic sneeze which is why we find it easier to sneeze while looking at a bright light. [9]
Propofol-induced inhibitory suppression[edit]
Uncontrollable sneezing during a periocular injection while sedated by propofol is likely caused by the drug. Propofol has been shown to temporarily suppress inhibitory neurons in the brainstem, which is also where the trigeminal nucleus – the "sneeze center" of the brain – lies. This chain of events leads to increased sensitivity to stimulation and reduced threshold for involuntary responses. In this hypersensitive state, the periocular injection stimulates the ophthalmic and/or maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve, which results in summation in the trigeminal nuclei. This summation can lead to a sneeze in the unconscious patient.[10]
Risks[edit]
Sneezing generally does not present any particular risks to the individual, and is usually more of an annoyance than a risk of injury. The fits of sneezing brought about by the photic sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face.
Disease transmission[edit]
Perhaps the most universal risk of sneezing is the spread of disease. Bacterial infections can spread to susceptible uninfected people via the spread of microscopic organisms suspended in the droplets expelled by a sneeze. Bacteria which commonly spread by sneezing include bacterial meningitis, strep throat, and tuberculosis. Viral infections can also be spread by sneezing. When a virus is expelled by a sneeze, its mucous membrane evaporates, and the virus becomes a droplet nucleus which can be inhaled by another person, thus spreading the virulent infection. Examples of virulent infections that spread by sneezing include measles, mumps, rubella, and influenza.[11]
Vehicle operation[edit]
A fit of sneezing while operating a vehicle can cause the operator to lose control of that vehicle, resulting in injury to the person, and damage to the vehicle and/or surroundings. In particular, photic sneezing poses a considerable risk to pilots, due to the frequent presence of bright sunlight and the precise reactions needed to successfully control the aircraft. For the pilot of a fighter aircraft, if an uncontrollable fit of sneezing were to occur during aerial combat, the pilot could be incapacitated when his or her situational awareness needs to be greatest. A plane landing on an aircraft carrier or shoreline also requires precise movements and quick reflexes. The reflection of the sun from surrounding water has a high probability of producing at least one photic sneeze for pilots who have the reflex. Any amount of sneezing while attempting to land could cause the pilot to lose control, potentially resulting in disaster.[3]
Medical procedures[edit]
Uncontrollable fits of sneezing are common in patients under propofol sedation who undergo periocular or retrobulbar injection. A sneeze by a sedated patient often occurs upon insertion of a needle into or around their eye. The violent and uncontrollable movement of the head during a reflexive sneeze has potential to cause damage within the patient's eye if the needle is not removed before the sneeze occurs.[10]
Preventive measures[edit]
There is currently no definitive way to cure the sneezing fits brought on by the photic sneeze reflex. Photic sneezing can be combated by shielding one's eyes with hats or sunglasses. There are many remedial fixes for sneezing, such as placing a finger horizontally below the nose or holding the nose closed when the beginnings of a sneeze are felt.[citation needed]
Another remedy is to deliberately cause the onset of sneezing in a safe environment before moving into an environment where the condition could be a danger. The person will then be protected as long as the refractory period lasts.
The most helpful way to avoid the risks stated above is to be aware of any inclination to sneeze in response to strange stimuli. If a pilot knows he or she is at risk for experiencing a photic sneeze during a flight, he or she can wear polarized goggles to block the sun, or at the very least be prepared for a sneeze and have measures planned to minimize the risk from such a sneeze. Any patient with a history of uncontrollable sneezing who requires periocular surgery should tell the doctor or anesthesiologist, so that they can take appropriate measures to minimize the risk of injury in case of a sneeze during the surgical procedure. People who know they have a tendency to experience sneezing fits after consuming a large meal can make an effort to reduce the size of their meals, since snatiation seems to occur only as a result of an extremely full stomach.
Management[edit]
While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.[12]
Those affected by photic sneezing may find relief by shielding their eyes and/or faces with hats, scarves, and sunglasses.[1]
History[edit]
The photic sneeze effect is a genetic tendency to begin sneezing, sometimes many times consecutively (due to naso-ocular reflex[13]), when suddenly exposed to bright light. This condition tends to occur more severely after one has emerged into the light after spending time in a dark environment.[14] Although the syndrome is thought to affect about 18-35% of the human population, it is relatively harmless and not widely studied.[3]
The photic sneeze effect has been documented for many centuries. The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to contemplate this strange phenomenon in 350 BCE, exploring why looking at the sun causes a person to sneeze in The Book of Problems: "Why does the heat of the sun provoke sneezing?"[15][16] He hypothesized that the sun’s heat caused sweating inside the nose, which triggered a sneeze in order to remove the moisture.[17] In the 17th century, English philosopher Francis Bacon disproved Aristotle’s theory by facing the sun with his eyes closed, which did not elicit the ordinary sneeze response. Bacon therefore guessed that the eyes played a vital part in triggering photic sneezing. He assumed that looking at the sun's light made the eyes water, and then that moisture proceeded to seep into the nose and irritate it, causing a sneeze.[16] Although plausible, scientists later determined this theory to also be incorrect because sun-induced sneezing occurs too quickly after sunlight exposure; watering of the eyes is a slower process, so it could not play a vital part in triggering the reflex.[16]
Today, scientific attention has mainly focused on a hypothesis proposed in 1964 by Henry Everett, who was the first to call light-induced sneezing “The Photic Sneeze Effect.” Since the nervous system transmits signals at an extremely fast pace, Dr. Everett hypothesized that the syndrome was linked to the human nervous system, and was perhaps caused by the confusion of nerve signals.[18] The genetic basis of photic sneezing still remains unclear, and single genes for this condition have not been found and studied. However, the condition often occurs within families, and it has been suggested that light-induced sneezing is a heritable, autosomal-dominant trait.[19] A 2010 study demonstrated a correlation between photic sneezing and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on chromosome 2.[20]
See also[edit]
Snatiation
Sexually induced sneezing
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Laura Dean, MD. "ACHOO Syndrome". Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2015-06-27.
Jump up ^ Roberta A. Pagon (Nov 18, 2002). "Why does bright light cause some people to sneeze?". Scientific American.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Breitenbach RA, Swisher PK, Kim MK, Patel BS (December 1993). "The photic sneeze reflex as a risk factor to combat pilots". Military medicine. 158 (12): 806–9. PMID 8108024.
Jump up ^ Semes LP, Amos JF, Waterbor JW (June 1995). "The photic sneeze response: a descriptive report of a clinic population". J Am Optom Assoc. 66 (6): 372–7. PMID 7673597.
Jump up ^ Abramson DC (Aug 1995). "Sudden Unexpected Sneezing During The Insertion Of Peribulbar Block Under Propofol Sedation". Canadian Journal of Anesthesia. 42 (8): 740–3. doi:10.1007/BF03012675.
Jump up ^ Raphael G, Raphael MH, Kaliner M (1989). "Gustatory rhinitis: a syndrome of food-induced rhinorrhea". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 83 (1): 110–5. PMID 2643657. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(89)90484-3.
Jump up ^ Hall JG (Apr 1990). "The Snatiation Reflex". Journal of Medical Genetics. 27 (4): 275. doi:10.1136/jmg.27.4.275.
Jump up ^ Teebi AS, Alsaleh QA (Aug 1989). "Autosomal Dominant Sneezing Disorder Provoked by Fullness of Stomach". Journal of Medical Genetics. 26 (8): 539–540. doi:10.1136/jmg.26.8.539. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Abramson DC (1995). "Sudden Unexpected Sneezing During The Insertion Of Peribulbar Block Under Propofol Sedation". Canadian Journal of Anesthesia. 42 (8): 740–743. doi:10.1007/bf03012675.
^ Jump up to: a b Ahn ES, Mills DM, Meyer DR, Stasior GO (Jul 2008). "Sneezing reflex associated with intravenous sedation and periocular anesthetic injection". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 146 (1): 31–35. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.02.013. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Cole EC, Cook CE (Aug 1998). "Characterization of infectious aerosols in health care facilities: an aid to effective engineering controls and preventive strategies". Am J Infect Control. 26 (4): 453–64. PMID 9721404. doi:10.1016/s0196-6553(98)70046-x.
Jump up ^ "Solar Sneeze Reflex". Western Journal of Medicine. 146 (5): 20. 1 May 1987. PMC 1307391  . PMID 18750225.
Jump up ^ "Allergies - Sneezing with Sunlight". Allergies.about.com. 2013-05-12. Retrieved 2015-06-27.
Jump up ^ "ACHOO". Right Diagnosis: Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatments and Causes. Health Grades Inc. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Of the Nose", Aristotle, exclassics.com
^ Jump up to: a b c Looking at the Sun Can Trigger a Sneeze, Karen Schrock, ScientificAmerican.com, January 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Blitz, Matt. "The Curious Case of Sun Sneezing". Today I Found Out. Vacca Foeda Media. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Everett, Henry C. (May 1964). "Sneezing in Response to Light". Neurology. 14 (5): 483–490. doi:10.1212/wnl.14.5.483.
Jump up ^ Peroutka, S. J.; Peroutka, L. A. (1984). ""Autosomal dominant transmission of the "photic sneeze reflex""". New England Journal of Medicine. 310 (9): 599–600. PMID 6694722. doi:10.1056/nejm198403013100923.
Jump up ^ Eriksson N, Macpherson JM, Tung JY, Hon LS, Naughton B, Saxonov S, Avey L, Wojcicki A, Pe'er I, Mountain J (2010). Gibson, Greg, ed. "Web-Based, Participant-Driven Studies Yield Novel Genetic Associations for Common Traits". PLoS Genet. 6 (6): e1000993. PMC 2891811  . PMID 20585627. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000993. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
External links[edit]
Healthline
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man entry
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