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Gravitropism
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A straight and vertical tree. The shape has been regulated by the gravitropic curvature at the base.
Gravitropism (also known as geotropism) is a turning or growth movement by a plant or fungus in response to gravity. It is a general feature of all higher and many lower plants as well as other organisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first to scientifically document that roots show positive gravitropism and stems show negative gravitropism. That is, roots grow in the direction of gravitational pull (i.e., downward) and stems grow in the opposite direction (i.e., upwards). This behavior can be easily demonstrated with any potted plant. When laid onto its side, the growing parts of the stem begin to display negative gravitropism, growing (biologists say, turning; see tropism) upwards. Hebaverns (non-woody) stems are capable of a small degree of actual bending, but most of the redirected movement occurs as a consequence of root or stem growth outside.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gravitropism in the root
2 Gravitropism in shoots
3 Gravity Sensing Mechanisms
3.1 Statoliths
3.2 Modulation by phytochrome
4 Compensation
5 Gravitropic mutants
6 See also
7 References
Gravitropism in the root[edit]
Root growth occurs by division of stem cells in the root meristem located in the tip of the root, and the subsequent expansion of cells in a region just primal to the tip known as the elongation zone. Differential growth during tropisms mainly involves changes in cell expansion versus changes in cell division, although a role for cell division in tropic growth has not been formally ruled out. Gravity is sensed in the root tip and this information must then be relayed to the elongation zone so as to maintain growth direction and mount effective growth responses to changes in orientation to and continue to grow its roots in the same direction as gravity.[1]
Abundant evidence demonstrates that roots bend in response to gravity due to a regulated movement of the plant hormone auxin known as polar auxin transport.[2] This was described in the 1920s in the Cholodny-Went model. The model was independently proposed by the Russian scientist N. Cholodny of the University of Kiev in 1927 and by Frits Went of the California Institute of Technology in 1928, both based on work they had done in 1926.[3] Auxin exists in nearly every organ and tissue of a plant, but its has been reoriented in the gravity field, can initiate differential growth resulting in root curvature.
Experiments show that auxin distribution is characterized by a fast movement of auxin to the lower side of the root in response to a gravity stimulus at a 90° degree angle or more. However, once the root tip reaches a 40° angle to the horizontal of the stimulus, auxin distribution quickly shifts to a more symmetrical arrangement. This behavior is described as a "tipping point" mechanism for auxin transport in response to a gravitational stimulus.[4]
Gravitropism in shoots[edit]
Play media
Apex reorientation in Pinus pinaster during the first 24h after experimental inclination of the plant.
Gravitropism is an integral part of plant growth, orienting its position to maximize contact with sunlight, as well as ensuring that the roots are growing in the correct direction. Growth due to gravitropism is mediated by changes in concentration of the plant hormone auxin within plant cells.
As plants mature, gravitropism continues to guide growth and development along with phototropism. While amyloplasts continue to guide plants in the right direction, plant organs and function rely on phototropic responses to ensure that the leaves are receiving enough light to perform basic functions such as photosynthesis. In complete darkness, mature plants have little to no sense of gravity, unlike seedlings that can still orient themselves to have the shoots grow upward until light is reached when development can begin.[5]
Differential sensitivity to auxin helps explain Darwin's original observation that stems and roots respond in the opposite way to the forces of gravity. In both roots and stems, auxin accumulates towards the gravity vector on the lower side. In roots, this results in the inhibition of cell expansion on the lower side and the concomitant curvature of the roots towards gravity (positive gravitropism).[1][6] In stems, the auxin also accumulates on the lower side, however in this tissue it increases cell expansion and results in the shoot curving up (negative gravitropism).[7]
A recent study showed that for gravitropism to occur in shoots, only a fraction of an inclination, instead of a strong gravitational force, is necessary. This finding sets aside gravity sensing mechanisms that would rely on detecting the pressure of the weight of statoliths.[8]
Gravity Sensing Mechanisms[edit]
Statoliths[edit]
Plants possess the ability to sense gravity in several ways, one of which is through statoliths. Statoliths are dense amyloplasts, organelles that synthesize and store starch involved in the perception of gravity by the plant (gravitropism), that collect in specialized cells called statocytes. Statocytes are located in the starch parenchyma cells near vascular tissues in the shoots and in the columella in the caps of the roots.[9] These specialized amyloplasts are denser than the cytoplasm and can sediment according to the gravity vector. The statoliths are enmeshed in a web of actin and it is thought that their sedimentation transmits the gravitropic signal by activating mechanosensitive channels.[1] The gravitropic signal then leads to the reorientation of auxin efflux carriers and subsequent redistribution of auxin streams in the root cap and root as a whole.[10] The changed relations in concentration of auxin leads to differential growth of the root tissues. Taken together, the root is then turning to follow the gravity stimuli. Statoliths are also found in the endodermic layer of the hypocotyl, stem, and inflorescence stock. The redistribution of auxin causes increased growth on the lower side of the shoot so that it orients in a direction opposite that of the gravity stimuli.
Modulation by phytochrome[edit]
Phytochromes are red and far-red photoreceptors that help induce changes in certain aspects of plant development. Apart being itself the tropic factor (phototropism), light may also suppress the gravitropic reaction.[11] In seedlings, red and far-red light both inhibit negative gravitropism in seedling hypocotyls (the shoot area below the cotyledons) causing growth in random directions. However, the hypocotyls readily orient towards blue light. This process is may be caused by phytochrome disrupting the formation of starch-filled endodermal amyloplasts and stimulating their conversion to other plastid types, such as chloroplasts or etiolaplasts.[11]
Compensation[edit]
The compensation reaction of the bending Coprinus stem. C - the compensating part of the stem.
Bending mushroom stems follow some regularities that are not common in plants. After turning into horizontal the normal vertical orientation the apical part (region C in the figure below) starts to straighten. Finally this part gets straight again, and the curvature concentrates near the base of the mushroom.[12] This effect is called compensation (or sometimes, autotropism). The exact reason of such behavior is unclear, and at least two hypotheses exist.
The hypothesis of plagiogravitropic reaction supposes some mechanism that sets the optimal orientation angle other than 90 degrees (vertical). The actual optimal angle is a multi-parameter function, depending on time, the current reorientation angle and from the distance to the base of the fungi. The mathematical model, written following this suggestion, can simulate bending from the horizontal into vertical position but fails to imitate realistic behavior when bending from the arbitrary reorientation angle (with unchanged model parameters).[12]
The alternative model supposes some “straightening signal”, proportional to the local curvature. When the tip angle approaches 30° this signal overcomes the bending signal, caused by reorientation, straightening resulting.[13]
Both models fit the initial data well, but the latter was also able to predict bending from various reorientation angles. Compensation is less obvious in plants, but in some cases it can be observed combining exact measurements with mathematical models. The more sensitive roots are stimulated by lower levels of auxin; higher levels of auxin in lower halves stimulate less growth, resulting in downward curvature (positive gravitropism).
Gravitropic mutants[edit]
Mutants with altered responses to gravity have been isolated in several plant species including Arabidopsis thaliana (one of the genetic model systems used for plant research). These mutants have alterations in either negative gravitropism in hypocotyls and/or shoots, or positive gravitropism in roots, or both.[7] Mutants have been identified with varying effects on the gravitropic responses in each organ, including mutants which nearly eliminate gravitropic growth, and those whose effects are weak or conditional. Once a mutant has been identified, it can be studied to determine the nature of the defect (the particular difference(s) it has compared to the non-mutant 'wildtype'). This can provide information about the function of the altered gene, and often about the process under study. In addition the mutated gene can be identified, and thus something about its function inferred from the mutant phenotype.
Gravitropic mutants have been identified that affect starch accumulation, such as those affecting the PGM1 (which encodes the enzyme phosphoglucomutase) gene in Arabidopsis, causing plastids - the presumptive statoliths - to be less dense and, in support of the starch-statolith hypothesis, less sensitive to gravity.[14] Other examples of gravitropic mutants include those affecting the transport or response to the hormone auxin.[7] In addition to the information about gravitropism which such auxin-transport or auxin-response mutants provide, they have been instrumental in identifying the mechanisms governing the transport and cellular action of auxin as well as its effects on growth.
There are also several cultivated plants that display altered gravitropism compared to other species or to other varieties within their own species. Some are trees that have a weeping or pendulate growth habit; the branches still respond to gravity, but with a positive response, rather than the normal negative response. Others are the lazy (i.e. ageotropic or agravitropic) varieties of corn (Zea mays) and varieties of rice, barley and tomatoes, whose shoots grow along the ground.
See also[edit]
Plants portal
Gardening portal
Clinostat - a device used to negate the effects of gravitational pull.
Amyloplast - starch organelle involved in sensing gravitropism
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c PERRIN, ROBYN M.; YOUNG, LI-SEN; NARAYANA MURTHY, U.M.; HARRISON, BENJAMIN R.; WANG, YAN; WILL, JESSICA L.; MASSON, PATRICK H. (2017-04-21). "Gravity Signal Transduction in Primary Roots". Annals of Botany. 96 (5): 737–743. doi:10.1093/aob/mci227. ISSN 0305-7364. PMC 4247041  . PMID 16033778.
Jump up ^ Swarup, Ranjan; Kramer, Eric M.; Perry, Paula; Knox, Kirsten; Leyser, H. M. Ottoline; Haseloff, Jim; Beemster, Gerrit T. S.; Bhalerao, Rishikesh; Bennett, Malcolm J. (2005-11-01). "Root gravitropism requires lateral root cap and epidermal cells for transport and response to a mobile auxin signal". Nature Cell Biology. 7 (11): 1057–1065. doi:10.1038/ncb1316. ISSN 1465-7392. PMID 16244669.
Jump up ^ Janick, Jules (2010). Horticultural Reviews. John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 0470650532.
Jump up ^ Band, L. R.; Wells, D. M.; Larrieu, A.; Sun, J.; Middleton, A. M.; French, A. P.; Brunoud, G.; Sato, E. M.; Wilson, M. H.; Peret, B.; Oliva, M.; Swarup, R.; Sairanen, I.; Parry, G.; Ljung, K.; Beeckman, T.; Garibaldi, J. M.; Estelle, M.; Owen, M. R.; Vissenberg, K.; Hodgman, T. C.; Pridmore, T. P.; King, J. R.; Vernoux, T.; Bennett, M. J. (5 March 2012). "Root gravitropism is regulated by a transient lateral auxin gradient controlled by a tipping-point mechanism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (12): 4668–4673. doi:10.1073/pnas.1201498109.
Jump up ^ Hangarter, R.P. (1997). "Gravity, light, and plant form". Plant, Cell, and Environment. 20: 796–800. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3040.1997.d01-124.x.
Jump up ^ Hou, G., Kramer, V. L., Wang, Y.-S., Chen, R., Perbal, G., Gilroy, S. and Blancaflor, E. B. (2004). "The promotion of gravitropism in Arabidopsis roots upon actin disruption is coupled with the extended alkalinization of the columella cytoplasm and a persistent lateral auxin gradient". The Plant Journal. 39: 113–125. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313x.2004.02114.x. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Masson, Patrick H.; Tasaka, Masao; Morita, Miyo T.; Guan, Changhui; Chen, Rujin; Boonsirichai, Kanokporn (2002-01-01). "Arabidopsis thaliana: A Model for the Study of Root and Shoot Gravitropism". The Arabidopsis Book: e0043. doi:10.1199/tab.0043. PMC 3243349  . PMID 22303208.
Jump up ^ Chauvet, Hugo; Pouliquen, Olivier; Forterre, Yoël; Legué, Valérie; Moulia, Bruno (14 October 2016). "Inclination not force is sensed by plants during shoot gravitropism". Scientific Reports. 6 (1). doi:10.1038/srep35431.
Jump up ^ Chen, Rujin; Rosen, Elizabeth; Masson, Patrick H. (1 June 1999). "Gravitropism in Higher Plants". Plant Physiology. 120 (2): 343–350. doi:10.1104/pp.120.2.343.
Jump up ^ Sato, Ethel Mendocilla; Hijazi, Hussein; Bennett, Malcolm J.; Vissenberg, Kris; Swarup, Ranjan (2015-04-01). "New insights into root gravitropic signalling". Journal of Experimental Botany. 66 (8): 2155–2165. doi:10.1093/jxb/eru515. ISSN 0022-0957.
^ Jump up to: a b Kim, Keunhwa; Shin, Jieun; Lee, Sang-Hee; Kweon, Hee-Seok; Maloof, Julin N.; Choi, Giltsu (2011-01-25). "Phytochromes inhibit hypocotyl negative gravitropism by regulating the development of endodermal amyloplasts through phytochrome-interacting factors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (4): 1729–1734. doi:10.1073/pnas.1011066108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3029704  . PMID 21220341.
^ Jump up to: a b Meškauskas, A., Novak Frazer, L. N., & Moore, D. (1999). "Mathematical modelling of morphogenesis in fungi: a key role for curvature compensation ('autotropism') in the local curvature distribution model". New Phytologist. 143: 387–399. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00458.x. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Meškauskas A., Jurkoniene S., Moore D (1999). "Spatial organization of the gravitropic response in plants: applicability of the revised local curvature distribution model to Triticum aestivum coleoptiles". New Phytologist. 143: 401–407. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00459.x. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Wolverton, Chris; Paya, Alex M.; Toska, Jonida (2011-04-01). "Root cap angle and gravitropic response rate are uncoupled in the Arabidopsis pgm-1 mutant". Physiologia Plantarum. 141 (4): 373–382. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.2010.01439.x. ISSN 1399-3054.
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Fight-or-flight response
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Fight or Flight.
Fight or flight?
The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.[1] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.[a][2] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.[3] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.[4] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.[5]
This response is recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
1.1 Autonomic nervous system
1.1.1 Sympathetic nervous system
1.1.2 Parasympathetic nervous system
1.2 Reaction
1.3 Function of physiological changes
2 Emotional components
2.1 Emotion regulation
2.2 Emotional reactivity
3 Cognitive components
3.1 Content specificity
3.2 Perception of control
3.3 Social information processing
4 Other animals
4.1 Evolutionary perspective
4.2 Examples
4.3 Varieties of responses
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
Physiology[edit]
Autonomic nervous system[edit]
See also: Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[7]
Sympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]
Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[8]
Reaction[edit]
The fight-or-flight response
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[10] The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and :[13]
Acceleration of heart and lung action
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops
General effect on the sphincters of the body
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
Relaxation of bladder
Inhibition of erection
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
Disinhibition of spinal reflexes
Shaking.
Function of physiological changes[edit]
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[14][15]
Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.
Emotional components[edit]
Emotion regulation[edit]
See also: Emotional self-regulation
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]
Emotional reactivity[edit]
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.[19][20]
Cognitive components[edit]
Content specificity[edit]
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]
Perception of control[edit]
See also: Control (psychology)
Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events.[23] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.[24]
Social information processing[edit]
See also: Social information processing (cognition)
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.[26]
Other animals[edit]
Evolutionary perspective[edit]
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.[27][28]
Examples[edit]
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The sympathetic nervous system’s activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal.[13] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Varieties of responses[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bison hunted by dogs
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves.[29] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
See also[edit]
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
Coping (psychology)
Defense physiology
Emotional dysregulation
Freezing behavior
Escape distance
The Relaxation Response
Rest and digest
Vasoconstriction
Workplace bullying
Yerkes–Dodson law
Acute stress reaction
Anxiety
Anxiety disorder
Panic attack
Phobia
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Tend and befriend
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in The American Journal of Physiology. Others in the 1915 edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Other sources say that he first used the term in 1929 or in 1932 edition of the same book. The issue needs further research.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393002055.
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270).
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Hufflington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID 12909458.
Jump up ^ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University, St. Louis.
Jump up ^ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97767-6.
Jump up ^ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response". Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University.
Jump up ^ Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner; John P. Forsyth (2010). "Emotion Regulation and the Anxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC 2901125  . PMID 20622981.
Jump up ^ Gross, James (1998). "Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence". Psychological Inquiry. 9 (4): 287–290. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.
Jump up ^ Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). "Emotional reactivity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences in response systems concordance". Personality and Individual Differences. 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.
Jump up ^ Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May 2010). "Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children". Behavior Research and Therapy. 48 (5): 384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.
Jump up ^ Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; Fabes RA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December 2003). "The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalizing problems: A longitudinal assessment". Personality. 71 (6): 1171–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID 14633062.
Jump up ^ Reid, Sophie C.; Salmon, Karen; Peter F. Lovibond (October 2006). "Cognitive Biases in Childhood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are They Pervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y.
Jump up ^ Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. United States: Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). "An integrative model of control: implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety". Journal of Affective disorders. 91 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.
Jump up ^ Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; Wanner B (June 2004). "Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of social competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive children". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 32 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd. PMID 15228179.
Jump up ^ Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). "A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.
Jump up ^ Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). "Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior". Journal of Child Development. 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603.
Jump up ^ Grohol, John. "What's the purpose of the fight or flight response?". Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, David; Kopin, I (2007). "Evolution of concepts of stress". Stress. 10 (2): 109–20. doi:10.1080/10253890701288935. PMID 17514579.
Jump up ^ Gill, A.C. (2004). Revision of the Indo-Pacific dottyback fish subfamily Pseudochrominae (Perciformes: Pseudochromidae). Smithiana Monographs. pp. 1–123.
Further reading[edit]
Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. W.H. Freeman and Company.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fight-or-flight_response&oldid=816975993"
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Taylor Momsen
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Taylor Momsen
Momsen performing with The Pretty Reckless at River City Rockfest 2017
Born
Taylor Michel Momsen
(1993-07-26) July 26, 1993 (age 24)
St. Louis, Missouri, US
Occupation
Singer
songwriter
actress
model
Years active
1997–present
Musical career
Genres
Alternative rock
hard rock
post-grunge
Instruments
Vocals
guitar
Labels
Interscope
Razor & Tie
Cooking Vinyl
Associated acts
The Pretty Reckless
Taylor Michel Momsen (born July 26, 1993)[1] is an American singer, songwriter, former actress and model. She is known for being the lead singer and frontwoman of the American rock band The Pretty Reckless. She is also known for portraying the character of Jenny Humphrey on the CW teen drama series Gossip Girl (2007–2012) and Cindy Lou Who in the film Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Acting
3 Modeling
4 Music
5 Discography
6 Filmography
7 References
8 External links
Early life[edit]
Momsen was born in St. Louis, Missouri. Her parents are Michael and Collette Momsen and she has a younger sister, Sloane Momsen, who is also an actress. She has Russian ancestry.[3] She was raised Roman Catholic[4] and attended Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic School[5] for elementary school and later Herbert Hoover Middle School in Potomac, Maryland.[6] She studied dance at the Center of Creative Arts in St. Louis.
Momsen was signed with Ford Models at a very young age: "My parents signed me up with Ford [Modeling] at the age of 2. No 2-year-old wants to be working, but I had no choice. My whole life, I was in and out of school. I didn’t have friends. I was working constantly and I didn’t have a real life."[6] She began acting professionally at three years of age in a 1997 national commercial for Shake 'n Bake.[7] She was then cast in The Prophet's Game.
Momsen is included on the list of Unclaimed Coogan accounts for performing children whose partial childhood earnings are mandated to be put in a special fund but who have yet to claim their earnings.[8]
Momsen attended the Professional Performing Arts School in Manhattan for high school alongside Connor Paolo, Gregori Lukas and Sarah Hyland.[citation needed]
Acting[edit]
Momsen at the Metropolitan Opera in 2008
In 2000, Momsen played the role of Cindy Lou Who in Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas, her breakout role. In 2002, she was given the role of Gretel in the motion picture: Hansel and Gretel, as well as Alexandra, the President's daughter, in Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams.
Momsen's career came to a halt for over three years until she received a lead role in the WB series Misconceptions, which was never aired, after that she also appeared in the 2006 film Saving Shiloh. She also auditioned for the title role in Hannah Montana, and was in the top three, but the role was instead awarded to Miley Cyrus—a decision that Momsen was happy with in retrospect.[9] In 2007, she starred in the Walt Disney Pictures film Underdog as Molly and as Jennifer in the movie Paranoid Park, directed by Gus Van Sant.
Beginning in 2007, she played the character of Jenny Humphrey in The CW television series Gossip Girl, which is based on the book series by Cecily von Ziegesar. Momsen's appearances on the series became increasingly sporadic, and by the end of the first half of the fourth season, she had only appeared in four episodes. It was then announced that the actress would be scheduled for an indefinite hiatus from the show,[10] which ultimately resulted in her leaving the series as a regular cast member, following the completion of the fourth season in 2011. Later that year, on August 16, 2011, Momsen told Elle magazine that she had quit acting to focus on her music career.[11] However, on October 16, 2012, it was reported that Momsen would be returning to Gossip Girl for the final episode of the sixth and final season, in which she appeared briefly in the wedding sequence.[12][13]
Modeling[edit]
In June 2008, at the age of fourteen, Momsen signed to IMG Models.[14][15]
Taylor was the face of British fashion chain New Look for its spring/summer 2010 collection.[16] After weeks of speculation of who was the face of Madonna's 2010 fashion line "Material Girl", Momsen was announced on July 15, 2010.[17] A week later, Momsen was announced as the model for John Galliano's new women's fragrance, scheduled to launch in autumn 2010.[18] In 2010, she appeared in a video for John Galliano's "Parlez-Moi d’Amour" fragrance ad campaign.
Momsen is currently[when?] the face of Samantha Thavasa's handbag line. She has done multiple photoshoots, press events, and commercials.[19]
She appeared on the cover of Page Six Magazine when she was fifteen years old in 2009. Momsen also appeared on the February 2010 cover of Seventeen.[20] In October 2010, Momsen wore a pair of platform stilettos, thigh-high stockings, and had a holster strapped around her leg for Revolver. Two months after she appeared on the cover of French magazine Rock One's. Momsen appeared on the cover of FHM’s March 2012 edition[21] and FHM ranked Momsen #29 in its 2012 Hot 100 issue.[22] She also made her cover debut for Maxim in the November 2013 issue.[23]
Music[edit]
Momsen performing in April 2010
Momsen has said that "music is where I can be me",[24] stating that "acting is easy. I've been doing it for so long and I totally love it. But you're playing a character instead of yourself. Music is more personal because you're writing it and you're involved in every step of it."[24] At 5 years old, Momsen recorded the song "Christmas, Why Can't I Find You?" for the soundtrack to How the Grinch Stole Christmas. In 2002, she recorded the songs "One Small Voice" and "Rudolph The Red-Nosed Reindeer" for the compilation album School's Out! Christmas.
In March 2009, Momsen stated in an interview with OK! magazine that her band The Pretty Reckless had signed a deal with Interscope Records.[25] She played her first tour with her band opening for The Veronicas on their Revenge Is Sweeter Tour in spring 2009.[26] After the tour, Momsen began working with guitarist Ben Phillips, who would soon join the band. Momsen subsequently swapped out her former bandmates. She co-writes songs with Phillips; in addition to lead vocals, Momsen also plays rhythm guitar.
The band's debut album Light Me Up was released on August 30, 2010 in the UK,[27] where it debuted at number 6, as well as at number 18 in Ireland. The first single "Make Me Wanna Die" was released on May 30, 2010, while the second single "Miss Nothing" which was released on August 23, 2010 peaked at number 39. "Just Tonight" was released as the album's third single. Songs from this album have been in the movie "Kick-ass" as well as shows like "The Vampire Diaries" and "Gossip Girl".[28]
Television personality Heidi Montag recorded "Blackout", a song written by Momsen. According to Momsen, she wrote the song when she was 8 years old and recorded it as a demo with a producer.[29] Montag released the song as a digital only single, with the music video being directed by her husband Spencer Pratt. Momsen commented about the recording: "I'm like, okay, dude, you're singing an 8-year-old's words, but that's cool. It's so funny because I didn't shop it or anything and I get this call going, 'Did you write a song for Heidi Montag'? And I'm like, 'What?'".[29] The track was later included on Montag's debut studio album Superficial (2010).
On July 27, 2011, Momsen announced via Twitter that the band would be the supporting act for Evanescence during the fall of 2011.[30] Throughout 2012, Momsen and her band toured North America; the second headlining tour, titled the Medicine Tour, began in March 2012 [31] and culminated with supporting dates for Marilyn Manson's 2012 world tour Hey Cruel World... Tour. Momsen also appeared as guest vocalist on the first track of ex Ministry member Paul Barker's 2012 album Fix This.
On November 30, 2012, it was announced that The Pretty Reckless' fourth single "Kill Me" would be released on December 11.[32] The track was the last song to be featured in the Gossip Girl series finale.
Momsen cites Kurt Cobain, The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, The Who, Pink Floyd, AC/DC, Marilyn Manson, Oasis and Shirley Manson of Garbage as some of her personal influences.[33][34][35]
Going to Hell was released on March 18, 2014.[36] The release marked the band's largest sales week to date and landed at #5 on the Billboard 200 with over 35,000 copies sold in its first week.[37] The success of the record saw Taylor, along with the rest of the band, break records when they became the first female-fronted band to reach No. 1 on the rock radio charts with its first two singles: "Heaven Knows" in March 2014 and "Fucked Up World" in September 2014.[38] The Pretty Reckless also spent the majority of late 2013 throughout 2014 on tour supporting Going To Hell. In 2014, her band also supported Fall Out Boy in their European leg of the Save Rock n Roll Tour along with New Politics.
Throughout 2015, Momsen continued to record new material for the third Pretty Reckless album. On September 29, 2016, the band released the single "Take Me Down", which reached number two on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart.[39][40] The third album, Who You Selling For was released in October 2016.[39]
Discography[edit]
Main article: The Pretty Reckless discography
Filmography[edit]
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1999 Prophet's Game, TheThe Prophet's Game Honey Bee Swan
2000 Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas Cindy Lou Who Nominated—Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Female Newcomer
Nominated—Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor
Nominated—Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Actress Age Ten or Under
2002 We Were Soldiers Julie Moore
2002 Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams Alexandra
2002 Hansel & Gretel Gretel
2006 Saving Shiloh Samantha Wallace
2007 Paranoid Park Jennifer
2007 Underdog Molly Nominated—Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress
2008 Spy School Madison Kramer
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1998 Early Edition Allie Uncredited; episode: "A Minor Miracle"
2006 Misconceptions Hopper Watson Unaired WB series
2007–2010;
2012 Gossip Girl Jennifer "Jenny" Humphrey Main cast (season 1–4)
Special guest star (season 6): 66 episodes
Nominated—Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Breakout Star: Female
Nominated—Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Leading Young Actress
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Biography". TV Guide. Retrieved October 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ Aleksander, Irina (September 18, 2008). "Taylor Momsen: Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on September 21, 2008. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Momsen, Taylor (July 8, 2013). "Twitter: taylormomsen: @Zheka_Kinoman yes, I'm part Russian". Twitter.com. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Gets Spiritual - Daily Intelligencer". Nymag.com. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen". Movies.yahoo.com. April 20, 2011. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Blonska, Joanna. "The Young and the 'Reckless'". Bethesda Magazine. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen, Age 3, In Shake 'N Bake Commercial (VIDEO)". Huffington Post. 15 November 2010. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Unclaimed Coogan Fund list".
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Glad She's Not 'Hannah Montana'". www.starpulse.com. January 25, 2010. Archived from the original on October 26, 2010. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael"'Gossip Girl' Sidelines Taylor Momsen", Deadline.com, November 22, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Momen Quit Acting". www.yahooblogs.com. August 16, 2011. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Returning To 'Gossip Girl' Along With Connor Paolo". The Huffington Post. AOL. October 16, 2011. Retrieved October 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ Murray, Rheana (October 17, 2012). "'Gossip Girl' Alums Taylor Momsen and Connor Paolo Make Surprise Return for Show's Final Episode". Daily News. Retrieved November 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen: From Gossip Girl to Supermodel". Offtherack.people.com. June 25, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ Vogue, Teen. "Taylor Momsen: Girl on Film". Teenvogue.com. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen for new look". The Express online. March 8, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Grazia Fashion: Taylor Momsen is the face of Material Girl!". Graziadaily.co.uk. Retrieved August 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Grazia Fashion: Taylor Momsen To Model For Galllano!!". Graziadaily.co.uk. Retrieved August 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Samantha Thavasa Will Have You Know Taylor Momsen Is Employable". Retrieved June 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Seventeen Cover - Interview and Pictures of Taylor Momsen". Seventeen.com. Archived from the original on January 16, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ "FHM at Taylor Momsen's sexy house party! | Girls". FHM.com. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hot 100". FHM. 2012. Archived from the original on January 30, 2013. Retrieved January 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Tweet (October 10, 2013). "Taylor Momsen | Pictures of a Pretty Reckless Singer". Maxim. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Wightman, Catriona, "Taylor Momsen: 'Music is my only goal'", Digital Spy, November 3, 2010, retrieved November 3, 2011
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen Not Kissing Chace Crawford Offscreen". Okmagazine.com. March 3, 2009. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "TAYLOR MOMSEN'S "Pretty Reckless": The Veronicas Pick "GOSSIP GIRL" Band As Tour Opener". Huffingtonpost.com. April 17, 2009. Retrieved November 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ New Song from Taylor Momsen's Pretty Reckless By Avery Spofford on July 12, 2010 5:56 pm – Spin
Jump up ^ DREAMSEEKERS: THE BEST MUSIC YOU'VE NEVER HEARD. (2011, Mar 19). Billboard - the International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment, 123, A, B, C, D. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/868612104
^ Jump up to: a b Harp, Justin, "Momsen 'surprised by Montag song cover'", Digital Spy, October 15, 2010, retrieved January 3, 2011
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen announces tour with Evanescence[permanent dead link], AHN, July 27, 2011, retrieved July 31, 2011
Jump up ^ The Pretty Reckless Bring 'Medicine Tour' Stateside By Tara Hall on January 31, 2012 5:56 pm – Soundspike
Jump up ^ "Kill Me [Explicit]". Amazon.com. Amazon.com. 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen of The Pretty Reckless - 'Wikipedia: Fact or Fiction?'". Loudwire. Retrieved 2016-03-28.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Momsen: 'I admire Shirley Manson' - Music News". Digital Spy. 29 August 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "I love Oasis. I love Noel Gallagher. He's a great songwriter. I'd love to be able to write a song with him at some point". The A.V. Club. 10 March 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "THE PRETTY RECKLESS TO RELEASE NEW ALBUM 'GOING TO HELL' MARCH 18, 2014 ON RAZOR & TIE". Razor & Tie Direct L.L.C. 2014-01-21. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
Jump up ^ "'Frozen' Soundtrack Earns Its Biggest Sales Week Yet, Recalling Adele's Longevity". Billboard. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
Jump up ^ "Pretty Reckless Only Female-Fronted Band to Top Mainstream Rock With First 2 Hits". Billboard. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
^ Jump up to: a b "Video Premiere: THE PRETTY RECKLESS's 'Take Me Down'". blabbermouth.net. 2016-09-29. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ "The Pretty Reckless - Chart history | Billboard". www.billboard.com. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Taylor Momsen.
Official website
Taylor Momsen on IMDb
Taylor Momsen on Twitter
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The Pretty Reckless
Taylor Momsen
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Light Me Up
Going to Hell
Who You Selling For
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VIAF: 10175733
LCCN: n2003080676
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taylor_Momsen&oldid=821027473"
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