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Dynamite
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This article is about the high explosive. For other uses, see Dynamite (disambiguation).
Diagram
Diatomaceous earth (or any other type of absorbent material) soaked in nitroglycerin.
Protective coating surrounding the explosive material.
Blasting cap.
Electrical cable (or fuse) connected to the blasting cap.
Preparation of dynamite during the construction of the Douglas Dam, 1942.
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay) and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, and patented in 1867. It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more powerful alternative to black powder.
Today dynamite is mainly used in the mining, quarrying, construction, and demolition industries. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, and as a cost-effective alternative to cast boosters. Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges.
Contents
1 History
2 Manufacture
2.1 Composition
2.2 Form
2.3 Storage considerations
2.4 Major manufacturers
2.4.1 South Africa
2.4.2 United States
3 Non-dynamite explosives
3.1 TNT
3.2 "Extra" dynamite
3.3 "Military dynamite"
4 Regulation
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
"Nobels ExtraDynamit" manufactured by Nobel's old company, Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget
Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel in the 1860s and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder, which had been invented in China in the 9th century. Black powder is now popularly known as gunpowder, because while it is effective as a propellant, it is less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications.
Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, was an industrialist, engineer, and inventor. He built bridges and buildings in Stockholm and founded Sweden's first rubber factory. His construction work inspired him to research new methods of blasting rock that were more effective than black powder. After some bad business deals in Sweden, in 1838 Immanuel moved his family to Saint Petersburg, where Alfred and his brothers were educated privately under Swedish and Russian tutors. At age 17, Alfred was sent abroad for two years; in the United States he met Swedish engineer John Ericsson and in France studied under famed chemist Théophile-Jules Pelouze and his pupil Ascanio Sobrero who had first synthesized nitroglycerin in 1847. It was in France that Nobel first encountered nitroglycerin, which Pelouze cautioned against using as a commercial explosive because of its high volatility.[1]
In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive. Nobel, along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder. Nobel came up with a solution of how to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion set off from a distance using a fuse. In the summer of 1863, Nobel performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin, using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury fulminate. In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, which is composed of sulfuric acid, nitric acid and glycerin. On 3 September 1864, while experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at Heleneborg. After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget AB in Vinterviken to continue work in a more isolated area and the following year moved to Germany, where he founded another company, Dynamit Nobel.[1]
Despite the invention of the blasting cap, the volatility of nitroglycerin rendered it useless as a commercial explosive. To solve this problem, Nobel sought to combine it with another substance that would make it safe for transport and handling but yet would not reduce its effectiveness as an explosive. He tried combinations of cement, coal, and sawdust, but was unsuccessful. Finally, he tried diatomaceous earth, fossilized algae, that he brought from the Elbe River near his factory in Hamburg, which successfully stabilized the nitroglycerin into a portable explosive.[1]
Nobel obtained patents for his inventions in England on 7 May 1867 and in Sweden on 19 October 1867.[2] After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safe alternative to black powder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were quickly shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a slightly different formula.[3]
Nobel originally sold dynamite as "Nobel's Blasting Powder" but decided to change the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word dýnamis (δύναμις), meaning "power".[4][5]
Manufacture[edit]
Composition[edit]
Nitroglycerin by itself is a very strong explosive, but is extremely shock-sensitive (that is, physical shock can cause it to explode), and degrades over time to even more unstable forms, which makes it highly dangerous to transport or use. Dynamite combines nitroglycerin with absorbents and stabilizers, rendering it safe to use while retaining its powerful explosive properties.
Nobel's original composition of dynamite consisted of three parts "explosive oil" (as nitroglycerin was called), one part diatomaceous earth as the absorbent, and a small admixture of sodium carbonate antacid as the stabilizer. Ethylene glycol dinitrate was later added to the nitroglycerin to lower its freezing point and keep it from freezing into a slush at low temperatures, which made it unstable, or from sweating out when it thawed. Diatomaceous earth is not usually used today as an absorbent medium and it has been replaced by cheaper media such as sawdust, wood pulp, flour, or starch. Other stabilizers, such as calcium carbonate or zinc oxide, can be used in the place of sodium carbonate. Sodium nitrate is added to the medium as an oxidizer to improve the dynamite's brisance.
Form[edit]
Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm (8 in) long and about 3.2 cm (1.25 in) in diameter, with a weight of about 190 grams (1⁄2 troy pound).[6] A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy.[7] Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by weight.
Dynamite is usually rated by "weight strength" (the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% "dope" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the stabilizer and any additives).
Storage considerations[edit]
The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions.[6]
Over time, regardless of the sorbent used, sticks of dynamite will "weep" or "sweat" nitroglycerin, which can then pool in the bottom of the box or storage area. For that reason, explosive manuals recommend the repeated turning over of boxes of dynamite in storage. Crystals will form on the outside of the sticks causing them to be even more shock, friction, and temperature sensitive. This creates a very dangerous situation. While the risk of an explosion without the use of a blasting cap is minimal for fresh dynamite, old dynamite is dangerous. Modern packaging helps eliminate this by placing the dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax coated cardboard.
Dynamite is moderately sensitive to shock. Shock resistance tests are usually carried out with a drop-hammer: about 100 mg of explosive is placed on an anvil, upon which a weight of between 0.5 and 10 kg is dropped from different heights until detonation is achieved.[8] With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm.
Major manufacturers[edit]
Advertisement for the Aetna Explosives Company of New York.
South Africa[edit]
For several decades beginning in the 1940s, the largest producer of dynamite in the world was the Union of South Africa. There the De Beers company established a factory in 1902 at Somerset West. The explosives factory was later operated by AECI (African Explosives and Chemical Industries). The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on the Witwatersrand. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 it was already producing 340,000 cases, 23 kilograms (50 lb) each, annually. A rival factory at Modderfontein was producing another 200,000 cases per year.[9]
There were two large explosions at the Somerset West plant during the 1960s. Some workers died, but the loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and its earth works, and the planting of trees that directed the blasts upward. There were several other explosions at the Modderfontein factory. After 1985, pressure from trade unions forced AECI to phase out the production of dynamite. The factory then went on to produce ammonium nitrate emulsion-based explosives that are safer to manufacture and handle.[10]
United States[edit]
Dynamite was first manufactured in the U.S. by the Giant Powder Company of San Francisco, California whose founder had obtained the exclusive rights from Nobel in 1867. Giant was eventually acquired by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company who subsequently produced it under the Giant name until that company was dissolved by Du Pont in 1905.[11] Thereafter, Du Pont produced dynamite under its own name until 1911-12 when its explosives monopoly was broken up by the U.S. Circuit Court in the "Powder Case". Two new companies that were formed upon the breakup, the Hercules Powder Company and the Atlas Powder Company took up the manufacture of dynamite (in different formulations) thereafter.
Currently only Dyno Nobel manufactures dynamite in the US. The only facility producing it is located in Carthage, Missouri, but the material is purchased from Dyno Nobel by other manufacturers, who put their label on the dynamite and boxes.
Non-dynamite explosives[edit]
Other explosives are often referred to or confused with dynamite:
TNT[edit]
TNT is most commonly assumed to be the same as (or confused for) Dynamite, largely due to the ubiquity of both explosives during the 20th century and the civilian practice of preparing Dynamite charges in 8x1" "sticks" wrapped in red waxed paper and shaped to fit the cylindrical boreholes drilled in the rock face. This incorrect connection between TNT and Dynamite was enhanced by Bugs Bunny cartoons where animators started labelling any kind of cartoon bomb (ranging from sticks of Dynamite to kegs of black powder) as "TNT" because the acronym was shorter, more memorable and didn't require literacy to recognize "TNT" meant "bomb" (similar to the use of XXX markings on whiskey bottles and barrels in cartoons). This eventually led to the general perception that TNT and Dynamite were one and the same.
In actuality, aside from both being high explosives, TNT and Dynamite have very little in common: TNT is a 2nd generation castable explosive adopted by the military a full sixty years after Dynamite, which is a 1st generation phlegmatized explosive primarily intended for civilian earthmoving. TNT has never been popular or widespread in civilian earthmoving, as it is considerably more expensive and less powerful by weight than Dynamite[12], as well as being slower to mix and pack into cylindrical boreholes; for its part, Dynamite has never been popular in warfare because it degenerates quickly under severe conditions and can be detonated by either fire or a wayward bullet. TNT's primary asset is its remarkable insensitivity and stability: a full generation better than Dynamite, it is waterproof and incapable of detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this conveniently also allows it to be melted at 178 °F, poured into high explosive shells and allowed to re-solidify with no extra danger or change in the TNT's characteristics.[13] As such, more than 90% of the TNT produced in America was always for the military market, with most filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs and the remainder being packaged in brown "bricks" (not red cylinders) for use as demolition charges by combat engineers.
"Extra" dynamite[edit]
In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin. Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin.
It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive). For example, high-explosive 65% Extra Dynamite has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives). Its "cartridge strength" would be its weight in pounds times its strength in relation to an equal amount of ANFO (the civilian baseline standard) or TNT (the military baseline standard). For example, 65% ammonium dynamite with a 20% cartridge strength would mean the stick was equal to an equivalent weight strength of 20% ANFO.
"Military dynamite"[edit]
"Military dynamite" is a dynamite substitute, formulated without nitroglycerin. It contains 75% RDX, 15% TNT, 5% SAE 10 motor oil, and 5% cornstarch, but is much safer to store and handle for long periods than Nobel's dynamite.[14] Military dynamite substitutes much more stable chemicals for nitroglycerin.[15]
Regulation[edit]
Main article: Explosive material § Regulation
Various countries around the world have enacted explosives laws and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients.
See also[edit]
Blast fishing
Blasting machine
Dynamite gun
Nobel Prize
Relative effectiveness factor
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Alfred Nobel - Dynamit" (in Swedish). Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Schück & Sohlman (1929), p. 101.
Jump up ^ US Patent 234489 issued to Morse 16 November 1880
Jump up ^ "dynamite." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2003. Houghton Mifflin Company 19 March 2013 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dynamite
Jump up ^ "dynamite." Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged. 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003. HarperCollins Publishers 19 March 2013 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dynamite
^ Jump up to: a b "Austin Powder Guide, Dynamite series page 2" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
Jump up ^ ChemViews. "145 Years of Dynamite". Chemistry Views. ChemViews Magazine. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Carlos López Jimeno, Emilio López Jimeno, Francisco Javier Ayala-Carcedo, Drilling and Blasting of Rocks, translated by Yvonne Visser de Ramiro from Manual de perforación y voladura de rocas (1987), Geomining Technological Institute of Spain (Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de Espan~a), Taylor & Francis, London and New York, 1995, ISBN 90-5410-199-7
Jump up ^ AECI: South Africa - History of the Chemical Industry
Jump up ^ "Historical Highlights 1980's". Web.archive.org. 30 June 2006. Archived from the original on 30 June 2006. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
Jump up ^ US v. Du Pont 188 Fed 127, 147
Jump up ^ J. Köhler, R. Meyer, A. Homburg: Explosivstoffe. Zehnte, vollständig überarbeitete Auflage. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 2008, ISBN 978-3-527-32009-7.
Jump up ^ Gibbs, T.R. & Popolato, A. LASL Explosive Property Data. Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico. USDOE, 1980.
Jump up ^ "Unexploded Ordnance Information: Ordnance Fillers". Uxoinfo.com. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Ledgard, Jared (2007). A Soldiers Handbook, Volume 1: Explosives Operations. ISBN 0-615-14794-1.
Further reading[edit]
Cartwright, A. P. (1964). The Dynamite Company: The Story of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Limited. Cape Town: Purnell & Sons (S.A.) (Pty) Ltd.
Schück, H. and Sohlman, R. (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heinemann Ltd.
External links[edit]
Look up dynamite in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dynamite.
Alfred Nobel
Oregon State Police – Arson and Explosives Section (Handling instructions and photos)
Detonator cables
U.S. Patent 78,317
U.S. Patent RE2,538 Improved process of producing an explosive compound
Dynamite and TNT at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
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text:
Mall of America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Mall of the Americas.
Mall of America
The Mall of America logo
Alternative names
MoA
General information
Type
Shopping mall
Address
60 East Broadway, Bloomington, Minnesota, United States 55425
Coordinates
44°51′15″N 93°14′32″W / 44.85417°N 93.24222°W / 44.85417; -93.24222Coordinates: 44°51′15″N 93°14′32″W / 44.85417°N 93.24222°W / 44.85417; -93.24222
Opening
August 11, 1992; 25 years ago (1992-08-11)
Owner
Triple Five Group
Technical details
Floor count
4 on East and South Wings
3 on North and West Wings
Floor area
2,500,000 sq ft (230,000 m2) + 5,400,000 sq ft (500,000 m2)
Design and construction
Architecture firm
HGA, KKE Architects, Inc., Jerde Partnership[1]
Main contractor
Melvin Simon & Associates
Triple Five Group
Other information
Number of stores
500+
Number of anchors
3
Parking
12,287 spaces
(Two 7-story ramps, two overflow surface lots, and one lower level transit station)
Website
mallofamerica.com
Mall of America (commonly, locally known as "MOA") is a shopping mall located in Bloomington, Minnesota, United States (a suburb of the Twin Cities). Southeast of the junction of Interstate 494 and Minnesota State Highway 77, north of the Minnesota River and across the Interstate from the Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport. Opened in 1992, it is the second largest mall in the United States in terms of number of stores and total floor area.
The mall is managed by the Triple Five Group (which in turn is owned by Canada's Ghermezian family, along with the West Edmonton Mall). Eighty percent of visitors to the Mall of America are from Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, the Dakotas, Illinois, Ohio, and Canada.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Architecture
3 Tenants
4 Attractions
5 Nostalgic artifacts and memorials
6 Transit
7 Security
8 Criticism
9 Addition/expansion
10 Amusement park and other features
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
History[edit]
One escalator well
The mall's concept was designed by the Triple Five Group, owned by the Ghermezian brothers, who also own the largest shopping mall in North America, the West Edmonton Mall. Mall of America is located on the site of the former Metropolitan Stadium, where the Minnesota Vikings and Minnesota Twins played until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982. A plaque in the amusement park commemorates the former location of home plate, and one seat from Met Stadium was placed in Mall of America at the exact location it occupied in the stadium, commemorating a 520-foot (160 m) home run hit by hall-of-famer Harmon Killebrew on June 3, 1967.
In 1986, the Bloomington Port Authority signed an agreement with the Ghermezian organization. Groundbreaking for the mall took place on June 14, 1989. Organizations involved include Melvin Simon and Associates, Teachers Insurance and Annuity (a.k.a. TIAA), the Triple Five Group, and the office of architect Jon Jerde.
Mall of America opened its doors to the public on August 11, 1992. Even before opening, the mall had earned several nicknames, including "The Megamall", "Sprawl of America", "Hugedale"—in reference to the four major "dale" shopping malls within the Twin Cities: Rosedale, Southdale, Ridgedale, and (defunct as of 2010[update]) Brookdale—and simply, "The Mall".
Mall of America became the largest shopping mall in total area and largest in total store vendors in the United States when it opened. The Mall of America's 42 million annual visitors equal roughly eight times the population of the state of Minnesota. The mall employs over 11,000 workers year-round and 13,000 during peak seasons.[3]
In 1996, Mall of America appeared in the Christmas movie Jingle All the Way.
During its run as an all-encompassing entertainment and retail venue, certain aspects, particularly its bars, have come under scrutiny. In early-2000 a Mardi Gras-themed bar, Fat Tuesday, shut its doors due to indecent exposure and alcohol-related offenses.[4]
In 2003, after a protracted six-year legal battle between Simon Property Group, the managing general partner of the property, and the Ghermezian brothers/Triple Five Group, over majority ownership of the site, a federal appeals court ruled in favor of the Ghermezians, effectively transferring control and planning authority of the mall back to the creator of the concept.[5] The dispute stemmed from a 1999 purchase of Teacher's Insurance's 27.5% equity stake by Simon Properties, giving them majority ownership. The Ghermezians claimed they were never told of the deal and sued Simon, citing fiduciary responsibility.
On November 3, 2006, the Ghermezians gained full control of Mall of America by spending US$1 billion.[6]
On May 18, 2008, the Minnesota State Legislature passed a bill granting the City of Bloomington the right to use $34 million in tax-increment-financing to pay for public infrastructure to support the MoA expansion. In early 2011, construction began on an expansion of the south side of the mall near Killebrew Drive, where the 506-room Radisson Blu hotel opened in March 2013. The addition of this hotel was for the purposes of increasing accessibility to the park and making the Mall of America a destination location for anyone. The addition of the lightrail between the airport and the Mall of America also enabled people with layovers in Minneapolis to spend a convenient afternoon at the Mall of America.
On November 29, 2011, Google announced indoor maps for Mall of America along with several other places like airports, parks and public spaces.[7]
On March 24, 2012, the Triple Five Group announced the start of a $200 million expansion that would build into the north parking lot of the mall. Rather than the long planned Phase II expansion, this would be a step in building this expansion. The plans call for an additional hotel and an additional 200,000 square feet (19,000 m2) of retail space.[8] In March 2014, ground was broken on the mall's north side for the $104 million, 14-story JW Marriott hotel, owned and financed by the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community.[9]
In winter 2012–2013, Mall of America hosted a 40 feet (12 m) tall ice castle made of icicles formed from 4 million gallons of water and then fused together. The castle joined 50 large ice towers together to create a series of shimmering archways, tunnels, walls and caverns.[10]
In 2015, King of Prussia Mall in King of Prussia, PA finished building a 140,000+ square ft. expansion with all new shops and restaurants connecting its two buildings; the plaza, and the court. This expansion meant that Mall of America lost its spot of being the largest.
Architecture[edit]
Sign at a Mall of America entrance, removed in 2014 as part of the Phase II expansion
The Mall of America has three levels on its West side, pictured above.
The Mall of America has a gross area of 4,870,000 sq ft (452,000 m2) or 96.4 acres (390,000 m2), enough to fit seven Yankee Stadiums inside,[11] with 2,500,000 sq ft (230,000 m2) available as retail space.[3] The mall is nearly symmetric, with a roughly rectangular floor plan. More than 530 stores are arranged along three levels of pedestrian walkways on the sides of the rectangle, with a fourth level on the east side. Four anchor department stores are located at the corners. The mall is organized into four different zones, each of those zones had its own decorative style until a series of renovations from 2010 to 2015 led to a unified and more luxurious style, as well as to coincide with the mall's first major expansion.[12]
Despite Minnesota's cold winters, only the mall's entrances and some below ground areas are heated. Heat is allowed in through skylights above the central amusement park area. The majority of the heat is produced by lighting fixtures, other electric devices, and people in the mall.[13] In fact, even during the winter, air conditioning systems may still be in use during peak hours to ensure a comfortable shopping environment.[14] Although the common areas are unheated, the individual stores do have heating systems.[15]
Two nearly identical seven-story parking ramps on the east and west sides of the mall provide 12,287 parking spaces. Overflow parking north of the building provides an additional 1,200–1,500 spaces, and 1,407 spaces are provided by IKEA that is part of the Phase II expansion of the mall which is under construction.
Tenants[edit]
Level One is the location of Nickelodeon Universe amusement park (formerly Camp Snoopy), and first level of general retail which includes Sea Life Minnesota, Hard Rock Cafe, Lego Store, American Girl Place, Apple Store, Barnes & Noble, Fabletics, Sears, Macy's, and Microsoft Store, [16] Level Two features restaurants, shopping, MOA® Moments, and the first Verizon Wireless Destination Store. Level Three has two food courts with more than 20 fast food and full service restaurants, mini-golf, shopping, and Crayola Experience. Level Four is the entertainment level with Hooters, Cantina # 1, Rick Bronson's House of Comedy, Gameworks, Dick's Last Resort, Sky Deck Sports Grille and Lane, and the first U.S. location of SMAAASH, a virtual reality sports entertainment center.
The Theatres at Mall of America (Initially run by General Cinemas, then AMC Theatres, and eventually operated by mall management) occupied the south side of the fourth floor through December 2016, when it closed permanently. It will be replaced by Cinemex subsidiary CMX Cinemas in fall 2017.[17]
Attractions[edit]
Nickelodeon Universe indoor theme park
Amusement park view from third floor
Nickelodeon Universe is an indoor theme park in the center of the mall. The park features roller coasters, among numerous other rides and attractions, and is the largest indoor theme park in the United States. Unlike many indoor amusement parks, Nickelodeon Universe has a great deal of natural foliage in and about the park, and its floor has a wide variance in height – the highest ground level in the park is 15 feet (4.6 m) above the lowest. The rides include the roller coasters SpongeBob SquarePants Rock Bottom Plunge and Avatar Airbender, and a thrill ride called BrainSurge. The latter attraction bills itself as a "rather peculiar" ride. It also has a miniature golfing section called Moose Mountain. This miniature golf course features eighteen holes and a relatively fast astroturf surface.[citation needed]
At the Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium, guests travel through a 300-foot-long (91 m) curved tunnel through 14 feet (4.3 m) of water to view over 4,500 sea creatures including sharks, turtles, stingrays, and many more.[18] Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium offers special events such as sleepovers, scuba diving, snorkeling, and birthday parties.[19][third-party source needed]
The Mall recently added Crayola Experience and FlyOver America to the list of family attractions.
Nostalgic artifacts and memorials[edit]
A stadium seat commemorating the longest home run at Metropolitan Stadium, hit by Minnesota Twins player Harmon Killebrew on June 3, 1967. The seat is painted red and bolted to a wall to mark the exact height and position at which the ball landed in the upper-deck seats.[20]
A plaque embedded in the floor of Nickelodeon Universe, marking the exact spot of home plate at Metropolitan Stadium.
The home plate plaque in Nickelodeon Universe
[20]
United Airlines Flight 93 memorial, for those who died aboard during the September 11, 2001 attacks—the bust of Tom Burnett (who was born and raised in Bloomington) is on the west side of the first floor, next to the fountain in front of Nordstrom.[21]
Transit[edit]
Main article: Mall of America (Metro Transit station)
In the lower level of the eastern parking ramp is the Mall of America Transit Station, the busiest transit hub in Minnesota with services to and from many destinations in the Minneapolis – St. Paul metropolitan area.
The Transit Station contains two stops on the Metro transit network: the southern terminus of the METRO Blue Line (light rail) to Downtown Minneapolis via MSP Airport and Hiawatha Avenue (operated by Metro Transit), and the northern terminus of the METRO Red Line (BRT) to Lakeville (operated by the Minnesota Valley Transit Authority). Both agencies also operate many local bus services to the Transit Station, and many area hotels along with the Mystic Lake Casino offer free shuttles to their establishments.
The mall is not a park and ride facility, and overnight parking is banned to prevent passengers taking the train to the airport. Commuters are required to use the nearby 28th Avenue Station's parking ramp.
The Mall of America Transit Station is undergoing a study to increase efficiency and capacities, and to provide a better experience for its users.[22] Estimates for the upgrade are approximately $20 million.
Security[edit]
The Mall of America's security program is unique and in many ways the first of its kind. Michael Rozin, who used to be employed as the mall's Special Operations Security Captain, developed and implemented a behavior detection unit specifically focused on mitigating the threat of terrorism and enhancing counter-terrorism capabilities.[23] Behavior Detection Officers (BDOs) are trained extensively in Israel, each one going through at least 240 hours of training that includes communication techniques, first aid, defensive tactics, crisis intervention, terrorism awareness, and rapid response.[24] As Doug Reynolds, the Security Director at the mall, noted in a congressional testimony in 2008, BDOs are taught to "look for intent, rather than means. The objective is to focus on suspicious indicators in three categories: People, vehicles and unattended items like backpacks, shopping bags, suitcases."[25] This methodology has prepared the mall for a variety of threats, both from terrorists and everyday criminals.
The mall's private security personnel were featured in 2010 TLC series Mall Cops: Mall of America.[26]
In 2011, NPR's All Things Considered and Morning Edition and PBS's Newshour both aired programs documenting security abuses by the mall's security personnel.[27][28]
In February 2015, the Al-Shabaab militant group also released a propaganda video calling for attacks on the Mall of America and other Western shopping centers.[29] Although the group had never launched attacks in North America,[30] security at the mall was tightened in response and Homeland Security issued a one-day alert to shoppers to remain vigilant.[29]
Criticism[edit]
During the first decade of MOA's existence, demonstrators protested animal cruelty and sweatshop conditions.[31] In 1994, protesters confronted actor Charlton Heston at a mall restaurant over his campaigning efforts on behalf of a Republican U.S. Senate candidate. In 1996, two people were arrested after they locked themselves to Macy’s doors in the spirit of the annual Fur-Free Friday demonstration. The Minnesota Supreme Court decided in 1999 that because the mall is private property, constitutional free speech protections do not apply.[31]
People inside the mall have been questioned or detained for operating video cameras, using notebooks, or other perceived suspicious behaviors. As of 2010[update], Michael Rozin, the former Special Operations Security Captain and founder of the mall's behavior detection unit instructed its members that "suspicious behavior" constitutes "photographing such things as air-conditioning ducts or signs that a shopper might have something to hide."[32] Commander Jim Ryan of the Bloomington Police Department commented that the mall's security methods may "infringe on some freedoms, unfortunately."[33]
On December 31, 2013, members from the First Nations protest movement Idle No More attempted to repeat a successful Native-American round dance held at the mall in 2012,[34] but failed after being stopped by mall security, who refused to allow Idle No More to hold their dance. Organizers of the dance, Patricia Shepard and Reyna Crow from Duluth were arrested on site for trespassing.[35]
On December 21, 2014, thousands of protesters attended an unauthorized demonstration organized by Black Lives Matter in the mall's rotunda. The demonstration was in response to the Michael Brown fatal shooting in Ferguson, Missouri, and the then recent jury decision not to prosecute the white officer in that case, as well as the death of Eric Garner of New York. In response to the demonstration, the Mall of America closed the areas of the mall around the rotunda.[36] Police arrested 25 demonstrators.[37] The Bloomington City Attorney, Sandra Johnson, is pursuing charges against the organizers, ranging "from disorderly conduct and trespassing to inciting a riot".[31] The city is seeking thousands of dollars in compensatory damages from some of the organizers for out-of-pocket costs the city incurred while paying overtime for additional security. In response to these charges, demonstrators have called for a boycott of the mall.[38]
Plans for another Black Lives Matter demonstration at the Mall of America on December 23, 2015 prompted Mall officials to file a restraining order against the movement's activists.[39] Eight individual activists were sued in Hennepin County District Court.[40] The mall's lawsuit would prohibit the defendants from demonstrating and require them to delete all of their posts to social media pertaining to the demonstration. The lawsuit additionally asked that the court jail Black Lives Matter activists unless they publicly announce that the demonstration is cancelled on their social media accounts. The American Civil Liberties Union of Minnesota called the mall's lawsuit an "improper prior restraint on speech" and an unconstitutional overreach.[41] Leaders of the demonstration indicated that the demonstration would go ahead as scheduled.[42]
Addition/expansion[edit]
Word of Mall of America's expansion has been stirring since the mid 1990s, however the first confirmation of an expansion occurred in 2005 when Triple 5 announces Mall of America Phase 2, a project that would expand the Mall of America to the north, crossing Lindau Lane and occupying the former site of Met Center.[43]
However, this expansion was delayed due to the tightening of the credit market. Eventually this was broken into four major projects: 1b, 1c, 2b, 2c.[44]
Status of Phase 2 completion:
Complete:
1B: Radisson Blu
South expansion complete 2013
1C: retail, restaurant, office and J.W. Marriott
North expansion complete 2016
Planned:
2B: 2-3 story retail expansion including connection over Lindau Lane, luxury hotel, addition parking ramp.
North Expansion on site of Met Center, Plan submitted to Bloomington Fall 2016, Construction 2017, Open 2018-2019
Concepts:
2C: 3 story retail plus additional hotel, entertainment venue located north of 2B with connections to Ikea and American Blvd
Shown on approved PDP from 2015 submission for 2B, but schedule dependent on 2B completion.
Amusement park and other features[edit]
The amusement park, during its "Camp Snoopy" days.
The Metropolitan Stadium home plate marker.
The Harmon Killebrew chair.
The carousel at the amusement park.
The band organ, formerly at the carousel entrance.
The Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. restaurant.
Another shot of the amusement park during the Camp Snoopy era.
Another shot of Camp Snoopy from a different angle. The Kite-Eating Tree ride is shown in this picture.
When Camp Snoopy became Nickelodeon Universe in 2008, the Kite-Eating Tree was restyled and renamed Swing-Along.
The three-story American flag, which was used on July 4, 2008.
The mall's information sign, which shows the use of "MOA".
The MPR store, emphasizing A Prairie Home Companion.
Al's Farm Toys, a farm-themed toy store which closed in 2016.
A few of the unique sports-themed stores throughout the mall. Team Choice and Lids Locker Room (formerly Locker Room) closed, but Goldy's and Rybicki Cheese remain and Goldy's has since become Goldy's Locker Room.
The legendary mural imitating Seurat; formerly near the food court.
The Lego "Imagination Center", the longest-standing Mall attraction.
The Lego Store after 2009 remodeling.
See also[edit]
Minnesota portal
List of the world's largest shopping malls
List of largest shopping malls in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Mall of America". Translucency.com. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ Sandra Larriva and Gabe Weisert (April 25, 2007). "Most Visited Tourist Attractions". Forbes Traveler. Archived from the original on July 31, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Facts - Mall of America". Mall of America. Retrieved 2015-03-18.
Jump up ^ "STATE OF MINNESOTA OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATIVE HEARINGS FOR THE BLOOMINGTON CITY COUNCIL" (PDF). July 14, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Brothers win back control of megamall; Simon Property will contest a ruling that transfers majority ownership". Star Tribune. September 12, 2003.
Jump up ^ Black, Sam (November 3, 2006). "Ghermezians take sole control of Mall of America in $1B deal". Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal.
Jump up ^ "A new frontier for Google Maps". Google. 2011.
Jump up ^ Webbtwebb, Tom. "Mall of America plans $200 million expansion". TwinCities.com. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ 'Ground' broken on $325 million Mall of America expansion. Retrieved March 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Mall of America | Pressroom". Press.mallofamerica.com. October 25, 2012. Retrieved July 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ [1] Citation of fitting "seven Yankee Stadiums" inside the retail space of MOA, listed in the City of Bloomington, MN Web site. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Mall of America' giant makeover ditches 90's in bid to stay hip.". Startribune.com. Star Tribune. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Elmasry, Faiza (October 10, 2006). "America's Largest Mall Offers More than Shopping". Voice of America.
Jump up ^ Schapiro, Rose (November 29, 2007). "Road Trip to the Mall of America". Chicago Weekly. Retrieved December 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ WCCO – TV (January 25, 2008). "Heating Costs".
Jump up ^ "MALL OF AMERICA® DIRECTORY MAP". Retrieved December 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kumar, Kavita. "Shuttered Mall of America movie theaters will reopen with gourmet food, cocktails". Star Tribune. StarTribune. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "*Official* SEA LIFE Minnesota". Sharky.tv. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "*Official* SEA LIFE Minnesota". Sharky.tv. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Baseball at the Mall". Dusty Lens. March 11, 2008.
Jump up ^ Merullo, Roland (May 13, 2006). "Who Financed 9/11?". Reader's Digest Australia.
Jump up ^ "Mall of America Transit Station" (PDF). Senate.MN. Minnesota Senate. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "RSC Team - Security Subject Matter Experts". Retrieved 2015-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Inside the Anti-Terror Task Force at the Mall of America". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2015-10-04.
Jump up ^ Committee on Homeland Security House of Representatives One Hundred Tenth Congress (July 9, 2008). "The Challenge of Protecting Mass Gatherings in a Post-9/11 World". US Government Printing Office. Committee on Homeland Security. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Vomhof Jr., John (March 21, 2010). "Mall of America seeks more roles in reality shows after 'Mall Cops' success". Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal.
Jump up ^ "Under Suspicion at the Mall of America". NPR. September 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ PBS (September 2011). "Attention Mall Shoppers: Are You Engaging in Suspicious Activity?". PBS.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Be particularly careful' today, U.S. homeland security chief tells MOA visitors". Star Truibune. 22 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "No "imminent threat" to West Edmonton Mall visitors, RCMP says". Edmonton Journal. 22 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c LIBOR JANY (December 24, 2014). "Bloomington seeks charges against Mall of America protesters". Star Tribune. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ G.W. SCHULZ, DANIEL ZWERDLING and ANDREW BECKER (September 11, 2011). "They're watching at the Mall of America". Star Tribune. Retrieved January 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The shadow of suspicion falls in the Mall of America". Salon. September 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rupar, Aaron. "Idle No More flash dance brings more than 1,000 protesters to Mall of America". CityPages. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ KBJR News. ""Idle No More" Round Dance attempt ends in arrests at Mall of America". Northland Newsletter. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ The Associated Press. "Chanting ‘Black Lives Matter,’ Protesters Shut Down Part of Mall of America". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Ben Brumfield (December 21, 2014). "'Black Lives Matter' protesters storm mall". CNN. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Brandt Williams (March 10, 2015). "Mall of America demonstrators plead not guilty to charges". MPR News. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Moyer, Justin Wm. (December 22, 2015). "Mall of America sues to stop planned Dec. 23 protest by Black Lives Matter". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ "Black Lives Matter Minneapolis: 8 Activists Sued By MOA". CBS Minnesota. December 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rietmulder, Michael (December 22, 2015). "Mall of America wants restraining order against Black Lives Matter protest". City Pages.
Jump up ^ Feshir, Riham; Collins, Jon; Cox, Peter (December 21, 2015). "Black Lives Matter vows MOA protest; judge weighs restraining order". MPR News.
Jump up ^ "New Plans for the $1 Billion Phase II Expansion at Mall of America Features High-End Retail and a World Class Casino".
Jump up ^ "MOA Phase 2 Renderings" (PDF).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mall of America.
Mall of America Official Site
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Metro Transit: Mall of America Station
City Pages staff writer Matt Snyders spends one week in the Mall of America
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Old North Church
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Christ Church in the City of Boston. For other places, see Old North (disambiguation).
Old North Church
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
Image of the North End, Boston neighborhood. The Old North Church is at center, a Big Dig vent building is near the bottom, and the green Tobin Bridge over the Mystic River is at the top.
Location
Boston
Coordinates
42°21′58.78″N 71°3′16.04″W / 42.3663278°N 71.0544556°W / 42.3663278; -71.0544556Coordinates: 42°21′58.78″N 71°3′16.04″W / 42.3663278°N 71.0544556°W / 42.3663278; -71.0544556
Built
1723
Architect
Price, William
Architectural style
Georgian
NRHP reference #
66000776
[1]
Significant dates
Added to NRHP
October 15, 1966
Designated NHL
January 20, 1961
Interior of the Old North Church
Old North Church (officially, Christ Church in the City of Boston), at 193 Salem Street, in the North End, Boston, is the location from which the famous "One if by land, two if by sea" signal is said to have been sent. This phrase is related to Paul Revere's midnight ride, of April 18, 1775, which preceded the Battles of Lexington and Concord during the American Revolution.
The church is a mission of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. It is the oldest standing church building in Boston and is a National Historic Landmark. Inside the church is a bust of George Washington, which Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, reportedly remarked was the best likeness of the first president he had ever seen.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 U.S. bicentennial celebration
3 The bells
4 Steeple damage
5 The other "Old North"
6 Crypt
7 Today
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
The Old North Church was built in December, 1723, and was inspired by the works of Christopher Wren, the British architect who was responsible for rebuilding London after the Great Fire. Timothy Cutler was the founding rector after serving as third rector of Yale College from 1719 to 1722.
In April 1775, Paul Revere told three Boston patriots to hang two lanterns in the steeple. These men were the church sexton Robert Newman and Captain John Pulling—the two of whom historian David Hackett Fischer suggests each carried one lantern up to the steeple—as well as Thomas Bernard, who stood watch for British troops outside the church. The lanterns were displayed to send a warning to Charlestown patriots across the Charles River about the movements of the British Army. Revere and William Dawes would later deliver the same message to Lexington themselves, but this lantern method was a fast way to inform the back-up riders in Charlestown about the movements of the British; these back-up riders planned to deliver the warning message to Lexington and Concord in case Revere and Dawes were arrested on the way.
The lanterns were hung for just under a minute to avoid catching the eyes of the British troops occupying Boston, but this was long enough for the message to be received in Charlestown. The militia waiting across the river had been told to look for the signal lanterns, and were prepared to act as soon as they saw them.
The meaning of two lanterns has been memorized by countless American schoolchildren. "One if by land, and two if by sea" is from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "Paul Revere's Ride". One lantern was to notify Charlestown that the British Army would march over Boston Neck and the Great Bridge, and two were to notify them that the troops were taking boats across the Charles River to land near Phips farm (the British Army would take the "sea" route; thus, two lanterns were hung). After receiving the signal, the Charlestown Patriots sent out a rider to Lexington, but this rider did not reach his destination and his identity has disappeared from history. He was the one who might have been captured by a British patrol.
But the warning was delivered miles away to dozens of towns, first by Revere and Dawes on horses, and then by other men on horses and men who rang church bells and town bells, beat drums, and shot off warning guns. (The current status of the lanterns is not entirely clear; one is said to be in the hands of a private collector, another broken during a tour, and yet another is on display at the Concord Museum.)
U.S. bicentennial celebration[edit]
This statue of Paul Revere outside the Old North Church commemorates his memorable ride.
President Gerald Ford visited Old North Church on April 18, 1975. In his nationally televised speech, the President said, in part:
Let us pray here in the Old North Church tonight that those who follow 100 years or 200 years from now may look back at us and say: We were a society which combined reason with liberty and hope with freedom. May it be said above all: We kept the faith, freedom flourished, liberty lived. These are the abiding principles of our past and the greatest promise of our future.
Following President Ford's remarks, two lanterns were lit by Robert Newman Ruggles and Robert Newman Sheet, descendants of Robert Newman, who, as sexton of the Old North Church in 1775, lit the two lanterns which signaled the movement of British troops. The President then lit a third lantern, which hangs in a window of the church today.
On July 11, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II visited Boston as part of celebrations honoring the United States Bicentennial, and made reference to the aforementioned celebration events in April 1975 that followed President Ford's speech. She said: "At the Old North Church last year, your President lit a third lantern dedicated to America's third century of freedom and to renewed faith in the American ideals. May its light never be dimmed."
The Queen and Prince Philip attended a Sunday morning service at the Old North Church, sitting in a pew at the right front. The Rev. Robert W. Golledge led the service and later presented the Queen with a replica of a silver chalice made by Paul Revere. The Queen was shown the iconic statue of Paul Revere by Cyrus E. Dallin near the church before departing in a motorcade to attend a function at the Old State House.
The bells[edit]
Steeple of the Old North Church
Eight change ringing bells (tenor: 13 long cwt 3 qr 5 lb (1,545 lb or 701 kg) in F) at Old North Church were cast by Abel Rudhall (Rudhall of Gloucester) in Gloucester, England in 1744 and hung in 1745.[2] One bell has the inscription: "We are the first ring of bells cast for the British Empire in North America, A.R. 1744." The bells were restored in 1894 and in 1975. They are maintained and rung regularly by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Guild of Bellringers.
Steeple damage[edit]
Sketch of the Old North Church c. 1882, showing the 1807 steeple that was destroyed in 1954.
The original steeple of the Old North Church was destroyed by the 1804 Snow hurricane. A replacement steeple, designed by Charles Bulfinch, was toppled by Hurricane Carol on August 25, 1954. The current steeple uses design elements from the original and the Bulfinch version. The church is now 174 feet (53 m) tall.[3] At its tip is the original weather vane.
The other "Old North"[edit]
Main article: Second Church, Boston
Before the construction of the "Old North Church" (Christ Church, Boston), there was another church in Boston called the "Old North" (Meetinghouse). This Congregationalist meeting house was founded in North Square, across the street from what is now called "Paul Revere's house". This church was once pastored by Cotton Mather, the minister now known largely for his involvement in the Salem witch trials.
Crypt[edit]
In 2009, an archeologist began examining the estimated 1,100 bodies buried in 37 tombs in the basement.[4] The crypt was in use between 1732 and 1860, and each tomb is sealed with a wooden or slate door, with many doors covered over by plaster as ordered by the city of Boston in the 1850s.
Founding Rector Timothy Cutler and his wife were buried under the altar together. Other notable figures buried under the church include British Marine Major John Pitcairn, who died at the Battle of Bunker Hill and was entombed along with many other soldiers killed in this battle. So is Captain Samuel Nicholson of the USS Constitution. A behind the scenes tour run by the church takes tourists down into the crypt, as well as up to the bell-ringing chamber.
Today[edit]
Old North Church is today one of four church sites among the 16 stops on the Freedom Trail.
See also[edit]
Anglicanism portal
Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills), where there is a replica of the church
List of National Historic Landmarks in Boston
National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2007-01-23). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers
Jump up ^ Skyscraperpage.com
Jump up ^ Secrets: Church of the Dead
Further reading[edit]
Asa Eaton. Historical account of Christ church, Boston: A discourse in said church, on Sunday, December 28, 1823. Boston: Printed by J.W. Ingraham, 1824. Google books
Henry Burroughs. A historical account of Christ Church, Boston: an address, delivered on the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the church, December 29, 1873. Boston: A. Williams & Co., 1874. Google books
Christ Church, Salem Street, Boston, 1723. Boston: 1912. Google books
Percival Merritt. The parochial library of the eighteenth century in Christ Church, Boston. Boston: Merrymount Press, 1917
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Old North Church.
Old North Church
Mayo family history
Boston National Historical Park Official Website
Listing and photographs at the Historic American Buildings Survey
Old North Church (Christ Church) at Find a Grave
C-SPAN American History TV Tour of Old North Church - Part 1
C-SPAN American History TV Tour of Old North Church - Part 2
Preceded by
Old State House, Boston Tallest Building in Boston
1745–1810
53 m Succeeded by
Park Street Church
Preceded by
Paul Revere House Locations along Boston's Freedom Trail
Old North Church Succeeded by
Copp's Hill
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