text:
Battle of Fort Duquesne
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Battle of Fort Duquesne
Part of the French and Indian War

This engraving by Alfred R. Waud depicts the British occupation of the remains of Fort Duquesne on November 25.
Date
14 September 1758
Location
Fort Duquesne, site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Coordinates: 40°26′29.86″N 80°00′39.40″W / 40.4416278°N 80.0109444°W / 40.4416278; -80.0109444
Result
French victory
Belligerents
France
Colony of Canada
Natives
Great Britain
British America
Commanders and leaders
François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery James Grant (POW)
Strength
500 natives and militia 400 regulars
350 militia
Casualties and losses
21 killed;
8 wounded[1] 104 killed;[2]
220 wounded;[2]
18 captured
show
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Seven Years' War in North America: The French and Indian War, Ohio Valley Theater
Jumonville Glen
Fort Necessity
Braddock Expedition
Monongahela
The Trough
Sideling Hill
Great Cacapon
Kittanning
Forbes Expedition
Fort Duquesne
Fort Ligonier
The Battle of Fort Duquesne was a British assault on the eponymous French fort (later the site of Pittsburgh) that was repulsed with heavy losses on 14 September 1758, during the French and Indian War.
The attack on Fort Duquesne was part of a large-scale British expedition with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes to drive the French out of the contested Ohio Country (the upper Ohio River Valley) and clear the way for an invasion of Canada. Forbes ordered Major James Grant of the 1st Highland Regiment to reconnoiter the area with 850 men. When Grant proceeded to attack the French position, his force was out maneuvered, surrounded, and largely destroyed by the French and their native allies led by François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery. Major Grant was taken prisoner and the British survivors retreated fitfully to Fort Ligonier.
After repulsing this advance party the French, deserted by some of their native allies and vastly outnumbered by the approaching Forbes, blew up their magazines and burnt Fort Duquesne. In November the French withdrew from the Ohio Valley and British colonists erected Fort Pitt on the site.

Forbes commanded between 5,000 and 7,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington. Forbes, very ill, did not keep up with the advance of his army, but entrusted it to his second in command, Lt. Col. Henry Bouquet, a Swiss officer commanding a battalion of the Royal American Regiment. Bouquet sanctioned a reconnaissance of Fort Duquesne by Major James Grant of Ballindalloch,
Contents
[hide]
1 Fort Duquesne
2 French retreat
3 Notes
4 References
4.1 Primary sources
Fort Duquesne[edit]
On September 11, 1758, Grant led over 800 men to scout the environs of Fort Duquesne ahead of Forbes' main column.[3] Bouquet believed the fort to be held by 500 French and 300 Indians, a force too strong to be attacked by Grant's detachment. Grant, who arrived in the vicinity of the fort on September 13, believed there were only 200 enemy within, and sent a small party of 50 men forward to scout.[4] These saw no enemy outside the fort; they burned a storehouse and returned to Grant's main position, two miles (3 km) from the fort.[5]
The next morning, Grant divided his force into several parts. A company of the 77th, under a Capt. McDonald, approached the fort with drums beating and pipes playing as a decoy. A force of 400 men lay in wait to ambush the enemy when they went out to attack McDonald, and several hundred more under the Virginian Maj. Andrew Lewis were concealed near the force's baggage train in the hope of surprising an enemy attack there....
The French and Indian force was in fact much larger than anticipated, and moved swiftly. They overwhelmed McDonald's decoy force and overran the party that had been meant to ambush them. Lewis's force left its ambush positions and went to the aid of the rest of the force but the French and Indians had by then gained a point of high ground above them and forced them to retire. The Indians used the forest to their advantage; "concealed by a thick foliage, their heavy and destructive fire could not be returned with any effect".[6] In the one-sided battle in the woods, the British and American force suffered 342 casualties, of whom 232 were from the 77th Regiment, including Grant, who was taken prisoner.[7] Out of the eight officers in Andrew Lewis’s Virginian contingent, 5 were killed, 1 was wounded and Lewis himself was captured.[8] Nevertheless, most of Grant's force escaped to rejoin the main army under Forbes and Bouquet. The Franco-Indian force suffered only 8 killed and 8 wounded.
James Smith wrote "Notwithstanding their (the Indians') vigilence, colonel Grant with his Highlanders stole a march upon them, and in the night took possession of a hill about eighty rod from Fort DuQuesne -—this hill is on that account called Grant's hill to this day. French and Indians knew not that Grant and his men were there until they beat the drum and played upon the bag-pipes, just at day-light. They then flew to arms, and the Indians ran up under covert of the banks of Allegheny and Monongahela, for some distance, and then sallied out from the banks of the rivers, and took possession of the hill above Grant; and as he was on the point of it in sight of the fort, they immediately surrounded him, and as he had his Highlanders in ranks, and very close order, and the Indians scattered, and concealed behind trees, they defeated him with the loss only of a few warriors -—most of the Highlanders were killed or taken prisoners."[9]
A plaque on the Allegheny County Courthouse, erected in 1901 commemorates the site of the battle, and the hill where the battle was fought is today called Grant Street, in Pittsburgh.[1]
French retreat[edit]
Though the French had beaten off the initial British attack, Lignery understood that his force of about 600 could not hold Fort Duquesne against the main British force of more than ten times that number. The French continued to occupy Fort Duquesne until November 26, when the garrison set fire to the fort and left under the cover of darkness. As the British marched up to the smoldering remains, they were confronted with an appalling sight. The Indians had decapitated many of the dead Highlanders and impaled their heads on the sharp stakes on top of the fort walls, with their kilts displayed below. The British and Americans rebuilt Fort Duquesne, naming it Fort Pitt after the British prime minister William Pitt, who had ordered the capture of that strategic location.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Steele, p. 214
^ Jump up to: a b Stewart, Volume II, p. 17
Jump up ^ Fleming, p. 391
Jump up ^ Fleming, pp. 391-392
Jump up ^ Fleming, p. 392
Jump up ^ Stewart, Volume I, pp. 312-313
Jump up ^ Stewart, Volume I, Page 313
Jump up ^ Dolack, Founder’s Son Leads Area Through Wars with French and British
Jump up ^ Smith, James (1799). An account of the remarkable occurrences in the life and travels of Colonel James Smith. p. 102.
References[edit]
Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (2000) pp 267–285
Chartrand, Rene. Tomahawk and Musket; French and Indian Raids in the Ohio Valley 1758. (2012) Osprey Publishing. Osprey Raid Series #27. ISBN 978-1-84908-564-9
Dolack, Bill (2008). "Founder's Son Leads Area Through Wars with French and British". Christian History Society of America. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
Fleming, George Thornton (1922). History of Pittsburgh and Environs: From Prehistoric Days to the Beginning of the American Revolution, Volume 1. New York and Chicago: The American Historical Society. OCLC 18045743. This includes letters from both Grant and Washington discussing the action.
McConnell, Michael N. A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (1992).
Steele, Ian K. (1994). Warpaths: Invasions of North America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195082230.
Stewart, David, Sketches of the Character, Manners and Present State of the Highlanders of Scotland, 2 volumes, John Donald Publishers Ltd., Edinburgh, 1977 (originally published in 1822)
White, Richard. Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (1991)
Primary sources[edit]
The Papers of Henry Bouquet : Volume II The Forbes Expedition ed. by Donald Kent et al. (1951)
Writings of General John Cabot Forbes Relating to his Service in North America (1938)
The Papers of George Washington, Colonial Series, volume 5 October 1757-September 1758 ed by W. W. Abbott et al. (1988)
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1754
Battle of Jumonville Glen
Battle of the Great Meadows
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Battle of Fort Duquesne
Battle of Fort Ligonier
Treaty of Easton
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Paxton Boys
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Fort Bedford
Fort Deshler
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Fort Prince George
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Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury
Studio album by The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy
Released
March 3, 1992
Genre
Industrial hip hop[1]
Length
62:32
Label
4th & B'way, Island, PolyGram
Producer
Michael Franti
The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy chronology
Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury
(1992) Spare Ass Annie and Other Tales
(1993)Spare Ass Annie and Other Tales1993
Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury is the debut album by alternative hip hop crew The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy, released in 1992. Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury found some critical acclaim, although the album leaned away from the then-rising G-Funk that came to be the dominant subgenre within West Coast hip hop.[citation needed]
"Television, the Drug of the Nation" was released as a single. It was recorded previously by Michael Franti's first band, the Beatnigs.
Contents
1 Critical reception
2 Track listing
3 Samples
4 Personnel
5 References
Critical reception[edit]
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic [2]
Chicago Tribune [3]
Drowned in Sound 10/10[4]
Encyclopedia of Popular Music [5]
Los Angeles Times [6]
Q [7]
Rolling Stone [8]
Select 4/5[9]
Spin Alternative Record Guide 8/10[10]
The Village Voice A−[11]
In a contemporary review for The Village Voice, music critic Robert Christgau said that, although some of the ideas and metaphors are unconvincing, Michael Franti's "intellectual grasp thrusts him immediately into pop's front rank". He also praised DJ Rono Tse as "a one-man hip hop band" who, with the help of percussionist Mark Pistel, "creates more music than he samples, stretching Bomb Squad parameters to carry the tracks whenever Franti falters."[11] Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury finished number 19 in The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop critics' poll.[12] Christgau, the poll's creator, ranked it number 14 in his own list.[13]
In a retrospective review, AllMusic's Ned Raggett said that the group "tackled every last big issue possible with one of 1992's most underrated efforts." He felt that, while its mix of "Bomb Squad and industrial music approaches" make it an appealing album, Franti's thematic breadth and "rich voice" are highlights.[2]
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Michael Franti, except where noted.
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Satanic Reverses" 4:45
2. "Famous and Dandy (Like Amos and Andy)" 6:34
3. "Television, the Drug of the Nation" 6:38
4. "Language of Violence" 6:15
5. "The Winter of the Long Hot Summer" 7:59
6. "Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury" 3:47
7. "Everyday Life Has Become a Health Risk" 4:54
8. "INS Greencard A-19 191 500" 1:36
9. "Socio-Genetic Experiment" 4:19
10. "Music and Politics" 4:01
11. "Financial Leprosy" 5:30
12. "California Über Alles" Jello Biafra & John Greenway 4:13
13. "Water Pistol Man" 5:55
Samples[edit]
"Satanic Reverses"
Miles Davis - "Miles Runs The Voodoo Down"
"Famous and Dandy"
Herbie Hancock - "Watermelon Man"
"Television, the Drug of the Nation"
The Meters - "Look-Ka-Py-Py"
"Language of Violence"
This Mortal Coil - "Barramundi"
"The Winter of the Long Hot Summer"
This Mortal Coil - "Waves Become Wings"
Wally Badarou - "Ayers Rock Bubble Eyes"
"Everyday Life Has Become a Health Risk'
Public Enemy - "Terminator X to the Edge of Panic"
"California Über Alles"
"California Über Alles" by Dead Kennedys
"Water Pistol Man"
Wally Badarou - "Leaving this Place"
[14]
Personnel[edit]
John Baker - Engineer
Kim Buie - Art Direction
The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy - Editing, Art Direction, Mixing
Michael Franti - Arranger, Programming, Vocals, Backing Vocals
Vivian Hall
Mark Heimback-Nielsen - Art Direction, Design
Charlie Hunter - Bass, Guitar, Vocals, Voices
Jeff Mann - Post Production Engineer
Mark Pistel - Arranger, Programming, Engineer, Mixing
Pete Scaturro - Engineer
Rono Tse - Percussion, Drums, Drums (Steel), Noise, Sheet Metal
Barbara Walker - Assistant Photographer
Howie Weinberg - Mastering
Simone White - Drums
Mat Callahan - Engineer
Jack Dangers - Mixing
Victor Hall - Art Direction, Photography
Jay Blakesberg - Photography
Sean Mathis - Assistant Photographer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Christgau, Robert (April 1992). "Fast Cuts". Playboy. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Raggett, Ned. "Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury – The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy". AllMusic. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Heim, Chris (April 16, 1992). "Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy: Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury (4th & B'Way)". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, Graham (June 27, 2002). "Album Review: Disposable Heroes Of Hiphoprisy – Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury". Drowned in Sound. Retrieved June 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Larkin, Colin (2011). The Encyclopedia of Popular Music (5th concise ed.). Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-85712-595-8.
Jump up ^ Oumano, Elena (March 29, 1992). "Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy, 'Hypocrisy is the Greatest Luxury,' 4th & Broadway". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy: Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury". Q. London (68): 74. May 1992.
Jump up ^ "The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy: Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury". Rolling Stone. New York: 108. May 14, 1992.
Jump up ^ Higginbotham, Adam (May 1992). "American Vitriol". Select. London (23): 64.
Jump up ^ Weisbard, Eric; Marks, Craig, eds. (1995). Spin Alternative Record Guide. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-75574-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Christgau, Robert (April 21, 1992). "Consumer Guide". The Village Voice. New York. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The 1992 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll". The Village Voice. New York. March 2, 1993. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Christgau, Robert (March 2, 1993). "Pazz & Jop 1992: Dean's List". The Village Voice. New York. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Rap Sample FAQ
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Chemical energy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with chemical potential.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In chemistry, chemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction to transform other chemical substances. Examples include batteries, food, gasoline, and more. Breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy, which may be either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system. A very common misconception is that energy is released when bonds are broken, whereas energy is required to break bonds.
Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperatures are the same. This change in energy can be estimated from the bond energies of the various chemical bonds in the reactants and products. It can also be calculated from Δ U f ∘ r e a c t a n t s {\displaystyle \Delta {U_{f}^{\circ }}_{\mathrm {reactants} }} , the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules, and Δ U f ∘ p r o d u c t s {\displaystyle \Delta {U_{f}^{\circ }}_{\mathrm {products} }} the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The internal energy change of a chemical process is equal to the heat exchanged if it is measured under conditions of constant volume and equal initial and final temperature, as in a closed container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the enthalpy of reaction, if initial and final temperatures are equal).
Another useful term is the heat of combustion, which is the energy mostly of the weak double bonds of molecular oxygen[1] released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, the energy released is analogous to the heat of combustion (though not assessed in the same way as a hydrocarbon fuel — see food energy).
Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or otherwise. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction. As an example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy of molecular oxygen is converted to heat,[1] and the same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism. Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy (mostly of oxygen) through the process known as photosynthesis, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy and vice versa through electrochemical reactions.
The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle exchange with a reservoir, etc. It is not a form of potential energy itself, but is more closely related to free energy. The confusion in terminology arises from the fact that in other areas of physics not dominated by entropy, all potential energy is available to do useful work and drives the system to spontaneously undergo changes of configuration, and thus there is no distinction between "free" and "non-free" potential energy (hence the one word "potential"). However, in systems of large entropy such as chemical systems, the total amount of energy present (and conserved by the first law of thermodynamics) of which this Chemical Potential Energy is a part, is separated from the amount of that energy—Thermodynamic Free Energy (which Chemical potential is derived from)—which (appears to) drive the system forward spontaneously as its entropy increases (in accordance with the second law).
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References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Schmidt-Rohr, K (2015). "Why Combustions Are Always Exothermic, Yielding About 418 kJ per Mole of O2". J. Chem. Educ. 92: 2094–2099. Bibcode:2015JChEd..92.2094S. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00333.
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Janmabhoomi Express
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Janmabhoomi Express
Overview
Service type
SuperFast
Locale
Andhra Pradesh
Current operator(s)
East Coast Railway
Route
Start
Secunderabad
Stops
17
End
Visakhapatnam
Distance travelled
699 km (434 mi)
Average journey time
12 hours 30 minutes
Service frequency
Daily
Train number(s)
12806 / 12805
On-board services
Class(es)
2nd Seating, AC Chair Car, General Class
Seating arrangements
Yes
Sleeping arrangements
No
Catering facilities
On-board Catering
Technical
Operating speed
55 km/h (34 mph) average
[hide]Route map
Landscape view at Guntur from Janmabhoomi Express
The Janmabhoomi Express (12805 / 12806) is an InterCity service of Indian Railways that travels from Secunderabad to Visakhapatnam. It was first introduced between Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada Jn. It was later extended up to Tenali and then the Nagarjuna Express(Secunderabad-Tenali-Secunderabad) was cancelled and thus made the Visakhapatnam-Secunderabad Janmabhoomi express via Tenali. It is an express service that travels in Andhra Pradesh. The train travels at an average speed of 55 km/h and uses a WDM from Secunderabad to Vijayawada but then switches to a WDP4 or a WDM3A to Visakhapatnam. It is classified as a superfast train in the Indian Railways classification list.
Janmabhoomi has 24 coaches, of which 10 are unreserved and the rest for second class and 3 AC chair car.
Contents
[hide]
1 Coaches
2 Statistics
3 Other lines
4 See also
5 References
Coaches[edit]
Janmabhoomi has 24 coaches, of which 8 are Unreserved General Coaches, 11 second class (2nd Seating) coaches, 3 AC Chair Car coaches along with 2 SLR coaches.
Statistics[edit]
This is an day intercity express. It has only second seating and chair car which can be reserved. there is no pantry car for this train. This train passes through Nalgonda, Miryalaguda, Piduguralla, Sattenaplli, Guntur, Tenali, Vijayawada (where it switches engines if needed to. Longest stop: 15 minutes), Nuzvid,Elluru,Tadepalligudem, Rajahmundry,Samalkota, Annavaram, Tuni, Ankapalli, Duvvada.
Secundrabad start time 7.10 a.m. Visakhapatnam arrival 7.40 p.m. Train Reveres at Tenali.
Other lines[edit]
Janmabhoomi Express is a popular train to take but can be very busy. Alternatives include the Godavari Express and the Konark Express (which stops at Visakhapatnam, but usually follows the normal route of Konark which is Mumbai to Bhubaneswar). The Secunderabad – Visakhapatnam Duronto Express is also an option as is the Visakhapatnam – Secunderabad Garib Rath Express. Duronto is faster but does not have full accommodations; Garib Rath is slower but has full accommodations.
See also[edit]
Railways in India portal
List of named passenger trains of India
South Central Railway Zone
Trains of South Central Railway (India)
References[edit]
http://indiarailinfo.com/train/janmabhoomi-express-12805-vskp-to-sc/855/401/835
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Agitations
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1928 South Indian railway strike
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1974 railway strike in India
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See also
Timeline of Southern Railway zone
Kerala Rail Development Corporation Limited
Bholu (mascot)
Madras Time
Thiruvananthapuram–Kannur high-speed rail corridor
Annual passenger earnings details of railway stations in Kerala
Railways in India portal

This Indian rail transport related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Anno Domini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"AD" and "Before Christ" redirect here. For other uses, see Anno Domini (disambiguation) and AD (disambiguation).
"Christian era" redirects here. For other uses, see Christian era (disambiguation).
Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in Carinthia, Austria.
The terms anno Domini[a][1][2] (AD) and before Christ[b][3][4][5] (BC) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord",[6] but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord",[7][8] taken from the full original phrase "anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ".
This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.[9][10]
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations.[11]
Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number.[c] However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2018, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).[13] Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would neither be included in the BC nor the AD time scales.[14]
Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current or Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common or Current Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Popularization
1.2 New year
2 Birth date of Jesus
3 Other eras
4 CE and BCE
5 No year zero: start and end of a century
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Citations
7.3 Sources
8 External links
History[edit]
The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[15] The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ".[16] Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date."[17]
Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:[10]
In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.
The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).
There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.
There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years.
It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table.[18][19][20] It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hijra, but rather weeks prior, on the first occurrence of the month of Muharram (corresponding to 16 July 622).[21]
It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq[22] that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of the dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world.[23][24] Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world[25] but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.
Popularization[edit]
The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. In this same history, he also used another Latin term, ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era.[26] Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style).[27]
Statue of Charlemagne by Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire.
On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.[28] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius.[29] Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Although Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede used the expression "anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam" (so in the year before the incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno an xpi nativitate" (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk.[30] In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD.[31][32][33]
New year[edit]
Further information: New Year
When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:[34]
From 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century, then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called calculus pisanus since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750.
From 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and had been spread by Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century.
From 25 March 754 AUC (today in AD 1). That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century, but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa, so it got the name of calculus florentinus. It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752.
From Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That mos gallicanus (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.
With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.
Birth date of Jesus[edit]
See also: Date of birth of Jesus, Nativity of Jesus § Date of birth, and Chronology of Jesus § Year of Jesus' birth
The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC.[35] The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating,[36] but the date is estimated through two different approaches – one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.[37][38]
Other eras[edit]
Further information: Calendar era
During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.[citation needed]
Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years.[39] Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.
Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were exclusively used and are yet used, in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).[40]
Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system.[28]
The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.
CE and BCE[edit]
Main article: Common Era
Alternative names for the Anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin),[41] "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635),[42] "Christian Era" (in English, in 1652),[43] "Common Era" (in English, 1708),[44] and "Current Era".[45] Since 1856,[46] the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE, (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.
The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references.[47][48] For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D."[49] Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 ("xī yuán", "Western Era"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 (gōngyuán, "Common Era") for all purposes domestic and foreign.
No year zero: start and end of a century[edit]
Further information: 0 (year), Astronomical year numbering, Millennium, and Century
In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. There is no year "0" between them, so a new century begins in a year which has "01" as the final digits (e.g., 1801, 1901, 2001). New millennia likewise are considered to have begun in 1001 and 2001. This is at odds with the much more common conception that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.); for example, the worldwide celebration of the new millennium took place on New Year's Eve 1999, when the year number ticked over to 2000.[9]
For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc.[d] In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.
See also[edit]
Ante Christum natum
Holocene calendar
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The word "anno" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.
Jump up ^ The word "before" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.
Jump up ^ This convention comes from grammatical usage. Anno 500 means "in the year 500"; anno domini 500 means "in the year 500 of Our Lord". Just as "500 in the year" is not good English syntax, neither is 500 AD; whereas "AD 500" preserves syntactic order when translated.[12]
Jump up ^ To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0).[50]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "anno Domini". Collins English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "anno Domini". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Jump up ^ "BC". Collins English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "before Christ". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Jump up ^ "BC". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 2011-10-04. Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2011-10-04.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 782 "since AD stands for anno Domini, 'in the year of (Our) Lord'"
^ Jump up to: a b Teresi, Dick (July 1997). "Zero". The Atlantic.
^ Jump up to: a b Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, pp. 778–9.
Jump up ^ Eastman, Allan. "A Month of Sundays". Date and Time. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Chicago Manual of Style 2010, pp. 476–7; Goldstein 2007, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.
Jump up ^ Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 767.
Jump up ^ Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius Introduction and First Argumentum.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 778.
Jump up ^ Teres, Gustav (October 1984). "Time computations and Dionysius Exiguus". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 15 (3). pp. 177–188.
Jump up ^ Tøndering, Claus, The Calendar FAQ: Counting years
Jump up ^ Mosshammer, Alden A (2009). The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford. pp. 345–347.
Jump up ^ F. A. Shamsi, "The Date of Hijrah", Islamic Studies 23 (1984): 189-224, 289-323 (JSTOR link 1 + JSTOR link 2).
Jump up ^ Declercq, Georges, "Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era" Turnhout, Belgium, 2000
Jump up ^ Wallraff, Martin: Julius Africanus und die Christliche Weltchronik. Walter de Gruyter, 2006
Jump up ^ Mosshammer, Alden A.: The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 254, p. 270, p. 328
Jump up ^ Declercq, Georges: Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era. Turnhout Belgium. 2000
Jump up ^ Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 881.
^ Jump up to: a b Patrick, 1908
Jump up ^ "General Chronology". New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908. Retrieved 2011-10-25.
Jump up ^ Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno an xpi nativitatem (in the ...(th) year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greek χρι in Latin letters, which is an abbreviation for Christi. This phrase appears upside down in the centre of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno Christi or its abbreviated form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years.
Jump up ^ Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-471-29827-4. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ Hunt, Lynn Avery (2008). Measuring time, making history. p. 33. ISBN 978-963-9776-14-2. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ Petau, Denis (1758). search for "ante Christum" in a 1748 reprint of a 1633 abridgement entitled Rationarium temporum by Denis Petau. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ C. R. Cheney, A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history, Cambridge University Press, 1945–2000, pp. 8–14.
Jump up ^ Dunn, James DG (2003). "Jesus Remembered". Eerdmans Publishing: 324.
Jump up ^ Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".
Jump up ^ Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129
Jump up ^ New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124
Jump up ^ Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt, Leiden, Brill, 2004.
Jump up ^ Alfred von Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, F. Ruehl, Leipzig, 1889, p.433.
Jump up ^ Johannes Kepler (1615). Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis & Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteri Iudaeorum. (in Latin). Francofurti : Tampach. Retrieved 2011-05-18. anno aerae nostrae vulgaris
Jump up ^ Kepler, Johann; Vlacq, Adriaan (1635). Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633... Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ Sliter, Robert (1652). A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester. London: Printed for the Company of Stationers.
Jump up ^ The History of the Works of the Learned. 10. London: Printed for H. Rhodes. January 1708. p. 513. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ BBC Team (8 February 2005). "History of Judaism 63BCE–1086CE". BBC Religion & Ethics. British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-05-18. Year 1: CE – What is nowadays called the 'Current Era' traditionally begins with the birth of a Jewish teacher called Jesus. His followers came to believe he was the promised Messiah and later split away from Judaism to found Christianity
Jump up ^ Raphall, Morris Jacob (1856). Post-Biblical History of The Jews. Moss & Brother. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-18. The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly.
Jump up ^ Robinson, B.A. (20 April 2009). "Justification of the use of "CE" & "BCE" to identify dates. Trends". ReligiousTolerance.org.
Jump up ^ William Safire (17 August 1997). "On Language: B.C./A.D. or B.C.E./C.E.?". The New York Times Magazine.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, ed. by Philip A. (2004). Pondering the Passion : what's at stake for Christians and Jews?. Lanham, Md. [u.a.]: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 193. ISBN 978-0742532182. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Doggett, 1992, p. 579
Sources[edit]
Abate, Frank R. (ed.) (1997). Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus (American ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513097-9. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Goldstein, Norm, ed. (2007). Associated Press Style Book. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00489-X.
Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum. Accessed 2007-12-07.
Chicago Manual of Style (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. 1993. ISBN 0-226-10389-7.
Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). University of Chicago. 2010. ISBN 0-226-10420-6.
Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (2003). The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Corrected reprinting of original 1999 edition.
Cunningham, Philip A; Starr, Arthur F (1998). Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3835-2.
Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era. Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN 2-503-51050-7. (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini.
Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Patrick, J. (1908). "General Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm
Richards, E. G. (2000). Mapping Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286205-7.
Riggs, John (January 2003). "Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?". United Church News. Retrieved 2005-12-19.
Ryan, Donald P. (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries. Alpha Books. p. 15. ISBN 0-02-863831-X.
External links[edit]
Look up AD or Anno Domini in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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