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First Fleet
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This article is about the British colonial fleet. For the United States Navy unit known as the First Fleet, see United States First Fleet.
For other uses, see First fleet (disambiguation).
The First Fleet entering Port Jackson on 26 January 1788 by Edmund Le Bihan
The First Fleet is the name given to the 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports, carrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. From England, the Fleet sailed southwest to Rio de Janeiro, then east to Cape Town and via the Great Southern Ocean to Botany Bay, arriving over the period of 18 to 20 January 1788, taking 250 to 252 days from departure to final arrival.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Background and planning
1.2 Ships of the First Fleet
1.2.1 Naval escort
1.2.2 Convict transports
1.2.3 Food and supply transports
1.3 People of the First Fleet
1.4 Voyage
1.5 Arrival in Australia
1.6 First contact
1.7 After January 1788
1.8 Last survivors
2 Legacy
2.1 Smallpox
2.2 Commemoration Garden
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 Further reading
6.1 Fiction
7 External links
History[edit]
Background and planning[edit]
Convicts were originally transported to the Thirteen Colonies in North America, but after the American War of Independence ended in 1783, the newly formed United States refused to accept further convicts.[1] On 6 December 1785, Orders in Council were issued in London for the establishment of a penal colony in New South Wales, on land claimed for Britain by explorer James Cook in his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770.[2][3]
The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations and land grants in the colony.[4] The ships arrived at Botany Bay between 18 January and 20 January 1788:[5] HMS Supply arrived on 18 January, Alexander, Scarborough and Friendship arrived on 19 January, and the remaining ships on 20 January.[6][7]
The cost to Britain of outfitting and despatching the Fleet was £84,000[8] (about £9.6 million as of 2015).[9]
Ships of the First Fleet[edit]
Naval escort[edit]
The First Fleet included two Royal Navy escort ships, the ten-gun sixth-rate vessel HMS Sirius under the command of Captain John Hunter, and the armed tender HMS Supply commanded by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball.
Naval escorts (depart England 13 May 1787)[10]
Ship
Type
Master
Crew[11]
Dep. England
Arr. Botany Bay
Duration (Days)
HMS Supply Yard craft Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball 13 May 1787 from Spithead 18 January 1788 250
HMS Sirius 10-gun ship Captain John Hunter 13 May 1787 from Portsmouth 20 January 1788 252
Convict transports[edit]
Convict transports (depart England 13 May 1787)[10]
Ship
Type
Master
Crew[11]
Arr. Botany Bay
Duration (days)
Male convicts arrived (boarded)
Female convicts arrived (boarded)
Alexander Barque Duncan Sinclair 40 19 January 1788 251 210 – two were pardoned none
Charlotte transport Thomas Gilbert 30 20 January 1788 252 100 24
Friendship Brig Francis Walton 20 19 January 1788 251 80 24 – to Cape of Good Hope only
Lady Penrhyn transport William Cropton Server 31 20 January 1788 252 none 101
Prince of Wales Barque John Mason 25 20 January 1788 252 2 47
Scarborough transport Captain John Marshall 35 19 January 1788 251 210 none
Food and supply transports[edit]
Ropes, crockery, agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed. Items transported included tools, agricultural implements, seeds, spirits, medical supplies, bandages, surgical instruments, handcuffs, leg irons and a prefabricated wooden frame for the colony's first Government House.[12] The party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials, assuming suitable supplies existed, and grow its own food and raise livestock.
Food and supply transports (depart England 13 May 1787)
Ship
Type
Master
Crew
Arr. Botany Bay
Duration (days)
Golden Grove storeship William Sharp N/A 20 January 1788 252
Fishburn storeship Robert Brown N/A 20 January 1788 252
Borrowdale storeship Hobson Reed N/A 20 January 1788 252
Scale models of all the ships are on display at the Museum of Sydney. The models were built by ship makers Lynne and Laurie Hadley, after researching the original plans, drawings and British archives. The replicas of the Supply, Charlotte, Scarborough, Friendship, Prince of Wales, Lady Penrhyn, Borrowdale, Alexander, Sirius (1786), Fishburn and Golden Grove are made from Western Red or Syrian Cedar.[13]
Nine Sydney harbour ferries built in the mid-1980s are named after First Fleet vessels. The unused names are Lady Penrhyn and Prince of Wales.
People of the First Fleet[edit]
See also: Convicts on the First Fleet and Journals of the First Fleet
The people of the fleet included seamen, marines and their families, government officials, and a large number of convicts, including women and children. The majority were British, but there were also African, American and French convicts on board.[14][15] The convicts had committed a variety of crimes, including theft, perjury, fraud, assault, and robbery, for which they had variously been sentenced to penal transportation for 7 years, 14 years, or the term of their natural life.[16][17]
The six convict transports each had a detachment of marines on board. Most of the families of the marines traveled aboard the Prince of Wales.[18] A number of people on the First Fleet kept diaries and journals of their experiences, including the surgeons. There are twelve known journals in existence as well as some letters.[19]
The exact number of people directly associated with the First Fleet will likely never be established, as accounts of the event vary slightly. A total of 1,420 people have been identified as embarking on the First Fleet in 1787, and 1,373 are believed to have landed at Sydney Cove in January 1788. In her biographical dictionary of the First Fleet, Mollie Gillen gives the following statistics:[20]
Embarked at Portsmouth
Landed at Sydney Cove
Officials and passengers 15 14
Ships' crews 323 269
Marines 247 245
Marines' wives and children 46 45 + 9 born
Convicts (men) 582 543
Convicts (women) 193 189
Convicts' children 14 11 + 11 born
Total 1,420 1,336
While the names of all crew members of Sirius and Supply are known, the six transports and three storeships may have carried as many as 110 more seamen than have been identified – no complete musters have survived for these ships. The total number of persons embarking on the First Fleet would, therefore, be approximately 1,530 with about 1,483 reaching Sydney Cove.
Other sources indicate that the passengers consisted of 10 civil officers, 212 marines, including officers, 28 wives and 17 children of the marines, 81 free people, 504 male convicts and 192 female convicts; making the total number of free people 348 and the total number of prisoners 696, coming to a grand total of 1,044 people.
According to the first census of 1788 as reported by Governor Phillip to Lord Sydney, the white population of the colony was 1,030 and the colony also consisted of 7 horses, 29 sheep, 74 swine, 6 rabbits, and 7 cattle.[21]
The following statistics were provided by Governor Phillip:[22]
Male
Female
Children
Total
Convicts & their children 548 188 17 753
Others 219 34 24 277
Total 767 222 41 1,030
David Collins' book An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales gives the following details:[23]
The Alexander, of 453 tons, had on board 192 male convicts; 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 29 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Scarborough, of 418 tons, had on board 205 male convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 26 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Charlotte, of 346 tons, had on board 89 male and 20 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 35 privates, with the principal surgeon of the colony.
The Lady Penrhyn, of 338 tons, had on board 101 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, and 3 privates, with a person acting as a surgeon's mate.
The Prince of Wales, of 334 tons, had on board 2 male and 50 female convicts; 2 lieutenants, 3 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 24 privates, with the surveyor-general of the colony.
The Friendship, … of 228 tons, had on board 76 male and 21 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 36 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
There were on board, beside these, 28 women, 8 male and 6 female children, belonging to the soldiers of the detachment, together with 6 male and 7 female children belonging to the convicts.
The Fishburn store-ship was of 378 tons; the Borrowdale of 272 tons; and the Golden Grove of 331 tons. Golden Grove carried the chaplain for the colony, with his wife and a servant.
Not only these store-ships, but the men of war and transports were laden with provisions, implements of agriculture, camp equipage, clothing for the convicts, baggage, etc.
The Sirius carried as supernumeraries, the major commandant of the corps of marines embarked in the transports* [*This officer was also lieutenant-governor of the colony], the adjutant and quarter-master, the judge-advocate of the settlement, and the commissary; with one sergeant, three drummers, seven privates, four women, and a few artificers.
The chief surgeon for the First Fleet, John White, reported a total of 48 deaths and 28 births during the voyage. The deaths during the voyage included one marine, one marine's wife, one marine's child, 36 male convicts, four female convicts, and five children of convicts.[24]
Voyage[edit]
Lady Penrhyn
The First Fleet left Portsmouth, England on 13 May 1787.[25] The journey began with fine weather, and thus the convicts were allowed on deck.[26] The Fleet was accompanied by the armed frigate Hyena until it left English waters.[27] On 20 May 1787, one convict on the Scarborough reported a planned mutiny; those allegedly involved were flogged and two were transferred to Prince of Wales.[27] In general, however, most accounts of the voyage agree that the convicts were well behaved.[27] On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife.[25] Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Phillip and the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape.[28] On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro,[25] taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.
The weather became increasingly hot and humid as the Fleet sailed through the tropics. Vermin, such as rats, and parasites such as bedbugs, lice, cockroaches and fleas, tormented the convicts, officers and marines. Bilges became foul and the smell, especially below the closed hatches, was over-powering.[29] While Phillip gave orders that the bilge-water was to be pumped out daily and the bilges cleaned, these orders were not followed on the Alexander and a number of convicts fell sick and died.[29] Tropical rainstorms meant that the convicts could not exercise on deck as they had no change of clothes and no method of drying wet clothing.[29] Consequently, they were kept below in the foul, cramped holds. On the female transports, promiscuity between the convicts, the crew and marines was rampant, despite punishments for some of the men involved.[29] In the doldrums, Phillip was forced to ration the water to three pints a day.[29]
The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month.[25] The ships were cleaned and water taken on board, repairs were made, and Phillip ordered large quantities of food.[26] The women convicts' clothing had become infested with lice and was burnt. As additional clothing for the female convicts had not arrived before the Fleet left England,[26] the women were issued with new clothes made from rice sacks. While the convicts remained below deck, the officers explored the city and were entertained by its inhabitants.[30] A convict and a marine were punished for passing forged quarter-dollars made from old buckles and pewter spoons.
The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October.[31] This was the last port of call, so the main task was to stock up on plants, seeds and livestock for their arrival in Australia.[32] The livestock taken on board from the Cape of Good Hope destined for the new colony included two bulls, seven cows, one stallion, three mares, 44 sheep, 32 pigs, four goats and "a very large quantity of poultry of every kind".[33] Women convicts on the Friendship were moved to other transports to make room for livestock purchased there. The convicts were provided with fresh beef and mutton, bread and vegetables, to build up their strength for the journey and maintain their health.[32] The Dutch colony of Cape Town was the last outpost of European settlement which the fleet members would see for years, perhaps for the rest of their lives. "Before them stretched the awesome, lonely void of the Indian and Southern Oceans, and beyond that lay nothing they could imagine."[34]
Assisted by the gales in the "Roaring Forties" latitudes below the 40th parallel, the heavily laden transports surged through the violent seas. In the last two months of the voyage, the Fleet faced challenging conditions, spending some days becalmed and on others covering significant distances; the Friendship travelled 166 miles one day, while a seaman was blown from the Prince of Wales at night and drowned.[35] Water was rationed as supplies ran low, and the supply of other goods including wine ran out altogether on some vessels.[35] Van Diemen's Land was sighted from the Friendship on 4 January 1788.[35] A freak storm struck as they began to head north around the island, damaging the sails and masts of some of the ships.
On 25 November, Phillip had transferred to the Supply. With Alexander, Friendship and Scarborough, the fastest ships in the Fleet, which were carrying most of the male convicts, the Supply hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest. Phillip intended to select a suitable location, find good water, clear the ground, and perhaps even have some huts and other structures built before the others arrived. This was a planned move, discussed by the Home Office and the Admiralty prior to the Fleet's departure.[36] However, this "flying squadron" reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible.[37] Supply reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20 January.[38]
This was one of the world's greatest sea voyages – eleven vessels carrying about 1,487 people and stores[33] had travelled for 252 days for more than 15,000 miles (24,000 km) without losing a ship. Forty-eight people died on the journey, a death rate of just over three per cent.
Arrival in Australia[edit]
It was soon realised that Botany Bay did not live up to the glowing account that the explorer Captain James Cook had provided.[39] The bay was open and unprotected, the water was too shallow to allow the ships to anchor close to the shore, fresh water was scarce, and the soil was poor.[40] First contact was made with the local indigenous people, the Eora, who seemed curious but suspicious of the newcomers. The area was studded with enormously strong trees. When the convicts tried to cut them down, their tools broke and the tree trunks had to be blasted out of the ground with gunpowder. The primitive huts built for the officers and officials quickly collapsed in rainstorms. The marines had a habit of getting drunk and not guarding the convicts properly, whilst their commander, Major Robert Ross, drove Phillip to despair with his arrogant and lazy attitude. Crucially, Phillip worried that his fledgling colony was exposed to attack from Aborigines or foreign powers. Although his initial instructions were to establish the colony at Botany Bay, he was authorised to establish the colony elsewhere if necessary.[41]
An engraving of the First Fleet in Botany Bay at voyage's end in 1788, from The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay.[42] Sirius is in the foreground; convict transports such as Prince of Wales are depicted to the left.
On 21 January, Phillip and a party which included John Hunter, departed the Bay in three small boats to explore other bays to the north.[43] Phillip discovered that Port Jackson, about 12 kilometres to the north, was an excellent site for a colony with sheltered anchorages, fresh water and fertile soil.[43] Cook had seen and named the harbour, but had not entered it.[43] Phillip's impressions of the harbour were recorded in a letter he sent to England later: "the finest harbour in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line may ride in the most perfect security ...". The party returned to Botany Bay on 23 January.[43]
On the morning of 24 January, the party was startled when two French ships were seen just outside Botany Bay. This was a scientific expedition led by Jean-François de La Pérouse. The French had expected to find a thriving colony where they could repair ships and restock supplies, not a newly arrived fleet of convicts considerably more poorly provisioned than themselves.[44] There was some cordial contact between the French and British officers, but Phillip and La Pérouse never met. The French ships remained until 10 March before setting sail on their return voyage. They were not seen again and were later discovered to have been shipwrecked off the coast of Vanikoro in the present-day Solomon Islands.[45]
On 26 January 1788, the Fleet weighed anchor and sailed to Port Jackson.[25] The site selected for the anchorage had deep water close to the shore, was sheltered, and had a small stream flowing into it. Phillip named it Sydney Cove, after Lord Sydney the British Home Secretary.[43] This date is celebrated as Australia Day, marking the beginning of British settlement.[46] The British flag was planted and formal possession taken. This was done by Phillip and some officers and marines from the Supply, with the remainder of Supply's crew and the convicts observing from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet did not arrive at Sydney Cove until later that day.[47]
First contact[edit]
The First Fleet encountered indigenous Australians when they landed at Botany Bay. The Cadigal people of the Botany Bay area witnessed the Fleet arrive and six days later the two ships of French explorer La Pérouse sailed into the bay.[48] When the Fleet moved to Sydney Cove seeking better conditions for establishing the colony, they encountered the Eora people, including the Bidjigal clan. A number of the First Fleet journals record encounters with Aboriginal people.[49]
Although the official policy of the British Government was to establish friendly relations with Aboriginal people,[41] and Arthur Phillip ordered that the Aboriginal people should be well treated, it was not long before conflict began. The colonists did not sign treaties with the original inhabitants of the land.[50] Between 1790 and 1810, Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal clan led the local people in a series of attacks against the British colonisers.[51]
After January 1788[edit]
The ships of the First Fleet mostly did not remain in the colony. Some returned to England, while others left for other ports. Some remained at the service of the Governor of the colony for some months: some of these were sent to Norfolk Island where a second penal colony was established.
1788
15 February – HMS Supply sails for Norfolk Island carrying a small party to establish a settlement.
5/6 May – Charlotte, Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough set sail for China.
14 July – Borrowdale, Alexander, Friendship and Prince of Wales set sail to return to England.
2 October – Golden Grove sets sail for Norfolk Island with a party of convicts, returning to Port Jackson 10 November, while HMS Sirius sails for Cape of Good Hope for supplies.
19 November – Fishburn and Golden Grove set sail for England. This means that only HMS Supply now remains in Sydney cove.
1789
23 December – Guardian carrying stores for the colony strikes an iceberg and is forced back to the Cape. It never reaches the colony in New South Wales.
1790:
19 March – HMS Sirius is wrecked off Norfolk Island.
17 April – HMS Supply sent to Batavia, Java, for emergency food supplies.
3 June – Lady Juliana, the first of six vessels of the Second Fleet, arrives in Sydney cove. The remaining five vessels of the Second Fleet arrive in the ensuing weeks.
19 September – HMS Supply returns to Sydney having chartered the Dutch vessel Waaksamheid to accompany it carrying stores.[52]
Last survivors[edit]
On 26 January 1842, the Colonial Government in Sydney awarded a life pension of 1 shilling a day to three surviving members of the First Fleet. The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported, on Saturday 29 January 1842: "The Government have ordered a pension of one shilling per diem to be paid to the survivors of those who came by the first vessel into the Colony. The number of these really 'old hands' is now reduced to three, of whom, two are now in the Benevolent Asylum, and the other is a fine hale old fellow, who can do a day's work with more spirit than many of the young fellows lately arrived in the Colony."[53] The names of the three recipients are not given.
William Hubbard: Hubbard was convicted in the Kingston Assizes in Surrey, England, on 24 March 1784 for theft.[54] He was transported to Australia on the Scarborough in the First Fleet. He married Mary Goulding on 19 December 1790 in Rose Hill. In 1803 he received a land grant of 70 acres at Mulgrave Place. He died on 18 May 1843 at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum. His age was given as 76 when he was buried at Christ Church St. Lawrence, Sydney on 22 May 1843.
John McCarthy: McCarthy was a Marine who sailed on the Friendship.[55] McCarthy was born in Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland, circa Christmas 1745. He first served in the colony of New South Wales, then at Norfolk Island where he took up a land grant of 60 acres (Lot 110). He married the first fleet convict Ann Beardsley on Norfolk Island in November 1791 after his discharge a month earlier. In 1808, on the close of Norfolk Island settlement, he resettled in Van Diemen's Land and later took a land grant (80 acres at Melville) in lieu of the one forfeited on Norfolk Island. The last few years of his life were spent at the home of his granddaughter and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Budd, at a place called Kinlochewe Inn near Donnybrook, Victoria. McCarthy died on 24 July 1846,[56] six months past his 100 birthday.
John Limeburner: The South Australian Register reported, in an article dated Wednesday 3 November 1847: "John Limeburner, the oldest colonist in Sydney, died in September last, at the advanced age of 104 years. He helped to pitch the first tent in Sydney, and remembered the first display of the British flag there, which was hoisted on a swamp oak-tree, then growing on a spot now occupied as the Water-Police Court. He was the last of those called the 'first-fleeters' (arrivals by the first convict ships) and, notwithstanding his great age, retained his faculties to the last."[57] John Limeburner was a convict on the Charlotte. He was convicted on 9 July 1785 at New Sarum, Wiltshire of theft of a waistcoat, a shirt and stockings.[58] He married Elizabeth Ireland in 1790 at Rosehill and together they establish a 50-acre farm at Prospect.[59] He died at Ashfield in September 1847 and is buried at St John's, Ashfield.
John Jones: Jones was a Marine on the First Fleet and sailed on the Alexander. He is listed in the N.S.W. 1828 Census as aged 82 and living at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum.[60] He is said to have died at the Benevolent Asylum in 1848.[61]
Samuel King: King was a scribbler (a worker in a scribbling mill[62]) before he became a Marine. He was a Marine with the First Fleet on board the flagship Sirius (1786).[63] He shipped to Norfolk Island on Golden Grove in September 1788, where he lived with Mary Rolt, a convict who arrived with the First Fleet on the Prince of Wales. He received a grant of 60 acres (Lot No. 13) at Cascade Stream in 1791. Mary Rolt returned to England on the Britannia in October 1796. King was resettled in Van Diemen's Land, boarding the City of Edinburgh on 3 September 1808, and landed in Hobart on 3 October.[64] He married Elizabeth Thackery on 28 January 1810. He died on 21 October 1849 at 86 years of age and was buried in the Wesleyan cemetery at Lawitta Road, Back River.
John Small: Convicted 14 March 1785 at the Devon Lent Assizes held at Exeter for Robbery King's Highway. Sentenced to hang, reprieved to 7 years transportation. Arrived on the Charlotte in First Fleet 1788. Certificate of freedom 1792. Land Grant 1794, 30 acre "Small's Farm" at Eastern Farms (Ryde). Married October 1788 Mary Parker also a First Fleet convict who arrived on Lady Penrhyn. John Small died on 2 October 1850 at age of 90 years.[65][66]
Elizabeth Thackery: Elizabeth "Betty" King (née Thackery) was tried and convicted of theft on 4 May 1786 at Manchester Quarter Sessions, and sentenced to seven years transportation. She sailed on the Friendship, but was transferred to the Charlotte at the Cape of Good Hope. She was shipped to Norfolk Island on the Sirius (1786) in 1790 and lived there with James Dodding. In August 1800 she bought 10 acres of land from Samuel King at Cascade Stream. Elizabeth and James were relocated to Van Diemen's Land in December 1807[67] but parted company sometime afterwards. On 28 January 1810 Elizabeth married "First Fleeter" Private Samuel King (above) and lived with him until his death in 1849. Betty King died in New Norfolk, Tasmania on 7 August 1856, aged 89 years. She is buried in the churchyard of the Methodist Chapel, Lawitta Road, Back River, next to her husband, and the marked grave bears a First Fleet plaque. She was one of the first British women to land in Australia and was the last "First Fleeter" to die.
Legacy[edit]
Smallpox[edit]
Main articles: Controversy over smallpox in Australia and History of smallpox in Australia
Historians have disagreed over whether those aboard the First Fleet were responsible for introducing smallpox to Australia's indigenous population, and if so, whether this was the consequence of deliberate action.
In 1914, J. H. L. Cumpston, director of the Australian Quarantine Service put forward the hypothesis that smallpox arrived with British settlers.[68] Some researchers have argued that any such release may have been a deliberate attempt to decimate the indigenous population.[69][70] Others have suggested that live smallpox virus may have been introduced accidentally, when Aboriginal people came into contact with variolous matter brought by the First Fleet for use in anti-smallpox inoculations.[71][72][73] Hypothetical scenarios for such an action might have included: an act of revenge by an aggrieved individual, a response to attacks by indigenous people,[74] or part of an orchestrated assault by the New South Wales Marine Corps, intended to clear the path for colonial expansion.[75][76]
Chris Warren, "Was Sydney's smallpox outbreak of 1789 an act of biological warfare against Aboriginal tribes?", ABC Radio National – Ockhams Razor (podcast) (2014); 13 minutes.
Other historians have disputed the idea that there was a deliberate release of smallpox virus and/or suggest that it arrived with visitors to Australia other than the First Fleet.[77][78][79][80][81] In 2002, historian Judy Campbell suggested that smallpox had arrived in Australia through contact with fishermen from Makassar in Indonesia, where smallpox was endemic.[79][82] In 2011, Macknight stated: “The overwhelming probability must be that it [smallpox] was introduced, like the later epidemics, by [Indonesian] trepangers ... and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of the new settlement there.”[83]
There is a third theory, that the 1789 epidemic was not smallpox but chickenpox – to which indigenous Australians also had no inherited resistance – that happened to be affecting, or was carried by, members of the First Fleet.[84][85] This theory has also been disputed.[86][87]
Commemoration Garden[edit]
The First Fleet Memorial Garden, Wallabadah, New South Wales
After Ray Collins, a stonemason, completed years of research into the First Fleet, he sought approval from about nine councils to construct a commemorative garden in recognition of these immigrants. Liverpool Plains Shire Council was ultimately the only council to accept his offer to supply the materials and construct the garden free of charge. The site chosen was a disused caravan park on the banks of Quirindi Creek at Wallabadah, New South Wales. In September 2002 Collins commenced work on the project. Additional support was later provided by Neil McGarry in the form of some signs and the council contributed $28,000 for pathways and fencing. Collins hand-chiseled the names of all those who came to Australia on the eleven ships in 1788 on stone tablets along the garden pathways. The stories of those who arrived on the ships, their life, and first encounters with the Australian country are presented throughout the garden.[88] On 26 January 2005, the First Fleet Garden was opened as the major memorial to the First Fleet immigrants. Previously the only other specific memorial to the First Fleeters was an obelisk at Brighton-Le-Sands, New South Wales.[89] The surrounding area has a barbecue, tables, and amenities.
See also[edit]
Australia portal
Arthur Bowes Smyth – surgeon on the Lady Penrhyn
Australian frontier wars
Convicts in Australia
Convict women in Australia
European exploration of Australia
History of Australia
History of Australia (1788–1850)
History of Indigenous Australians
Journals of the First Fleet
Penal transportation
Prehistory of Australia
Second Fleet (Australia)
Terra nullius
Third Fleet (Australia)
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^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm, Alec H. (ed.), The Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol. 4, p. 72, "First Fleet", Halstead Press, Sydney, 1963
Jump up ^ Robert Hughes (1988). The Fatal Shore: a History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia 1787–1868. London: Pan Books. p. 82. ISBN 0-330-29892-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Parker 2009, pp.106–108
Jump up ^ Frost 2012, p. 174
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Jump up ^ "Timeline – 1788". The World Upside Down: Australia 1788–1830. National Library of Australia. 2000. Retrieved 27 May 2006.
Jump up ^ Frost 2012, p.177
Jump up ^ Parker 2009, p.113
^ Jump up to: a b "Governor Phillip's Instructions 25 April 1787 (UK)". Museum of Australian Democracy. Retrieved 24 November 2013.
Jump up ^ The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay (1789)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Parker 2009, pp.115–116
Jump up ^ Parker 2009, p.118
Jump up ^ John Dunmore, "Introduction", The Journal of Jean-François de Galaup de La Pérouse, Vol. I, Hakluyt Society, 1994, pp. ccxix–ccxxii.
Jump up ^ "About Our National Day". National Australia Day Council. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
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Jump up ^ Kensy, Julia. "La Perouse". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 24 November 2013.
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Jump up ^ Banner, Stuart (Spring 2005). "Why Terra Nullius? Anthropology and Property Law in Early Australia". Law and History Review. 23 (1): 95–131. doi:10.1017/s0738248000000067. JSTOR 30042845.
Jump up ^ Kohen, J. L. 'Pemulwuy (1750–1802)', Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.
Jump up ^ "HMS Supply". First Fleet Fellowship Victoria Inc. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "29 Jan 1842 – Anniversary Regatta". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hubbard First Fleet". firstfleet.org.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "1180 – McCarthy, John". Convict Stockade: A Wiki Site for Australian Convict Researchers. 26 February 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "28 Jul 1846 – Domestic Intelligence". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "03 Nov 1847 – LONGEVITY". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Scott Brown – HistoryAustralia. "Charlotte 1788". historyaustralia.org.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Prospect Hill – Settlement". spathaky.name. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Census of NSW November 1828, published in 1828 Census of New South Wales, edited by Malcolm Sainty and Keith Johnson, revised edition published by Library of Australian History, Sydney, 2008 (CD-ROM); Book Entry# J0669
Jump up ^ "First Fleet Ship Alexander". australian-english-genealogy.com. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Also "slubbing mill": "A mill used for the preparation of raw fleece etc, for spinning by a coarse form of carding" ( "English Heritage Online thesaurus". Retrieved 22 November 2015. )
Jump up ^ "Fellowship Of First Fleeters". fellowshipfirstfleeters.org.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Early Settlers from Norfolk Island". htfs.org.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Small Family in Australia 1788 – 1988".
Jump up ^ "The search for John Small, First Fleeter / Mollie Gillen – National Library of Australia". nla.gov.au.
Jump up ^ "The Early Settlers from Norfolk Island". htfs.org.au. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Cumpston, JHL "The History of Small-Pox in Australia 1788–1908", Government Printer (1914) Melb.
Jump up ^ Day, David (2001). Claiming a Continent. Harper Collins. p. 42. ISBN 9780732269760.
Jump up ^ Davis, Jack (1980). Berndt, Ronald M.; Berndt, Catherine H., eds. Aborigines of the West: their Past and Their Present. University of Western Australia Press. p. 58.
Jump up ^ "Smallpox in Sydney: 1789". 30 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Warren, C. "Could First Fleet smallpox infect Aborigines? – A note". Aboriginal History (31): 152–164.
Jump up ^ Mear, C. "The origin of the smallpox in Sydney in 1789". Journal of Royal Australian Historical Society. 94 (1): 1–22.
Jump up ^ Bennett, MJ, "Smallpox and Cowpox under the Southern Cross: The Smallpox Epidemic of 1789 ...", Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 83(1), Spring 2009, pg 48.
Jump up ^ Warren, Christopher (2 January 2014). "Smallpox at Sydney Cove – who, when, why?". Journal of Australian Studies. 38 (1): 68–86. doi:10.1080/14443058.2013.849750 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
Jump up ^ Chris Warren (radio transcript) Ockham's Razor (presenter: Robin Williams) (13 April 2014). "Smallpox outbreak of Sydney's past". Radio National (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Biskup, Peter (1982). "Aboriginal History". In Osborne, G.; Mandle, W.F. New History: Studying Australia Today. Allen & Unwin. p. 30.
Jump up ^ Macknight, C. C. (1986). Macassans and the Aboriginal past in Archaeologia Oceania. 21. pp. 69–75. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Judy Campbell, Invisible Invaders: Smallpox and Other Diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780–1880, Melbourne University Press, 2002, Foreword & pp 55, 61, 73–74, 181
Jump up ^ Willis, H. A (September 2010). "Poxy history [Smallpox and Aboriginal history.]". Quadrant. 54 (9): 70–73. ISSN 0033-5002.
Jump up ^ Willis, H.A. (2011). "Bringing Smallpox with the First Fleet". Quadrant. 55 (7–8): 2. ISSN 0033-5002.
Jump up ^ During the writing of her book, Campbell consulted Frank Fenner, the head in 1977–1980 of a successful campaign by the World Health Organization to eradicate smallpox internationally.)
Jump up ^ Macknight, Campbell "The view from Marege’: Australian knowledge of Macassar and the impact of the trepang industry across two centuries " in Aboriginal History | publication-date=2011 | volume=35 | pages=121–143.
Jump up ^ "Chickenpox blamed for Aboriginal deaths". Canberra Times. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
Jump up ^ http://caepr.anu.edu.au/Seminars/13/Seminar-Topics%E2%80%94Series-2/07_8_Seminar.php
Jump up ^ In A. Dirk Moses (ed.)Genocide and Settler Society, Berghahn Books, 2004, p79ff.
Jump up ^ "United Service" (PDF). 65 (1). March 2014: 7.
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Bibliography[edit]
Bladen, F. M., ed. (1978). Historical records of New South Wales. Vol. 2. Grose and Paterson, 1793–1795. Lansdown Slattery & Co. ISBN 0868330035.
Frost, Alan (2012). The First Fleet: the real story. Collingwood: Black Inc. ISBN 9781863955614.
Gillen, Mollie (1989). The Founders of Australia: A Biographical Dictionary of the First Fleet. Library of Australian History. ISBN 0908120699.
Hill, David (2008). 1788. Random House. ISBN 978-1-74166-800-1.
Lewis, Wendy; Balderstone, Simon; Bowan, John (2006). Events That Shaped Australia. New Holland. ISBN 9781741104929.
Mundle, Rob (2014). The First Fleet. Harper Collins. ISBN 9780733332364.
O'Brien, Eris (1970). The Foundation of Australia (1786–1800). London: Sheed and Ward. OCLC 226156319.
Parker, Derek (2009). Arthur Phillip: Australia's First Governor. Warriewood: Woodslane Press. ISBN 9781921203992.
Further reading[edit]
Phillip, Arthur; Currey, John, 1940–; Banks Society (2010), The voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay : compiled from authentic papers, Banks Society, ISBN 978-0-949586-19-3 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Fiction[edit]
James Talbot, The Thief Fleet, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4699148-2-4
Colleen McCullough, Morgan's Run, ISBN 0-09-928098-1
Timberlake Wertenbaker, Our Country's Good, ISBN 0-413-73740-3
Thomas Keneally, The Playmaker, ISBN 0-340-42263-7
William Stuart Long, The Exiles, ISBN 978-0-8398-2824-2 (hardcover, 1984) ISBN 978-0-440-12369-9 (paperback, 1979) ISBN 978-0-440-12374-3 (mass market paperback, 1981)
William Stuart Long, The Settlers, ISBN 978-0-86824-020-6 (hardcover, 1980) ISBN 978-0-440-15923-0 (paperback, 1980) ISBN 978-0-440-17929-0 (mass market paperback, 1982)
William Stuart Long, The Traitors, ISBN 978-0-8398-2826-6 (hardcover, 1984) ISBN 978-0-440-18131-6 (mass market paperback, 1981)
D. Manning Richards, Destiny in Sydney: An epic novel of convicts, Aborigines, and Chinese embroiled in the birth of Sydney, Australia, ISBN 978-0-9845410-0-3
Marcus Clarke, For the Term of his Natural Life. Melbourne, 1874
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to First Fleet.
Library resources about
First Fleet
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Complete list of the convicts of the First Fleet
Searchable database of First Fleet convicts
The First Fleet – State Library of NSW
State Library of NSW – First Fleet Re-enactment Company records, 1978–1990: Presented by Trish and Wally Franklin
State Library of NSW – First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage 1987–1988
An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales at Project Gutenberg
The Voyage of Governor Phillip To Botany Bay at Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg Australia: The First Fleet
Convict Records
Convict Transportation Registers Database (Online) University of Queensland. Accessed 9 February 2015.
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King Report on Corporate Governance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The King Report on Corporate Governance is a ground-breaking booklet of guidelines for the governance structures and operation of companies in South Africa. It is issued by the King Committee on Corporate Governance. Three reports were issued in 1994 (King I), 2002 (King II), and 2009 (King III) and a fourth revision (King IV) in 2016. The Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA) owns the copyright of the King Report on Corporate Governance and the King Code of Corporate Governance. Compliance with the King Reports is a requirement for companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange.[1][2] The King Report on Corporate Governance has been cited as "the most effective summary of the best international practices in corporate governance".[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Approach
3 King I
4 King II
4.1 Legislative Enforcement
5 King III
6 King IV
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
In July 1993 the Institute of Directors in South Africa asked retired Supreme Court of South Africa judge Mervyn E. King to chair a committee on corporate governance. He viewed this as an opportunity to educate the newly democratic South African public on the working of a free economy.[4] The committee's report was to be the first report of its kind in South Africa.[5]
Committee members included Phillip Armstrong, Nigel Payne, and Richard Wilkinson.
Approach[edit]
Unlike other corporate governance codes such as Sarbanes-Oxley, the code is non-legislative and is based on principles and practices. It also espouses an apply or explain approach, unique to the Netherlands until King and now also found in the 2010 Combined Code from the United Kingdom.
The philosophy of the code consists of the three key elements of leadership, sustainability and good corporate citizenship. It views good governance as essentially being effective, ethical leadership. King believes that leaders should direct the company to achieve sustainable economic, social and environmental performance. It views sustainability as the primary moral and economic imperative of this century; the code's view on corporate citizenship flows from a company's standing as a juristic person under the South African constitution and should operate in a sustainable manner.[6]
King I[edit]
In 1994 the first King report on corporate governance (King 1) was published, the first corporate governance code for South Africa. It established recommended standards of conduct for boards and directors of listed companies, banks, and certain state-owned enterprises. It included not only financial and regulatory aspects, but also advocated an integrated approach that involved all stakeholders.[7]
It was applicable to all companies listed on the main board of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, large public entities as defined by the Public Entities Act of South Africa; banks, financial and insurance companies as defined by the Financial Services Acts of South Africa; and large unlisted companies. It defined "large" as companies with shareholder equity over R50 million, but encouraged all companies to adopt the code.
The key principles from the first King report covered:
Board of directors makeup and mandate, including the role of non-executive directors and guidance on the categories of people who should make up the non-executive directors
Appointments to the board and guidance on the maximum term for executive directors
Determination and disclosure of executive and non-executive director’s remuneration
Board meeting frequency
Balanced annual reporting
The requirement for effective auditing
Affirmative action programs
The company’s code of ethics [8]
King II[edit]
In 2002, when the Earth Summit was held in Johannesburg, King pushed for a revision of the report (King II), including new sections on sustainability,[4] the role of the corporate board,[9] and risk management.[10] This revised code of governance was applicable from March 2002.
In addition to those types of organizations listed in King I, it was applicable to departments of State or national, provincial or local government administration falling under the Local Government: Municipal Finance Management Act, and public institution or functionary exercising a power or performing a function in terms of the constitution, or exercising a public power or performing a public function in terms of any legislation, excluding courts or judicial officers. As before, it encourages all companies to adopt the applicable principles from the code.[11]
The key principles from the second King report covered the following areas:
Directors and their responsibility
Risk management
Internal audit
Integrated sustainability reporting
Accounting and auditing[11]
Legislative Enforcement[edit]
As before, the code is not enforced through legislation. However, it co-exists with a number of laws that apply to companies and directors including the Companies Act. In addition further enforcement takes place by regulations such as the JSE Securities Exchange Listings Requirements.[11]
King III[edit]
In an interview with Mervin King, he considered the King II report was wrong to include sustainability as a separate chapter, leading companies to report on it separately from other factors. In the next version, the 2009 King III report,[12] governance, strategy and sustainability were integrated.[4] The report recommends that organisations produce an integrated report in place of an annual financial report and a separate sustainability report and that companies create sustainability reports according to the Global Reporting Initiative's Sustainability Reporting Guidelines.[13]
In contrast to the earlier versions, King III is applicable to all entities, public, private and non-profit. King encourages all entities to adopt the King III principles and explain how these have been applied or are not applicable. The code of governance was applicable from March 2010.[14]
The report incorporated a number of global emerging governance trends:
Alternative dispute resolution
Risk-based internal audit
Shareholder approval of non-executive directors’ remuneration
Evaluation of board and directors’ performance[14]
It also incorporated a number of new principles to address elements not previously included in the King reports:
IT governance
Business Rescue
Fundamental and affected transactions in terms of director’s responsibilities during mergers, acquisitions and amalgamations.[14]
Again, the code of corporate governance is not enforced through legislation. However, due to evolutions in South African law many of the principles put forward in King II are now embodied as law in the Companies Act of South Africa of 2008. In addition to the Companies Act, there are additional applicable statutes that encapsulate some of the principles of King III such as the Public Finance Management Act and the Promotion of Access to Information Act.[14]
Integrated reporting
The Unites Nations Global Compact and the Principles for Responsible Investment
OECD Guidelines for Multinational Companies
Global Reporting Initiative’s G3 guidelines
The United Kingdom Companies Act of 2006
King IV[edit]
"There have been significant corporate governance and regulatory developments, locally and internationally, since King III was issued in 2009 which need to be taken into account. The other consideration is that whilst listed companies are generally applying King III, non-profit organisations, private companies and entities in the public sector have experienced challenges in interpreting and adapting King III to their particular circumstances. The enhancement will aim to make King IV more accessible to all types of entities across sectors."[15]
King IV was published on 1 November 2016.[16] Providing for a 2-year period in respect of the drafting process and another year grace period to allow organisations to implement, King IV will probably become effective from middle 2017.
The Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA) [17] is the custodian of the King reports and the holder of their copyrights. Ansie Ramalho from the IoDSA, with the assistance of Parmi Natesan and Julie Dixon, leads the project management of the redrafting process and serves as the editor of the various drafts. The King Committee governs the drafting process and will ultimately approve of the King IV Report.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Application of and approach to King III". Naspers. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Corporate Governance". Omnia. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Banhegyi, Steve (2007). Management: Fresh perspectives. Pearson Education South Africa. p. 317. ISBN 978-1-86891-594-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stewart, Neil (9 September 2010). "An Audience with the GRI's King". Inside Investor Relations. Archived from the original on 13 January 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Hendrikse, Dr. John W.; Kendrikse, Leigh (2004). Business Governance Handbook: Principles and practice, Volume 1. Juta Academic. p. 339. ISBN 0-7021-6499-2.
Jump up ^ "King 3 Code of Corporate Governance for South Africa". Institute of Directors in Southern Africa. 2009. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "King Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa 2002 – What it means to you" (PDF). Cliff Dekker Attorneys. 2002. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "The code of corporate practices and conduct, an extract from the King Report on Corporate Governance" (PDF). The Institute of Directors of Southern Africa. 1994. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Monks, Robert A. G.; Minow, Nell (2003). Corporate Governance. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 298. ISBN 1-4051-1698-6.
Jump up ^ Berwick, Graeme (2007). The Executives Guide to Insurance and Risk Management. Quality Results Pty Limited. p. 17.
^ Jump up to: a b c "King Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa 2002" (PDF). Institute of Directors in Southern Africa. 2002. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Visser, Wayne; Matten, Dirk; Pohl, Manfred; Tolhurst, Nick. The A to Z of Corporate Social Responsibility. ISBN 978-0-470-68650-8.
Jump up ^ "An integrated report is a new requirement for listed companies". South African Institute of Chartered Accountants. 4 June 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "King Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa 2009" (PDF). Institute of Directors in Southern Africa. 2009. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Guide to questions and answers on King IV" (PDF). Institute of Directors in Southern Africa. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
Jump up ^ The King Committee. "Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "King IV". Institute of Directors in Southern Africa. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
External links[edit]
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