text:
Climate of Houston
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Houston
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
3.4
63
43
3.2
66
47
3.4
73
53
3.3
80
59
5.1
86
68
5.9
91
73
3.8
94
75
3.8
95
75
4.1
90
70
5.7
82
61
4.3
73
52
3.7
64
45
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Source: NOAA
[show]Metric conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
86
17
6
81
19
8
87
23
11
84
26
15
129
30
20
151
33
23
96
34
24
96
35
24
105
32
21
145
28
16
110
23
11
95
18
7
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
The climate of Houston is classified as humid subtropical. August normally ranks as the warmest month at 84.6 °F (29.2 °C) and January the coldest month at 53.1 °F (11.7 °C).[1]
The normal annual precipitation measures 49.77 inches (1,264 mm). Occasional severe weather of Houston mostly takes the form of flooding. Supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area, most commonly during spring. Houston sometimes experiences tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season, which can bring heavy rain and significant damage to the city. The last hurricane to hit was Hurricane Harvey in 2017.
Contents
[hide]
1 Seasonal observation
1.1 Summer
1.2 Autumn
1.3 Winter
1.4 Spring
2 Precipitation
3 Extreme weather
3.1 Hurricanes and tropical storms
3.2 Flooding
3.3 Tornadoes
3.4 Winter storms
4 El Niño
5 Environmental issues
5.1 Air pollution
5.2 Water pollution
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Seasonal observation[edit]
[show]Climate data for Houston (Intercontinental Airport), 1981–2010 normals,[a] extremes 1888–present[b]
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
84
(29) 91
(33) 96
(36) 95
(35) 99
(37) 107
(42) 105
(41) 109
(43) 109
(43) 99
(37) 89
(32) 85
(29) 109
(43)
Mean maximum °F (°C)
78.4
(25.8) 80.8
(27.1) 84.8
(29.3) 88.9
(31.6) 93.6
(34.2) 97.0
(36.1) 98.4
(36.9) 100.4
(38) 96.9
(36.1) 91.8
(33.2) 85.0
(29.4) 80.0
(26.7) 101.0
(38.3)
Average high °F (°C)
62.9
(17.2) 66.3
(19.1) 73.0
(22.8) 79.6
(26.4) 86.3
(30.2) 91.4
(33) 93.7
(34.3) 94.5
(34.7) 89.7
(32.1) 82.0
(27.8) 72.5
(22.5) 64.3
(17.9) 79.7
(26.5)
Daily mean °F (°C)
53.1
(11.7) 56.4
(13.6) 62.7
(17.1) 69.5
(20.8) 76.9
(24.9) 82.4
(28) 84.4
(29.1) 84.6
(29.2) 79.8
(26.6) 71.5
(21.9) 62.3
(16.8) 54.4
(12.4) 69.9
(21.1)
Average low °F (°C)
43.2
(6.2) 46.5
(8.1) 52.5
(11.4) 59.4
(15.2) 67.6
(19.8) 73.5
(23.1) 75.1
(23.9) 74.8
(23.8) 69.8
(21) 60.9
(16.1) 52.1
(11.2) 44.6
(7) 60.0
(15.6)
Mean minimum °F (°C)
26.7
(−2.9) 29.5
(−1.4) 34.0
(1.1) 42.0
(5.6) 53.3
(11.8) 65.2
(18.4) 69.4
(20.8) 68.6
(20.3) 55.7
(13.2) 43.4
(6.3) 34.5
(1.4) 27.5
(−2.5) 23.5
(−4.7)
Record low °F (°C)
5
(−15) 6
(−14) 21
(−6) 31
(−1) 42
(6) 52
(11) 62
(17) 54
(12) 45
(7) 29
(−2) 19
(−7) 7
(−14) 5
(−15)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.38
(85.9) 3.20
(81.3) 3.41
(86.6) 3.31
(84.1) 5.09
(129.3) 5.93
(150.6) 3.79
(96.3) 3.76
(95.5) 4.12
(104.6) 5.70
(144.8) 4.34
(110.2) 3.74
(95) 49.77
(1,264.2)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.6 9.2 8.8 6.8 8.0 10.6 9.1 8.3 8.0 7.9 8.2 9.5 104.0
Average relative humidity (%)
74.7 73.4 72.7 73.1 75.0 74.6 74.4 75.1 76.8 75.4 76.0 75.5 74.7
Mean monthly sunshine hours
143.4 155.0 192.5 209.8 249.2 281.3 293.9 270.5 236.5 228.8 168.3 148.7 2,577.9
Percent possible sunshine
44 50 52 54 59 67 68 66 64 64 53 47 58
Source: NOAA (relative humidity 1969–1990, sun 1961–1990)[3][4][5]
[show]Climate data for Houston (William P. Hobby Airport), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1941–present
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
85
(29) 87
(31) 96
(36) 94
(34) 100
(38) 105
(41) 104
(40) 106
(41) 108
(42) 96
(36) 90
(32) 84
(29) 108
(42)
Average high °F (°C)
63.0
(17.2) 66.0
(18.9) 72.4
(22.4) 78.8
(26) 85.4
(29.7) 90.1
(32.3) 92.1
(33.4) 92.6
(33.7) 88.4
(31.3) 81.2
(27.3) 72.4
(22.4) 64.5
(18.1) 78.9
(26.1)
Average low °F (°C)
45.1
(7.3) 48.5
(9.2) 54.3
(12.4) 60.9
(16.1) 68.7
(20.4) 73.9
(23.3) 75.5
(24.2) 75.7
(24.3) 71.7
(22.1) 63.1
(17.3) 53.9
(12.2) 46.7
(8.2) 61.5
(16.4)
Record low °F (°C)
10
(−12) 14
(−10) 22
(−6) 36
(2) 44
(7) 56
(13) 64
(18) 64
(18) 50
(10) 33
(1) 25
(−4) 9
(−13) 9
(−13)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.87
(98.3) 3.21
(81.5) 3.20
(81.3) 3.25
(82.6) 4.75
(120.7) 7.10
(180.3) 4.66
(118.4) 5.06
(128.5) 5.21
(132.3) 5.99
(152.1) 4.32
(109.7) 4.03
(102.4) 54.65
(1,388.1)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.2 9.0 8.0 7.1 7.3 9.9 9.1 9.8 9.1 7.6 8.5 9.1 103.7
Source: NOAA (sun 1961–1990)[3]
Summer[edit]
June through August in Houston is very hot and humid, often with scattered afternoon showers and thunderstorms. At George Bush Intercontinental Airport, the normal daily high temperature peaks at 95.0 °F (35.0 °C) on 5–12 August,[1] with a normal of 102.4 days per year at or above 90 °F (32 °C) and 3.5 days per year at or above 100 °F (38 °C).[1] The average relative humidity ranges from over 90 percent in the morning to around 60 percent in the afternoon.[6] Summer temperatures in Houston are very similar to average temperatures seen in tropical climates, such as in the Philippines and Central America.[7] The value of relative humidity results in a heat index higher than the actual temperature.[8] The highest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 109 °F (43 °C) on September 4, 2000[9] and on August 27, 2011.[10] On June 29, 2013, the temperature at George Bush Intercontinental Airport reached 107 °F (42 °C), the highest ever recorded in June.[11] Heat stroke can strike people who stay outdoors for long periods of time during the summer, making hydration essential for outdoor work and recreational activity.[12] The 2014 summer season did not yield 100+ degree weather in response to the monsoon-esque rainfall during late June to August during a period where the Pacific Coast off Central America was heating up which evolved into the 2014-16 El Nino event - this cycle one existed between 1971-76 during post-El Nino cycles.
Heat and humidity in Houston make air conditioning important in day-to-day life.[13] Most indoor workers spend the hottest part of the day in air conditioning. After World War II, air conditioning stimulated the growth of Houston, called the most air-conditioned city in the world in 1950.[14] For construction workers, landscapers, and others who must work outdoors, there is little relief from the summer heat and humidity. Industrial workers, automobile mechanics and others who usually work in non-air conditioned indoor spaces often rely on large electric fans to provide some relief.
Autumn[edit]
Autumn in Houston is warm, with temperatures averaging in the upper 60s to lower 80s °F (20-28 °C) during the day and in the 50s to lower 60s °F (10-17 °C) at night.[15] Cool fronts that move through the region during the fall can bring rain. Hurricanes can move into the area from the Gulf of Mexico, bringing heavy rains and high winds. However, most years see little or no significant hurricane activity. Flooding most frequently occurs in October and November.[16] Most of these flood events result from remnants of Eastern Pacific cyclones interacting with upper-level boundaries; October 2015 was the latest example of such an occurrence, wherein the remnants of Hurricane Patricia brought over 9 inches of rain to the city. [17] The latest hurricane to reach Texas was Hurricane Harvey in August 2017.
Winter[edit]
Winters in Houston are relatively mild and temperate compared to most areas of the United States, though Houston does get much colder than places like South Florida and South Texas. Houston is more prone to extreme variation in the winter months than cities like San Diego, California or Tampa, Florida. The average high in January, the coldest month, is 62.9 °F (17.2 °C) and the low 43.2 °F (6.2 °C), George Bush Intercontinental Airport sees an average of 9.6 days per year of freezing temperatures.[1] Cold fronts during the winter drop nighttime lows into the 30s but usually above freezing. The coldest weather of the season often includes a period about three weeks with temperatures in the low 30s to mid-40s at night. Hard freezes occur only uncommonly; however, George Bush Intercontinental Airport has recorded a freeze every winter since it opened in 1969. The coldest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 7 °F (−14 °C) on December 23, 1989. Elsewhere, the temperature in Houston dropped to 5 °F (−15 °C) on January 18, 1930.[18]
In December, southward-moving cold fronts [19] can bring cold rain, low wind chills, and, rarely, frozen precipitation. Early January is the coldest time of the year, with temperatures moderating slightly by February.
Spring[edit]
Spring comes with a gradual warm up from winter, lasting from March 20 through May. Temperatures are generally not hot yet, averaging from 75–82 °F (23.9–27.8 °C) in the day and 56–64 °F (13.3–17.8 °C) at night. Spring thunderstorms are common, often with spectacular lightning shows.[20] This rainfall prompts Houston's 10-month-long "growing season" to begin. April sees the return of many types of insects, including butterflies and mosquitoes, to Houston's warm climate.
Precipitation[edit]
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation in Houston. The wettest month is June, with an average of 5.93 inches (151 mm) of rain.[1] Houston normally receives 49.77 inches (1,264 mm) of precipitation on 104.0 days annually.[1] The most precipitation to fall in one year was 83.02 inches (2,108.7 mm) which occurred in 1979. Houston has received less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain only once: 17.66 inches in 1917.[21] Flash flood warnings are common all year, and due to the flat landscape, heavy rains often threaten life and property in the city. Sea breeze showers which are monsoon-like (especially during the summer months from a mesoscale convective cycle where the polar jet stream usually forms an omega block) are common throughout the Texas Gulf Coast area (from Brownsville to the Florida Peninsula) which has a similar climate to areas like Mumbai and Kolkata - locals refer to the sea breeze showers as the Gulf Coast Monsoon (also called the Gulf of Mexico or the Texas Monsoon), despite Houston being 50 feet above sea level. The sea breeze showers are also a contributor to the North American Monsoon.
Sleet, snow, and ice rarely occur during most winters. Hail can accumulate, but only in small quantities.
Extreme weather[edit]
Houston has occasional severe weather, mostly flooding. Hurricanes that have the potential to landfall bring severe damage to the area. Seven major hurricanes have hit the Galveston and Houston areas in the past 100 years. Four have done significant damage to Houston.
Hurricanes and tropical storms[edit]
Because Houston is on the Gulf of Mexico, the city has a small chance of being hit by hurricanes or tropical storms every hurricane season (June through November).
In 1837 the Racer's Storm passed just to the south of the town, raising water levels four feet.[22] The Great Hurricane of 1900 destroyed the nearby (and then much bigger) city of Galveston, which is situated on a barrier island 50 mi (80 km) southeast of downtown Houston. That hurricane weakened to a tropical storm by the time it reached Houston.[23] The periphery of Hurricane Carla hit the city in 1961, causing major damage to Houston. At the time of landfall, Carla was the most powerful tropical system to hit the Texas coast in over 40 years.[24] In 1983, the city was struck squarely by Hurricane Alicia, causing one billion dollars of damage to the city during a down period in the city's economy.
Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 37 inches (940 mm) of rain on parts of the city over a five-day period in 2001, and was the most destructive and costly natural disaster in Houston history[25] prior to Hurricane Harvey. Area flooding was catastrophic and widespread. The storm completely overwhelmed the flood control system and caused 22 deaths in Houston and $6.05 billion (2006 USD) in damage. It is the only tropical storm in history to have its name retired.
Tropical Storm Erin made landfall in August 2007 with strong rains. A total of 9 inches (230 mm) of rain fell elsewhere than George Bush Intercontinental Airport on August 16, and many roads and neighborhoods were flooded. Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas, halted its light rail and bus services in view of the effects. Four deaths in the city were attributed to the storm. The Houston Fire Department reported 72 rescue operations.
Hurricane Ike made landfall near Galveston, Texas in September 2008. Although only a category 2 storm (out of 5), Ike brought moderate rain but high winds for an unusually long duration (upwards of nine hours). The roof of Reliant Stadium (home of the Houston Texans NFL team) was damaged and windows were blown out of several high-rise buildings in downtown Houston. Storm surge affected areas around Galveston Bay, stripping some coastal islands of homes. Devastated Galveston Island much resembled a war zone. Authorities prohibited non-emergency access to the island for many weeks. Hurricane Ike left ninety percent of people in the Houston Area without power.[26] Never before had the city experienced such widespread or long-term power outage: no air conditioning, no refrigeration, no lights, and no phones. Day-to-day business slowed immensely. Area grocery stores were stripped bare and sold water and ice for cash by flashlight. Trucks from around the country brought in emergency supplies, especially water and ice. Most of the city was without power for a week — some for 2 to 3 weeks.
Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Rockport, Texas on August 25, 2017. By August 30, Houston was flooded due to heavy rainfall from the hurricane.[27][28][29]
Flooding[edit]
Flooding is a recurring problem in Houston. It is especially severe in low-lying areas on the far east end of town along the San Jacinto River. The flat wetlands and paved-over coastal prairie around Houston drain slowly and easily flood. The area is drained by a network of bayous (small, slow-moving rivers, often dredged and enlarged to increase volume) and man-made drainage ditches, which are usually dry most of the year. In fall, cool fronts bring in rainstorms and flooding is not uncommon. This might flood certain low-lying intersections, but doesn't generally affect citizens or the business of the city. However, occasionally very heavy thunderstorms dump so much water on the city that widespread congestion and even property damage in low-lying areas result. Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 was so severe that many parts of town that had never flooded before were flooded seriously. Interstate 10 near downtown, which is below grade, was covered by over 10 ft (3.0 m) of water. Another storm happened in June 2015 (Tropical Storm Bill) that had a similar impact on Houston, causing several highways to be closed due to the bayou overflowing; this event followed flooding from May 24-26. Another similar storm in April 2016 resulted in widespread, severe flooding across Houston and surrounding suburbs in an event later known as the "Tax Day Floods". On August 25, 2017, Hurricane Harvey flooded Houston causing severe widespread damage and at least 14 deaths.
Tornadoes[edit]
Unlike Dallas, Houston is not in Tornado Alley, however smaller tornadoes can occur during severe weather. They are most likely to be found along frontal boundaries of an air mass during the spring months. Tornadoes in Houston usually measure a weak F1 on the older Fujita scale and cause light to moderate damage to well-constructed buildings. The strongest recorded tornado in Houston history was an F4 on November 21, 1992, part of a large outbreak of tornadoes in Harris County.[30]
Winter storms[edit]
There are usually a few days of freezing (<32 °F (0 °C)) temperatures each year, though the average low in January, the coldest month, is still only 43 °F (6 °C) or 24 °F (−4 °C).
Snow falls infrequently in the Magnolia City. When it does occur, it almost invariably melts immediately on the ground with light accumulation on roofs and raised surfaces. Since 1895, it has snowed 38 times in Houston at an average of about once every 10 years, though some decades have several instances of recorded snowfall while others have only one each (e.g., the 1930s and 1950s). The last recorded snowfall in Houston was on January 16, 2018.[31] There were more incidences of snow in the 1980s on average than any other decade recorded, but the 2000s also witnessed more frequent and record-breaking snows.
February 14–February 15, 1895: 20 inches (51 cm) of snow, its largest snowfall from one storm on record.[32]
February 12, 1960: 4.4 inches (11 cm) of snow.[33]
January 11, 1973: 2.0 inches (5.1 cm) of snow.
December 22, 1989: 1.7 inches (4.3 cm) of snow with a record low of 7 °F (−14 °C) on December 23.[34]
December 10, 2008: Tied the earliest snowfall record.[35]
December 4, 2009: Broke the earliest snowfall record.
December 7, 2017: 0.7 inches (2 cm) of snow.
[36]
The December 21–24, 2004 North American winter storm brought a white Christmas to the region. The average has the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 24 °F (−4 °C).
The 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm brought a never-before-seen white Christmas to the region. Average annual snowfall is very, very little above zero, being less than the measurable amount of 0.1 inches (2.5 mm). In descending order of frequency, the most snow has fallen in January, followed by February, December, and finally a single occurrence on March 10, 1932,[37] which was also the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 22 °F (−6 °C).[38]
December 24 snowstorm, shown on satellite
Occurrences of freezing rain, also known as ice storms, are slightly less rare than snow in Houston. Some of the most recent ice storms occurred in 1997, 2007, February 4, 2011, and January 16, 2018. An overnight event occurred from January 23, 2014 to January 24, another significant icing occurred a few days later on January 28, and a third event took place on March 4. These storms can be very disruptive since road crews are not equipped to handle such rare events over the city's expansive size.[39] When ice occurs, roads and schools are usually closed.[40][41] The city's Office of Emergency Management encourages driver's to "avoid driving unless absolutely necessary... if roadways are at risk of icing."[42] Typically, such ice storms affect mainly the northern/western areas of the metro, while the southern/eastern areas are left with just cold rain.[43]The ice storm that occurred on January 16, 2018 started as cold rain for several hours before changing to wintry mix and then eventually sleet and snow, Temps started in the low-mid 30's and quickly dropped to the 20's in the afternoon and then the teens by the evening/overnight hours which caused all the rain to turn to ice and thickness up to 1' on some roads, bridges and overpasses making it one of the worst winter storms in history.
El Niño[edit]
During El Niño, Houston winters are cooler and wetter than normal due to a stronger southern jet stream. Increased clouds during El Nino winters are what keep the temperatures from warming up. La Niña is where the jet stream is further north resulting in a warmer and drier winter. The chance of damage from tropical storms and hurricanes also goes up during La Niña events due to decreased Atlantic wind shear. Post-El Niño weather during the spring usually result in increased rainfall, as demonstrated with the Memorial Day 2015 and Tax Day/Memorial Day/early June 2016 flood events where the Houston Metro area (and the rest of the state) experienced a climate similar to the South Asian summer monsoon (in this case with the state of Texas where a stalled low pressure system [usually from an upper level low from the northeast Pacific Ocean which migrates east where the northern polar jet stream form the usual omega blocks] originates over the Four Corners region or the Sierra Madre Occidental/Sierra Madre Oriental mountain ranges in northern Mexico).
Environmental issues[edit]
Houston has had a troubled past with pollution of many types. This is due to the fact that Houston has been the home for the oil and gas industry since its inception in the early 1900s when there was little environmental regulation. Harris County, where the bulk of the city has been historically located, is home to 15 Environmental Protection Agency Superfund sites, more than any other area in Texas. The list contains numerous companies, streets and waterways that have been considered hazardous to humans in various ways.[44]
Air pollution[edit]
Houston is well known for its oil and petrochemical industries, which are leading contributors to the city's economy. The industries located along the ship channel,[45] coupled with a growing population, have caused a considerable increase in air pollution for the city each year. Houston has excessive ozone levels and is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.[46] Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston's predominant air pollution problem. In 2011, Houston was ranked as the 17th most polluted city in the US, according to the American Lung Association.[47] A 2007 assessment found the following twelve air pollutants to be definite risks to health in Houston:[48]
ozone - respiratory and cardiovascular effects
particulates less than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5) - respiratory and cardiopulmonary effects
diesel particulate matter (DPM) - cancer
1,3-butadiene - cancer and reproductive effects
hexavalent chromium - cancer
benzene - cancer
ethylene dibromide - cancer
acrylonitrile - cancer
formaldehyde - cancer and respiratory effects
acrolein - respiratory effects
chlorine - respiratory effects
hexamethylene diisocyanate - pulmonary and respiratory effects
The State of Texas concluded that, since 2000, the Manchester neighborhood in eastern Houston had the highest annual averages of 1,3-Butadiene of any area in Texas.[49] Houston's air quality has often been compared to Los Angeles and Beijing.[45]
Houston has introduced many programs since the 2000 federal order to reduce air pollution in the city.[citation needed] The most notable project was the METRORail light rail system constructed in 2004. The light rail system was designed to encourage Houstonians to utilize public transportation instead of their automobiles. To date it has had limited success and been a source of controversy and cost overruns.
Water pollution[edit]
Houston has also seen recent improvements to the city's waterways. The banks of Buffalo Bayou have been cleaned of garbage and have been turned into jogging trails and parks. Since the mid-1990s, Houston has seen a great increase in wildlife along the bayou due to many successful cleaning attempts.[50] The Port of Houston has not seen any major cleaning attempts.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1981 to 2010.
Jump up ^ Official records for Houston were kept at the Weather Bureau in downtown from July 1888 to May 1969, and at Intercontinental since June 1969.[2]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f NOAA 1981-2010 normals
Jump up ^ ThreadEx
^ Jump up to: a b "NowData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2016-04-13.
Jump up ^ "Station Name: TX HOUSTON INTERCONT AP". National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
Jump up ^ "WMO Climate Normals for HOUSTON/INTERCONTINENTAL, TX 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-03-10.
Jump up ^ Department of Meteorology at the University of Utah. National Relative Humidity. Archived December 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-09. Retrieved 2006-12-14.
Jump up ^ Your Florida Backyard. The Heat Index. Retrieved on 2008-03-20.
Jump up ^ Weather Underground. History for Houston Intercontinental, Texas on Monday, September 4, 2000. Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
Jump up ^ http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2011/08/heat-watch-houston-ties-all-time-record-high/
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Jump up ^ Texas Medical Center News. Temperature Rising? Could be Heat Stroke. Retrieved on 2007-03-11.
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Jump up ^ Hurricane Carla, September 9-12, 1961. National Weather Service, Retrieved on March 11, 2007
Jump up ^ Tropical Storm Allison Floods June 5-9, 2001. National Weather Service Forecast Office Houston/Galveston, Texas, Retrieved on March 11, 2007
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Jump up ^ http://www.wxresearch.com/snowhou.htm
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Jump up ^ "Remember When: Houston's huge snow storm of 1960". KTRK-TV. December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "One Hundred Years of Southeast Texas Weather (1900-2000)". National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Jump up ^ Berger, Eric; Latson, Jennifer; Leahy, Jennifer (December 10, 2008). "Snow surprises Houston-area residents". Houston Chronicle.
Jump up ^ George, Mike (December 4, 2009). "Houston Snow Sets All Kinds of Records". KBTX-TV.
Jump up ^ http://www.wxresearch.com/snowhou.htm/
Jump up ^ http://preview.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USTX0617?role=/
Jump up ^ "Houston paralyzed by ice storm - Disaster News Network". www.disasternews.net. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Drivers urged to stay home during Houston's icy mess". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Cold and icy, Texas and Louisiana deal with winter - CNN.com". CNN. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Mayor's Office | Office of Emergency Management | houstonoem.org (2015). Disaster Preparedness Guide. http://www.houstonoem.org/external/content/document/4027/2168878/1/COH-DPG2015-ENG-WEB.pdf: Office of Emergency Management. p. 20.
Jump up ^ http://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=hgx
Jump up ^ The EPA's Superfund list for Texas
^ Jump up to: a b "Summary of the Issues Archived June 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.", Citizens League for Environmental Action Now , 2004-08-01. Retrieved on 2006-02-17.
Jump up ^ "State of the Air 2005, National and Regional Analysis Archived May 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.", American Lung Association, 2005-03-25. Retrieved on 2006-02-17.
Jump up ^ http://www.citymayors.com/environment/polluted_uscities.html
Jump up ^ Sexton K, Linder SH, Marko D, Bethel H, Lupo PJ (2007). "Comparative Assessment of Air Pollution–Related Health Risks in Houston". Environ Health Perspect. 115 (10): 1388–93. doi:10.1289/ehp.10043. PMC 2022677  . PMID 17938725.
Jump up ^ "State Results: Pollution Glance." Houston Chronicle.
Jump up ^ Texas Monthly Guide to Houston Edition 1996 ISBN 0-87719-272-3 Pg. 9-10.
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Brahmaputra River
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Brahmaputra
ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ
ब्रह्मपुत्र
River
The Brahmaputra in Guwahati, Assam, India.
Name origin: Sanskrit for Son (Putra) of Brahmā
Countries
China, India, Bangladesh
States
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
Autonomous Region
Tibet
Tributaries
- left Dibang River, Lohit River, Dhansiri River, Kolong River
- right Kameng River, Manasarover, Beki River, Raidak River, Jaldhaka River, Teesta River, Subansiri River
City
Guwahati, Dibrugarh, Tezpur
Source
Bhagirath Glacier [1][2]
- location Himalayas, Tibet
- elevation 5,210 m (17,093 ft)
- coordinates 30°23′N 82°0′E / 30.383°N 82.000°E / 30.383; 82.000
Mouth
Bay of Bengal
- location Ganges Delta, Bangladesh
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates 25°13′24″N 89°41′41″E / 25.22333°N 89.69472°E / 25.22333; 89.69472Coordinates: 25°13′24″N 89°41′41″E / 25.22333°N 89.69472°E / 25.22333; 89.69472
Length
3,848 km (2,390 mi) [1]
Basin
712,035 km2 (274,900 sq mi) [1]
Discharge
- average 19,800 m3/s (699,200 cu ft/s)
- max 100,000 m3/s (3,531,500 cu ft/s)
Map of the combined drainage basins of the Brahmaputra (violet), Ganges (orange), and Meghna (green).
The Brahmaputra (/ˌbrɑːməˈpuːtrə/ is one of the major rivers of Asia, a trans-boundary river which flows through China, India and Bangladesh. As such, it is known by various names in the region: Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ নদ ('নদ' nôd, masculine form of 'নদী' nôdi "river") Brôhmôputrô [bɹɔɦmɔputɹɔ]; Sanskrit: ब्रह्मपुत्र, IAST: Brahmaputra; Tibetan: ཡར་ཀླུངས་གཙང་པོ་, Wylie: yar klung gtsang po Yarlung Tsangpo; simplified Chinese: 布拉马普特拉河; traditional Chinese: 布拉馬普特拉河; pinyin: Bùlāmǎpǔtèlā Hé. It is also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra (when referring to the whole river including the stretch within Tibet).[3] The Manas River, which runs through Bhutan, joins it at Jogighopa, in India. It is the tenth largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest.
With its origin in the Angsi glacier, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River,[1] it flows across southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh (India).[4] It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges Delta, it merges with the Padma, the popular name of the river Ganges in Bangladesh, and finally the Meghna and from here it is known as Meghna before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.[5]
About 3,848 km (2,391 mi)[1] long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and transportation. The average depth of the river is 38 m (124 ft) and maximum depth is 120 m (380 ft). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when Himalayas snow melts. The average discharge of the river is about 19,800 m3/s (700,000 cu ft/s),[4] and floods can reach over 100,000 m3/s (3,500,000 cu ft/s).[6] It is a classic example of a braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion.[7] It is also one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. It is navigable for most of its length.
The river drains the Himalaya east of the Indo-Nepal border, south-central portion of the Tibetan plateau above the Ganga basin, south-eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai-Bum hills, the northern slopes of the Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains, and the northern portion of Bangladesh. The basin, especially south of Tibet, is characterized by high levels of rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is the only peak above 8,000 m, hence is the highest point within the Brahmaputra basin.
The Brahmaputra's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884–86. This river is often called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra river.
The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma" in Sanskrit (putra means "son").[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
1.1 Course
1.1.1 Tibet
1.1.2 Assam and adjoining region
1.1.3 Bangladesh
1.2 Basin characteristics
1.3 Discharge
1.3.1 Climate
1.3.2 Hydrology
1.3.3 Floodplain evolution
1.3.4 Flooding
1.4 Channel morphology
1.4.1 River engineering
2 History
2.1 Earlier history
2.2 International cooperation
2.3 Significance to people
3 Development
3.1 Bridges
3.2 National Waterway 2
4 References
4.1 See also
4.2 External links
4.3 Further reading
4.4 Notes
4.5 Citations
Geography[edit]
Course[edit]
Tibet[edit]
Main article: Yarlung Tsangpo
Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet.
The Brahmaputra River, also called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet. The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about 97 km (60 mi) southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. The river is 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, and its drainage area is 712,035 km2 (274,918 sq mi) according to the new findings, while previous documents showed its length varied from 2,900 to 3,350 km and its drainage area between 520,000 and 1.73 million km2. This finding has been given by Liu Shaochuang, a researcher with the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications under the analysis using expeditions and satellite imagery from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).[1][9]
From its source, the river runs for nearly 1,100 km (680 mi) in a generally easterly direction between the main range of the Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. Throughout its upper course, the river is generally known as the Tsangpo (“Purifier”); it is also known by its Chinese name (Yarlung Zangbo) and by other local Tibetan names.
In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left-bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü. The Nyang Qu (Gyamda) River joins the river from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On the right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê.
After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through a deep gorge (the “Grand Canyon” of the Tsangpo) across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for 5,000 m (16,000 ft) and more on each side. During that stretch, the river enters northern Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern India, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly.
Assam and adjoining region[edit]
Brahmaputra basin in India
A view of sunset in the Brahmaputra from Dibrugarh
The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet, and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km (22 mi) and is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra and Burlung-Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide—as wide as 20 km (12 mi) in parts of Assam.
The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns toward the southeast and descends into a low-lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km (900 mi) from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km (5.0 mi) apart. As the river follows its braided 700 m (2,300 ft) course through the valley, it receives several rapidly rushing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili.
Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels—the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world.[10] At Guwahati, near the ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo, the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau, and is at its narrowest at 1 km (1,100 yd) bank-to-bank. Because of the river's narrow width, the Battle of Saraighat was fought here in March 1671. The first combined rail/road bridge across the Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at Saraighat.
The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion.
Bangladesh[edit]
Rivers of Bangladesh, including the Brahmaputra
In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains the majority of the river's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna (Jomuna) to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River (Pôdda). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or old Brahmaputra (Brommoputro). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into the Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna.
The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150-mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves the left bank of the main stream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral, Atrai, and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga (“Old Ganga”), flows past Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj.
The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km (75 mi). After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes.
The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is 59,570 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) the largest river deltas in the world.[11]
Basin characteristics[edit]
The Brahmaputra River from Space
The basin of the Brahmaputra river is 651 334 km2 and it is a good example of a braided river and meanders quite a bit and frequently forms temporary sand bars. A region of significant tectonic activity has developed in the Jamuna River and is associated with the Himalayan uplift and development of the Bengal foredeep. Several researchers has hypothesized that the underlying structural control on the location of the major river systems of Bangladesh. A zone of 'structural weakness' along the present course of the Ganga-Jamuna-Padma Rivers due to either a subsiding trough or a fault at depth has been observed by Morgan and Melntire.(1959). Scijmonsbergen (1999) contends that width changes in the Jamuna may respond to these faults and they may also cause increased sedimentation upstream of the fault. He presented a few images to argue that a fault downstream of the Bangabandhu Multipurpose Bridge has affected channel migration. Huge accumulations of sediment that have been fed from Himalayan erosion has been produced due to the deepening of the Bengal Basin, with the thickness of sediment above the Precambrian basement increasing from a few hundred metres in the shelf region to over 18 km in the Bengal foredeep to the south. The tectonic and climatic context for the large water and sediment discharges in the rivers of Bangladesh was set by the ongoing subsidence in the Bengal Basin, combined with high rates of Himalayan uplift. The control of uplift and subsidence is, however, clear. The courses of the Jamuna and Ganga Rivers are first-order controls due to the fact that they are most influenced by the uplifted Plcistoccnc[clarification needed] terraces of the Barind and Madhupur tracts.[12]
Discharge[edit]
The Ganga-Brahmaputra system has the third-greatest average discharge of the world’s rivers—roughly 30,770 m3 (1,086,500 ft3) per second; and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 19,800 m3 (700,000 ft3) per second of the total discharge. The rivers’ combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world’s highest.[4][13]
In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In a 7.5 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762, however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract.[14]
Climate[edit]
Rising temperature is one of the major cause of snow-melting at the upper Brahmaputra catchment.[15] The discharge of the river Brahmaputra is highly affected by the melting of snow at the upper part of its catchment. The attenuation of river flow due to the melting of snow in the river Brahmaputra basin affects the downstream discharge of the river. This increase in discharge due to significant retreat of snow gives rise to severe catastrophic problems such as flood and erosion.
Hydrology[edit]
The hydrology of the Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time, the deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will results in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km in the Bengal fore-deep to the south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1% clay, in the Brahmaputra River.
Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high-water seasons, one in early summer caused by snow melt in the mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27%, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9m and 19,830 m3 /s of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in the Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m3 /s August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m3 /s in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for the dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems.
Floodplain evolution[edit]
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about 80 km (50 mi), leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on the operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil-forming process, which include acidification, breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, coating arounds Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance localised breakwaters, that increase flood-plain water depths outside the water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1m-2m. Furthermore, flooding over history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from overbank flow. The height difference between the levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1m along small channels and 2-3m along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto the adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers.
Flooding[edit]
Flooded villages along the Brahmaputra
During the monsoon season (June–October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected.[16][17][18]
The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock and fisheries. During the 1998 flood, over 70% of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 16 00 and 6000 km of roads and embankments respectively, and affecting 6000 km2 of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25% of the population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, was affected by the floods; 800 lives were lost; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tubewells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 M ha of rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7% of the yearly aus (early season) rice crop lost; 270 000 ha of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 MT of lost fish production.
Flood-control measures are taken by water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now the flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government.Recently the Central Government approved the construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways.
Channel morphology[edit]
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776–1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.
Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing a diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel.
The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra's bankline migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with the contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank. [19]
River engineering[edit]
The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of river bank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit the river’s erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report[20] by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have 'just failed'. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge, the only bridge to span the river's major distributary, the Jamuna, was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km long with a platform 18.5 m wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, prediction of the river’s future course is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge.
China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015.[21] The main purpose of the dam was to generate electricity for China and its operation has caused concerns for downstream neighbours like India as the presence of dams in the upper course of the river will mean unpredictability in the dynamics of downstream flows.
History[edit]
Brahmaputra River seen from a spot satellite
The Brahmaputra and its tributaries in northeastern India and Bangladesh
James Rennell's 1776 map shows the Brahmaputra's flow before an earthquake on 2 April 1762 and the Teesta River flowing in three channels to the Ganga before a flood in 1787.
Earlier history[edit]
Early accounts give its name as Dyardanes.[22] In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel.
A question about the river system in Bangladesh is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the "Old Brahmaputra" fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s.[23] The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum, switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene.
One idea about the most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista.
In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair-sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault's time, the Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave the Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred-mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision.
In 1809, Francis Buchanan-Hamilton wrote that the new channel between Bhawanipur and Dewanranj "was scarcely inferior to the mighty river, and threatens to sweep away the intermediate country". By 1830, the old channel had been reduced to its present insignificance. It was navigable by country boats throughout the year and by launches only during rains, but at the point as low as Jamalpur it was formidable throughout the cold weather. Similar was the position for two or three months just below Mymensingh also.
International cooperation[edit]
The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was repeated speculation that mentioned Chinese plans to build a dam at the Great Bend, with a view to divert the waters to the north of the country. This has been denied by the Chinese government for many years.[24] At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which brought together in a rare development leading hydrologists from the basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for China to undertake such a diversion.[25] However, on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra in Tibet,[24] but assured India that the project would not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India.[26] This claim has also been reiterated by the Government of India, in an attempt to assuage domestic criticism of Chinese dam construction on the river, but is one that remains hotly debated.[27] Recent years have seen an intensification of grassroots opposition, especially in the state of Assam, against Chinese upstream dam building, as well as growing criticism of the Indian government for its perceived failure to respond appropriately to Chinese hydropower plans.[28]
In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the basin countries issued a Dhaka Declaration on Water Security[29] calling for exchange of information in low-flow periods, and other means of collaboration. Even though the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention does not prevent any of the basin countries from building a dam upstream, customary law offers some relief to the lower riparian countries. There is also potential for China, India, and Bangladesh to cooperate on transboundary water navigation.
Significance to people[edit]
People fishing in the Brahmaputra River
The lives of many millions of Indian and Bangladeshi citizens are reliant on the Brahmaputra river. Its delta is home to 130 million people and 600 000 people live on the riverine islands. These people rely on the annual 'normal' flood to bring moisture and fresh sediments to the floodplain soils, hence providing the necessities for agricultural and marine farming. In fact, two of the three seasonal rice varieties (aus and aman) cannot survive without the floodwater. Furthermore, the fish caught both on the floodplain during flood season and from the many floodplain ponds are the main source of protein for many rural populations.
Development[edit]
Bridges[edit]
Current
Bogibeel Bridge
Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Setu
Kolia Bhomora Setu
Naranarayan Setu
Saraighat
Planned (under-construction, approved, proposed, etc.): Nitin Gadkari announced following 5 new bridges in Dec 2017.[30]
Jorhat-Nematighat[30]
Disangmukh-Tekeliphuta[30]
Louit-Khablu[30]
Numaligarh-Gohpur[30]
North Guwahati-Guwahati[30]
National Waterway 2[edit]
National Waterway 2 (NW2) is 891 km long Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra River in Assam.[31][32]
References[edit]
See also[edit]
BrahMos (missile) – A missile named partly after the Brahmaputra River
Brahmaputra-class frigate
Dhola-Sadiya bridge
List of rivers of Asia
List of rivers of Assam
List of rivers of Bangladesh
List of rivers of China
List of rivers of India
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brahmaputra.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Brahmaputra.
Further reading[edit]
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law. Peace Palace Library
Rivers of Dhemaji and Dhakuakhana
Background to Brahmaputra Flood Scenario
The Mighty Brahmaputra
Principal Rivers of Assam
"The Brahmaputra", a detailed study of the river by renowned writer Arup Dutta. (Published by National Book Trust, New Delhi, India)
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Scientists pinpoint sources of four major international rivers". Xinhua News Agency. 22 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Krishnan, Ananth (23 August 2011). "China maps Brahmaputra, Indus". The Hindu. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Michael Buckley (2015-03-30). "The Price of Damming Tibet's Rivers". The New York Times. p. A25. Archived from the original on 2015-03-31. Retrieved 2015-04-01. Two of the continent’s wildest rivers have their sources in Tibet: the Salween and the Brahmaputra. Though they are under threat from retreating glaciers, a more immediate concern is Chinese engineering plans. A cascade of five large dams is planned for both the Salween, which now flows freely, and the Brahmaputra, where one dam is already operational.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Brahmaputra River". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Brahmaputra River Flowing Down From Himalayas Towards Bay of Bengal". Retrieved 22 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Water Resources of Bangladesh". FAO. Archived from the original on 2009-08-06. Retrieved 2010-11-18.
Jump up ^ Catling, David (1992). Rice in deep water. International Rice Research Institute. p. 177. ISBN 978-971-22-0005-2.
Jump up ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 80.
Jump up ^ "China maps Brahmaputra source, course". Assam Tribune. 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-07-22. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
Jump up ^ Majuli, River Island. "Largest river island". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Singh, Vijay P.; Sharma, Nayan; C. Shekhar; P. Ojha (2004). The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources. Springer. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-4020-1737-7.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Avijit (2008). Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–. ISBN 978-0-470-72371-5.
Jump up ^ The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places. Britannica Educational Publishing. 2010. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-1-61530-202-4.
Jump up ^ Suess, Eduard (1904). The face of the earth: (Das antlitz der erde). Clarendon press. pp. 50–.
Jump up ^ "Change in snow cover area of Brahmaputra river basin and its sensitivity to temperature". Environmental Systems Research. 4. doi:10.1186/s40068-015-0043-0.
Jump up ^ Das, D.C. 2000. Agricultural Landuse and Productivity Pattern in Lower Brahmaputra valley (1970–71 and 1994–95). Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong.
Jump up ^ Mipun, B.S. 1989. Impact of Migrants and Agricultural Changes in the Lower Brahmaputra Valley : A Case Study of Darrang District. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong.
Jump up ^ Shrivastava, R.J.; Heinen, J.T. (2005). "Migration and Home Gardens in the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, India". Journal of Ecological Anthropology. 9: 20–34. doi:10.5038/2162-4593.9.1.2.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Monsoon Floods 2004: Post Flood Needs Assessment Summary Report (PDF). Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) (Report). Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2004. p. 23.
Jump up ^ "China operationalizes biggest dam on Brahmaputra in Tibet". The Times of India. 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ A compendium of ancient and modern geography: for the use of Eton School By Aaron Arrowsmith, page 56
Jump up ^ e.g. Rennell, 1776; Rennel, 1787
^ Jump up to: a b "China admits to Brahmaputra project". The Economic Times. 22 April 2010.
Jump up ^ MacArthur Foundation, Asian Security Initiative Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Chinese dam will not impact flow of Brahmaputra: Krishna". The Indian Express. 22 April 2010.
Jump up ^ BBC. "Megadams: Battle on the Brahmaputra". Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Yeophantong, Pichamon (2017). "River activism, policy entrepreneurship and transboundary water disputes in Asia". Water International. 42 (2). doi:10.1080/02508060.2017.1279041. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ The New Nation, Bangladesh, 17 January 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Nitin Gadkari flags off cargo movement on Brahmaputra, Economic Times, 29 Dec 2017.
Jump up ^ http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2016/168716.pdf
Jump up ^ "Press Information Bureau". www.pib.nic.in. Government of India. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
Citations[edit]
Rahaman, M. M.; Varis, O. (2009). "Integrated Water Management of the Brahmaputra Basin: Perspectives and Hope for Regional Development". Natural Resources Forum. 33 (1): 60–75. doi:10.1111/j.1477-8947.2009.01209.x.
Sarma, J N (2005). "Fluvial process and morphology of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India". Geomorphology. 70 (3–4): 226–256. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.02.007.
Ribhaba Bharali. The Brahmaputra River Restoration Project. Published in Assamese Pratidin, Amar Assam in October 2012.
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