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Prices of elements and their compounds
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This table lists the elements by their name and gives some historical prices for them and their commonly traded compounds. The first of the two price columns shows the price in US dollars per kg of the compound specified. The second shows the USD price per kg of element in the compound. Dates on prices facilitate forex conversion.
Elements of only short half-lives are unlikely to be traded on a secondary market outside of nuclear lab production, and were therefore excluded from the main table. The current cutoff excludes elements with atomic number greater than 105. They have no known isotope with a half-life greater than 1.5 hours and are listed separately later.
Element[1]
Compound
Name, Symbol, Number Compound/form/isotope Conditions of price Price ($/kg)
By compound
weight
Price ($/kg)
By element
weight
Date Ref.
Actinium Ac 89
225Ac 99% pure [1] $1203/mCi with permit $100> [2] Fiscal year 2003 [2] [3]
Aluminium Al 13
P1020A (=>99.7% Al) LME official cash, ask NL $1.3-$2.5 $1.3-$2.5 2002-2018 [4]
Americium Am 95
241AmO2 powder >99%[5] gram units in steel cont. $728000 (oxide?) Sept. 1998 [6]
243AmO2 powder >99.9% mg units, NRC Form 741 $180250000 (ox.?) Sept. 1998 [7]
Antimony Sb 51
=>99.65% pure CIF US port $5-$7 2009-2018 [8]
=>99.65% pure Free on board China $4-$5 2009-2018 [9]
Argon Ar 18
-
Arsenic As 33
min 99% pure $1-$2 2010-2018 [10]
Astatine At 85
-
Barium Ba 56
Barium chromate 99% $100 July 11, 2010 [11]
Berkelium Bk 97
-
Beryllium Be 4
- $7480 [12]
Bismuth Bi 83
min 99.99% pure $17-$29 2008-2018 [13]
Boron B 5
- $11140 [14]
Bromine Br 35
- $50 [15]
Cadmium Cd 48
min 99.95% pure $4-$5 2010-2018 [16]
Caesium Cs 55
- $11000 [17]
Calcium Ca 20
- $200 [18]
Californium Cf 98
- synthetic $27000000000 [19]
Carbon C 6
- $24 [20]
Cerium Ce 58
Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2), 99% Free On Board China $1-$4 $1-$4 Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [21]
Chlorine Cl 17
- $1-$2 [22]
Chromium Cr 24
99.9%, Electrolytic Vac Melt Grade FOB North America $7-$11 $7-$11 2005-2018 [23]
Cobalt Co 27
min 99.8& pure Aerospace application $30-$93 2005-2018 [24]
Copper Cu 29
Commodity copper LME Cash off. fix. bid $5.1-$8.8 $5.1-$8.8 2007-2018 [25]
Curium Cm 96
-
Dubnium Db 105
-
Dysprosium Dy 66
Dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy2O3), 99% Free On Board China $85-$350 $65-$230 2007-2017 [26]
Einsteinium Es 99
-
Erbium Er 68
- $95-$900 2007-2017 [3][4]
Europium Eu 63
Europium oxide, 99% Free On Board China $150-$370 - 2007-2017 [27]
Fermium Fm 100
-
Fluorine F 9
- $1900 [28]
Francium Fr 87
-
Gadolinium Gd 64
min 99% pure FOB China $19-$55 2010-2017 [29]
Gallium Ga 31
min 99.99% pure CIF Main Airport $525 July 8, 2010 [30]
Germanium Ge 32
min 99.99% pure CIF Main Airport $940-$1700 2010-2018 [31]
Gold Au 79
Gold 24kt $9600-$66600 2001-2018 [32]
Hafnium Hf 72
pure $1200 [33]
Helium He 2
- $52 [34]
Holmium Ho 67
- $8600 [5]
Hydrogen H 1
Gas +99% in bulk $0.7-$5 $0.7-$5 2004-2018 [35]
Liquid +99% in bulk $2-$9 $2-$9 2004-2018 [36]
Indium In 49
min 99.99% $180-$1000 2005-2018 [37]
Iodine I 53
- $83 [38]
Iridium Ir 77
- $35000-$42000 2010-2018 [39]
Iron Fe 26
- $0.019 - $0.072 2010-2018 [40]
Krypton Kr 36
-
Lanthanum La 57
Lanthanum oxide (La2O3), 99% Free On Board China $2.1-$3.9 $1.2-$2.9 Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [41]
Lawrencium Lr 103
-
Lead Pb 82
Commodity lead LME Cash off. fix. bid $1.1-$4.1 $1.1-$4.1 2007-2018 [42]
Lithium Li 3
pure $270 [43]
Lutetium Lu 71
pure $2400 $340000 (?) 2003 [6] [44]
Magnesium Mg 12
min 99.9% pure $5.8 July 8, 2010 [45]
Manganese Mn 25
99.7% min FOB China $1.5 $1.5 2005-11-25 [46]
Mendelevium Md 101
-
Mercury Hg 80
99.99% ? $14-$18 $14-$18 2005-2018 [47]
Molybdenum Mo 42
Molybdenum oxide Mo 57% $21-$33 2010-2018 [48]
Neodymium Nd 60
Neodymium oxide (Nd2O3), 99% Free On Board China $24-$39 $18-$29 Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [49]
Neon Ne 10
pure $330 [50]
Neptunium Np 93
- $600000-$666000
Nickel Ni 28
Commodity nickel LME Cash off. fix. bid $25-$55 $25-$55 2007-2018 [51]
Niobium Nb 41
pure $40-$180 2001-2018 [52]
Nitrogen N 7
99.999%UHP 311scf cyl. at U of Florida $3-$4 $3-$4 2006-2018 [53][54]
99.999%UHP 249scf cyl. at U of Arizona $5-$6 $5-$6 2008-2018 [55]
99.9995% Liquid Nitrogen own still [56] $0.074 $0.074 Oct. 2008 YTD avg. [57]
Nobelium No 102
-
Osmium Os 76
pure $13000-$77000 2008-2018 [58][59]
Oxygen O 8
pure $3 [60]
Palladium Pd 46
pure $8000-$33000 2008-2018 [61]
Phosphorus P 15
pure $300 [62]
Platinum Pt 78
Platinum 99.95% $28000-$80000 2008-2018 [63][64]
Plutonium Pu 94
pure Not legal to own.[7] $4000000-$5600000 [65], [66]
Polonium Po 84
-
Potassium K 19
pure $1000 [67]
Praseodymium Pr 59
Praseodymium oxide (Pr2O3), 99% Free On Board China $22-$37 $16-$28 Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [68]
Promethium Pm 61
-
Protactinium Pa 91
- $280000 [69]
Radium Ra 88
-
Radon Rn 86
-
Rhenium Re 75
pellets min 99.9% $35000-$168000 2008-2018 [70][71]
Rhodium Rh 45
min 99.9% pure $70000-$350000 2010-2018 [72][73]
Rubidium Rb 37
pure $6000-$12000 2010-2018 [74]
Ruthenium Ru 44
pure $2000-$14000 2010-2018 [75]
Rutherfordium Rf 104
-
Samarium Sm 62
Samarium oxide (Sm2O3), 99% $2-$5 $1-$4 Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [76]
Scandium Sc 21
pure $4400-$15000 2007-2017 [77][78]
Selenium Se 34
min 99.5% pure $80-$280 2010-2018 [79]
Silicon Si 14
min 98.5% (5-5-3) FOB P.R.C. China $2-$3 2010 [80], [81]
Silver Ag 47
Silver bullion $500-$1500 2010-2018 [82]
Sodium Na 11
pure $250 [83]
Strontium Sr 38
pure $1000 [84]
Sulfur S 16
pure $500 [85]
Tantalum Ta 73
Tantalite basis 30% Ta205, Tantalum Ore $120-$160 2010-2018 [86]
Technetium Tc 43
-
Tellurium Te 52
pure $240 [87]
Terbium Tb 65
Tb metal 99% min FOB China $420-$720 2010-2018 [88]
Terbium oxide $400-$700 2010- Qly avgs. Q1-Q3 2007 [89]
Thallium Tl 81
pure $480 [90]
Thorium Th 90
- $500-$5000 2008-2018 [91], [92]
Thulium Tm 69
- $20000-$70000 1998-2018 [8]
Tin Sn 50
Commodity tin LME Cash off. fix. bid $16-$26 $16-$26 2010-2018 [93]
Titanium Ti 22
Ti sponge TG100 12x25mm Long term contract $4-$16 2010-2018 [94]
Tungsten W 74
Ammonium paratungstate FOB P.R.C. China $22-$55 2006-2018 [95][96]
Uranium U 92
Yellowcake 0.7% 235U, Depleted 0.2-0.4% 235U Not legal to own.[9] $15000000 (235U) 2008-2018 [97], [98]
(U3O8e) $40-$75 2008-2018 [99]
Vanadium V 23
Vanadium pentoxide 98% min $14.33 July 8, 2010 [100]
Xenon Xe 54
pure $1200 [101]
Ytterbium Yb 70
pure $14000 [102]
Yttrium Y 39
min 99.9% pure FOB China $35-$45 2010-2018 [103]
Zinc Zn 30
Commodity zinc LME Cash off. fix. bid $2.1-$4.5 $2.1-$4.5 2007-2018 [104]
Zirconium Zr 40
pure $1570 [105]
These elements above 105 were excluded from the above table:
Highly unstable elements
Name Symbol No.
Bohrium Bh 107
Copernicium Cn 112
Darmstadtium Ds 110
Flerovium Fl 114
Hassium Hs 108
Livermorium Lv 116
Meitnerium Mt 109
Moscovium Mc 115
Nihonium Nh 113
Oganesson Og 118
Roentgenium Rg 111
Seaborgium Sg 106
Tennessine Ts 117
See also[edit]
Element collecting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Names taken from Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations 2005, Table I
Jump up ^ mCi/kg = [Avogadro's number]/[atomic weight]*(1-10^(log(.5)/[half-life in seconds]))/37000
Jump up ^ http://www.chemicool.com/elements/erbium.html
Jump up ^ http://mineralprices.com
Jump up ^ http://www.chemicool.com/elements/holmium.html
Jump up ^ Stephen B. Castor and James B. Hedrick. "Rare Earth Elements" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Jump up ^ Gray, Theodore (2010). The Elements.
Jump up ^ http://www.chemicool.com/elements/thulium.html
Jump up ^ https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/831
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text:
Hyperthermia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with Hypothermia.
Hyperthermia
An analog medical thermometer showing a temperature of 38.7 °C (101.7 °F)
Classification and external resources
Specialty
Critical care medicine
ICD-9-CM
780.6
DiseasesDB
18924
MeSH
D005334
[edit on Wikidata]
Hyperthermia is elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. Extreme temperature elevation then becomes a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or death.
The most common causes include heat stroke and adverse reactions to drugs. The former is an acute temperature elevation caused by exposure to excessive heat, or combination of heat and humidity, that overwhelms the heat-regulating mechanisms. The latter is a relatively rare side effect of many drugs, particularly those that affect the central nervous system. Malignant hyperthermia is a rare complication of some types of general anesthesia.
Hyperthermia differs from fever in that the body's temperature set point remains unchanged. The opposite is hypothermia, which occurs when the temperature drops below that required to maintain normal metabolism. The term is from Greek ὑπέρ, hyper, meaning "above" or "over", and θέρμος, thermos, meaning "hot".
Contents
1 Classification
2 Signs and symptoms
3 Causes
3.1 Exertional
3.2 Situational
3.3 Drugs
3.4 Personal protective equipment
3.5 Other
4 Pathophysiology
5 Diagnosis
6 Prevention
7 Treatment
8 Epidemiology
9 Research
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Classification[edit]
Temperature classification
Core (rectal, esophageal, etc.)
Hypothermia <35.0 °C (95.0 °F)[1]
Normal 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F)[2][3]
Fever >37.5 or 38.3 °C (99.5 or 100.9 °F)[4][5]
Hyperthermia >37.5 or 38.3 °C (99.5 or 100.9 °F)[4][5]
Hyperpyrexia >40.0 or 41.0 °C (104.0 or 105.8 °F)[6][7]
Note: The difference between fever and hyperthermia is the underlying mechanism. Different sources have different cut-offs for fever, hyperthermia and hyperpyrexia.
v
t
e
In humans, hyperthermia is defined as a temperature greater than 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F), depending on the reference used, that occurs without a change in the body's temperature set point.[4][5]
The normal human body temperature can be as high as 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) in the late afternoon.[8] Hyperthermia requires an elevation from the temperature that would otherwise be expected. Such elevations range from mild to extreme; body temperatures above 40 °C (104 °F) can be life-threatening.
Signs and symptoms[edit]
An early stage of hyperthermia can be "heat exhaustion" (or "heat prostration" or "heat stress"), whose symptoms include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical[8] as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. An inability to cool the body through perspiration may cause the skin to feel dry.
Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.
In severe heat stroke, there may be confused, hostile, or seemingly intoxicated behavior. Heart rate and respiration rate will increase (tachycardia and tachypnea) as blood pressure drops and the heart attempts to maintain adequate circulation. The decrease in blood pressure can then cause blood vessels to contract reflexively, resulting in a pale or bluish skin color in advanced cases. Young children, in particular, may have seizures. Eventually, organ failure, unconsciousness and death will result.
Causes[edit]
Heat stroke occurs when thermoregulation is overwhelmed by a combination of excessive metabolic production of heat (exertion), excessive environmental heat, and insufficient or impaired heat loss, resulting in an abnormally high body temperature.[8] In severe cases, temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F).[9] Heat stroke may be non-exertional (classic) or exertional.
Exertional[edit]
Significant physical exertion in hot conditions can generate heat beyond the ability to cool, because, in addition to the heat, humidity of the environment may reduce the efficiency of the body's normal cooling mechanisms.[8] Human heat-loss mechanisms are limited primarily to sweating (which dissipates heat by evaporation, assuming sufficiently low humidity) and vasodilation of skin vessels (which dissipates heat by convection proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings, according to Newton's law of cooling). Other factors, such as insufficient water intake, consuming alcohol, or lack of air conditioning, can worsen the problem.
The increase in body temperature that results from a breakdown in thermoregulation affects the body biochemically. Enzymes involved in metabolic pathways within the body such as cellular respiration fail to work effectively at higher temperatures, and further increases can lead them to denature, reducing their ability to catalyse essential chemical reactions. This loss of enzymatic control affects the functioning of major organs with high energy demands such as the heart and brain.
Situational[edit]
Situational heat stroke occurs in the absence of exertion. It mostly affects the young and elderly. In the elderly in particular, it can be precipitated by medications that reduce vasodilation and sweating, such as anticholinergic drugs, antihistamines, and diuretics.[8] In this situation, the body's tolerance for high environmental temperature may be insufficient, even at rest.
Heat waves are often followed by a rise in the death rate, and these 'classical hyperthermia' deaths typically involve the elderly and infirm. This is partly because thermoregulation involves cardiovascular, respiratory and renal systems which may be inadequate for the additional stress because of the existing burden of aging and disease, further compromised by medications. During the July 1995 heat wave in Chicago, there were at least 700 heat-related deaths. The strongest risk factors were being confined to bed, and living alone, while the risk was reduced for those with working air conditioners and those with access to transportation. Even then, reported deaths may be underestimates as diagnosis can be misclassified as stroke or heart attack.[10]
Drugs[edit]
Some drugs cause excessive internal heat production.[8] The rate of drug-induced hyperthermia is higher where use of these drugs is higher.[8]
Many psychotropic medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and tricyclic antidepressants, can cause hyperthermia.[8] Serotonin syndrome is a rare adverse reaction to overdose of these medications or the use of several simultaneously. Similarly, neuroleptic malignant syndrome is an uncommon reaction to neuroleptic agents.[11] These syndromes are differentiated by other associated symptoms, such as tremor in serotonin syndrome and "lead-pipe" muscle rigidity in neuroleptic malignant syndrome.[8]
Various stimulant drugs, including amphetamines[12] and cocaine,[13] and hallucinogenic drugs, including PCP, LSD, and MDMA can produce hyperthermia as an adverse effect.[8]
Malignant hyperthermia is a rare reaction to common anesthetic agents (such as halothane) or the paralytic agent succinylcholine. Those who have this reaction, which is potentially fatal, have a genetic predisposition.[8]
The use of anticholinergics, more specifically muscarinic antagonists are thought to cause mild hyperthermic episodes due to its parasympatholytic effects. The sympathetic nervous system a.k.a. the "Fight or Flight Response" dominates by raising catecholamine levels by the blocked action of the Rest and Digest System.[14]
Drugs that decouple oxidative phosphorylation may also cause hyperthermia. From this group of drugs the most well known is 2,4-Dinitrophenol which was used as a weight loss drug until dangers from its use became apparent.
Personal protective equipment[edit]
Those working in industry, in the military, or as first responders may be required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) against hazards such as chemical agents, gases, fire, small arms and even Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). PPE includes a range of hazmat suits, firefighting turnout gear, body armor and bomb suits, among others. Depending on design, the wearer may be encapsulated in a microclimate,[15] due to an increase in thermal resistance and decrease in vapor permeability. As physical work is performed, the body’s natural thermoregulation (i.e., sweating) becomes ineffective. This is compounded by increased work rates, high ambient temperature and humidity levels, and direct exposure to the sun. The net effect is that desired protection from some environmental threats inadvertently increases the threat of heat stress.
The effect of PPE on hyperthermia has been noted in fighting the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Western Africa. Doctors and healthcare workers were only able to work 40 minutes at a stretch in their protective suits, fearing heat strokes.[16]
Other[edit]
Other rare causes of hyperthermia include thyrotoxicosis and an adrenal gland tumor, called pheochromocytoma, both of which can cause increased heat production.[8] Damage to the central nervous system, from brain hemorrhage, status epilepticus, and other kinds of injury to the hypothalamus can also cause hyperthermia.[8]
Pathophysiology[edit]
A summary of the differences between hyperthermia, hypothermia, and fever.
Hyperthermia: Characterized on the left. Normal body temperature (thermoregulatory set-point) is shown in green, while the hyperthermic temperature is shown in red. As can be seen, hyperthermia can be conceptualized as an increase above the thermoregulatory set-point.
Hypothermia: Characterized in the center: Normal body temperature is shown in green, while hypothermic temperature is shown in blue. As can be seen, hypothermia can be conceptualized as a decrease below the thermoregulatory set-point.
Fever: Characterized on the right: Normal body temperature is shown in green. It reads "New Normal" because the thermoregulatory set-point has risen. This has caused what was the normal body temperature (in blue) to be considered hypothermic.
A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.
In contrast, hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature rises without a change in the heat control centers.
Some of the gastrointestinal symptoms of acute exertional heat stroke, such as vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding, may be caused by barrier dysfunction and subsequent endotoxemia. Ultraendurance athletes have been found to have significantly increased plasma endotoxin levels. Endotoxin stimulates many inflammatory cytokines, which in turn may cause multiorgan dysfunction. Experimentally, monkeys treated with oral antibiotics prior to induction of heat stroke do not become endotoxemic.[17]
There is scientific support for the concept of a temperature set point; that is, maintenance of an optimal temperature for the metabolic processes that life depends on. Nervous activity in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamus of the brain triggers heat losing (sweating, etc.) or heat generating (shivering and muscle contraction, etc.) activities through stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The pre-optic anterior hypothalamus has been shown to contain warm sensitive, cool sensitive, and temperature insensitive neurons, to determine the body's temperature setpoint. As the temperature that these neurons are exposed to rises above 37 °C, the rate of electrical discharge of the warm-sensitive neurons increases progressively. Cold-sensitive neurons increase their rate of electrical discharge progressively below 37 °C.[18]
Diagnosis[edit]
Hyperthermia is generally diagnosed by the combination of unexpectedly high body temperature and a history that supports hyperthermia instead of a fever.[8] Most commonly this means that the elevated temperature has occurred in a hot, humid environment (heat stroke) or in someone taking a drug for which hyperthermia is a known side effect (drug-induced hyperthermia). The presence of signs and symptoms related to hyperthermia syndromes, such as extrapyramidal symptoms characteristic of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and the absence of signs and symptoms more commonly related to infection-related fevers, are also considered in making the diagnosis.
If fever-reducing drugs lower the body temperature, even if the temperature does not return entirely to normal, then hyperthermia is excluded.[8]
Prevention[edit]
When ambient temperature is excessive, humans and many animals cool themselves below ambient by evaporative cooling of sweat (or other aqueous liquid; saliva in dogs, for example); this helps prevent potentially fatal hyperthermia. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling depends upon humidity. Wet-bulb temperature, which takes humidity into account, or more complex calculated quantities such as wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), which also takes solar radiation into account, give useful indications of the degree of heat stress and are used by several agencies as the basis for heat-stress prevention guidelines. (Wet-bulb temperature is essentially the lowest skin temperature attainable by evaporative cooling at a given ambient temperature and humidity.)
A sustained wet-bulb temperature exceeding 35 °C (95 °F) is likely to be fatal even to fit and healthy people unclothed in the shade next to a fan; at this temperature, environmental heat gain instead of loss occurs. As of 2012[update], wet-bulb temperatures only very rarely exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) anywhere, although significant global warming may change this.[19]
In cases of heat stress caused by physical exertion, hot environments, or protective equipment, prevention or mitigation by frequent rest breaks, careful hydration, and monitoring body temperature should be attempted.[20] However, in situations demanding one is exposed to a hot environment for a prolonged period or must wear protective equipment, a personal cooling system is required as a matter of health and safety. There is a variety of active or passive personal cooling systems;[15] these can be categorized by their power sources and whether they are person- or vehicle-mounted.
Because of the broad variety of operating conditions, these devices must meet specific requirements concerning their rate and duration of cooling, their power source, and their adherence to health and safety regulations. Among other criteria are the user's need for physical mobility and autonomy. For example, active-liquid systems operate by chilling water and circulating it through a garment; the skin surface area is thereby cooled through conduction. This type of system has proven successful in certain military, law enforcement, and industrial applications. Bomb-disposal technicians wearing special suits to protect against improvised explosive devices (IEDs) use a small, ice-based chiller unit that is strapped to one leg; a liquid-circulating garment, usually a vest, is worn over the torso to maintain a safe core body temperature. By contrast, soldiers traveling in combat vehicles can face microclimate temperatures in excess of 65 °C and require a multiple-user, vehicle-powered cooling system with rapid connection capabilities. Requirements for hazmat teams, the medical community, and workers in heavy industry vary further.
Treatment[edit]
The underlying cause must be removed. Mild hyperthemia caused by exertion on a hot day may be adequately treated through self-care measures, such as increased water consumption and resting in a cool place. Hyperthermia that results from drug exposure requires prompt cessation of that drug, and occasionally the use of other drugs as counter measures.
Antipyretics (e.g., acetaminophen, aspirin, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) have no role in the treatment of heatstroke because antipyretics interrupt the change in the hypothalamic set point caused by pyrogens; they are not expected to work on a healthy hypothalamus that has been overloaded, as in the case of heatstroke. In this situation, antipyretics actually may be harmful in patients who develop hepatic, hematologic, and renal complications because they may aggravate bleeding tendencies.[21]
When body temperature is significantly elevated, mechanical cooling methods are used to remove heat and to restore the body's ability to regulate its own temperatures.[8] Passive cooling techniques, such as resting in a cool, shady area and removing clothing can be applied immediately. Active cooling methods, such as sponging the head, neck, and trunk with cool water, remove heat from the body and thereby speed the body's return to normal temperatures. Drinking water and turning a fan or dehumidifying air conditioning unit on the affected person may improve the effectiveness of the body's evaporative cooling mechanisms (sweating).[citation needed]
Sitting in a bathtub of tepid or cool water (immersion method) can remove a significant amount of heat in a relatively short period of time. It was once thought that immersion in very cold water is counterproductive, as it causes vasoconstriction in the skin and thereby prevents heat from escaping the body core. However, a British analysis of various studies stated: "this has never been proven experimentally. Indeed, a recent study using normal volunteers has shown that cooling rates were fastest when the coldest water was used."[22] The analysis concluded that iced water immersion is the most-effective cooling technique for exertional heat stroke.[22] No superior cooling method has been found for non-exertional heat stroke.[23] Thus, aggressive ice-water immersion remains the gold standard for life-threatening heat stroke.[24][25]
When the body temperature reaches about 40 °C, or if the affected person is unconscious or showing signs of confusion, hyperthermia is considered a medical emergency that requires treatment in a proper medical facility. In a hospital, more aggressive cooling measures are available, including intravenous hydration, gastric lavage with iced saline, and even hemodialysis to cool the blood.[8]
Epidemiology[edit]
The frequency of environmental hyperthermia can vary significantly from year to year depending on factors such as heat waves. Statistically, outdoor workers, including agricultural workers, are at increased risk of experiencing heat stress and the resulting negative health effects. Between 1992 and 2006 in the United States, 68 crop workers died from heat stroke, representing a rate 20 times that of US civilian workers overall.[26]
In India, hundreds die every year from summer heat waves,[27] including more than 2,500 in the year 2015.[28] Later that same summer, the 2015 Pakistani heat wave killed about 2,000 people.[29] An extreme 2003 European heat wave caused tens of thousands of deaths.[30]
Research[edit]
Hyperthermia can also be deliberately induced using drugs or medical devices and is being studied and applied in clinical routine as a treatment of some kinds of cancer.[31]
See also[edit]
Heat cramps
Hot flash
Rhabdomyolysis
Occupational heat stress
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marx, John (2006). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. Mosby/Elsevier. p. 2239. ISBN 978-0-323-02845-5.
Jump up ^ Karakitsos D, Karabinis A (September 2008). "Hypothermia therapy after traumatic brain injury in children". N. Engl. J. Med. 359 (11): 1179–80. doi:10.1056/NEJMc081418. PMID 18788094.
Jump up ^ Pryor, Jennifer A.; Prasad, Ammani S. (2008). Physiotherapy for Respiratory and Cardiac Problems: Adults and Paediatrics. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 8. ISBN 0702039748.
^ Jump up to: a b c Axelrod YK, Diringer MN (May 2008). "Temperature management in acute neurologic disorders". Neurol. Clin. 26 (2): 585–603, xi. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2008.02.005. PMID 18514828.
^ Jump up to: a b c Laupland KB (July 2009). "Fever in the critically ill medical patient". Crit. Care Med. 37 (7 Suppl): S273–8. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181aa6117. PMID 19535958.
Jump up ^ Grunau BE, Wiens MO, Brubacher JR (September 2010). "Dantrolene in the treatment of MDMA-related hyperpyrexia: a systematic review". CJEM. 12 (5): 435–442. doi:10.1017/s1481803500012598. PMID 20880437. Dantrolene may also be associated with improved survival and reduced complications, especially in patients with extreme (≥ 42°C) or severe (≥ 40°C) hyperpyrexia
Jump up ^ Sharma HS, ed. (2007). Neurobiology of Hyperthermia (1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 175–177, 485. ISBN 9780080549996. Retrieved 19 November 2016. Despite the myriad of complications associated with heat illness, an elevation of core temperature above 41.0°C (often referred to as fever or hyperpyrexia) is the most widely recognized symptom of this syndrome.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Fauci, Anthony; et al. (2008). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (17th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 117–121. ISBN 978-0-07-146633-2.
Jump up ^ Tintinalli, Judith (2004). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, Sixth edition. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 1187. ISBN 0-07-138875-3.
Jump up ^ Semenza JC, Rubin CH, Falter KH, Selanikio JD, Flanders WD, Howe HL, Wilhelm JL (July 1996). "Heat-related deaths during the July 1995 heat wave in Chicago". N Engl J Med. 335 (2): 84–90. doi:10.1056/NEJM199607113350203. PMID 8649494.
Jump up ^ Tintinalli, Judith (2004). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, Sixth edition. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 1818. ISBN 0-07-138875-3.
Jump up ^ Marx, John (2006). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. Mosby/Elsevier. p. 2894. ISBN 978-0-323-02845-5.
Jump up ^ Marx, John (2006). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. Mosby/Elsevier. p. 2388. ISBN 978-0-323-02845-5.
Jump up ^ Patel, R.J.; et al. (January 2004). "Prevalence of autonomic signs and symptoms in antimuscarinic drug poisonings". J. Emerg. Med. 26 (1). pp. 89–94. PMID 14751484.
^ Jump up to: a b "Microclimate Conditioning Systems" (PDF). US Army Natick Soldier RD&E Center. May 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Northam, Jackie (7 October 2014). "Ebola Protective Suits Are In Short Supply". National Public Radio. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Patrick. Role of gastrointestinal permeability in exertional heatstroke. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews. 32(4): 185-190. 2004
Jump up ^ Byrne, J.H. "Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences". Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Medical School at Houston (UTHealth). Retrieved 13 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Muir, Hazel (23 October 2010). "Thermogeddon: Too hot for humans". New Scientist. 208 (2783): 36–39. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(10)62649-8.
Jump up ^ "NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics: Heat Stress". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Heatstroke~treatment at eMedicine
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, J E (2005). "Cooling methods used in the treatment of exertional heat illness". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39 (8): 503–7; discussion 507. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2004.013466. PMC 1725271  . PMID 16046331.
Jump up ^ Bouchama, Abderrezak; Dehbi, Mohammed; Chaves-Carballo, Enrique (2007). "Cooling and hemodynamic management in heatstroke: practical recommendations". Critical Care. 11 (3): R54. doi:10.1186/cc5910. PMC 2206402  . PMID 17498312.
Jump up ^ Casa DJ, McDermott BP, Lee EC, Yeargin SW, Armstrong LE, Maresh CM (July 2007). "Cold water immersion: the gold standard for exertional heatstroke treatment". Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 35 (3): 141–149. doi:10.1097/jes.0b013e3180a02bec. PMID 17620933. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ McDermott, Brendon P.; Casa, Douglas J.; Ganio, Matthew S.; Lopez, Rebecca M.; Yeargin, Susan W.; Armstrong, Lawrence E.; Maresh, Carl M. (2009). "Acute Whole-Body Cooling for Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia: A Systematic Review". Journal of Athletic Training. 44 (1): 84–93. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-44.1.84. PMC 2629045  . PMID 19180223.
Jump up ^ "Heat-Related Deaths Among Crop Workers – United States, 1992–2006". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 57 (24): 649–653. 20 June 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Mallapur, Chaitanya (27 May 2015). "61% Rise In Heat-Stroke Deaths Over Decade". IndiaSpend. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "India heatwave: death toll passes 2,500 as victim families fight for compensation". Reuters. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Haider, Kamran; Anis, Khurrum (24 June 2015). "Heat Wave Death Toll Rises to 2,000 in Pakistan's Financial Hub". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Robine, Jean-Marie; et al. (February 2008). "Death toll exceeded 70,000 in Europe during the summer of 2003". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 331 (2): 171–178. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.12.001. ISSN 1631-0691. PMID 18241810.
Jump up ^ National Cancer Institute (31 August 2011). "Hyperthermia in Cancer Treatment". Retrieved 2 August 2015.
External links[edit]
American Red Cross Tips to Beat the Heat
CDC Emergency Preparedness and Response: Extreme Heat
CDC–NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics: Heat Stress
EPA: Excessive Heat Events Guidebook
US National Academies:Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Heat
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List of The Open Championship champions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Harry Vardon, six-time Open Champion in 1896, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1911, and 1914, which is a record
The Open Championship is an annual golf competition that was established in 1860.[1] It is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July, and is the third of the four major championships to be played each year.[2] In addition, this championship is conducted by The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews (R&A). The championship was not held in 1871 due to a disagreement over a new trophy,[3] and from 1915 to 1919 and from 1940 to 1945 due to the First and Second World Wars respectively.
The reigning champion of the competition is automatically invited to play in the other three majors (Masters, the U.S. Open, and the PGA Championship) for the next five years. The prize of the tournament is the Golf Champion Trophy, commonly known as the Claret Jug, and the champion personally keeps the trophy until the next competition the following year. The champion also receives a gold medal, which they are allowed to keep permanently. Until 1870 the champion received the Challenge Belt, however when Tom Morris Jr. (more commonly known as Young Tom Morris) won the Open Championship three times in a row he won the belt outright, necessitating the need for a new trophy.[3]
Harry Vardon holds the record for the most Open Championship victories, winning six times during his career. The oldest winner of the Open Championship is Tom Morris Sr. (or Old Tom Morris) who was 7004169030000000000♠46 years and 102 days old when he won in 1867. His son, Tom Morris Jr., is the youngest winner of the championship, he was 7003636600000000000♠17 years and 156 days old when he won the 1868 Open Championship. He also won the most consecutive times with four victories (1868–72). Greg Norman holds the record for the lowest score over 72 holes, winning the Open Championship in 267 strokes in 1993. Henrik Stenson holds the distinction of being the most strokes under par for 72 holes,[a] he was 20 strokes under par (−20) when he won in 2016.
Contents
[hide]
1 Champions
1.1 By year
1.2 Multiple champions
1.3 By nationality
2 Notes
3 References
4 External links
Champions[edit]
Key
(n/a) Information not available
Tournament won in a playoff
* Tournament won by an amateur
By year[edit]
James Braid, five-time Open Champion in 1901, 1905, 1906, 1908, and 1910
John Henry Taylor, five-time Open Champion in 1894, 1895, 1900, 1909, 1913
Tom Watson, five-time Open Champion in 1975, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983
Tom Morris Sr., four-time Open Champion in 1861, 1862, 1864, and 1867.
Tom Morris Jr., four-time Open Champion in 1868, 1869, 1870, and 1872.
Willie Park Sr., four-time Open Champion in 1860, 1863, 1866, and 1875
Walter Hagen, four-time Open Champion in 1922, 1924, 1928, and 1929
Bob Ferguson, three-time Open Champion in 1880, 1881, 1882
Bobby Jones, three-time Open Champion in 1926, 1927, and 1930. He is one of six champions to win wire-to-wire after 72-holes played with his victory in 1927.
Henry Cotton, three-time Open Champion in 1934, 1937, and 1948. He is one of six champions to win wire-to-wire after 72-holes played with his victory in 1934.
Gary Player, three-time Open Champion in 1959, 1968, and 1974.
Jack Nicklaus, three-time Open Champion in 1966, 1970, and 1978
Seve Ballesteros, three-time Open Champion in 1979, 1984, and 1988
Nick Faldo, three-time Open Champion in 1987, 1990, and 1992
Tiger Woods, three-time Open Champion in 2000, 2005, and 2006. He is one of six champions to win wire-to-wire after 72-holes played with his victory in 2005.
The Open Championship champions
Year
Country
Champion
Course
Location
Total score
To par[b]
1860
Scotland Park, Willie Sr.Willie Park Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 174 n/a
1861
Scotland Morris Sr., TomTom Morris Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 163 n/a
1862
Scotland Morris Sr., TomTom Morris Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 163 n/a
1863
Scotland Park, Willie Sr.Willie Park Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 168 n/a
1864
Scotland Morris Sr., TomTom Morris Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 167 n/a
1865
Scotland Strath, AndrewAndrew Strath Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 162 n/a
1866
Scotland Park, Willie Sr.Willie Park Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 169 n/a
1867
Scotland Morris Sr., TomTom Morris Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 170 n/a
1868
Scotland Morris Jr., TomTom Morris Jr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 154 n/a
1869
Scotland Morris Jr., TomTom Morris Jr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 157 n/a
1870
Scotland Morris Jr., TomTom Morris Jr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 149 n/a
1871
&
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None[c] &
—
&
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&
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&
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1872
Scotland Morris Jr., TomTom Morris Jr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 166 n/a
1873
Scotland Kidd, TomTom Kidd St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 179 n/a
1874
Scotland Park, MungoMungo Park Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 159 n/a
1875
Scotland Park, Willie Sr.Willie Park Sr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 166 n/a
1876
Scotland Martin, BobBob Martin [d] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 176 n/a
1877
Scotland Anderson, JamieJamie Anderson Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 160 n/a
1878
Scotland Anderson, JamieJamie Anderson Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 157 n/a
1879
Scotland Anderson, JamieJamie Anderson St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 169 n/a
1880
Scotland Ferguson, BobBob Ferguson Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 162 n/a
1881
Scotland Ferguson, BobBob Ferguson Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 170 n/a
1882
Scotland Ferguson, BobBob Ferguson St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 171 n/a
1883
Scotland Fernie, WillieWillie Fernie [e] Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 159 n/a
1884
Scotland Simpson, JackJack Simpson Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 160 n/a
1885
Scotland Martin, BobBob Martin St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 171 n/a
1886
Scotland Brown, DavidDavid Brown Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 157 n/a
1887
Scotland Park, Willie Jr.Willie Park Jr. Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 161 n/a
1888
Scotland Burns, JackJack Burns St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 171 n/a
1889
Scotland Park, Willie Jr.Willie Park Jr. [f] Musselburgh Links Scotland, Musselburgh !Musselburgh, Scotland 155 n/a
1890
England Ball, JohnJohn Ball *[g] Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 162 n/a
1891
Scotland Kirkaldy, HughHugh Kirkaldy St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 166 n/a
1892
England Hilton, HaroldHarold Hilton *[h] Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 305 n/a
1893
Scotland Auchterlonie, WilliamWilliam Auchterlonie Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 322 n/a
1894
England Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 326 n/a
1895
England Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 332 n/a
1896
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon [i] Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 316 n/a
1897
England Hilton, HaroldHarold Hilton *[h] Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 314 n/a
1898
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 307 n/a
1899
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 310 n/a
1900
England Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 309 n/a
1901
Scotland Braid, JamesJames Braid Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 309 n/a
1902
Scotland Herd, SandySandy Herd Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 307 n/a
1903
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 300 n/a
1904
Scotland White, JackJack White Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 296 n/a
1905
Scotland Braid, JamesJames Braid St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 318 n/a
1906
Scotland Braid, JamesJames Braid Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 300 n/a
1907
France Massy, ArnaudArnaud Massy Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 312 n/a
1908
Scotland Braid, JamesJames Braid Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 291 n/a
1909
England Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor Royal Cinque Ports England, Deal !Deal, England 291 n/a
1910
Scotland Braid, JamesJames Braid St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 299 n/a
1911
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon [j] Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 303 n/a
1912
Jersey Ray, TedTed Ray Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 295 n/a
1913
England Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 304 n/a
1914
Jersey Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 306 n/a
1915
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None[k] &
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&
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1916
&
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None &
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&
—
&
—
&
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1917
&
—
None &
—
&
—
&
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&
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1918
&
—
None &
—
&
—
&
—
&
—
1919
&
—
None &
—
&
—
&
—
&
—
1920
Scotland Duncan, GeorgeGeorge Duncan Royal Cinque Ports England, Deal !Deal, England 303 195 !+15
1921
United States Hutchison, JockJock Hutchison [l] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 296 201 !+8
1922
United States Hagen, WalterWalter Hagen Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 300 190 !+20
1923
England Havers, ArthurArthur Havers Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 295 202 !+7
1924
United States Hagen, WalterWalter Hagen Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 301 197 !+13
1925
United States Barnes, JimJim Barnes Prestwick Golf Club Scotland, Prestwick !Prestwick, Scotland 300 194 !+16
1926
United States Jones, BobbyBobby Jones *[m] Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 291 202 !+7
1927
United States Jones, BobbyBobby Jones *[m] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 285 3 !−3
1928
United States Hagen, WalterWalter Hagen Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 292 198 !+12
1929
United States Hagen, WalterWalter Hagen Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 292 201 !+8
1930
United States Jones, BobbyBobby Jones *[m] Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 291 206 !+3
1931
United States Armour, TommyTommy Armour Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 296 198 !+12
1932
United States Sarazen, GeneGene Sarazen Prince's Golf Club England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 283 5 !−5
1933
United States Shute, DennyDenny Shute [n] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 292 205 !+4
1934
England Cotton, HenryHenry Cotton Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 283 206 !+3
1935
England Perry, AlfAlf Perry Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 283 5 !−5
1936
England Padgham, AlfAlf Padgham Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 287 9 !−9
1937
England Cotton, HenryHenry Cotton Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 290 203 !+6
1938
England Whitcombe, RegReg Whitcombe Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 295 195 !+15
1939
England Burton, DickDick Burton St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 290 211 !−2
1940
&
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None[o] &
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&
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1941
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None &
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1942
&
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1943
&
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None &
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&
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&
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1944
&
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None &
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&
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&
—
&
—
1945
&
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None &
—
&
—
&
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&
—
1946
United States Snead, SamSam Snead St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 290 207 !+2
1947
Northern Ireland Daly, FredFred Daly Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 293 204 !+5
1948
England Cotton, HenryHenry Cotton Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 284 209 !E
1949
South Africa Locke, BobbyBobby Locke [p] Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 283 5 !–5
1950
South Africa Locke, BobbyBobby Locke Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 279 9 !−9
1951
England Faulkner, MaxMax Faulkner Royal Portrush Northern Ireland, County Antrim !County Antrim, Northern Ireland 285 3 !−3
1952
South Africa Locke, BobbyBobby Locke Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 287 210 !–1
1953
United States Hogan, BenBen Hogan Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 282 6 !−6
1954
Australia Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 283 3 !−3
1955
Australia Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 281 7 !−7
1956
Australia Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 286 211 !−2
1957
South Africa Locke, BobbyBobby Locke St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 279 9 !−9
1958
Australia Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson [q] Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 274 m10 !−10
1959
South Africa Player, GaryGary Player Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 284 209 !E
1960
Australia Nagle, KelKel Nagle St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 278 m10 !−10
1961
United States Palmer, ArnoldArnold Palmer Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 284 4 !−4
1962
United States Palmer, ArnoldArnold Palmer Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 276 m12 !−12
1963
New Zealand Charles, BobBob Charles [r] Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 277 7 !−7
1964
United States Lema, TonyTony Lema St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 279 9 !−9
1965
Australia Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 285 7 !−7
1966
United States Nicklaus, JackJack Nicklaus Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 282 211 !−2
1967
Argentina De Vicenzo, RobertoRoberto De Vicenzo Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 278 m10 !−10
1968
South Africa Player, GaryGary Player Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 289 208 !+1
1969
England Jacklin, TonyTony Jacklin Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 280 4 !−4
1970
United States Nicklaus, JackJack Nicklaus [s] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 283 5 !−5
1971
United States Trevino, LeeLee Trevino Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 278 m14 !−14
1972
United States Trevino, LeeLee Trevino Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 278 6 !−6
1973
United States Weiskopf, TomTom Weiskopf Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 276 m12 !−12
1974
South Africa Player, GaryGary Player Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 282 211 !−2
1975
United States Watson, TomTom Watson [t] Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 279 5 !−9
1976
United States Miller, JohnnyJohnny Miller Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 279 9 !−9
1977
United States Watson, TomTom Watson Turnberry Scotland, South Ayrshire !South Ayrshire, Scotland 268 5 !−12
1978
United States Nicklaus, JackJack Nicklaus St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 281 7 !−7
1979
Spain Ballesteros, SeveSeve Ballesteros Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 283 210 !−1
1980
United States Watson, TomTom Watson Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 271 m13 !−13
1981
United States Rogers, BillBill Rogers Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 276 4 !−4
1982
United States Watson, TomTom Watson Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 284 4 !−4
1983
United States Watson, TomTom Watson Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 275 9 !−9
1984
Spain Ballesteros, SeveSeve Ballesteros St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 276 m12 !−12
1985
Scotland Lyle, SandySandy Lyle Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 282 207 !+2
1986
Australia Norman, GregGreg Norman Turnberry Scotland, South Ayrshire !South Ayrshire, Scotland 280 209 !E
1987
England Faldo, NickNick Faldo Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 279 5 !−5
1988
Spain Ballesteros, SeveSeve Ballesteros Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 273 m11 !−11
1989
United States Calcavecchia, MarkMark Calcavecchia [u] Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 275 m13 !−13
1990
England Faldo, NickNick Faldo St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 270 m18 !−18
1991
Australia Baker-Finch, IanIan Baker-Finch Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 272 8 !−8
1992
England Faldo, NickNick Faldo Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 272 m12 !−12
1993
Australia Norman, GregGreg Norman Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 267 m13 !−13
1994
Zimbabwe Price, NickNick Price Turnberry Scotland, South Ayrshire !South Ayrshire, Scotland 268 m18 !−12
1995
United States Daly, JohnJohn Daly [v] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 282 6 !−6
1996
United States Lehman, TomTom Lehman Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 271 m13 !−13
1997
United States Leonard, JustinJustin Leonard Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 272 m12 !−12
1998
United States O'Meara, MarkMark O'Meara [w] Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 280 209 !E
1999
Scotland Lawrie, PaulPaul Lawrie [x] Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 290 203 !+6
2000
United States Woods, TigerTiger Woods St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 269 m19 !−19
2001
United States Duval, DavidDavid Duval Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 274 m10 !−10
2002
South Africa Els, ErnieErnie Els [y] Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 278 6 !−6
2003
United States Curtis, BenBen Curtis Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 283 210 !−1
2004
United States Hamilton, ToddTodd Hamilton [z] Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 274 m10 !−10
2005
United States Woods, TigerTiger Woods St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 274 m14 !−14
2006
United States Woods, TigerTiger Woods Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 270 m18 !−18
2007
Ireland Harrington, PádraigPádraig Harrington [aa] Carnoustie Scotland, Carnoustie !Carnoustie, Scotland 277 7 !−7
2008
Ireland Harrington, PádraigPádraig Harrington Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 283 206 !+3
2009
United States Cink, StewartStewart Cink [bb] Turnberry Scotland, South Ayrshire !South Ayrshire, Scotland 278 211 !−2
2010
South Africa Oosthuizen, LouisLouis Oosthuizen St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 272 m16 !−16
2011
Northern Ireland Clarke, DarrenDarren Clarke Royal St George's England, Sandwich !Sandwich, England 275 5 !−5
2012
South Africa Els, ErnieErnie Els Royal Lytham & St Annes England, Lytham St Annes !Lytham St Annes, England 273 7 !−7
2013
United States Mickelson, PhilPhil Mickelson Muirfield Scotland, Gullane !Gullane, Scotland 281 3 !−3
2014
Northern Ireland McIlroy, RoryRory McIlroy Royal Liverpool England, Hoylake !Hoylake, England 271 m17 !−17
2015
United States Johnson, ZachZach Johnson [cc] St Andrews Scotland, St Andrews !St Andrews, Scotland 273 m15 !−15
2016
Sweden Stenson, HenrikHenrik Stenson Royal Troon Scotland, Troon !Troon, Scotland 264 m20 !−20
2017
United States Spieth, JordanJordan Spieth Royal Birkdale England, Southport !Southport, England 268 m12 !−12
Multiple champions[edit]
Multiple Open championship champions
Golfer
Total
Years
Vardon, HarryHarry Vardon (JEY)
6 1896, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1911, 1914
Braid, JamesJames Braid (SCO)
5 1901, 1905, 1906, 1908, 1910
Taylor, John HenryJohn Henry Taylor (ENG)
5 1894, 1895, 1900, 1909, 1913
Thomson, PeterPeter Thomson (AUS)
5 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1965
Watson, TomTom Watson (USA)
5 1975, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983
Morris Sr., TomTom Morris Sr. (SCO)
4 1861, 1862, 1864, 1867
Morris Jr., TomTom Morris Jr. (SCO)
4 1868, 1869, 1870, 1872
Park, Willie Sr.Willie Park Sr. (SCO)
4 1860, 1863, 1866, 1875
Hagen, WalterWalter Hagen (USA)
4 1922, 1924, 1928, 1929
Locke, BobbyBobby Locke (RSA)
4 1949, 1950, 1952, 1957
Anderson, JamieJamie Anderson (SCO)
3 1877, 1878, 1879
Ferguson, BobBob Ferguson (SCO)
3 1880, 1881, 1882
Jones, BobbyBobby Jones (a) (USA)
3 1926, 1927, 1930
Cotton, HenryHenry Cotton (ENG)
3 1934, 1937, 1948
Player, GaryGary Player (RSA)
3 1959, 1968, 1974
Nicklaus, JackJack Nicklaus (USA)
3 1966, 1970, 1978
Ballesteros, SeveSeve Ballesteros (ESP)
3 1979, 1984, 1988
Faldo, NickNick Faldo (ENG)
3 1987, 1990, 1992
Woods, TigerTiger Woods (USA)
3 2000, 2005, 2006
Martin, BobBob Martin (SCO)
2 1876, 1885
Park, Willie Jr.Willie Park Jr. (SCO)
2 1887, 1889
Hilton, HaroldHarold Hilton (a) (ENG)
2 1892, 1897
Palmer, ArnoldArnold Palmer (USA)
2 1961, 1962
Trevino, LeeLee Trevino (USA)
2 1971, 1972
Norman, GregGreg Norman (AUS)
2 1986, 1993
Harrington, PádraigPádraig Harrington (IRL)
2 2007, 2008
Els, ErnieErnie Els (RSA)
2 2002, 2012
By nationality[edit]
Open Championship champions by nationality
Nationality
Wins
Winners
United States
44 29
Scotland
41 22
England
22 13
South Africa
10 4
Australia
9 4
Jersey
7 2
Northern Ireland
3 3
Spain
3 1
Ireland
2 1
Argentina
1 1
France
1 1
New Zealand
1 1
Sweden
1 1
Zimbabwe
1 1
Notes[edit]
a 72 holes refers to four rounds of golf played on the same 18 holes of golf, with the pin positions varying from one round to another.
b Par is a predetermined number of strokes that a golfer should require to complete a hole, a round (the sum of the total pars of the played holes), or a tournament (the sum of the total pars of each round). E stands for even, which means the tournament was completed in the predetermined number of strokes.[4]
c The 1871 Open Championship was not held.[3]
d Bob Martin won in a playoff against Davie Strath who refused to compete.
e Willie Fernie won in a playoff against Bob Ferguson.
f Willie Park Jr. won in a playoff against Andrew Kirkaldy.
g John Ball won The Open Championship as an amateur.
h Harold Hilton won The Open Championship as an amateur.
i Harry Vardon won in a playoff against John Henry Taylor.
j Harry Vardon won in a playoff against Arnaud Massy.
k The Open Championship was not held from 1915 to 1918 because of the First World War.
l Jock Hutchison won in a playoff against Roger Wethered.
m Bobby Jones won The Open Championship as an amateur.
n Denny Shute won in a playoff against Craig Wood.
o The Open Championship was not held from 1940 to 1945 because of the Second World War.
p Bobby Locke won in a playoff against Harry Bradshaw.
q Peter Thomson won in a playoff against Dave Thomas.
r Bob Charles won in a playoff against Phil Rodgers.
s Jack Nicklaus won in a playoff against Doug Sanders.
t Tom Watson won in a playoff against Jack Newton.
u Mark Calcavecchia won in a playoff against Wayne Grady and Greg Norman.
v John Daly won in a playoff against Costantino Rocca.
w Mark O'Meara won in a playoff against Brian Watts.
x Paul Lawrie won in a playoff against Jean van de Velde and Justin Leonard.
y Ernie Els won in a playoff against Thomas Levet, Steve Elkington and Stuart Appleby.
z Todd Hamilton won in a playoff against Ernie Els.
aa Pádraig Harrington won in a playoff against Sergio García.
bb Stewart Cink won in a playoff against Tom Watson.
cc Zach Jonson won in a playoff against Marc Leishman and Louis Oosthuizen.
References[edit]
General
"2011 Open Championship Media Guide". The Open Championship. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-06. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
"Open Champions". The Open Championship. Archived from the original on 2010-03-02. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
"Previous Opens". The Open Championship. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
Specific
Jump up ^ "Prestwick - 1860". Open Golf. Retrieved 2008-09-12. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Stuart Newport (1997). Guinness Book Of Knowledge. Guinness Publishing. p. 272. ISBN 0-85112-046-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Claret Jug". Open Golf. Archived from the original on 2009-07-18. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
Jump up ^ "Scoring". BBC Sport. 2005-09-13. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
External links[edit]
The Open Championship official site
R&A website
[show]
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Major champions
Masters Tournament
U.S. Open
The Open Championship
PGA Championship
Grand Slam (golf)
[show]
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The Open Championship
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
[show]
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The Open Championship champions
1860 Willie Park Sr.
1861 Tom Morris Sr.
1862 Tom Morris Sr.
1863 Willie Park Sr.
1864 Tom Morris Sr.
1865 Andrew Strath
1866 Willie Park Sr.
1867 Tom Morris Sr.
1868 Tom Morris Jr.
1869 Tom Morris Jr.
1870 Tom Morris Jr.
1871 No championship
1872 Tom Morris Jr.
1873 Tom Kidd
1874 Mungo Park
1875 Willie Park Sr.
1876 Bob Martin†
1877 Jamie Anderson
1878 Jamie Anderson
1879 Jamie Anderson
1880 Bob Ferguson
1881 Bob Ferguson
1882 Bob Ferguson
1883 Willie Fernie†
1884 Jack Simpson
1885 Bob Martin
1886 David Brown
1887 Willie Park Jr.
1888 Jack Burns
1889 Willie Park Jr.†
1890 John Ball#
1891 Hugh Kirkaldy
1892 Harold Hilton#
1893 William Auchterlonie
1894 John Henry Taylor
1895 John Henry Taylor
1896 Harry Vardon†
1897 Harold Hilton#
1898 Harry Vardon
1899 Harry Vardon
1900 John Henry Taylor
1901 James Braid
1902 Sandy Herd
1903 Harry Vardon
1904 Jack White
1905 James Braid
1906 James Braid
1907 Arnaud Massy
1908 James Braid
1909 John Henry Taylor
1910 James Braid
1911 Harry Vardon†
1912‡ Edward Ray
1913 John Henry Taylor
1914 Harry Vardon
1915–19 No Championships due to World War I
1920 George Duncan
1921 Jock Hutchison†
1922 Walter Hagen
1923 Arthur Havers
1924 Walter Hagen
1925 Jim Barnes
1926 Bobby Jones#
1927‡ Bobby Jones#
1928 Walter Hagen
1929 Walter Hagen
1930 Bobby Jones#
1931 Tommy Armour
1932‡ Gene Sarazen
1933 Denny Shute†
1934‡ Henry Cotton
1935 Alf Perry
1936 Alf Padgham
1937 Henry Cotton
1938 Reg Whitcombe
1939 Dick Burton
1940–45 No Championships due to World War II
1946 Sam Snead
1947 Fred Daly
1948 Henry Cotton
1949 Bobby Locke†
1950 Bobby Locke
1951 Max Faulkner
1952 Bobby Locke
1953 Ben Hogan
1954 Peter Thomson
1955 Peter Thomson
1956 Peter Thomson
1957 Bobby Locke
1958 Peter Thomson†
1959 Gary Player
1960 Kel Nagle
1961 Arnold Palmer
1962 Arnold Palmer
1963 Bob Charles†
1964 Tony Lema
1965 Peter Thomson
1966 Jack Nicklaus
1967 Roberto De Vicenzo
1968 Gary Player
1969 Tony Jacklin
1970 Jack Nicklaus†
1971 Lee Trevino
1972 Lee Trevino
1973‡ Tom Weiskopf
1974 Gary Player
1975 Tom Watson†
1976 Johnny Miller
1977 Tom Watson
1978 Jack Nicklaus
1979 Seve Ballesteros
1980 Tom Watson
1981 Bill Rogers
1982 Tom Watson
1983 Tom Watson
1984 Seve Ballesteros
1985 Sandy Lyle
1986 Greg Norman
1987 Nick Faldo
1988 Seve Ballesteros
1989 Mark Calcavecchia†
1990 Nick Faldo
1991 Ian Baker-Finch
1992 Nick Faldo
1993 Greg Norman
1994 Nick Price
1995 John Daly†
1996 Tom Lehman
1997 Justin Leonard
1998 Mark O'Meara†
1999 Paul Lawrie†
2000 Tiger Woods
2001 David Duval
2002 Ernie Els†
2003 Ben Curtis
2004 Todd Hamilton†
2005‡ Tiger Woods
2006 Tiger Woods
2007 Pádraig Harrington†
2008 Pádraig Harrington
2009 Stewart Cink†
2010 Louis Oosthuizen
2011 Darren Clarke
2012 Ernie Els
2013 Phil Mickelson
2014‡ Rory McIlroy
2015 Zach Johnson†
2016 Henrik Stenson
2017 Jordan Spieth
† indicates the event was won in a playoff; ‡ indicates the event was won wire-to-wire in 72-holes; # indicates the event was won by an amateur
[show]
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The Open Championship rota courses
Current rota courses
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Turnberry
Royal Troon
Royal St George's (Sandwich)
Royal Birkdale
Royal Lytham & St Annes
Royal Liverpool (Hoylake)
Royal Portrush
Former rota courses
Prestwick
Musselburgh
Royal Cinque Ports
Prince's
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