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Mongol invasions and conquests
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Mongol invasions and conquests to success

Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–94
Date
1206–1405
Location
Eurasia
Result
Mongols conquer most of Eurasia
Establishment of the Mongol Empire
Destruction of Alania, Assassins, Cumania, Dali, Jin dynasty, Qara Khitai, Khwarazmian Empire, Kievan Rus', Kimek Khanate, Song dynasty, Dzudzurketia (Chechnya), Tatar confederation, Volga Bulgaria and Western Xia
Vassalization of Antioch, Armenian Cilicia, County of Tripoli, Kings of Dali, Kingdom of Georgia, Goryeo, Novgorod, Pskov, Qocho, Rum, Second Bulgarian Empire, Sukhothai Kingdom, Trebizond and Serbia
Devastation of Eastern Europe, Poland, Hungary, and Thrace
Failure to conquer the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Mamluk Sultanate, Hungary, and Japan
Emergence of the Pax Mongolica
show
v
t
e
Mongol invasions and
conquests
Asia
Burma
First
Ngasaunggyan
Pagan
Second
Central Asia
Qara Khitai
Khwarezm
China
Western Xia
Jin
Song
Dali
Ziqi
Japan
Bun'ei
Kōan
Vietnam
Bạch Đằng
Other
invasions
India
Java
Korea
Tibet
Europe
Rus'
Volga Bulgaria (Samara Bend, Bilär)
Dzurdzuketia (Chechnya)
Poland (first)
Hungary (first)
Bulgaria and Serbia
Latin Empire
Poland (second)
Thrace
Hungary (second)
Poland (third)
Serbia (second)
Near East
Khwarezmia
Armenia
Georgia
Anatolia (Köse Dağ)
Baghdad
Levant
Palestine (Ain Jalut)
Mongol invasions and conquests took place throughout the 13th century, resulting in the vast Mongol Empire, which by 1300 covered much of Asia and Eastern Europe. Historians[which?] regard the destruction under the Mongol Empire as results of some of the deadliest conflicts in human history. In addition, Mongol expeditions may have brought the bubonic plague along with them, spreading it across much of Asia and Europe and helping cause massive loss of life in the Black Death of the 14th century.[1][need quotation to verify][2][3][need quotation to verify][4]
The Mongol Empire developed in the course of the 13th century through a series of conquests and invasions throughout Asia, reaching Eastern Europe by the 1240s. In contrast with later empires such as the British, which can be defined as "empires of the sea", the Mongol empire was an empire of the land, a tellurocracy,[5] fuelled by the grass supporting Mongol cavalry and cattle.[6] Thus most Mongol conquering and plundering took place during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grass for the herds.[6]
Tartar and Mongol raids against Russian states continued well beyond the start of the Mongol Empire's fragmentation around 1260. Elsewhere, the Mongols' territorial gains in China continued into the 14th century under the Yuan dynasty, while those in Persia persisted into the 15th century under the Timurid Empire. In India, a Mongol state survived into the 19th century in the form of the Mughal Empire.
Contents
1 Central Asia
2 West Asia
3 East Asia
4 Europe
5 South Asia
6 Southeast Asia
7 Timeline
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Primary sources
11 External links
Central Asia[edit]
Main article: Mongol invasion of Central Asia
Battle of Vâliyân against the Khwarazmian dynasty.
Genghis Khan forged the initial Mongol Empire in Central Asia, starting with the unification of the Mongol and Turkic confederations such as Merkits, Tartars, and Mongols. The Uighur Buddhist Qocho Kingdom surrendered and joined the empire. He then continued expansion of the empire via conquest of the Qara Khitai[7] and the Khwarazmian dynasty.
Large areas of Islamic Central Asia and northeastern Iran were seriously depopulated,[8] as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was subject to destruction. Each soldier was required to execute a certain number of persons, with the number varying according to circumstances. For example, after the conquest of Urgench, each Mongol warrior – in an army group that might have consisted of two tumens (units of 10,000) – was required to execute 24 people.[9][better source needed]
Against the Alans and the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols used divide and conquer tactics by first telling the Cumans to stop allying with the Alans and after the Cumans followed their suggestion the Mongols then attacked the Cumans[10] after defeating the Alans.[11] Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers. Mongols and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).[12]
During the Mongol attack on the Mamluks in the Middle East, most of the Mamluk military was composed of Kipchaks, and the Golden Horde's supply of Kipchaks replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.[13]
Hungary became a refuge after the Mongol invasions for fleeing Cumans.[14]
The de-centralized stateless Kipchaks only converted to Islam after the Mongol conquest, unlike the centralized Karakhanid entity made out of the Yaghma, Qarluqs, and Oghuz who converted to world religions.[15]
The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with the Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak speaking population which came to be known as Tatar and which eventually absorbed other ethnicities on the Crimean peninsula like Armenians, Italians, Greeks, and Goths to form the modern day Crimean Tatar people.[16]
West Asia[edit]
Siege of Baghdad in 1258.
Main articles: Mongol invasions of the Levant, Anatolia, Persia, and Siege of Baghdad (1258)
The Mongols conquered, either by force or voluntary submission, the areas today known as Iran, Iraq, Caucasus and parts of Syria and Turkey, with further Mongol raids reaching southwards into the Palestine region as far as Gaza in 1260 and 1300. The major battles were the Siege of Baghdad (1258), when the Mongols sacked the city, which for 500 years had been the center of Islamic power, and the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, when the Muslim Kipchak Mamluks were able to defeat the Mongols in the battle at Ain Jalut in the southern part of the Galilee--the first time the Mongol advances had been decisively stopped. One thousand northern Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol Khan Hulagu during his conquest of the Middle East.[17][18]
East Asia[edit]
Main articles: Mongol invasions of Korea, China, Japan, and Mongol conquest of Tibet
Battle of Yehuling against the Jin dynasty.
Mongol Empire's conquest of Chinese regimes including Western Liao, Jurchen Jin, Song, Western Xia and Dali kingdoms.
Genghis Khan and his descendants launched numerous invasions of China, subjugating the Western Xia in 1209 before destroying them in 1227, defeating the Jin dynasty in 1234 and defeating the Song dynasty in 1279. They made the Kingdom of Dali into a vassal state in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan, forced Korea to capitulate through invasions, but failed in their attempts to invade Japan.
Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.
The Mongols' greatest triumph was when Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[19]
The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.[20]
The Yuan dynasty established the top-level government agency Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs to govern Tibet, which was conquered by the Mongols and put under Yuan rule. The Mongols also invaded Sakhalin Island between 1264 and 1308. Likewise, Korea (Goryeo) became a semi-autonomous vassal state and compulsory ally of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years. The Yuan dynasty was eventually overthrown during the Red Turban Rebellion in 1368 by the Han Chinese who gained independence and established the Ming dynasty.
Europe[edit]
Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe
The Battle of Legnica took place during the first Mongol invasion of Poland.
The Mongol invasion in the 13th century led to construction of mighty stone castles, such as Spiš Castle in Slovakia.
The Mongols invaded and destroyed Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus', before invading Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, and others. Over the course of three years (1237–1240), the Mongols destroyed and annihilated all of the major cities of Russia with the exceptions of Novgorod and Pskov.[21]
Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:
They [the Mongols] attacked Rus, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Rus; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.[22]
The Mongol invasions induced population displacement on a scale never seen before in central Asia as well as eastern Europe. Word that the Mongol hordes were approaching would spread terror and panic.[23]
South Asia[edit]
Main article: Mongol invasions of India
From 1221 to 1327, the Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent. The Mongols occupied parts of modern Pakistan and other parts of Punjab for decades. However, they failed to penetrate past the outskirts of Delhi and were repelled from the interior of India. Centuries later, the Mughal Empire, with Mongol roots from Central Asia, conquered the northern part of the sub-continent.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Main articles: First, Second Mongol invasion of Burma, Mongol invasions of Vietnam, and Java
The Battle of Bạch Đằng against Vietnam.
Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty invaded Burma between 1277 and 1287, resulting in the capitulation and disintegration of the Pagan Kingdom. However, the invasion in 1301 was repulsed by the Burmese Myinsaing Kingdom. The Mongol invasions of Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) and Java resulted in defeat for the Mongols, although much of Southeast Asia agreed to pay tribute in order to avoid further bloodshed.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30]
Timeline[edit]
Main article: Timeline of the Mongol Empire
1205, 1207–1208, 1209–1210, 1225–1227 invasion of Western Xia
1207 conquest of Siberia
1211–1234 conquest of Jin dynasty
1216–1220 conquest of Central Asia and Eastern Persia
1216–1218 conquest of the Qara Khitai
1219-1220 conquest of Khwarazm
1220-1223, 1235–1330 invasions of Georgia and the Caucasus
1220–1224 invasion of the Cumans
1222–1327 Mongol invasions of India
1223–1236 invasion of Volga Bulgaria
1231–1259 invasion of Korea
1235-1279 conquest of Song dynasty
1222, 1236–1242 Mongol invasion of Europe
1236–1242 invasion of Rus
1237-1238 invasion of eastern and northern Rus'
1239-1240 invasion of southern and western Rus'
1238-1239 invasion of North Caucasus
1238-1240 invasion of Cumania and Alania
1241 invasion of Poland and Bohemia;
1241 Battle of Legnica
1241 invasion of Hungary
1241 Battle of Mohi
1241 invasion of Austria and Northeast Italy
1241–1242 invasion of Croatia
1242 invasion of Serbia and Bulgaria
1240-1241 invasion of Tibet
1241–1244 invasion of Anatolia
1244-1265 invasion of Dali Kingdom
1251–1259 invasion of Persia, Syria and Mesopotamia
1253-1256 invasion of Yunnan
1257, 1284, 1287 invasions of Vietnam
1258 invasion of Baghdad
1258–1260 invasion of Halych-Volhynia, Lithuania and Poland
Sack of Sandomierz
1260 Battle of Ain Jalut
1260 Mongol raid against Syria
1264–1265 raid against Bulgaria and Thrace
1264–1308 invasion of Sakhalin Island
1271 raid against Syria
1274, 1281 invasions of Japan
1274 raid against Bulgaria
1275, 1277 raids against Lithuania
1277 battle of Abulustayn
1277 invasion of Myanmar
1281 invasion of Syria
1284–1285 invasion of Hungary
1285 raid against Bulgaria
1283 invasion of Khmer Empire
1287 invasion of Myanmar
1287–1288 invasion of Poland
1293 invasion of Java
1299 invasion of Syria
1300 Mongol invasion of Myanmar
1300 Mongol invasion of Syria
1303 Invasion of Syria
1307 Mongol invasion of Gilan
1312 Mongol invasion of Syria
1324, 1337 Tatar raids against Thrace
1337, 1340 Ruthenian-Tatar raids against Poland
See also[edit]
Mongol Empire
Timeline of the Mongol Empire
Battle of Ain Jalut
Battle of the Kalka River
Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire
Division of the Mongol Empire
List of Tatar and Mongol raids against Russian states
Mongol and Tatar states in Europe
Mongol invasion of Europe
Mongol military tactics and organization
Tatar invasions
Total war and the Mongol Empire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert Tignor et al. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart A History of the World: From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present (2nd ed. 2008) ch 11 pp 472-75 and map p 476-77
Jump up ^ Compare: Barras, Vincent; Greub, Gilbert (June 2014). "History of biological warfare and bioterrorism" (PDF). Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 20 (6): 498. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12706. Retrieved 2017-01-12. In the Middle Ages, a famous although controversial example is offered by the siege of Caffa (now Feodossia in Ukraine/Crimea), a Genovese outpost on the Black Sea coast, by the Mongols. In 1346, the attacking army experienced an epidemic of bubonic plague. The Italian chronicler Gabriele de’ Mussi, in his Istoria de Morbo sive Mortalitate quae fuit Anno Domini 1348, describes quite plausibly how the plague was transmitted by the Mongols by throwing diseased cadavers with catapults into the besieged city, and how ships transporting Genovese soldiers, fleas and rats fleeing from there brought it to the Mediterranean ports. Given the highly complex epidemiology of plague, this interpretation of the Black Death (which might have killed > 25 million people in the following years throughout Europe) as stemming from a specific and localized origin of the Black Death remains controversial. Similarly, it remains doubtful whether the effect of throwing infected cadavers could have been the sole cause of the outburst of an epidemic in the besieged city.
Jump up ^ Andrew G. Robertson, and Laura J. Robertson. "From asps to allegations: biological warfare in history," Military medicine (1995) 160#8 pp: 369-373.
Jump up ^ Rakibul Hasan, "Biological Weapons: covert threats to Global Health Security." Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies (2014) 2#9 p 38. online Archived 2014-12-17 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dugin, Alexander (2012). "1: Toward a Geopolitics of Russia's Future". Last War of the World-Island: The Geopolitics of Contemporary Russia. Translated by Bryant, John. London: Arktos (published 2015). p. 4. ISBN 9781910524374. Historically, Russians did not immediately realize the significance of their location and only accepted the baton of tellurocracy after the Mongolian conquests of Ghengis Khan, whose empire was a model of tellurocracy.
^ Jump up to: a b |Invaders|The New Yorker "Of necessity, the Mongols did most of their conquering and plundering during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grass for their herds. [...] Fuelled by grass, the Mongol empire could be described as solar-powered; it was an empire of the land. Later empires, such as the British, moved by ship and were wind-powered, empires of the sea. The American empire, if it is an empire, runs on oil and is an empire of the air.
Jump up ^ Sinor, Denis. 1995. “Western Information on the Kitans and Some Related Questions”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115 (2). American Oriental Society: 262–69. doi:10.2307/604669.
Jump up ^ World Timelines - Western Asia - AD 1250-1500 Later Islamic Archived 2010-12-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Central Asian world cities", University of Washington.
Jump up ^ SINOR, DENIS. 1999. “THE MONGOLS IN THE WEST”. Journal of Asian History 33 (1). Harrassowitz Verlag: 1–44. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41933117.
Jump up ^ Halperin, Charles J.. 2000. “The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut”. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 63 (2). Cambridge University Press: 235. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559539.
Jump up ^ Morris Rossabi (1983). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. University of California Press. pp. 255–. ISBN 978-0-520-04562-0.
Jump up ^ Halperin, Charles J.. 2000. “The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut”. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 63 (2). Cambridge University Press: 229–45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559539.
Jump up ^ Howorth, H. H.. 1870. “On the Westerly Drifting of Nomades, from the Fifth to the Nineteenth Century. Part III. The Comans and Petchenegs”. The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London (1869-1870) 2 (1). [Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Wiley]: 83–95. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3014440.
Jump up ^ Golden, Peter B.. 1998. “Religion Among the Q1pčaqs of Medieval Eurasia”. Central Asiatic Journal 42 (2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 180–237. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928154.
Jump up ^ Williams, Brian Glyn. 2001. “The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars. An Historical Reinterpretation”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (3). Cambridge University Press: 329–48. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188176.
Jump up ^ Josef W. Meri (2005). Josef W. Meri, ed. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 510. ISBN 0-415-96690-6. Retrieved 2011-11-28. This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance.
Jump up ^ Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, ed. Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index. Volume 2 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 510. ISBN 0-415-96692-2. Retrieved 2011-11-28. This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance.
Jump up ^ Hucker 1985, p.66.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jr. 1998, p. 54.
Jump up ^ "BBC Russia Timeline". BBC News.
Jump up ^ The Destruction of Kiev Archived 2011-04-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Diana Lary (2012). Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas over Four Millennia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 49.
Jump up ^ Taylor 2013, p. 120.
Jump up ^ Taylor 2013, p. 103.
Jump up ^ ed. Hall 2008, p. 159.
Jump up ^ Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K.; Dutton, George (21 August 2012). "Sources of Vietnamese Tradition". Columbia University Press – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Gunn 2011, p. 112.
Jump up ^ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Lewis, Robin Jeanne (1 January 1988). "Encyclopedia of Asian history". Scribner – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Woodside 1971, p. 8.
Further reading[edit]
Boyle, J.A. The Mongol World Enterprise, 1206-1370 (London 1977)
Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History (London: Reaktion Books, 2011) online review; excerpt and text search
Morgan, David. The Mongols (2nd ed. 2007)
Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2012)
Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests (2001) excerpt and text search
Smith Jr., John Masson (Jan–Mar 1998). "Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 118 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2307/606298. JSTOR 606298.
Turnbull, Stephen. Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190-1400 (2003) excerpt and text search
Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog. The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335). — BRILL. — 2010
Primary sources[edit]
Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols and Global History: A Norton Documents Reader (2011),
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongol conquests.
Worldwide death toll
The Destruction of Kiev
Battuta's Travels: Part Three - Persia and Iraq
Central Asian world cities?
The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols
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Soil salinity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Visibly salt-affected soils on rangeland in Colorado. Salts dissolved from the soil accumulate at the soil surface and are deposited on the ground and at the base of the fence post.
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization.[1] Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come about through artificial processes such as irrigation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Natural occurrence
2 Dry land salinity
3 Salinity due to irrigation
4 Consequences of salinity
5 Salt tolerance of crops
6 Regions affected
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Natural occurrence[edit]
Salts are a natural component in soils and water. The ions responsible for salination are: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl−.
As the Na+ (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic. Sodic soils present particular challenges because they tend to have very poor structure which limits or prevents water infiltration and drainage.
Over long periods of time, as soil minerals weather and release salts, these salts are flushed or leached out of the soil by drainage water in areas with sufficient precipitation. In addition to mineral weathering, salts are also deposited via dust and precipitation. In dry regions salts may accumulate, leading to naturally saline soils. This is the case, for example, in large parts of Australia. Human practices can increase the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water. Proper irrigation management can prevent salt accumulation by providing adequate drainage water to leach added salts from the soil. Disrupting drainage patterns that provide leaching can also result in salt accumulations. An example of this occurred in Egypt in 1970 when the Aswan High Dam was built. The change in the level of ground water before the construction had enabled soil erosion, which led to high concentration of salts in the water table. After the construction, the continuous high level of the water table led to the salination of the arable land.
Dry land salinity[edit]
Salinity in drylands can occur when the water table is between two and three metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops.
Salinity due to irrigation[edit]
Rain or irrigation, in the absence of leaching, can bring salts to the surface by capillary action
Main article: Environmental impacts of irrigation
Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts.[2] When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. Since soil salinity makes it more difficult for plants to absorb soil moisture, these salts must be leached out of the plant root zone by applying additional water. This water in excess of plant needs is called the leaching fraction. Salination from irrigation water is also greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for irrigating agricultural crops.
Salinity in urban areas often results from the combination of irrigation and groundwater processes. Irrigation is also now common in cities (gardens and recreation areas).
Consequences of salinity[edit]
The consequences of salinity are
detrimental effects on plant growth and yield
damage to infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion of pipes and cables)
reduction of water quality for users, sedimentation problems
soil erosion ultimately, when crops are too strongly affected by the amounts of salts.
Salinity is an important land degradation problem. Soil salinity can be reduced by leaching soluble salts out of soil with excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage.[3][4] A comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.[5]
Salt tolerance of crops[edit]
Further information: Maas–Hoffman model and Van Genuchten–Gupta model
High levels of soil salinity can be tolerated if salt-tolerant plants are grown. Sensitive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils, most crops are negatively affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity resistant crops thrive in severely saline soils. The University of Wyoming [6] and the Government of Alberta [7] report data on the salt tolerance of plants.
Field data, under farmers' conditions, in irrigated lands are scarce, especially in developing countries. However, some on farm surveys were made in Egypt,[8] India,[9] and Pakistan.[10] Some examples are shown in the following gallery with crops arranged from sensitive to very tolerant.[11].
Graphs of crop yield and soil salinity in farmers' fields ordered by increasing salt tolerance.
Fig. 1. Berseem (clover), cultivated in Egypt's Nile Delta is a salt sensitive crop and tolerates an ECe value up to 2.4 dS/m whereafter yields start to decline.
Fig. 2. Wheat grown in Sampla, Haryana, India is slightly sensitive tolerating an ECe value of 4.9 dS/m.
Fig. 3. The field measurements in wheat fields in Gohana, Haryana, India, showed a higher tolerance level of ECe = 7.1 dS/m.
(The Egyptian wheat, not shown here, exhibited a tolerance point of 7.8 dS/m).
Fig. 4. The cotton grown in the Nile Delta can be called salt just tolerant with a critical ECe value of 8.0 dS/m. However, due to scarcity of data beyond 8 dS/m, the maximum tolerance level cannot be precisely determined and may actually be higher than that.
Fig. 5. Sorghum from Khairpur, Pakistan is quite tolerant, it grows well up to ECe = 10.5 dS/m
Fig. 6. Cotton from Khairpur, Pakistan is very tolerant, it grows well up to ECe = 15.5 dS/m
Regions affected[edit]
From the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World the following salinised areas can be derived.[12]
Region
Area (106 ha)
Africa 69.5
Near and Middle East 53.1
Asia and Far East 19.5
Latin America 59.4
Australia 84.7
North America 16.0
Europe 20.7
See also[edit]
Water portal
Salt tolerance of crops
Desalination
Environmental impacts of deicing salt
Water softening
U.S. Salinity Laboratory
Salinity in Australia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ from "Soil salinity" in WaterWiki, the on-line Knowledge and Collaboration Tool of the Community of Practice (CoP) on Water- and UNDP-related activities in Central and South-Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia.
Jump up ^ ILRI (1989), Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review (PDF), In: Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 18–34
Jump up ^ Drainage Manual: A Guide to Integrating Plant, Soil, and Water Relationships for Drainage of Irrigated Lands, Interior Dept., Bureau of Reclamation, 1993, ISBN 0-16-061623-9
Jump up ^ "Free articles and software on drainage of waterlogged land and soil salinity control". Retrieved 2010-07-28.
Jump up ^ Salt-Affected Soils and their Management, FAO Soils Bulletin 39 (http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5871e/x5871e00.htm)
Jump up ^ Alan D. Blaylock, 1994, Soil Salinity and Salt tolerance of Horticultural and Landscape Plants. University of Wyoming
Jump up ^ Government of Alberta, Salt tolerance of Plants
Jump up ^ : H.J. Nijland and S. El Guindy, Crop yields, watertable depth and soil salinity in the Nile Delta, Egypt. In: Annual report 1983. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Jump up ^ D. P. Sharma, K. N. Singh and K. V. G. K. Rao (1990), Crop Production and soil salinity: evaluation of field data from India. Paper published in Proceedings of the Symposium on Land Drainage for Salinity Control in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions, February, 25th to March 2nd, 1990, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 3, Session V, p. 373–383. On line: [1]
Jump up ^ R.J. Oosterbaan, Crop yields, soil salinity and water table depth in Pakistan. In: Annual Report 1981, pp. 50–54. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, reprinted in Indus 24 (1983) 2, pp. 29–33. On line [2]
Jump up ^ Collection of salt tolerance data of agricultural crops from measurements in farmers' fields. On line: [3]
Jump up ^ R. Brinkman, 1980. Saline and sodic soils. In: Land reclamation and water management, pp. 62–68. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands.
External links[edit]
Article on water and salt balances in the soil
Download leaching model for saline soils
Salt of the Earth Documentary produced by Prairie Public Television
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values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: ملوحة التربة – Arabic

values: Засоляване на почвите – Bulgarian

values: شوری خاک – Persian

values: Հողերի աղիացում – Armenian

values: मृदा लवणता – Hindi

values: המלחת מי תהום – Hebrew

values: खार जमीन – Marathi

values: மண் உப்புத்தன்மை – Tamil

values: Вторинне засолення – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Soil_salinity rootpage-Soil_salinity vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view