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Shorts
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This article is about the garment. For other uses, see Shorts (disambiguation).
Two people wearing shorts. (Argentina, 2011)
Shorts are a garment worn by both men and women over their pelvic area, circling the waist and splitting to cover the upper part of the legs, sometimes extending down to the knees but not covering the entire length of the leg. They are called "shorts" because they are a shortened version of trousers, which cover the entire leg. Shorts are typically worn in warm weather or in an environment where comfort and air flow are more important than the protection of the legs.
There are a variety of shorts, ranging from knee-length short trousers that can in some situations be worn as formal clothes to beachwear and athletic shorts. Some types of shorts are typically worn by women, such as culottes, which are a divided skirt resembling a pair of loose-cut shorts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminological differences
2 Sociology
2.1 Europe and America
2.2 Worldwide
3 Styles
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Terminological differences[edit]
In British English the term "short trousers" has been used, but only for shorts that are a short version of real[clarification needed] trousers (pants), e.g. tailored shorts, often lined, as typically worn as part of school uniform for boys up to their early teens,[1][2][3] and by servicemen and policemen in tropical climates. The American term "short pants" is probably the nearest equivalent in the US, there they might now be called "dress shorts", a term that has not gained much currency in Britain. A somewhat similar garment worn by men in Australia is called "stubbies". "Shorts" is used unqualified in British English to refer to sports shorts, athletic shorts, or casual shorts: the last is nowadays commonplace in warm weather in the UK.
The term "boxer shorts" was an American coinage for a particular kind of men's underwear, and is now common in Britain. However, boxer shorts are often referred to as "boxers" in the USA. The word "pants" refers to outerwear (trousers) in American usage (except when modified to "underpants") but when used unqualified in British English generally means underwear.
Sociology[edit]
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Europe and America[edit]
Boy Scouts wearing shorts. (Mexico, 2010)
In much of Europe and the Americas during the 19th and early 20th centuries, shorts were worn as outerwear only by young boys until they reached a certain height or maturity. When boys got older, typically around puberty, they would receive their first pair of long trousers. This produced the perception that shorts were only for young boys. Because of this, men would not wear shorts to avoid looking immature. Women tended not to wear shorts in most cultures, due to social mores: they were expected to wear dresses, or skirts and blouses.
In the 1890s, knee pants (an early type of short pants) became the standard wear for American boys. Many urban school portraits from the 1890s show all but the oldest boys wearing knee pants.[4] North American boys normally wore knee pants with short stockings.[5] This began to change after the 1900s when North American boys began wearing knickerbockers, while short pants became more popular in Europe. In the 1930s, shorts started to be worn for casual comfort (e.g. outdoor and athletic activities) by both men and women. However, it was still taboo to wear shorts outside certain activities.
Since about the time of World War II, when many soldiers served in tropical locations, adult men have worn shorts more often, especially in summer weather, but the perception of shorts as being only for young boys took several decades to change, and to some extent still exists in certain circles. By the late 20th century however it became common for men to wear shorts as casual wear in summer.
However, in many countries there are few formal settings where wearing shorts would be acceptable, as they are considered casual wear. Notable exceptions where men may wear short trousers to the office or at a formal gathering are South Africa, Bermuda, Australia and New Zealand. Since the 1990s, casual office dress has grown to include formal shorts in some UK and U.S. businesses, but by no means universally.
Worldwide[edit]
Adults are also commonly seen wearing shorts, however wearing shorts is less common among women in traditional eastern countries than in the West, although this varies widely by region - women more often wear shorts in large, cosmopolitan cities. In some countries adult women can be seen wearing loose-fitting shorts that end at or just below the knee, as these are seen as sufficiently modest.[6]
Styles[edit]
Image
Name
Description
Baggies Loose-fitting shorts which reach the knees. This particular style has been associated with football kit and similar sports since 1904, when the Football Association of England dropped its rule requiring players cover their knees.[7] Loose-fitting longer shorts rapidly replaced the former knickerbockers.[7] Until the 1960s, footballers referred to these garments as "knickers," but after the 1960s, the term "shorts" entered standard usage.[7] During the 1970s and 1980s, much shorter shorts became standard wear for footballers, but following the adoption of longer shorts by Tottenham Hotspur F.C. for a match on 18 May 1991, despite initial mockery, the longer length became more widely worn again.[8] A popular nickname for West Bromwich Albion football club since the early 1900s has been the "Baggies." This is sometimes assumed to be in reference to the players' shorts, although there are multiple alternative explanations.[9][10]
"Baggies" is also an alternative term for boardshorts (see below).[11][12]
Bermuda shorts
Yellow Bermuda shorts
Short trousers, terminating three to four inches above the knee, commonly worn by men in Bermuda (with knee-socks and a blazer and tie) for business attire and even at cocktail parties.[13][14] They are available in a wide range of colors, ranging from conservative grey and navy, to brighter hues such as orange, green and pink.[14] Despite their name, they are not of Bermudian origin, but were originally designed around 1900 for military wear by the British armed forces in tropical climates.[14] From the 1920s onwards these military uniform shorts began to be copied by Bermudian tailors and civilians, and were subsequently taken up by tourists who spread the style around the world.[14] The tourists who appropriated the style wore Bermuda shorts almost exclusively as casual wear.[14]
In the early 1990s Bermuda shorts became accepted in France as a fashionable option for women, although since the 1930s they had been increasingly established as an option for American women's fashionable sportswear.[15][16] In America, despite widespread criticism, Bermuda shorts were taken up by male and female students on college campuses from the 1920s and 1930s onwards, and by the 1950s, were widely worn.[16] In early 21st century America, women's Bermuda shorts are known as "city shorts," and are usually knee-length, resembling a pencil skirt.[14]
Boardshorts Boardshorts are a form of long, loose-fitting shorts specifically designed for beachwear and aquatic sports. They may also be described as "baggies" (see above) or "jams".[11][12] As "surf trunks" they first emerged in Hawaii in the 1950s, distinguished by their construction which included fly fastenings and secure pockets with sealable flaps.[17] These early surf trunks were made from cotton, although quick-drying synthetics such as nylon and neoprene quickly found favour with wearers.[17] They were made knee-length in order to protect the surfer's legs from sticking to the wax on their surfboard.[17]
In 1970 the company Quiksilver offered a highly successful boardshort design that rapidly gained a reputation among surfers as the best to be had.[18] They would later pioneer a line of boardshorts specifically designed for the female wearer.[12] Other leading boardshort manufacturers include Billabong and Rip Curl.[12]
By 2010, the boardshort was widely worn as a fashionable garment beyond the beach, including as clubwear and in schools.[17] In the early 21st century, polyester is increasingly used, often blended with other fibres such as Lycra, elastane, or spandex, creating an ultrasuede effect.[19]
Boxer shorts
Wrestler John Quinlan in boxing shorts (2010)
Elastic-waisted soft fabric shorts usually worn as underwear, but originally designed for wear by boxing participants. In their current form "boxers" were introduced in 1925 by Jacob Golomb (founder of the sports equipment and clothing company Everlast) as an alternative to the leather-belted trunks that boxers typically wore.[20] They subsequently became an alternative to long underwear as well.[21] Men's boxers as undergarments began to be presented in novelty prints and patterns from the late 1950s onwards.[22] During the 1980s and 1990s women began to wear boxer shorts paired with T-shirts as loungewear or sleepwear.[23] Boxer briefs, which emerged in the 1990s, are an underwear-specific variation on boxer shorts, but made from elastic knit fabric for a snug fit.[24]
Boyshorts Boyshorts (or boy shorts) are a form of women's underwear that first emerged in the 1990s, closely resembling abbreviated hotpants (see below).[25] They are cut with wide sides and a low rise, reducing the risk of visible panty line.[26] Boyshorts are increasingly being worn as outerwear in sporting contexts, such as by Serena Williams on the tennis court,[25] or by female athletes and runners as an alternative to "bun-huggers" (see below).[27]
Bun huggers Bun-huggers is a popular name for very brief, tight unisex athletic shorts, also known as "racing briefs." They have been compared to bikini bottoms.[27][28] In 2008 it was noted that the International Volleyball Federation used to require that female volleyball players wear such garments while playing.[28][29] Although it is argued and claimed that bun-huggers enable wearers to move unhindered and enjoy a wide range of movement, wearers and observers have expressed discomfort with their increasing skimpiness.[27][28] A study made by the Women's Sports Foundation commented that making such garments compulsory for women athletes was "venturing into the arena of athlete exploitation".[29] Since the mid-2000s such garments are increasingly being replaced by boyshorts (see above) which offer increased coverage and security to their wearers.[27]
Cargo shorts Cargo shorts are an abbreviated version of cargo pants, typically around knee-length, with multiple pockets that are typically stitched to the outside sides of the legs. In 1980 cargo shorts were marketed as ideal for the sportsman or fisherman, with the pocket flaps ensuring that pocket contents were secure and unlikely to fall out.[30] By the mid-to-late 1990s cargo shorts found popularity among mainstream men's fashion.[31] In 2012, Tim Gunn observed that while the pockets were undeniably useful for carrying things for work or other everyday tools, cargo shorts were more practical than elegant.[32]
Culottes Culottes were introduced in the mid-20th century as an abbreviated version of the late-nineteenth century divided skirt intended for horse- and bicycle-riding. Although called culotte skirts, they are basically full shorts constructed to hide their division.[33] Since the mid-20th century culottes have been increasingly offered as an alternative to skirts in women's uniforms, for instance in the Vietnam War when female Red Cross workers found their uniform skirts impractical around helicopters.[34]
Cut-offs Also called "cutoffs." A generic term for trousers where the legs have been cut off mid-way. The concept has been around since the 1930s when shorts began to be acceptable wear outside the sports field.[16] During the 1960s and 1970s the concept of deliberately cutting off the legs of jeans, allowing the raw edge to fray, along with other means of customising them, took hold as part of Western youth culture.[35] Whilst cut-offs can be home-made from existing jeans, ready-made cut-offs are also commercially retailed.[36] Extremely short denim cut-offs are known as "Daisy Dukes" (see below).[37]
Cycling shorts
Bib shorts
Cycling shorts are skin-tight long shorts specifically designed for wear by cyclists to reduce chafing. While often elastic-waisted, a popular alternative style with integral suspenders, more comfortable in the longer term for serious cyclists, is called bib shorts.[38] They are designed to fit the posture of a cyclist bent over in the racing position, cut longer in the back than in the front to guarantee full coverage.[39] Since the 1980s, such garments are increasingly designed to take into account the difference between male and female bodies, as women's shorts require a longer waist-to-crotch measurement.[39]
Since the 1980s, 'bike shorts' have also been worn as fashion garments, although these versions often lack the internal padding and construction required by cyclists.[40][41]
Daisy Dukes An extremely short version of denim cut-offs, popularly known as Daisy Dukes, in reference to Catherine Bach's character of that name from the American television show The Dukes of Hazzard.[37] They are a form of hot pants or short shorts (see below).
Denim shorts or Jorts Denim shorts are worn by both genders. They can also be called "jorts", a portmanteau of "jeans" and "shorts," although this term is arguably applied to knee-length baggy styles.[42][43]
However, the term can describe many styles of shorts made from denim,[42] such as cut-offs (see above), or Daisy Dukes (see above).[37] The term "jorts," defined simply as denim shorts, was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2013.[44]
Dolphin shorts A specific style of gym shorts (see below), very short, originally made from nylon with contrasting binding, side slits, and rounded corners, popular in the 1980s.[45][46] The name is a corruption of Dolfin, the American company that first produced the original running shorts in the 1980s.[46] One high-profile wearer of 'dolphin shorts' is the fitness guru Richard Simmons, who in 2012, boasted of owning 400 pairs of vintage Dolfins.[47] In 2012, it was reported that orange Dolfin shorts are specified as part of the uniform for waitresses at Hooters.[48]
Gym shorts A generic term for shorts specifically designed for sports wear.
Hotpants or Hot pants The term "hot pants" appeared around 1970 as a description for extremely short shorts, made in luxury fabrics such as velvet and silk, emphasising their role as fashion garments rather than practical wear.[49][50] In 1976, Eleanor Lambert noted that the term "hot pants" had been coined by Women's Wear Daily to describe fashions innovated by the French ready-to-wear company Dorothée Bis.[51] Lambert also credits Mariuccia Mandelli of the Italian fashion label Krizia with designing the first "hot pants" in 1970.[51] Hotpants are also increasingly credited to Mary Quant.[52][53]
Whilst the term "hotpants" is used generically to describe short shorts (see below), similar garments had been worn since the 1930s.[54] Very short men's shorts may also be occasionally called hotpants.[54]
Lederhosen Leather shorts, often worn with matching suspenders connected by a chest band, traditionally associated with Bavaria, Germany; and countries formerly part of the Tyrol region and Austria-Hungary.[55]
Running shorts
Trail running shorts
A form of gym shorts designed specifically for running. They are typically lightweight, very short and split at the side (to enable freedom of leg movement), with an inbuilt briefs lining.[56] Nylon is a popular fabric for running shorts as it is lightweight, quick-drying and hard-wearing.[57] Nylon running shorts first appeared in the 1970s, and despite initial resistance among men to wearing such soft, lightweight garments that felt like lingerie, nylon shorts rapidly became popular.[39] An even shorter version of the running short, typically worn by triathlon participants, is called a tri-short.[39] Dolphin shorts (see above) are a popular variation on running shorts.[45]
Trail running shorts are typically made longer and in harder-wearing fabric that is less likely to catch and tear on protruding branches.[58]
School shorts Shorts designed specifically to be worn as part of a school uniform. These are traditionally made in the same manner as fully tailored trousers, with belt loops, pockets, fly fastenings, and a lining, but cut to shorts length.[59] Originally, wool flannel was used, as in long trousers, but nowadays these short trousers are more usually made from synthetic blend fabrics.[59]
The traditional grey flannel shorts associated with British school uniform had become well-established by the 1920s, when they were knee-length or just above knee-length.[60][61] Up until the 1950s school shorts were also described as 'knickers' in tailoring catalogues and jargon.[62] This term possibly originated as an abbreviation of knickerbockers, which began being worn by schoolboys for sports in the 1880s.[63] As the term 'knickers' had become synonymous with panties in the 20th century, it was rarely used colloquially for shorts. By 2004, a study of British private schools noted that traditional grey school shorts had become denoters of private or public school uniform, as they were no longer required wear by state schools.[64] Similar tailored shorts form part of school uniform in a number of countries, including Australia, Singapore, South Africa and New Zealand,[59] and are also part of the uniform worn by children in organisations such as the Cub Scouts.
Short shorts
Posing in short shorts, 1945
Short shorts, as their name imply, are shorter than average. Such garments had been known since the 1930s when female Hollywood stars wore them for publicity photographs,[54] and in New York City, a by-law (repealed 1942) was passed banning females from wearing them.[65] They were principally worn for sports and active purposes, such as cycling.[66] Shorts that terminated at the upper thigh became increasingly popular as informal leisurewear and sporting attire throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s for both men and women.[67] In the early 1970s short shorts began to be made in fashion fabrics, in which form they became known as hotpants (see above), a term popularised by Women's Wear Daily.[49][51][54] The terms hotpants and short shorts have since become interchangeable.[54]
Skorts
Skorts (a portmanteau of "skirt" and "shorts") are made with a flap of fabric in front that creates the illusion of their being a skirt from the front.[68] They are often worn for sport and active pursuits.[68] When the skort was first introduced in America in the late 1950s it described a pair of shorts with an attached pleated overskirt.[69]
Zip-offs or Convertible Shorts/Pants/Trousers Long pants which zip off at the knee, allowing the wearer to vary the length of their trouser leg at wish. Often recommended for hiking or walking, zip-offs have been around since the 1980s.[70] They are also suited to fishermen, as longer pants can easily be converted to wading-length shorts.[71]
See also[edit]
Capri pants
Sleeveless shirt
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Media related to Shorts at Wikimedia Commons

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text:
Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Mezquita" redirects here. For other uses, see Mezquita (disambiguation).
Cathedral-Mosque of Córdoba
Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba, a World Heritage Site.
Basic information
Location
Historic centre, Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain
Geographic coordinates
37°52′45.1″N 04°46′47″W / 37.879194°N 4.77972°W / 37.879194; -4.77972Coordinates: 37°52′45.1″N 04°46′47″W / 37.879194°N 4.77972°W / 37.879194; -4.77972
Affiliation
Visigothic Catholic Church from ≈600; divided into Muslim and Christian halves from the 710s[1]
Islam (784–1236)
Catholic Church (1236–present)
District
Diocese of Córdoba
State
Spain
Region
Iberian Peninsula
Country
Spain
Ecclesiastical or organizational status
Active
Status
Cathedral
Heritage designation
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Europe[2]
Website
catedraldecordoba.es
Architectural description
Architectural type
Mosque, Church
Architectural style
Moorish, Renaissance
Groundbreaking
784
Completed
987
The Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba[3][4] (Spanish: Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba), also known as the Great Mosque of Córdoba[2][4][5] (Spanish: Mezquita de Córdoba) and the Mezquita,[6][7][8] whose ecclesiastical name is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption (Spanish: Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción),[9] is the Catholic cathedral of the Diocese of Córdoba dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and located in the Spanish region of Andalusia.[10] The structure is regarded as one of the most accomplished monuments of Moorish architecture.
According to a traditional account, a small temple of Christian Visigoth origin, the Catholic Basilica of Saint Vincent of Lérins, originally stood on the site.[11][12][13] In 784 Abd al-Rahman I ordered construction of the Great Mosque, which was considerably expanded by later Muslim rulers. Córdoba returned to Christian rule in 1236 during the Reconquista, and the building was converted to a Roman Catholic church, culminating in the insertion of a Renaissance cathedral nave in the 16th century.[14][15]
Since the early 2000s, Spanish Muslims have lobbied the Roman Catholic Church to allow them to pray in the cathedral.[16][17] This Muslim campaign has been rejected on multiple occasions, both by the church authorities in Spain and by the Vatican.[16][18]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Design
2.1 Features
2.2 Layout
2.3 Chapels
2.4 Doors
3 The Reconquista
4 2000s Muslim campaign
4.1 2010 incident
5 In popular culture
6 Burials
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Origins[edit]
It is commonly believed that the site of the Mosque-Cathedral was originally a Christian church dedicated to Saint Vincent the Third, which was divided and shared by Muslims and Christians after the Islamic conquest of the Visigothic kingdom.[19][14][15] This sharing arrangement of the site lasted until 784, when the Christian half was purchased by the Emir 'Abd al-Rahman I, who then proceeded to demolish the original structure and build the grand mosque of Córdoba on its ground.[14][20] This narrative, which goes back to the tenth-century historian al-Razi, echoed similar narratives of the Islamic conquest of Syria, in particular the story of building the Great Mosque of Damascus.[19][13] For medieval Muslim historians, these parallels served to highlight a dynastic Umayyad conquest of Spain and appropriation of the Visigothic Córdoba.[19][13] The historicity of this narrative has been challenged,[12] as it is neither archeologically attested nor corroborated by accounts of the events following Abd al-Rahman I's initial arrival in al-Andalus.[13] Another tenth-century source mentions a church that stood at the site of the mosque without giving further details.[13] However, it is almost certain that the building which housed the original mosque was destroyed to build the first version of the Great Mosque.[12] An archaeological exhibit in the Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba displays fragments of a Visigothic building, emphasizing an originally Christian nature of the complex.[21][22] According to Susana Calvo Capilla, a specialist on the history of the Mosque–Cathedral, although remains of multiple church-like buildings have been located on the territory of the Mosque-Cathedral complex, no clear archaeological evidence has been found of where either the church of St. Vincent or the first mosque were located on the site, and the latter may have been a newly constructed building. The evidence suggests that it may have been the grounds of the episcopal complex rather than a particular church which were initially divided between Muslims and Christians.[22][23]
According to a traditional account, when the exiled Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I escaped to Iberia and defeated the governor of Al-Andalus, Yusuf al-Fihri, he found the Cordovese divided into various sects, including the Gnostics, Priscillianists, Donatists, and Luciferians. His ambition was to erect a temple which would rival in magnificence those of Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus, and approach in sanctity the fame of Mecca. Above a Christian church dedicated do Saint Vincent, Abd al-Rahman decided to raise his great mosque. He offered to buy the church and the plot. The negotiations for the sale were placed in the hands of the Sultan's favourite secretary, Umeya ibn Yezid. Under the terms of the transfer, the Cordovese were permitted to reconstruct the church formerly dedicated to Ss Faustus, Januarius, and Marcellus, three Christian martyrs whom they deeply revered.[24]
Abd al-Rahman allowed the Christians to rebuild their ruined churches and purchased the Christian half of the church of St Vincent, as agreed upon in the sale terms.[25][26] The Emirate was rich. Apart from the treasure wrested from the Goths during the recent wars, he also extracted a tithe upon the produce of the land and on manufactures. All able Muslims in Andalusia were asked to provide to pay the Zakat. A mandatory tax known as Jizya was also laid upon only one able Christian and Jew per household in Andalusia as a precondition for services & protection provided by the government of Andalusia, unless they participated in the protection services themselves. The Jizya was lesser than the Zakat[citation needed], and both were one of the main sources of income for the Muslim rulers in lands occupied by Islamic tribes but populated still by Christians, to provide all needed services for all people living in the land, especially the poor.[27] Beyond this, the Moorish kings were greatly enriched by the acquisition of the valuable mines of Iberia, the quarries of marble, and other sources of wealth. From these revenues Abd al-Rahman and his successors, Hisham, Abd-al Rahman II, the greatest of the dynasty and the third of the line, and lastly the extravagant Almanzor, lavished large sums upon the designing, construction, and costly adornment of the Mosque.[24] Abd al-Rahman I and his descendants reworked the building over the next two centuries to fashion it as a mosque, starting in 784. Additionally, Abd al-Rahman I used the mosque (originally called Aljama Mosque) as an adjunct to his palace and named it in honour of his wife. Traditionally, the mihrab (or apse) of a mosque faces in the direction of Mecca; by facing the mihrab, worshipers pray towards Mecca. Mecca is east-southeast of the mosque, but the mihrab of this mosque unusually points south.[28]
The work of building the resplendent Mezquita employed thousands of artisans and labourers, and such a vast undertaking led to the development of all the resources of the district. Hard stone and beautifully veined marble were quarried from the Sierra Morena and the surrounding regions of the city. Metals of various kinds were dug up from the soil, and factories sprang up in Córdoba amid the stir and bustle of an awakened industrial energy. A famous Syrian architect made the plans for the Mosque. Leaving his own house on the edge of Córdoba, the Emir came to reside in the city, so that he might personally superintend the operations and offer proposals for the improvement of the designs. Abd al-Rahman moved about among the workers, directing them for several hours of every day.[24]
The mosque underwent numerous subsequent changes: Abd al-Rahman II ordered a new minaret, while in 961 Al-Hakam II enlarged the building and enriched the Mihrab. The last of such reforms was carried out by Almanzor in 987. It was connected to the Caliph's palace by a raised walkway, mosques within the palaces being the tradition for previous Islamic rulers – as well as Christian Kings who built their palaces adjacent to churches. The Mezquita reached its current dimensions in 987 with the completion of the outer naves and courtyard.
Design[edit]
Plan designs.
Further information: Moorish architecture
In planning the mosque, the architects incorporated a number of Roman columns with choice capitals. Some of the columns were already in the Gothic structure; others were sent from various regions of Iberia as presents from the governors of provinces. Ivory, jasper, porphyry, gold, silver, copper, and brass were used in the decorations. Marvellous mosaics and azulejos were designed. Panels of scented woods were fastened with nails of pure gold, and the red marble columns were said to be the work of God. The primitive part of the building, erected under the direction of Abd al-Rahman I., was that which borders the Court of Oranges. Later, the immense temple embodied all the styles of Morisco architecture into one composition.[24]
The Great Mosque of Córdoba held a place of importance amongst the Islamic community of al-Andalus for three centuries. In Córdoba, the capital, the Mosque was seen as the heart and central focus of the city.[29] Muhammad Iqbal described its hypostyle hall as having "countless pillars like rows of palm trees in the oases of Syria".[30] To the people of al-Andalus "the beauty of the mosque was so dazzling that it defied any description."[31]
The main hall of the mosque was used for a variety of purposes. It served as a central Prayer hall for personal devotion, the five daily Muslim prayers and the special Friday prayers. It also would have served as a hall for teaching and for Sharia Law cases during the rule of Abd al-Rahman & his successors.[32]
The Great Mosque of Córdoba exhibited features, and an architectural appearance, similar to the Great Mosque of Damascus,[33] therefore it is evident that it was used as a model by Abd al-Rahman for the creation of the Great Mosque in Córdoba.
The prayer hall
Columns
Mihrab
Features[edit]
The building is most notable for its arcaded hypostyle hall, with 856 columns of jasper, onyx, marble, and granite. These were made from pieces of the Roman temple which had occupied the site previously, as well as other destroyed Roman buildings, such as the Mérida amphitheatre. The double arches were a new introduction to architecture, permitting higher ceilings than would otherwise be possible with relatively low columns. The double arches consist of a lower horseshoe arch and an upper semi-circular arch. The famous alternating red and white voussoirs of the arches were inspired by those in the Dome of the Rock.[31] and also resemble those of the Aachen Cathedral, which were built almost at the same time. Horseshoe arches were known in the Iberian Peninsula since late Antiquity, as can be seen on the 3rd-century "Estela de los Flavios", now in the arqueological museum of León. A centrally located honey-combed dome has blue tiles decorated with stars.
The edifice also has a richly gilded prayer niche or mihrab. The mihrab is a masterpiece of architectural art, with geometric and flowing designs of plants. Other prominent features were: an open court (sahn) surrounded by arcades, screens of wood, minarets, colourful mosaics, and windows of coloured glass.[31] The walls of the mosque had Quranic inscriptions written on them. As many adherents of Islam reject sculptural or pictorial representations of people or of God within religious contexts, all decoration of the cathedral is accomplished through tile work, calligraphy and architectural forms.
Marbles of spotless white were chosen for the columns. Arrazi, an Arab writer, speaks of the valuable wine-coloured marble, obtained from the mountains of the district, which was much used in embellishing the naves of the mosque. Hisham's temple covered an area of 460 by 280 feet (140 m × 85 m). It was flanked by stout, fortified walls, with watch towers and a tall minaret. The number of the outer gates was nine, and of the inner doors eleven. These doors led to the same number of naves within the mosque. The court had spacious gates on the north, west, and east sides, and fountains for the purification of the pious. The naves were eleven in number, stretching from north to south, and these were crossed by twenty-one smaller naves running from east to west.[24]
Layout[edit]
The building's floor plan is seen to be parallel to some of the earliest mosques built from the very beginning of Islam.[29] It had a rectangular prayer hall with aisles arranged perpendicular to the qibla, the direction towards which Muslims pray.[34] The prayer hall was large, flat, with timber ceilings held up by arches of horseshoe-like appearance.[29]
One hundred and fifty years after its creation, a staircase to the roof was added, along with a southward extension of the mosque itself. A bridge was built linking the prayer hall with the Caliph's palace.[33] The mosque was later expanded even further south, as was the courtyard which surrounded it. The mosque was built in four stages, with each Caliph and his elite contributing to it.[35]
Until the 11th century, the courtyard was unpaved earth with citrus and palm trees irrigated – at first by rainwater cisterns, and later by aqueduct. Excavation indicates the trees were planted in a pattern, with surface irrigation channels. The stone channels visible today are not original.[36]
Abd al-Rahman III added a new tower. The minaret contained two staircases, which were built for the separate ascent and descent of the tower. On the summit there were three apples, two of gold and one of silver, with lilies of six petals. The minaret is four-faced, with fourteen windows, having arches upon jasper columns, and the structure is adorned with tracery.[24]
Chapels[edit]
West wall, from north to south:
Capilla de San Ambrosio
Capilla de San Agustín
Capilla de Nuestra Señora de las Nieves y San Vicente Mártir
Capilla de los Santos Simón y Judas de la Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba
Capilla de la Concepción de Salizanes o del Santísimo Sacramento
Capilla de San Antonio Abad
Capilla de la Trinidad
Capilla de San Acacio
Capilla de San Pedro y San Lorenzo
Museo de San Vicente
South wall, from west to east:
Capilla de San Bartolomé
Mihrab y Maqsura
Capilla de Santa Teresa
Capilla de Santa Inés
Capilla del Sagrario
East wall, from north to south:
Capilla de San Antonio de Padua
Capilla de San Marcos, Santa Ana y San Juan Bautista
Capilla de San Mateo y Limpia Concepción de Nuestra Señora
Capilla de San Juan Bautista
Capilla de Santa Marina, de San Matías y del Baptisterio
Capilla de San Nicolás de Bari
Capilla de la Expectación
Capilla del Espíritu Santo
Capilla de la Concepción Antigua
Capilla de San José
Capilla de la Natividad de Nuestra Señora
Capilla de Santa María Magdalena
North wall, from west to east:
Capilla de San Eulogio
Capilla de San Esteban
Capilla de Nuestra Señora del Mayor Dolor
Capilla de la Virgen de la Antigua
Capilla de San Andrés
Capilla de la Epifanía
Capilla de Nuestra Señora del Rosario
Capilla de las Benditas Ánimas del Purgatorio
Capilla de los Santos Varones
Capilla de Santa Francisca Romana y Santa Úrsula
Capilla de Villaviciosa
Capilla Sagrario
Capilla Mayor
Capilla Real
Capilla Teresa
Capilla San Clemente
Capilla San Bartolomé
Capilla de la Concepción
Doors[edit]
West façade, along Calle Torrijos, north to south:
Postigo de la leche
Puerta de los Deanes
Puerta de San Esteban
Puerta de San Miguel
Puerta del Espíritu Santo
Postigo del Palacio
Puerta de San Ildefonso
Puerta del Sabat
Postigo de la Leche.
Puerta de los Deanes.
Puerta de San Esteban.
Puerta de San Miguel.
Puerta del Espíritu Santo.
Postigo del Palacio.
Puerta de San Ildefonso
Puerta del Sabat
East façade, along Calle del Magistrado González Francés, north to south:
Puerta de la Grada Redonda
Fuente de Santa Catalina
Puerta de Santa Catalina
Puerta de San Juan
Puerta del Baptisterio
Puerta de San Nicolás
Puerta de la Concepción Antigua
Puerta de San José
Puerta del Sagrario
Puerta de Jerusalén
Puerta de la Grada Redonda
Puerta de Santa Catalina
Puerta de San Juan
Puerta del Baptisterio
Puerta de San Nicolás
Puerta de la Concepción Antigua
Puerta de San José
Puerta del Sagrario
Puerta de Jerusalén
North façade, along calle Cardenal Herrero, west to east:
Puerta del Perdón
Puerta del Caño Gordo
Puerta del Perdón
Puerta del Caño Gordo
The Reconquista[edit]
Main article: Reconquista
This painting by Edwin Lord Weeks (circa 1880) depicts an old Moor preaching holy war against Christians at the mosque's mihrab. "Despite the painting's illusion of reality, such a jihad, or holy war, would never have been called for in a mosque."[37] Walters Art Museum
In 1236, Córdoba was conquered by King Ferdinand III of Castile, and the centre of the mosque was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Alfonso X oversaw the construction of the Villaviciosa Chapel and the Royal Chapel within the mosque. The kings who followed added further Christian features, such as King Henry II rebuilding the chapel in the 14th century. The minaret of the mosque was also converted to the bell tower of the cathedral. It was adorned with Santiago de Compostela's captured cathedral bells.[38]
The most significant alteration was the building of a Renaissance cathedral nave in the middle of the expansive structure. The insertion was constructed by permission of Charles V, king of Castile and Aragon. However, when Charles V visited the completed cathedral he was displeased by the result and famously commented, "they have taken something unique in all the world and destroyed it to build something you can find in any city."[citation needed]
Artisans and architects continued to add to the existing structure until the late 18th century.
2000s Muslim campaign[edit]
Main article: Muslim campaign at Córdoba Cathedral
Bell tower from Court of Oranges
Muslims across Spain have lobbied the Roman Catholic Church to allow them to pray in the complex, with the Islamic Council of Spain lodging a formal request with the Vatican.[16][17] However, Spanish church authorities and the Vatican have opposed this move.[18] These battles over the cathedral reflect the contested view of what constitutes Spanish history and Spanish identity.[39]
2010 incident[edit]
In April 2010, two Muslim tourists were arrested at the Cathedral, after an incident in which two security guards were seriously injured. The incident occurred when the building was filled with tourists visiting the cathedral during Holy Week.[40][41]
According to cathedral authorities, when half a dozen Austrian Muslims, who were part of a group of 118 people on an organised tour for young European Muslims, knelt to pray at the same time, security guards stepped in and "invited them to continue with their tour or leave the building".[40][41] A fight took place between two of the tourists and the security guards. The security guards suffered serious injuries and had to be hospitalised and two Muslim men were detained.[40][41][42]
In popular culture[edit]
The philosopher and poet Muhammad Iqbal, who is the national poet of Pakistan, visited the Great Cathedral of Córdoba in 1931–32. He asked the authorities to offer adhan at the cathedral. The deep emotional responses that the mosque evoked in him found expression in his poem called "The Mosque of Cordoba". Iqbal saw it as a cultural landmark of Islam and described it as:[43]
Sacred for lovers of art, you are the glory of faith,
You have made Andalusia pure as a holy land![30]
Louis L'Amour's The Walking Drum features a detailed description of the Court of Oranges in the 12th century.
Burials[edit]
'Abd al-Rahman I, reportedly under the site of the Mezquita
See also[edit]
Al-Andalus
Islamic architecture
Timeline of Muslim history
Umayyad Mosque of Damascus
12 Treasures of Spain
History of Medieval Arabic and Western European domes
Muslim campaign at Córdoba Cathedral
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2012). Understanding Art (with Art Coursemate with EBook Printed Access Card). Cengage Learning. p. 336. ISBN 1111836957. Retrieved 14 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Historic Centre of Cordoba". UNESCO. Retrieved 17 Aug 2016. The Great Mosque of Cordoba was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1984
Jump up ^ "Web Oficial del Conjunto Monumental Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba". Retrieved 15 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Lapunzina, Alejandro (2005). Architecture of Spain. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 81.
Jump up ^ DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Seville & Andalusia. Penguin. 2006. p. 148.
Jump up ^ Geoff Garvey, Mark Ellingham (2009). The Rough Guide to Andalucia. Penguin. p. 474.
Jump up ^ Isabella Noble; John Noble; Josephine Quintero; Brendan Sainsbury (2016). Lonely Planet Andalucia. Lonely Planet. p. 22.
Jump up ^ 100 Countries, 5,000 Ideas. National Geographic Society. 2011. p. 299. ISBN 9781426207587. The eight-century Great Mosque with double arches in Córdoba was transformed into the Cathedral of our Lady of Assumption.
Jump up ^ Daniel, Ben (2013). The Search for Truth about Islam. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780664237059. The church is Catholic and has been for centuries, but when Catholic Spaniards expelled the local Arabic and Muslim population (the people they called the Moors) in 1236, they didn't do what the Catholic Church tended to do everywhere else when it moved in and displaced locally held religious beliefs: they didn't destroy the local religious shrine and build a cathedral of the foundations of the sacred space that had been knocked down. Instead, they built a church inside and up through the roof of the mosque, and then dedicated the entire space to Our Lady of the Assumption and made it the cathedral for the Diocese of Córdoba.
Jump up ^ www.mezquitadecordoba.org, Alhambra Valparaiso Ocio y Cultura S.L. -. "History of the Mosque Cathedral of Cordoba". mezquitadecordoba.org.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jonathan M. Bloom and Sheila S. Blair, eds. (2009). "Cordoba". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. The tradition that the first mosque in Córdoba was housed in the Christian monastery of St. Vincent, and that it was said to have been shared with the city’s Christian congregation, has been challenged. It is almost certain, however, that the building that housed the early 8th-century mosque was destroyed by ῾Abd al-Rahman I for the first phase of the present Mezquita (Great Mosque). CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Nuha N. N. Khoury (1996). "The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century". Muqarnas. Brill. 13: 84 – via JSTOR. (Subscription required (help)). A myth that associates the mosque's site with the church of Saint Vincent acts as an intermediary step in the transformation of the mosque into a monument of dynastic conquest [...] On the authority of the tenth-century al-Razi, later medieval historians assert that the original founders of the Cordoba mosque shared the church of Saint Vincent with the city's Christian population [...] The account posits a parallel with two earlier Islamic paradigms [...] However, the church of Saint Vincent is neither archaelogically attested as the major edifice mentioned by the historians [...] nor specifically by name in accounts of the events following Abd al-Rahman I's initial arrival in al-Andalus. Rather, the anonymous tenth-century Akhbar Majmu'a on the history of al-Andalus mentions a church, "the site of the present-day Friday mosque"
^ Jump up to: a b c Guia, Aitana (1 July 2014). The Muslim Struggle for Civil Rights in Spain, 1985–2010: Promoting Democracy Through Islamic Engagement. Sussex Academic Press. p. 137. ISBN 9781845195816. It was originally a small temple of Christian Visigoth origin. Under Umayyad reign in Spain (711–1031 CE), it was expanded and made into a mosque, which it would remain for eight centuries. During the Christian reconquest of Al-Andalus, Christians captured the mosque and consecrated it as a Catholic church.
^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong, Ian (2013). Spain and Portugal. Avalon Travel Publishing. ISBN 9781612370316. On this site originally stood the Visigoths' Christian Church of San Vicente, but when the Moors came to town in 758 CE they knocked it down and constructed a mosque in its place. When Córdoba fell once again to the Christians, King Ferdinand II and his successors set about Christianizing the structure, most dramatically adding the bright pearly white Renaissance nave where mass is held every morning.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sills, Ben (19 April 2004). "Cathedral may see return of Muslims". The Guardian. London.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomson, Muslims ask Pope to OK worship in ex-mosque, Reuters, (2011), [1]
^ Jump up to: a b Fuchs, Dale (28 December 2006). "Pope asked to let Muslims pray in cathedral". The Guardian. London.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ann Christys (2017). "The meaning of topography in Umayyad Cordoba". In Anne E. Lester. Cities, Texts and Social Networks, 400–1500. Routledge. It is a commonplace of the history of Córdoba that in their early years in the city, the Muslims shared with the Christians the church of S. Vicente, until ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I bought the Christians out and used the site to build the Great Mosque. It was a pivotal moment in the history of Córdoba, which later historians may have emphasised by drawing a parallel between Córdoba and another Umayyad capital, Damascus. The first reference to the Muslims’ sharing the church was by Ibn Idhārī in the fourteenth century, citing the tenth-century historian al-Rāzī. It could be a version of a similar story referring to the Great Mosque in Damascus, which may itself have been written long after the Mosque was built. It is a story that meant something in the tenth-century context, a clear statement of the Muslim appropriation of Visigothic Córdoba.
Jump up ^ Jarbel, Rodriguez. Muslim and Christian Contact in the Middle Ages: A Reader. University of Toronto Press. p. 41. ISBN 9781442600669.
Jump up ^ D. Fairchild Ruggles (2010). "The Stratigraphy of Forgetting". In Helaine Silverman. Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World. Springer. p. 63. An archaeological display in the Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba displays fragments of a Visigothic building, emphasizing an originally Christian nature of the site.
^ Jump up to: a b Eric Calderwood (10 April 2015). "The Reconquista of the Mosque of Córdoba". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Susana Calvo Capilla (2007). "Las primeras mezquitas de al-Andalus a través de las fuentes árabes". Al-Qantara. 28 (1): 169–170.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Calvert, Albert Frederick; Gallichan, Walter Matthew (1907). Cordova, a City of the Moors (Public domain ed.). J. Lane. pp. 42–.
Jump up ^ Josef W. Meri and Jere L. Bacharach, Medieval Islamic Civilization, Routledge, (2005), p. 176 ff.
Jump up ^ Irving, T. B. (1962). The Falcon of Spain. Ashraf Press, Lahore. p. 82.
Jump up ^ Blockmans, Wim, and Peter Hoppenbrouwers. Introduction to Medieval Europe 300–1500. Routledge, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lapunzina, Alejandro (2005). Architecture of Spain. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 82–83.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, ed. The Legacy of Muslim Spain, 2 Vols.. Leiden: BRILL, p.599.
^ Jump up to: a b Muhammad Iqbal, The Mosque of Córdoba
^ Jump up to: a b c Anwar, G. Chejne, Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture, MINNE ed. Minnesota: University Of Minnesota Press, p.364.
Jump up ^ Jan, Read. The Moors in Spain and Portugal. London: Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, p.56.
^ Jump up to: a b The Literature of Al-Andalus (The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature). New Ed ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 161.
Jump up ^ The Literature of Al-Andalus, p.159
Jump up ^ The Literature of Al-Andalus p.162
Jump up ^ Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). Islamic Gardens and Landscapes. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 152. ISBN 0-8122-4025-1.
Jump up ^ "Interior of a Mosque at Cordova". The Walters Art Museum.
Jump up ^ Chris, Lowney A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain. New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 11.
Jump up ^ D. Fairchild Ruggles, "The Stratigraphy of Forgetting: The Great Cathedral of Cordoba and Its Contested Legacy," in Contested Cultural Heritage, ed. Helaine Silverman. New York: Springer, 2011, pp. 51–67. Spanish translation in the journal Antípoda:Revista de Antropología y Arqueología (Bogotá, Colombia) 12 (2011): 19–38.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tremlett, Giles (1 April 2010). "Two arrested after fight in Cordoba's former mosque". The Guardian. London.
^ Jump up to: a b c Keeley, Graham (3 April 2010). "Muslims arrested for trying to pray in Cordobas former Mosque". The Times. London.
Jump up ^ "Muslims in Spain campaign to worship alongside Christians". CNN. 7 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Iqbal and Spain – Home Page". allamaiqbal.com.
Barbara Messina, Geometrie in pietra. La moschea di Cordova, Giannini editore, Napoli 2004, ISBN 9788874312368
External links[edit]
Official website
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mezquita de Córdoba.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba, Shadieh Mirmobiny, Smarthistory
Mezquita (Great Mosque) of Córdoba
Mezquita (Great Mosque) of Córdoba at Google Maps
Wonders of the World: Mezquita videos
The Mosque of Cordova (during early 19th century)
Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba (see index)
The Great Mosque of Cordoba in the tenth century, VirTimePlace.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mosque–Cathedral_of_Córdoba&oldid=799038151"
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values: كاتدرائية - جامع قرطبة – Arabic

values: Мескита де Кордоба – Bulgarian

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Mezquita – Bavarian
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Mezquita – Czech
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values: Τέμενος-Καθεδρικός της Κόρδοβα – Greek

values: مسجد-کلیسای جامع قرطبه – Persian

values: Կորդովայի մզկիթ – Armenian

values: कोरदोबा की मस्जिद-गिरजा – Hindi

values: Moschea-cathedral de Cordova – Interlingua

values: הקתדרלה של קורדובה – Hebrew

values: Мескита – Kazakh

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nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: ਕੋਰਦੋਬਾ ਦੀ ਮਸਜਿਦ-ਗਿਰਜਾ – Punjabi

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquita
Mezquita – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Mesquita-Catedral de Córdova – Portuguese

values: Мескита – Russian

values: Велика џамија у Кордоби – Serbian

values: Velika džamija u Cordobi – Serbo-Croatian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquita
Mezquita – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: கோர்தோபா பள்ளிவாசல் - தேவாலயம் – Tamil

values: มัสยิด-มหาวิหารกอร์โดบา – Thai

values: جامع مسجد قرطبہ – Urdu

values: 科尔多瓦主教座堂 – Chinese

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mosque–Cathedral_of_Córdoba rootpage-Mosque–Cathedral_of_Córdoba skin-vector action-view