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Cat communication
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"Caterwaul" redirects here. For the band, see Caterwaul (band).
"Nyan" redirects here. For Nyan Cat, see Nyan Cat.
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It has been suggested that portions of Cat behavior be split from it and merged into this article. (Discuss) (July 2014)
A primary mode of cat communication is body language such as the position of the ears and mouth.
Cat communication is the transfer of information by one or more cats that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal, including humans. Cats use a range of communication modalities including vocal, visual, tactile and olfactory.
The communication modalities used by domestic cats have been affected by domestication.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Vocal
1.1 Purr
1.2 Mew
1.3 Meow
1.3.1 Language differences
1.4 Chirr
1.5 Chirping and chattering
1.6 Call
1.7 Growl, snarl, hiss and spit
1.8 Ultrasonic
2 Visual
2.1 Posture
2.2 Ears
2.3 Eyes
2.4 Tail
3 Tactile
3.1 Biting
4 Olfactory
5 See also
6 References
Vocal[edit]
A cat meowing
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Cat vocalisations have been categorised according to a range of characteristics.
Schötz categorised vocalizations according to 3 mouth actions: (1) sounds produced with the mouth closed (murmurs), including the purr, the trill and the chirrup, (2) sounds produced with the mouth open and gradually closing, comprising a large variety of meows with similar vowel patterns, and (3) sounds produced with the mouth held tensely open in the same position, often uttered in aggressive situations (growls, yowls, snarls, hisses, spits and shrieks).[2]
Brown et al. categorised vocal responses of cats according to the behavioural context: (1) during separation of kittens from mother cats, (2) during food deprivation, (3) during pain, (4) prior to or during threat or attack behavior, as in disputes over territory or food, (5) during a painful or acutely stressful experience, as in routine prophylactic injections and (6) during kitten deprivation.[3] Less commonly recorded calls from mature cats included purring, conspecific greeting calls or murmurs, extended vocal dialogues between cats in separate cages, “frustration” calls during training or extinction of conditioned responses.
Miller classified vocalisations into 5 categories according to the sound produced: the purr, chirr, call, meow and growl/snarl/hiss.[4]
Purr[edit]
Main article: Purr
Relaxed tomcat lying on his back.
The purr is a continuous, soft, vibrating sound made in the throat by most species of felines. Domestic kittens can purr as early as two days of age.[4] This tonal rumbling can characterize different personalities in domestic cats. Purring is often believed to indicate a positive emotional state, but cats sometimes purr when they are ill, tense, or experiencing traumatic or painful moments.[5] A more expansive definition is "purring signals a friendly social mood, and it can be given as a signal to, say, a vet from an injured cat indicating the need for friendship, or as a signal to an owner, saying thank you for friendship given."[6]
The mechanism of how cats purr is elusive. This is partly because cats do not have a unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for this vocalization.[7] One hypothesis, supported by electromyographic studies, is that cats produce the purring noise by using the vocal folds and/or the muscles of the larynx to alternately dilate and constrict the glottis rapidly, causing air vibrations during inhalation and exhalation.[8] Combined with the steady inhalation and exhalation as the cat breathes, a purring noise is produced with strong harmonics. Purring is sometimes accompanied by other sounds, though this varies between individuals. Some may only purr, while other cats include low level outbursts sometimes described as "lurps" or "yowps".
Domestic cats purr at varying frequencies. One study reported that domestic cats purr at average frequencies of 21.98 Hz in the egressive phase and 23.24 Hz in the ingressive phase with an overall mean of 22.6 Hz.[9] Further research on purring in four domestic cats found that the fundamental frequency varied between 20.94 and 27.21 Hz for the egressive phase and between 23.0 and 26.09 Hz for the ingressive phase. There was considerable variation between the four cats in the relative amplitude, duration and frequency between egressive and ingressive phases, although this variation generally occurred within the normal range.[10]
One study on a single cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) showed it purred with an average frequency of 20.87 Hz (egressive phases) and 18.32 Hz (ingressive phases).[9] A further study on four adult cheetahs found that mean frequencies were between 19.3 Hz and 20.5 Hz in ingressive phases, and between 21.9 Hz and 23.4 Hz in egressive phases. The egressive phases were longer than ingressive phases and moreover, the amplitude was greater in the egressive phases.[11]
It was once believed that only the cats of the genus Felis could purr.[12] However, felids of the genus Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars and leopards) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling. The subdivision of the Felidae into ‘purring cats’ on the one hand and ‘roaring cats ’ (i.e. non-purring) on the other, originally goes back to Owen (1834/1835) and was definitely introduced by Pocock (1916), based on a difference in hyoid anatomy. The ‘roaring cats’ (lion, Panthera leo; tiger, P. tigris; jaguar, P. onca; leopard, P. pardus) have an incompletely ossified hyoid, which according to this theory, enables them to roar but not to purr. On the other hand, the snow leopard (Uncia uncia), as the fifth felid species with an incompletely ossified hyoid, purrs (Hemmer, 1972). All remaining species of the family Felidae (‘purring cats’) have a completely ossified hyoid which enables them to purr but not to roar. However, Weissengruber et al. (2002) argued that the ability of a cat species to purr is not affected by the anatomy of its hyoid, i.e. whether it is fully ossified or has a ligamentous epihyoid, and that, based on a technical acoustic definition of roaring, the presence of this vocalization type depends on specific characteristics of the vocal folds and an elongated vocal tract, the latter rendered possible by an incompletely ossified hyoid.
Mew[edit]
Mewing is a vocalization of domestic kittens, apparently used to solicit attention from the kitten's mother.[4]
Meow[edit]
Main article: Meow
A cat meowing for attention
The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a "meow" or "miaow" sound (pronounced /miˈaʊ/). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Adult cats do not meow to each other, and so adult meowing to human beings is likely to be a post-domestication extension of mewing by kittens.[13]
Language differences[edit]
Different languages have correspondingly different words for the "meow" sound, including miau (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Finnish, Lithuanian, Malay, Polish, Russian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish and Ukrainian), "miauw" (Dutch) mňau (Czech), meong (Indonesian), njäu (Estonian), ņau (Latvia), niau (Ukrainian), niaou (νιάου, Greek),[14] miaou (French), nyā (ニャー, Japanese), miao (喵, Mandarin Chinese, Italian), miav/miao or mjav/mjau (Danish, Swedish and Norwegian), mjá (Icelandic), ya-ong (야옹, Korean), میاؤں / Miyāʾūṉ (Urdu),[15] miaŭ (Esperanto) and meo-meo (Vietnamese).[16] In some languages (such as Chinese 貓, māo, and Thai แมว, mæw), the vocalization became the name of the animal itself.
Chirr[edit]
Play media
A cat chattering at the birds
The chirr or chirrup sounds like a meow rolled on the tongue. It is commonly used by mother cats calling their kittens inside the nest. Kittens recognize their own mother's chirp, and do not respond to the chirps of other mothers.[17] It is also used by friendly cats when eliciting the approach of another cat or a human. Humans can mimic the sound to reassure and greet pet cats.[4]
Chirping and chattering[edit]
Cats sometimes make excited chirping or chattering noises when observing or stalking prey.[18] These range from quiet clicking sounds to loud but sustained chirping mixed with the occasional meow.
Call[edit]
The call is a loud, rhythmic vocalisation made with the mouth closed. It is primarily associated with female cats soliciting males, and sometimes occurs in males when fighting with each other.[4] A "caterwaul" is the cry of a cat in estrus (or "in heat").[13][19]
Growl, snarl, hiss and spit[edit]
The growl, snarl and hiss are all vocalisations associated with either offensive or defensive aggression. They are usually accompanied by a postural display intended to have a visual effect on the perceived threat. The communication may be directed at cats as well as other species – the puffed-up hissing and spitting display of a cat toward an approaching dog is a well-known behavior. Cats hiss when they are startled, scared, angry or in pain, and also to scare off intruders into their territory. If the hiss and growl warning does not remove the threat, an attack by the cat may follow. Kittens as young as two to three weeks will hiss and spit when first picked up by a human. "Spitting" is a shorter but louder and more emphatic version of hissing.[4]
Ultrasonic[edit]
Very high frequency (“ultrasonic”) response components have been observed in kitten vocalizations.[3]
Visual[edit]
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A cat hissing and arching its back to make itself appear larger to ward off a threat
Cats use postures and movement to communicate a wide range of information. There are various responses such as when cats arch their backs, erect their hairs and adopt a sideward posture to communicate fear or aggression. Others may be only a single behavioural change (as perceived by humans) such as slowly blinking to signal relaxation.
Domestic cats frequently use visual communication with their eyes, ears, mouths, tails, coats and body postures. It has been stated that a cat’s facial features change the most and are probably the best indicator of cat communication.[4]
Posture[edit]
Surprised cats have enlarged pupils and erect ears held slightly backwards.
When cats lie on their back with their belly exposed, they are in a position of vulnerability. Therefore, this position may communicate a feeling of trust [20] or comfort; however, cats may also roll onto their back to defend themselves with their claws, or to bask in areas of bright sunlight.
When cats are calm, they tend to stand relaxed with a still tail. If they become aggressive, the hind legs stiffen, the rump elevates but the back stays flat, tail hairs are erected, the nose is pushed forward and the ears are pulled back slightly. Because cats have both claws and teeth, they can easily cause injury if they become involved in a fight, so this posture is an attempt to elicit deference by a competitor without fighting. The aggressor may attempt to make challengers retreat and will pursue them if they do not flee. A fearful, defensive cat makes itself smaller, lowers itself toward the ground, arches its back and leans its body away from the threat rather than forward. Fighting usually occurs only when escape is impossible.[4]
In cats, flattened ears generally indicate that an individual feels threatened and may attack. Having the mouth open and no teeth exposed indicates playfulness.[21]
A tortoiseshell cat with erect hairs on its tail and back which in this context indicates excitement or curiosity
Ears[edit]
Cats can change the position of their ears very quickly, in a continuum from erect when the cat is alert and focused, slightly relaxed when the cat is calm, and flattened against the head when extremely defensive or aggressive.[citation needed]
Eyes[edit]
A direct stare by a cat usually communicates a challenge or threat and is more likely to be seen in high-ranking cats; lower-ranking cats usually withdraw in response.[4] The direct stare is often used during predation or for territorial reasons. When not used for such functions, a cat will blink or look away periodically to avoid provoking the same defensive response that a direct stare would elicit.[citation needed] This periodic blinking or looking away is expressed when pet cats look at humans.
Tail[edit]
Cats often use their tail to communicate. Cats holding their tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a cat's tail may swing from side to side. If this motion is slow and "lazy", it generally indicates that the cat is in a relaxed state, and is thought[by whom?] to be a way for the cat to search and monitor the surroundings behind it. Cats will twitch the tips of their tails when hunting or when irritated, while larger twitching indicates displeasure. A stalking domestic cat will typically hold its tail low to the ground while in a crouch, and twitch it quickly from side to side. This tail behavior is also seen when a cat has become "irritated" and is nearing the point of biting or scratching. They may also twitch their tails when playing.[22] Sometimes during play, a cat, or more commonly, a kitten, will raise the base of their tail high and stiffen all but the tip into a shape like an upside-down "U". This signals great excitement, to the point of hyperactivity. This may also be seen when younger cats chase each other, or when they run around by themselves. When greeting their owner, cats often hold their tails straight up with a quivering motion that indicates extreme happiness.[23] A scared or surprised cat may erect the hairs on its tail and back. In addition, it may stand more upright and turn its body sideways to increase its apparent size as a threat. Tailless cats, such as the Manx, which possess only a small stub of a tail, move the stub around as if they possess a full tail.
Tactile[edit]
Cats often lick other cats as allogrooming or to bond (this grooming is usually done between familiar cats). They also sometimes lick humans which may indicate affection.
A mackerel tabby cat kneading a blanket. The whiskers are positioned forward, indicating happiness or curiosity in this context.
Cats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is instinctive to cats and in adults, is presumably derived from the action used to stimulate milk let-down by the mother during nursing. Cats often purr during this behaviour, usually taken to indicate contentment and affection.
Cats have scent glands on the underside of their paws. When they knead or scratch objects or people, it is likely these pheromones are transferred to the person or object being kneaded or scratched.
Touching noses, sometimes known as "sniffing noses", is a friendly, tactile greeting for cats.
Some cats rub their faces on humans, apparently as a friendly greeting or indicating affection. This tactile action is combined with olfactory communication as the contact leaves scent from glands located around the mouth and cheeks. Cats also sometimes "head-bump" humans or other cats with the front part of the head; this action is referred to as "bunting".[24] Again this communication might have an olfactory component as there are scent glands in this area of the body, and is possibly for seeking attention when the cat turns their head down or to the side while doing so.[25]
Head-bumping and cheek rubbing may be displays of social dominance as they are often exhibited by a dominant cat towards a subordinate.[4]
Biting[edit]
Gentle biting (often accompanied by purring and kneading) can communicate affection or playfulness, directed at the human owner or another cat; however, stronger bites that are often accompanied by hissing or growling usually communicate aggression.[26] When cats mate, the tom bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a lordosis position which communicates that she is receptive to mating.
Olfactory[edit]
Cats communicate olfactarily through scent in urine, feces, and chemicals or pheromones from glands located around the mouth, chin, forehead, cheeks, lower back, tail and paws.[27] Their rubbing and head-bumping behaviors are methods of depositing these scents on substrates, including humans.
Urine spraying is also a territorial marking.[28] Although cats may mark with both sprayed and non-sprayed urine, the spray is usually more thick and oily than normally deposited urine, and may contain additional secretions from anal sacs that help the sprayer to make a stronger communication. While cats mark their territory both by rubbing of the scent glands and by urine and fecal deposits, spraying, most frequently engaged in by unneutered male cats in competition with others of their same sex and species, seems to be the loudest feline olfactory statement. Female cats also sometimes spray.[4]
The urine of mature male cats in particular contains the amino acid known as felinine which is a precursor to 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB), the sulfur-containing compound that gives cat urine its characteristically strong odor. Felinine is produced in the urine from 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (3-MBCG) by the excreted peptidase cauxin. It then slowly degrades via bacterial lyase into the more-volatile chemical MMB.[29] Felinine is a possible cat pheromone.
→
Felinine MMB
See also[edit]
Animal communication
Cat behavior
Cat pheromone
Dog communication
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Turner, D.C.; Bateson, P.P.G; Bateson, P. The Domestic Cat: The Biology Of Its Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Schötz, Susanne (May 30 – June 1, 2012). A phonetic pilot study of vocalizations in three cats (PDF). Proceedings Fonetik 2012. The XXVth Swedish Phonetics conference. University of Gothenburg. pp. 45–58.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, K.A., Buchwald, J.S., Johnson, J.R. and Mikolich, D.J. (1978). "Vocalization in the cat and kitten". Developmental Psychobiology. 11 (6): 559–570. doi:10.1002/dev.420110605. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Miller, P. (2000). "Whisker whispers". Association of Animal Behavior Professionals. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Turner, D.C.; Bateson (eds.), P. (2000). The Domestic Cat: The Biology Of Its Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71, 72, 86 and 88. ISBN 978-0521-63648-3. Retrieved 3 January 2012. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Morris, Desmond (1987). Cat Watching. Crown Publishing Group. p. 17. ISBN 978-0517880531. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Why and how do cats purr?". Library of Congress. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Dyce, K.M.; Sack, W.O.; Wensing, C.J.G. (2002). Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy, 3rd ed. Saunders, Philadelphia. p. 156.
^ Jump up to: a b Eklund, R.; Peters, G.; Duthie, E.D. "An acoustic analysis of purring in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and in the domestic cat (Felis catus)" (PDF). Proceedings from Fonetik 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schötz, S.; Eklund, R. "A comparative acoustic analysis of purring in four cats" (PDF). Proceedings from Fonetik 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Eklund, R.; Peters, G.; Weise, F.; Munro, S. "A comparative acoustic analysis of purring in four cheetahs" (PDF). Proceedings from Fonetik 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Breton, R. Roger; Creek, Nancy J. "Overview of Felidae". Cougar Hill Web. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Meowing and Yowling". Virtual Pet Behaviorist. ASPCA. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ νιαουρίζω. Word Reference (in Greek). WordReference.com. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ فیروز الدین, مولوی. فیروز اللغات اردو جامع (in Urdu) (2nd ed.). Lahore: Feroz Sons, Ltd. p. 1334. ISBN 9690005146. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Peggy Bivens (2002). Language Arts 1, Volume 1. Saddleback Publishing. p. 59. ISBN 978-1562-54508-6.
Jump up ^ Szenczi, P., Bánszegi, O., Urrutia, A., Faragó, T. and Hudson, R. (2016). "Mother–offspring recognition in the domestic cat: Kittens recognize their own mother's call". Developmental Psychobiology. doi:10.1002/dev.21402. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Schötz, S. (2013). "A phonetic pilot study of chirp, chatter, tweet and tweedle in three domestic cats". Fonetik. Linköping University: 65–68.
Jump up ^ "caterwaul". Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, LLC. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Fraser, Andrew (2012). Feline Behaviour and Welfare. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: C.A.B. International. p. 58. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Helgren, J. Anne (1999). Communicating with your cat. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-7641-0855-7.
Jump up ^ Cat articles on Iams website
Jump up ^ "Common Cat Behaviors". Best Cat Tips. www.best-cat-tips.com. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Pam Johnson-Bennett. "Bunting Behavior". Retrieved 30 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Mary White. "Cat Behavior Tips". LifeTips. LifeTips. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Play Therapy Pt. 2," Cats International Archived 2007-04-19 at the Wayback Machine. retrieved May 22, 2007
Jump up ^ "Communication - how do cats communicate?". vetwest animal hospitals. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Dennis C. Turner; Patrick Bateman, eds. (2000). The Domestic Cat (2nd ed.). University Press, Cambridge. pp. 69–70. ISBN 0521636485. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Jump up ^ M. Miyazaki; T. Yamashita; Y. Suzuki; Y. Saito; S. Soeta; H. Taira; A. Suzuki (October 2006). "A major urinary protein of the domestic cat regulates the production of felinine, a putative pheromone precursor". Chem. Biol. 13 (10): 1071–9. PMID 17052611. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2006.08.013.
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Stomach
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the internal organ. For the middle part of the body, see Abdomen. For other uses, see Stomach (disambiguation).
"Cardia" redirects here. For the ancient Greek colony, see Cardia (Thrace).
"Gastric" redirects here. For the sauce flavoring, see Gastrique.
Stomach
The stomach is located centre left in the human body.
1. Body of stomach 2. Fundus 3. Anterior wall 4. Greater curvature 5. Lesser curvature 6. Cardia 9. Pyloric sphincter 10. Pyloric antrum 11. Pyloric canal 12. Angular incisure 13. Gastric canal 14. Rugae[1]
Details
Precursor
Foregut
System
Digestive system
Artery
Right gastric artery, left gastric artery, right gastro-omental artery, left gastro-omental artery, short gastric arteries
Vein
Right gastric vein, left gastric vein, right gastroepiploic vein, left gastroepiploic vein, short gastric veins
Nerve
Celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[2]
Lymph
Celiac lymph nodes[3]
Identifiers
Latin
Ventriculus
Greek
Gaster
MeSH
D013270
TA
A05.5.01.001
FMA
7148
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, stomachos, stoma means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital digestive organ. In the digestive system the stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing).
In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Sections
1.2 Blood supply
1.3 Histology
1.4 Gastric glands
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Digestion
3.2 Absorption
3.3 Control of secretion and motility
3.4 Stomach acid
3.5 Stomach as nutrition sensor
4 Gene and protein expression
5 Clinical significance
5.1 Diseases
5.2 Surgery
6 History
6.1 Etymology
7 Other animals
8 Additional images
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Structure[edit]
Sections of the human stomach
In humans, the stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is in the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained; the lower oesophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at the junction of the oesophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum.
The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.
In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres.[4] Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food.[5] The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres.
Sections[edit]
In classical anatomy, the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the gastric cardia,[6] each of which has different cells and functions.
The cardia is where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach. The cardia is defined as the region following the "z-line" of the gastroesophageal junction, the point at which the epithelium changes from stratified squamous to columnar. Near the cardia is the lower oesophageal sphincter.[7] Recent research has shown that the cardia is not an anatomically distinct region of the stomach but a region of the oesophageal lining damaged by reflux.[8]
The fundus (from Latin, "bottom") is formed by the upper curvature of the organ.
The body is the main, central region.
The pylorus (from Greek, "gatekeeper") is the lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine.
Blood supply[edit]
Schematic image of the blood supply to the human stomach: left and right gastric artery, left and right gastroepiploic artery and short gastric artery.[9]
The lesser curvature of the human stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly, and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric artery which arises from the splenic artery.
Histology[edit]
Micrograph showing a cross section of the human stomach wall, in the body portion of the stomach. H&E stain.
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the human stomach walls consist of an outer mucosa, inner submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
The gastric mucosa of the stomach consists of the epithelium and the lamina propria (composed of loose connective tissue), with a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae separating it from the submucosa beneath. The submucosa lies under the mucosa and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer. Meissner's plexus is in this layer. The muscularis externa lies beneath the submucosa and is unique from other organs of the gastrointestinal tract, consisting of three layers:
The inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus.
The middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall which is normally tonically constricted forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach.
Auerbach's plexus (AKA myenteric plexus) is found between the outer longitudinal and the middle circular layer and is responsible for the innervation of both (causing peristalsis and mixing)
The outer longitudinal layer is responsible for moving the bolus towards the pylorus of the stomach through muscular shortening.
The stomach also possesses a serosa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.
Gastric glands[edit]
Main article: Gastric glands
In humans, different types of cells are found at the different layers of the gastric glands:
Layer of stomach Name Secretion Region of stomach Staining
Isthmus of gland Foveolar cells Mucus gel layer Fundic, cardiac, pyloric Clear
Body of gland Parietal (oxyntic) cells Gastric acid and intrinsic factor Fundic only Acidophilic
Base of gland Chief (zymogenic) cells Pepsinogen and gastric lipase Fundic only Basophilic
Base of gland Enteroendocrine (APUD) cells Hormones gastrin, histamine, endorphins, serotonin, cholecystokinin and somatostatin Fundic, cardiac, pyloric –
Human cardiac glands (at cardia)
Human pyloric glands (at pylorus)
Human fundic glands (at fundus)
Development[edit]
In early human embryogenesis, the ventral part of the embryo abuts the yolk sac. During the second week of development, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround parts of the sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract.[10] The sac is surrounded by a network of vitelline arteries. Over time, these arteries consolidate into the three main arteries that supply the developing gastrointestinal tract: the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. The areas supplied by these arteries are used to define the foregut, midgut, and hindgut.[10] The surrounded sac becomes the primitive gut. Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, and the esophagus, and stomach form from the foregut.[10]
Function[edit]
Digestion[edit]
Main article: Digestion
In the human digestive system, a bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the lower oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus[11] and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme within anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.
Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen. Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides.
Absorption[edit]
Although the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of the small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its lining. This includes:
Water, if the body is dehydrated
Medication, like aspirin
Amino acids[12]
10–20% of ingested ethanol (e.g. from alcoholic beverages)[13]
Caffeine[14]
To a small extent water-soluble vitamins (most are absorbed in the small intestine)[15]
The parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells, and the functioning of the nervous system.
Control of secretion and motility[edit]
The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system:
Gastrin The hormone gastrin causes an increase in the secretion of HCl from the parietal cells, and pepsinogen from chief cells in the stomach. It also causes increased motility in the stomach. Gastrin is released by G cells in the stomach in response to distension of the antrum, and digestive products (especially large quantities of incompletely digested proteins). It is inhibited by a pH normally less than 4 (high acid), as well as the hormone somatostatin.
Cholecystokinin Cholecystokinin (CCK) has most effect on the gall bladder, causing gall bladder contractions, but it also decreases gastric emptying and increases release of pancreatic juice which is alkaline and neutralizes the chyme. CCK is synthesized by I-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine.
Secretin In a different and rare manner, secretin, produced in the small intestine, has most effects on the pancreas, but will also diminish acid secretion in the stomach.
Gastric inhibitory peptide Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) decreases both gastric acid release and motility.
Enteroglucagon Enteroglucagon decreases both gastric acid and motility.
Other than gastrin, these hormones all act to turn off the stomach action. This is in response to food products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been absorbed. The stomach needs to push food into the small intestine only when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach acts as storage for food.
Stomach acid[edit]
Main article: Gastric acid
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival.[16] EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from the mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including the submandibular gland, and the parotid gland. Salivary EGF, which seems also regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, plays also an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-oesophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis, and mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and from physical, chemical, and bacterial agents.[17]
Sequence of total-body scintigraphies of a woman after intravenous injection of iodine-123 demonstrating iodine uptake by the gastric mucosa
Stomach as nutrition sensor[edit]
The human stomach can "taste" sodium glutamate using glutamate receptors[18] and this information is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve.[19] The stomach can also sense, independently of tongue and oral taste receptors, glucose,[20] carbohydrates,[21] proteins,[21] and fats.[22] This allows the brain to link nutritional value of foods to their tastes.[20]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal stomach.[23][24] Just over 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the stomach compared to other organs, with only some 20 genes being highly specific. The corresponding specific proteins expressed in stomach are mainly involved in creating a suitable environment for handling the digestion of food for uptake of nutrients. Highly stomach-specific proteins include GKN1, expressed in the mucosa; pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief cells; and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells.[25]
Clinical significance[edit]
An endoscopy of a normal stomach of a healthy 65-year-old woman.
Diseases[edit]
Main article: Stomach disease
A series of radiographs can be used to examine the stomach for various disorders. This will often include the use of a swallow barium. Another method of examination of the stomach, is the use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.[26]
A large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.[27]
A stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines. The stomach has to regenerate a new layer of mucus every two weeks, or else damage to the epithelium may result.
Surgery[edit]
In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be placed around the cardia area, which can adjust to limit intake. The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely.
Surgical removal of the stomach is called a gastrectomy, and removal of the cardia area is a called a cardiectomy. "Cardiectomy" is a term that is also used to describe the removal of the heart.[28][29][30] A gastrectomy may be carried out because of gastric cancer or severe perforation of the stomach wall.
History[edit]
There were previously conflicting statements in the academic anatomy community[31][32][33] over whether the cardia is part of the stomach, part of the oesophagus or a distinct entity. Modern surgical and medical textbooks have agreed that "The gastric cardia is now clearly considered to be part of the stomach."[34][35]
Etymology[edit]
The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus which is derived from the Greek word stomachos (στόμαχος), ultimately from stoma (στόμα), "mouth".[36] The words gastro- and gastric (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word gaster (γαστήρ, meaning "belly"[37][38]).[39]
Other animals[edit]
Comparison of stomach glandular regions from several mammalian species. Frequency of glands may vary more smoothly between regions than is diagrammed here. Asterisk (ruminant) represents the omasum, which is absent in Tylopoda (Tylopoda also has some cardiac glands opening onto ventral reticulum and rumen[40]) Many other variations exist among the mammals.[41][42]
Yellow
Oesophagus
Green
Glandular epithelium
Purple
Cardiac glands
Red
Gastric glands
Blue
Pyloric glands
Dark blue
Duodenum
Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the anus. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.[43]
The gastric lining is usually divided into two regions, an anterior portion lined by fundic glands, and a posterior with pyloric glands. Cardiac glands are unique to mammals, and even then are absent in a number of species. The distributions of these glands vary between species, and do not always correspond with the same regions as in humans. Furthermore, in many non-human mammals, a portion of the stomach anterior to the cardiac glands is lined with epithelium essentially identical to that of the oesophagus. Ruminants, in particular, have a complex stomach, the first three chambers of which are all lined with oesophageal mucosa.[43]
In birds and crocodilians, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus, lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop. Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard, lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.[43]
In insects there is also a crop. The insect stomach is called the midgut.
Information about the stomach in echinoderms or molluscs can be found under the respective articles.
Additional images[edit]
Greater omentum and stomach of humans
Human stomach
A more realistic image, showing the celiac artery and its branches in humans; the liver has been raised, and the lesser omentum and anterior layer of the greater omentum removed.
An autopsy of a human stomach. 2012 Instituto Nacional de Cardiología
Human stomach
The gastrointestinal wall of the human stomach.
Endoscopic image of human fundic gland polyposis.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stomach.
Gut flora
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Proton pump inhibitors
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Diagram from cancer.gov. Work of the United States Government
Jump up ^ Physiology: 6/6ch2/s6ch2_30 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Jump up ^ The Stomach at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University)
Jump up ^ Key to way stomach expands found. BBC (3 March 2008)
Jump up ^ Sherwood, Lauralee (1997). Human physiology: from cells to systems. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub. Co. ISBN 0-314-09245-5. OCLC 35270048.
Jump up ^ Anatomy photo:37:06-0103 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center – "Abdominal Cavity: The Stomach"
Jump up ^ Brunicardi, F. Charles; Andersen, Dana K.; et al., eds. (2010). Schwartz's principles of surgery (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. ISBN 0071547703.
Jump up ^ Lenglinger, J et al. (2012). "The cardia: esophageal or gastric? Critical reviewing the anatomy and histopathology of the esophagogastric junction". Acta Chir Iugosl. 59 (3). pp. 15–26. PMID 23654002. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Anne M. R. Agur; Moore, Keith L. (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy (Point (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)). Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-6274-X. OCLC 172964542. ; p. 150
^ Jump up to: a b c Gary C. Schoenwolf (2009). "Development of the Gastrointestinal Tract". Larsen's human embryology (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-443-06811-9.
Jump up ^ Richard M. Gore; Marc S. Levine. (2007). Textbook of Gastrointestinal Radiology. Philadelphia, PA.: Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2332-1.
Jump up ^ Krehbiel, C.R.; Matthews, J.C. "Absorption of Amino acids and Peptides" (PDF). In D'Mello, J.P.F. Amino Acids in Animal Nutrition (2nd ed.). pp. 41–70.
Jump up ^ "Alcohol and the Human Body". Intoximeters, Inc. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Debry, Gérard (1994). Coffee and Health (PDF (eBook)). Montrouge: John Libbey Eurotext. p. 129. ISBN 9782742000371. Retrieved 2015-04-26.
Jump up ^ McGuire, Michelle; Beerman, Kathy (2012-01-01). Nutritional Sciences: From Fundamentals to Food (3 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 419. ISBN 1133707386.
Jump up ^ Herbst RS (2004). "Review of epidermal growth factor receptor biology". International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 59 (2 Suppl): 21–6. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2003.11.041. PMID 15142631.
Jump up ^ Venturi S.; Venturi M. (2009). "Iodine in evolution of salivary glands and in oral health". Nutrition and Health. 20 (2): 119–134. doi:10.1177/026010600902000204. PMID 19835108.
Jump up ^ Uematsu, A; Tsurugizawa, T; Kondoh, T; Torii, K. (2009). "Conditioned flavor preference learning by intragastric administration of L-glutamate in rats". Neurosci. Lett. 451 (3): 190–3. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.12.054. PMID 19146916.
Jump up ^ Uematsu, A; Tsurugizawa, T; Uneyama, H; Torii, K. (2010). "Brain-gut communication via vagus nerve modulates conditioned flavor preference". Eur J Neurosci. 31 (6): 1136–43. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07136.x. PMID 20377626.
^ Jump up to: a b De Araujo, Ivan E.; Oliveira-Maia, Albino J.; Sotnikova, Tatyana D.; Gainetdinov, Raul R.; Caron, Marc G.; Nicolelis, Miguel A.L.; Simon, Sidney A. (2008). "Food Reward in the Absence of Taste Receptor Signaling". Neuron. 57 (6): 930–41. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.032. PMID 18367093.
^ Jump up to: a b Perez, C.; Ackroff, K.; Sclafani, A. (1996). "Carbohydrate- and protein conditioned flavor preferences: effects of nutrient preloads". Physiol. Behav. 59 (3): 467–474. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(95)02085-3. PMID 8700948.
Jump up ^ Ackroff, K.; Lucas, F.; Sclafani, A. (2005). "Flavor preference conditioning as a function of fat source". Physiol. Behav. 85 (4): 448–460. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.05.006. PMID 15990126.
Jump up ^ "The human proteome in stomach - The Human Protein Atlas". www.proteinatlas.org. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
Jump up ^ Uhlén, Mathias; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Lindskog, Cecilia; Oksvold, Per; Mardinoglu, Adil; Sivertsson, Åsa; Kampf, Caroline; Sjöstedt, Evelina (2015-01-23). "Tissue-based map of the human proteome". Science. 347 (6220): 1260419. doi:10.1126/science.1260419. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25613900.
Jump up ^ Gremel, Gabriela; Wanders, Alkwin; Cedernaes, Jonathan; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn; Edlund, Karolina; Sjöstedt, Evelina; Uhlén, Mathias; Pontén, Fredrik (2015-01-01). "The human gastrointestinal tract-specific transcriptome and proteome as defined by RNA sequencing and antibody-based profiling". Journal of Gastroenterology. 50 (1): 46–57. doi:10.1007/s00535-014-0958-7. ISSN 0944-1174.
Jump up ^ Masaoka, Tatsuhiro; Tack, Jan (30 September 2009). "Gastroparesis: Current Concepts and Management". Gut and Liver. 3 (3): 166–173. doi:10.5009/gnl.2009.3.3.166. PMC 2852706  . PMID 20431741.
Jump up ^ Brown, LM (2000). "Helicobacter pylori: epidemiology and routes of transmission". Epidemiologic Reviews. 22 (2): 283–97. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a018040. PMID 11218379.
Jump up ^ cardiectomy at dictionary.reference.com
Jump up ^ Barlow, O. W. (1929). "The survival of the circulation in the frog web after cardiectomy". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 35 (1): 17–24. Retrieved February 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ Meltzer, S. J. (1913). "The effect of strychnin in cardiectomized frogs with destroyed lymph hearts; a demonstration". American Journal of Physiology. 10 (2): xix. doi:10.3181/00379727-10-16.
Jump up ^ Digestive Disease Library. hopkins-gi.nts.jhu.edu
Jump up ^ Department of Physiology and Cell Biology. physio.unr.edu
Jump up ^ Esophagogastroduodenoscopy. eMedicine
Jump up ^ Barrett KE (2006) "Chapter 7. Esophageal Motility" in Gastrointestinal Physiology. Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071104968
Jump up ^ Sugarbaker, David J.; et al. (2009). Adult chest surgery. with Marcia Williams and Ann Adams. New York: McGraw Hill Medical. ISBN 0071434143.
Jump up ^ Simpson, J. A. (1989). The Oxford English dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stomach. ISBN 9780198611868.
Jump up ^ gasth/r. The New Testament Greek Lexicon
Jump up ^ gaster. dictionary.reference.com
Jump up ^ Simpson, J. A. (1989). The Oxford English dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gastro, Gastric. ISBN 9780198611868.
Jump up ^ William O. Reece (2005). Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals. ISBN 978-0-7817-4333-4.
Jump up ^ Finegan, Esther J. & Stevens, C. Edward. "Digestive System of Vertebrates".
Jump up ^ Khalil, Muhammad. "The anatomy of the digestive system". onemedicine.tuskegee.edu.
^ Jump up to: a b c Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 345–349. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
External links[edit]
Look up stomach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Stomach at the Human Protein Atlas
"Stomach" article from the Encyclopedia of Nursing & Allied Health, from enotes.com
Digestion of proteins in the stomach or tiyan
Site with details of how ruminants process food
Medical diagram of gastric blood supply
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https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lestomak
Lestomak – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C5%9Fik
Aşik – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomachus
Stomachus – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrandis
Skrandis – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maag
Maag – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ln
display: none;

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomegh
Stomegh – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyomor
Gyomor – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perut
Perut – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94i
Ôi – Min Dong Chinese
cdo
cdo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values: အစာအိမ် – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maag
Maag – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%83
胃 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magesekk
Magesekk – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estomac
Estomac – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eges
Eges – Pangasinan
pag
pag
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pag
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomac
Stomac – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiq%27i
Hiq'i – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Желудок человека – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painch
Painch – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calool
Calool – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Желудац – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burih
Burih – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikmura
Sikmura – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: இரைப்பை – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Кеше ашказаны – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: జీర్ణకోశం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: กระเพาะอาหาร – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mide
Mide – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ئاشقازان – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-za
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mago
Mago – Võro
fiu-vro
fiu-vro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyan
Tiyan – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pize
Pize – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%83
胃 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiluu
Hiluu – Kabiye
kbp
kbp
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp
display: none;

values:
https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomaco
Stomaco – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Stomach rootpage-Stomach skin-vector action-view