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Pont du Gard
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Pont du Gard
Coordinates
43°56′50″N 04°32′08″E / 43.94722°N 4.53556°E / 43.94722; 4.53556Coordinates: 43°56′50″N 04°32′08″E / 43.94722°N 4.53556°E / 43.94722; 4.53556
Carries
Roman aqueduct of Nîmes
Crosses
Gardon River
Locale
Vers-Pont-du-Gard, Gard, France
Maintained by
Public Association of Cultural Cooperation (since 2003)
Website
www.pontdugard.fr
Characteristics
Design
Arch bridge
Material
Shelly limestone
Total length
upper: 275 m (902 ft) (originally: 360 m (1,180 ft))
mid: 242 m (794 ft)
low: 142 m (466 ft)
Width
6.4 m (21 ft) (max)
1.2 m (4 ft) (aqueduct)
Height
48.8 m (160 ft) (total)
1.8 m (6 ft) (aqueduct)
No. of spans
upper: 35 (originally: 47)
mid: 11
low: 6
Piers in water
5
History
Construction end
40-60 AD?
Construction cost
30 million sesterces (est.)
Closed
6th century?
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct)
Type
Cultural
Criteria
i, iii, iv
Designated
1985 (9th session)
Reference no.
344
State Party
France
Region
Europe and North America
Monument historique
Designated
1840
Reference no.
PA00103291
Pont du Gard
Location in France
References
[1][2][3]
The Pont du Gard is an ancient Roman aqueduct that crosses the Gardon River near the town of Vers-Pont-du-Gard in southern France. The Pont du Gard is the highest of all elevated Roman aqueducts, and, along with the Aqueduct of Segovia, one of the best preserved. It was added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1985 because of its historical importance.
The aqueduct bridge is part of the Nîmes aqueduct, a 50-kilometre (31 mi) system built in the first century AD to carry water from a spring at Uzès to the Roman colony of Nemausus (Nîmes).[4] Because of the uneven terrain between the two points, the mostly underground aqueduct followed a long, winding route that called for a bridge across the gorge of the Gardon River.
The bridge has three tiers of arches, stands 48.8 m (160 ft) high, and descends a mere 2.5 centimetres (1 in) – a gradient of only 1 in 18,241 – while the whole aqueduct descends in height by only 12.6 m (41 ft) over its entire length, which is indicative of the great precision that Roman engineers were able to achieve, using simple technology. The aqueduct formerly carried an estimated 40,000 m3 (8,800,000 imp gal) of water a day to the fountains, baths and homes of the citizens of Nîmes. It may have been in use as late as the 6th century, with some parts used for significantly longer, but a lack of maintenance after the 4th century led to clogging by mineral deposits and debris that eventually choked off the flow of water.
After the Roman Empire collapsed and the aqueduct fell into disuse, the Pont du Gard remained largely intact, due to the importance of its secondary function, as a toll bridge. For centuries the local lords and bishops were responsible for its upkeep, in exchange for the right to levy tolls on travellers using it to cross the river, although some of its stones were looted and serious damage was inflicted on it in the 17th century. It attracted increasing attention starting in the 18th century, and became an important tourist destination.
It underwent a series of renovations between the 18th and 21st centuries, commissioned by the local authorities and the French state, that culminated in 2000 with the opening of a new visitor centre and the removal of traffic and buildings from the bridge and the area immediately around it. Today it is one of France's most popular tourist attractions, and has attracted the attention of a succession of literary and artistic visitors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Route of the Nîmes aqueduct
1.2 Description of the bridge
2 History
3 Tourism
3.1 Literary visitors
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Description[edit]
Route of the Nîmes aqueduct[edit]
The Roman aqueduct from Fontaine d'Eure near Uzès to Nemausus (Nîmes) passes over the Pont du Gard, and many other significant bridges (not to scale).
The location of Nemausus (Nîmes) was somewhat inconvenient when it came to providing a water supply. Plains lie to the city's south and east, where any sources of water would be at too low an altitude to be able to flow to the city, while the hills to the west made a water supply route too difficult from an engineering point of view. The only real alternative was to look to the north and in particular to the area around Ucetia (Uzès), where there are natural springs.[5]
The Nîmes aqueduct was built to channel water from the springs of the Fontaine d'Eure near Uzès to the castellum divisorum (repartition basin) in Nemausus. From there, it was distributed to fountains, baths and private homes around the city. The straight-line distance between the two is only about 20 km (12 mi) but the aqueduct takes a winding route measuring around 50 km (31 mi).[6] This was necessary to circumvent the southernmost foothills of the Massif Central, known as the Garrigues de Nîmes. They are difficult to cross, as they are covered in dense vegetation and garrigue and indented by deep valleys.[7] It was impractical for the Romans to attempt to tunnel through the hills, as it would have required a tunnel of between 8 and 10 kilometres (5 and 6 mi), depending on the starting point. A roughly V-shaped course around the eastern end of the Garrigues de Nîmes was therefore the only practical way of transporting the water from the spring to the city.
The Fontaine d'Eure, at 76 m (249 ft) above sea level, is only 17 m (56 ft) higher than the repartition basin in Nîmes, but this provided a sufficient gradient to sustain a steady flow of water to the 50,000 inhabitants of the Roman city. The aqueduct's average gradient is only 1 in 3,000. It varies widely along its course, but is as little as 1 in 20,000 in some sections. The Pont du Gard itself descends 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in 456 m (1,496 ft), a gradient of 1 in 18,241.[8] The average gradient between the start and end of the aqueduct is far shallower than was usual for Roman aqueducts – only about a tenth of the average gradient of some of the aqueducts in Rome.[9]
The reason for the disparity in gradients along the aqueduct's route is that a uniform gradient would have meant that the Pont du Gard would have been infeasibly high, given the limitations of the technology of the time. By varying the gradient along the route, the aqueduct's engineers were able to lower the height of the bridge by 6 metres (20 ft) to 48.77 metres (160.0 ft) above the river – still exceptionally high by Roman standards, but within acceptable limits. This height limit governed the profile and gradients of the entire aqueduct, but it came at the price of creating a "sag" in the middle of the aqueduct. The gradient profile before the Pont du Gard is relatively steep, descending at 0.67 metres (2 ft 2 in) per kilometre, but thereafter it descends by only 6 metres (20 ft) over the remaining 25 kilometres (16 mi). In one section, the winding route between the Pont du Gard and St Bonnet required an extraordinary degree of accuracy from the Roman engineers, who had to allow for a fall of only 7 millimetres (0.28 in) per 100 metres (330 ft) of the conduit.[10]
´It is estimated that the aqueduct supplied the city with around 40,000 cubic metres (8,800,000 imp gal) of water a day[11] that took nearly 27 hours to flow from the source to the city.[12] The water arrived in the castellum divisorum at Nîmes – an open, shallow, circular basin 5.5 m in diameter by 1 m deep. It would have been surrounded by a balustrade within some sort of enclosure, probably under some kind of small but elaborate pavilion. When it was excavated, traces of a tiled roof, Corinthian columns and a fresco decorated with fish and dolphins were discovered in a fragmentary condition.[13] The aqueduct water entered through an opening 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) wide, and ten large holes in the facing wall, each 40 centimetres (16 in) wide, directed the water into the city's main water pipes. Three large drains were also located in the floor, possibly to enable the nearby amphitheatre to be flooded rapidly to enable naumachia (mock naval battles) to be held.[14]
The water tank or castellum divisorum at Nîmes, into which the aqueduct emptied. The round holes were where the city's water supply pipes connected to the tank.
The spring still exists and is now the site of a small modern pumping station. Its water is pure but high in dissolved calcium carbonate leached out of the surrounding limestone. This presented the Romans with significant problems in maintaining the aqueduct, as the carbonates precipitated out of the water during its journey through the conduit. This caused the flow of the aqueduct to become progressively reduced by deposits of calcareous sinter.[15] Another threat was posed by vegetation penetrating the stone lid of the channel. As well as obstructing the flow of the water, dangling roots introduced algae and bacteria that decomposed in a process called biolithogenesis, producing concretions within the conduit. It required constant maintenance by circitores, workers responsible for the aqueduct's upkeep, who crawled along the conduit scrubbing the walls clean and removing any vegetation.[16]
Much of the Nîmes aqueduct was built underground, as was typical of Roman aqueducts. It was constructed by digging a trench in which a stone channel was built and enclosed by an arched roof of stone slabs, which was then covered with earth. Some sections of the channel are tunnelled through solid rock. In all, 35 km (22 mi) of the aqueduct was constructed below the ground.[17] The remainder had to be carried on the surface through conduits set on a wall or on arched bridges. Some substantial remains of the above-ground works can still be seen today, such as the so-called "Pont Rue" that stretches for hundreds of metres around Vers and still stands up to 7.5 m (25 ft) high.[18] Other surviving parts include the Pont de Bornègre, three arches carrying the aqueduct 17 m (56 ft) across a stream; the Pont de Sartanette, near the Pont du Gard, which covers 32 m (105 ft) across a small valley; and three sections of aqueduct tunnel near Sernhac, measuring up to 66 m (217 ft) long.[19] However, the Pont du Gard is by far the best preserved section of the entire aqueduct.
Description of the bridge[edit]
Cross section of the Pont du Gard (right) and the 18th century road bridge (left) (Alfred Léger, 1875)[20]
Built on three levels, the Pont is 49 m (161 ft) high above the river at low water and 274 m (899 ft) long. Its width varies from 9 m (30 ft) at the bottom to 3 m (9.8 ft) at the top.[21] The three levels of arches are recessed, with the main piers in line one above another. The span of the arches varies slightly, as each was constructed independently to provide flexibility to protect against subsidence. Each level has a differing number of arches:[20][22]
Level
Number of arches
Length of level
Thickness of piers
Height of arches
Lower (1st row)
6 142 m (466 ft) 6 m (20 ft) 22 m (72 ft)
Middle (2nd row)
11 242 m (794 ft) 4 m (13 ft) 20 m (66 ft)
Upper (3rd row)
35 (originally 47) 275 m (902 ft) 3 m (9.8 ft) 7 m (23 ft)
The first level of the Pont du Gard adjoins a road bridge that was added in the 18th century. The water conduit or specus, which is about 1.8 m (6 ft) high and 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, is carried at the top of the third level. The upper levels of the bridge are slightly curved in the upstream direction. It was long believed that the engineers had designed it this way deliberately to strengthen the bridge's structure against the flow of water, like a dam wall. However, a microtopographic survey carried out in 1989 showed that the bend is caused by the stone expanding and contracting by about 5 mm (0.20 in) a day under the heat of the sun. Over the centuries, this process has produced the current deformation.[23]
The Pont du Gard was constructed largely without the use of mortar or clamps. It contains an estimated 50,400 tons of limestone with a volume of some 21,000 m3 (740,000 cu ft); some of the individual blocks weigh up to 6 tons.[24] Most of the stone was extracted from the local quarry of Estel located approximately 700 metres (2,300 ft) downstream, on the banks of the Gardon River.[25][26] The coarse-grained soft reddish shelly limestone, known locally as "Pierre de Vers", lends itself very well to dimension stone production. The blocks were precisely cut to fit perfectly together by friction alone, eliminating the need for mortar.[11] The builders also left inscriptions on the stonework conveying various messages and instructions. Many blocks were numbered and inscribed with the required locations, such as fronte dextra or fronte sinistra (front right or front left), to guide the builders.[27]
The method of construction is fairly well understood by historians.[28][29][30] The patron of the aqueduct – a rich individual or the city of Nîmes itself – would have hired a large team of contractors and skilled labourers. A surveyor or mensor planned the route using a groma for sighting, the chorobates for levelling, and a set of measuring poles five or ten Roman feet long. His figures and perhaps diagrams were recorded on wax tablets, later to be written up on scrolls. The builders may have used templates to guide them with tasks that required a high degree of precision, such as carving the standardised blocks from which the water conduit was constructed.[31]
The builders would have made extensive use of cranes and block and tackle pulleys to lift the stones into place. Much of the work could have been done using simple sheers operated by a windlass. For the largest blocks, a massive human-powered treadmill would have been used; such machines were still being used in the quarries of Provence until as late as the start of the 20th century.[31] A complex scaffold was erected to support the bridge as it was being built. Large blocks were left protruding from the bridge to support the frames and scaffolds used during construction.[22] The aqueduct as a whole would have been a very expensive undertaking; Émile Espérandieu estimated the cost to be over 30 million sesterces,[31][32] equivalent to 50 years' pay for 500 new recruits in a Roman legion.[19]
Features of the Pont du Gard
Side view of the Pont du Gard, showing the three rows of arches
Stonework on the Pont du Gard, showing the protruding blocks that were used to support the scaffolding
The underside of an arch on the second tier of the Pont du Gard. Note the missing stonework atop the aqueduct.
The road bridge adjacent to the aqueduct. Pedestrians are shown for scale.
Interior of the water conduit of the Pont du Gard
Although the exterior of the Pont du Gard is rough and relatively unfinished, the builders took care to ensure that the interior of the water conduit was as smooth as possible so that the flow of water would not be obstructed. The walls of the conduit were constructed from dressed masonry and the floor from concrete. Both were covered with a stucco incorporating minute shards of pottery and tile. It was painted with olive oil and covered with maltha, a mixture of slaked lime, pork grease and the viscous juice of unripe figs. This produced a surface that was both smooth and durable.[33]
Although the Pont du Gard is renowned for its appearance, its design is not optimal as the technique of stacking arches on top of each other is clumsy and inefficient (and therefore expensive) in the amount of materials it requires. Later aqueducts had a more sophisticated design, making greater use of concrete to reduce their volume and cost of construction. The Aqueduct bridge of Segovia and the Pont de les Ferreres are of roughly similar length but use far fewer arches. Roman architects were eventually able to do away with "stacking" altogether. The Acueducto de los Milagros in Mérida, Spain and the Chabet Ilelouine aqueduct bridge, near Cherchell, Algeria [34] utilise tall, slender piers, constructed from top to bottom with concrete-faced masonry and brick.[35]
History[edit]
Engraving of the Pont du Gard by Charles-Louis Clérisseau, 1804, showing the seriously dilapidated state of the bridge at the start of the 19th century
The construction of the aqueduct has long been credited to the Roman emperor Augustus' son-in-law and aide, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, around the year 19 BC. At the time, he was serving as aedile, the senior magistrate responsible for managing the water supply of Rome and its colonies. Espérandieu, writing in 1926, linked the construction of the aqueduct with Agrippa's visit to Narbonensis in that year.[7] Newer excavations suggest the construction may have taken place between 40 and 60 AD. Tunnels dating from the time of Augustus had to be bypassed by the builders of the Nîmes aqueduct, and coins discovered in the outflow in Nîmes are no older than the reign of the emperor Claudius (41–54 AD). On this basis, a team led by Guilhem Fabre has argued that the aqueduct must have been completed around the middle of the 1st century AD.[36] It is believed to have taken about fifteen years to build, employing between 800 and 1,000 workers.[37]
From the 4th century onwards, the aqueduct's maintenance was neglected as successive waves of invaders disrupted the region.[33] It became clogged with debris, encrustations and plant roots, greatly reducing the flow of the water. The resulting deposits in the conduit, consisting of layers of dirt and organic material, are up to 50 cm (20 in) thick on each wall.[38] An analysis of the deposits originally suggested that it had continued to supply water to Nîmes until as late as the 9th century,[39] but more recent investigations suggest that it had gone out of use by about the sixth century, though parts of it may have continued to be used for significantly longer.[40]
West end of the Pont du Gard in 1891, showing the stairs installed by Charles Laisné to enable visitors to enter the conduit
Although some of its stones were plundered for use elsewhere, the Pont du Gard remained largely intact. Its survival was due to its use as a toll bridge across the valley. In the 13th century the French king granted the seigneurs of Uzès the right to levy tolls on those using the bridge. The right later passed to the Bishops of Uzès. In return, they were responsible for maintaining the bridge in good repair.[39] However, it suffered serious damage during the 1620s when Henri, Duke of Rohan made use of the bridge to transport his artillery during the wars between the French royalists and the Huguenots, whom he led. To make space for his artillery to cross the bridge, the duke had one side of the second row of arches cut away to a depth of about one-third of their original thickness. This left a gap on the lowest deck wide enough to accommodate carts and cannons, but severely weakened the bridge in the process.[41]
In 1703 the local authorities renovated the Pont du Gard to repair cracks, fill in ruts and replace the stones lost in the previous century. A new bridge was built by the engineer Henri Pitot in 1743–47 next to the arches of the lower level, so that the road traffic could cross on a purpose-built bridge.[11][41] The novelist Alexandre Dumas was strongly critical of the construction of the new bridge, commenting that "it was reserved for the eighteenth century to dishonour a monument which the barbarians of the fifth had not dared to destroy."[42] The Pont du Gard continued to deteriorate and by the time Prosper Mérimée saw it in 1835 it was at serious risk of collapse from erosion and the loss of stonework.[43]
Napoleon III, who had a great admiration for all things Roman, visited the Pont du Gard in 1850 and took a close interest in it. He approved plans by the architect Charles Laisné to repair the bridge in a project which was carried out between 1855–58, with funding provided by the Ministry of State. The work involved substantial renovations that included replacing the eroded stone, infilling some of the piers with concrete to aid stability and improving drainage by separating the bridge from the aqueduct. Stairs were installed at one end and the conduit walls were repaired, allowing visitors to walk along the conduit itself in reasonable safety.[43]
There have been a number of subsequent projects to consolidate the piers and arches of the Pont du Gard. It has survived three serious floods over the last century; in 1958 the whole of the lower tier was submerged by a giant flood that washed away other bridges,[43] and in 1998 another major flood affected the area. A further flood struck in 2002, badly damaging nearby installations.
The Pont du Gard was added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1985 on the criteria of "Human creative genius; testimony to cultural tradition; significance to human history".[44] The description on the list states: "The hydraulic engineers and ... architects who conceived this bridge created a technical as well as artistic masterpiece."[11]
Tourism[edit]
The Pont du Gard has been a tourist attraction for centuries. The outstanding quality of the bridge's masonry led to it becoming an obligatory stop for French journeymen masons on their traditional tour around the country (see Compagnons du Tour de France), many of whom have left their names on the stonework. From the 18th century onwards, particularly after the construction of the new road bridge, it became a famous staging-post for travellers on the Grand Tour and became increasingly renowned as an object of historical importance and French national pride.[45]
The bridge has had a long association with French monarchs seeking to associate themselves with a symbol of Roman imperial power. King Charles IX of France visited in 1564 during his Grand Tour of France and was greeted with a grand entertainment laid on by the Duc d'Uzès. Twelve young girls dressed as nymphs came out of a cave by the riverside near the aqueduct and presented the king with pastry and preserved fruits.[42] A century later, Louis XIV and his court visited the Pont du Gard during a visit to Nîmes in January 1660 shortly after the signature of the Treaty of the Pyrenees.[46] In 1786 his great-great-great-grandson Louis XVI commissioned the artist Hubert Robert to produce a set of paintings of Roman ruins of southern France to hang in the king's new dining room at the Palace of Fontainebleau, including a picture depicting the Pont du Gard in an idealised landscape. The commission was meant to reassert the ties between the French monarchy and the imperial past.[47] Napoleon III, in the mid-19th century, consciously identified with Augustus and accorded great respect to Roman antiquities; his patronage of the bridge's restoration in the 1850s was essential to its survival.[48]
By the 1990s the Pont du Gard had become a hugely popular tourist attraction but was congested with traffic – vehicles were still allowed to drive over the 1743 road bridge – and was cluttered with illegally built structures and tourist shops lining the river banks. As the architect Jean-Paul Viguier put it, the "appetite for gain" had transformed the Pont du Gard into "a fairground attraction".[49] In 1996 the General Council of the Gard département began a major four-year project to improve the area, sponsored by the French government, in conjunction with local sources, UNESCO and the EU. The entire area around the bridge was pedestrianised and a new visitor centre was built on the north bank to a design by Jean-Paul Viguier. The redevelopment has ensured that the area around the Pont du Gard is now much quieter due to the removal of vehicle traffic, and the new museum provides a much improved historical context for visitors.[50] The Pont du Gard is today one of France's top five tourist attractions, with 1.4 million visitors reported in 2001.[51]
Literary visitors[edit]
Le Pont du Gard, painted by Hubert Robert for King Louis XVI in 1787
Since it became a tourist destination, many novelists and writers have visited the Pont du Gard and written of the experience. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was overwhelmed when he first visited it in 1738: [52]
I had been told to go and see the Pont du Gard; I did not fail to do so. It was the first work of the Romans that I had seen. I expected to see a monument worthy of the hands which had constructed it. This time the object surpassed my expectation, for the only time in my life. Only the Romans could have produced such an effect. The sight of this simple and noble work struck me all the more since it is in the middle of a wilderness where silence and solitude render the object more striking and the admiration more lively; for this so-called bridge was only an aqueduct. One asks oneself what force has transported these enormous stones so far from any quarry, and what brought together the arms of so many thousands of men in a place where none of them live. I wandered about the three storeys of this superb edifice although my respect for it almost kept me from daring to trample it underfoot. The echo of my footsteps under these immense vaults made me imagine that I heard the strong voices of those who had built them. I felt myself lost like an insect in that immensity. While making myself small, I felt an indefinable something that raised up my soul, and I said to myself with a sigh, "Why was I not born a Roman!"[53]
The novelist Henry James, visiting in 1884, was similarly impressed; he described the Pont du Gard as "unspeakably imposing, and nothing could well be more Roman." He commented:
The hugeness, the solidity, the unexpectedness, the monumental rectitude of the whole thing leave you nothing to say – at the time – and make you stand gazing. You simply feel that it is noble and perfect, that it has the quality of greatness ... When the vague twilight began to gather, the lonely valley seemed to fill itself with the shadow of the Roman name, as if the mighty empire were still as erect as the supports of the aqueduct; and it was open to a solitary tourist, sitting there sentimental, to believe that no people has ever been, or will ever be, as great as that, measured, as we measure the greatness of an individual, by the push they gave to what they undertook. The Pont du Gard is one of the three or four deepest impressions they have left; it speaks of them in a manner with which they might have been satisfied.[54]
The mid-19th-century writer Joseph Méry wrote in his 1853 book Les Nuits italiennes, contes nocturnes that on seeing the Pont du Gard:
[O]ne is struck dumb with astonishment; you are walking in a desert where nothing reminds you of man; cultivation has disappeared; there are ravines, heaths, blocks of rock, clusters of rushes, oaks, massed together, a stream which flows by a melancholy strand, wild mountains, a silence like that of Thebaid, and in the midst of this landscape springs up the most magnificent object that civilization has created for the glory of the fine arts.[55]
Hilaire Belloc wrote in 1928 that:
[W]hen one sees the thing all that is said of it comes true. Its isolation, its dignity, its weight, are all three awful. It looks as though it had been built long before all record by beings greater than ourselves, and were intended to stand long after the dissolution of our petty race. One can repose in it. I confess to a great reluctance to praise what has been praised too much; but so it is. A man, suffering from the unrest of our time, might do worse than camp out for three days, fishing and bathing under the shadow of the Pont du Gard.[56]
See also[edit]
Eifel Aqueduct
List of aqueducts in the city of Rome
List of Roman aqueduct bridges
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Espérandieu, Emile (1926). Le Pont du Gard et l'aqueduc de Nîmes (in French). Paris: H. Laurens. OCLC 616562598.
^ Jump up to: a b O'Rourke Boyle, Marjorie (1997). Divine domesticity: Augustine of Thagaste to Teresa of Avila. Leiden: Brill. p. 105.
Jump up ^ "Aqueduct Cherchell (Algeria)". Romanaqueducts.info. Retrieved 28 July 2012. (location:36°34′6.33″N 2°17′25.39″E / 36.5684250°N 2.2903861°E / 36.5684250; 2.2903861)
Jump up ^ Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). A history of engineering in classical and medieval times. Routledge. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-415-15291-4.
Jump up ^ Fabre, Guilhem; Fiches, Jean-Luc; Paillet, Jean-Louis (1991). "Interdisciplinary Research on the Aqueduct of Nimes and the Pont du Gard". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 4: 63–88.
Jump up ^ Strachan, Edward; Bolton, Roy (2008). Russia & Europe in the Nineteenth Century. Sphinx Fine Art. p. 60. ISBN 9781907200021.
Jump up ^ Homer-Dixon, Thomas F. (2006). The upside of down: catastrophe, creativity, and the renewal of civilization. Island Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-59726-065-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Cleere, Henry (2001). Southern France: an Oxford archaeological guide. Oxford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-19-288006-2.
Jump up ^ Magnusson, Roberta J. (2001). Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries, and Waterworks after the Roman Empire. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0801866265.
^ Jump up to: a b Rennie, George (1855). "Description of the Pont du Gard". Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 14: 238.
^ Jump up to: a b Wigan, Arthur C. (1856). The great wonders of the world: from the pyramids to the Crystal Palace. George Routledge and Sons. pp. 39–40.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bromwich, p. 117
Jump up ^ UNESCO (2012). The World's Heritage. Collins. p. 229. ISBN 978-0007435616.
Jump up ^ Stirton, Paul (2003). Provence and the Côte d'Azur. A&C Black Publishers Ltd. p. 116. ISBN 0-393-30972-X.
Jump up ^ Laval, Eugène (1853). Monuments historiques du Gard. impr. de Soustelle-Gaude. p. XXI.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Christie; Hoffmann, Stacey (2010). Rousseau and Freedom. Cambridge University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-521-51582-5.
Jump up ^ Hodge, p. 400 fn. 7
Jump up ^ Viguier, Jean-Paul (2009). Architecte. Odile Jacob. p. 11. ISBN 978-2-7381-2304-6.
Jump up ^ "Presentation works of Pont du Gard". Site du Pont du Gard. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Schmid, John (2001-08-22). "Euro Bill Hits a High Note With Folks in Small French Town". International Herald Tribune.
Jump up ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1889). " Livre VI" (in French). Les Confessions. Launette. Wikisource. pp. 223–269.
Jump up ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1998). The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes. 5. trans. Christopher Kelly. UPNE. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-87451-836-8.
Jump up ^ James, Henry (1993). Howard, Richard, ed. Collected Travel Writings: The Continent. A little tour in France ; Italian hours ; other travels. Library of America. pp. 189–90. ISBN 978-0-940450-77-6.
Jump up ^ Méry, Joseph (1858). "L'Italie des Gaules". Les nuits italiennes: contes nocturnes (in French). Paris: M. Lévy Frères. p. 280.
Jump up ^ Belloc, Hilaire (1928). Many cities. Constable.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Pont du Gard (category)
Official Pont du Gard museum website
Pont du Gard at Structurae
Photos of the aqueduct le Pont du Gard
Full Aqueduct (Uzès to Nîmes) website (in French)
Pont du Gard: Picture Gallery
600 Roman aqueducts with 35 descriptions in detail among which is the Pont du Gard
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World Heritage Sites in France
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List of large volcanic eruptions of the 20th century
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This is a list of volcanic eruptions of the 20th century measuring a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of at least 4, as well as notable smaller eruptions. Note that there may be many other eruptions that have not been identified, and estimates for the size of eruptions can be subject to considerable uncertainties.
VEI
Volcano (eruption)
Year
Casualties
Notes
4?
La Soufrière[1] 1902 1,680
4
Mount Pelée[2] 1902 33,000 Deadliest eruption of the 20th century and the deadliest natural disaster in the history of France.
6
Santa María[3] 1902 6,000
4
Grímsvötn[4] 1903
4
Mount Lolobau[5] 1904
5
Ksudach[6] 1907
4
Mount Lolobau[7] 1911
6
Novarupta[8] 1912 Largest eruption of the 20th century.
5
Colima[9] 1913
4
Sakurajima[10] 1914
4
Tungurahua[11] 1916
4
Agrihan[12] 1917
4+
Katla[13] 1918
4
Kelud[14] 1919 5,000
4
Manam[15] 1919
4
Raikoke[16] 1924
4?
Iriomote-jima[17] 1924 Underwater volcano.
4
Avachinsky[18] 1926
4
Komagatake[19] 1929
4
Kliuchevskoi[20] 1931
4
Mount Aniakchak[21] 1931
4
Volcan De Fuego[22] 1932
6
Cerro Azul (Quizapú Volcano)[23] 1932
5
Kharimkotan[24] 1933
4
Suoh[25] 1933
4?
Kuchinoerabujima[26] 1933
4?
Rabaul caldera[27] 1937 507
4
Parícutin[28] 1943–1952 The youngest volcano in the world.[citation needed] This volcano grew out of a corn field in Mexico and it was in a Mexican film named Paricutin. Scientists believe that this volcano is extinct even though it erupted once.
4
Avachinsky[29] 1945
4
Sarychev Peak[30] 1946
4
Hekla[31] 1947
4+
Ambrym[32] 1950
4
Mount Lamington[33] 1951 2,942
4
Kelud[34] 1951
4
Bagana[35] 1952
4
Mount Spurr[36] 1953
4
Carran-Los Venados[37] 1955
5
Bezymianny[38] 1955-1957
5
Mount Agung[39] 1963 1,584
4+
Shiveluch[40] 1964
4
Taal[41] 1965
4
Kelud[42] 1966
4
Mount Awu[43] 1966
4
Fernandina Island[44] 1968
4
Tiatia[45] 1973
4
Volcan De Fuego[46] 1974
4
Tolbachik[47] 1975
4
Mount Augustine[48] 1976
5
Mount St. Helens[49] 1980 55-60 Most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States. The eruption reached all the way to Montana but killed a small number of people and the blast of the volcano was heard 700 miles away.
4
Alaid[50] 1981
4
Pagan[51] 1981
5
El Chichón[52] 1982 3,500 Ejected 7 million metric tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere.[53]
4
Galunggung[54] 1982 Notable for bringing attention to the dangers of volcanic ash on aircraft after two Boeing 747 jets suffered engine failure from its ash cloud.
4
Colo[55] 1983
3
Nevado del Ruiz 1985 23,000 Armero tragedy
4
Mount Augustine[56] 1986
4
Chikurachki[57] 1986
4
Kliuchevskoi[58] 1987
3
Mount Redoubt 1989-1990 Second costliest volcanic eruption in United States history. Caused engine failure of all four engines on KLM Flight 867 after it flew through the ash cloud.
4
Kelud[59] 1990
6
Mount Pinatubo[60] 1991 847 Largest stratospheric disturbance since Krakatoa eruption in 1883, dropping global temperatures and increasing ozone depletion.
5+
Mount Hudson[61] 1991
4
Mount Spurr[62] 1992
4
Lascar[63] 1993
4?
Rabaul caldera[64] 1994
4
Soufriere Hills Volcano 1997 The major volcano eruption caused pyroclastic flows to move at 60-100 MPH and destroyed towns.
See also[edit]
List of large volcanic eruptions in the 21st century
List of large volcanic eruptions of the 19th century
List of natural disasters by death toll
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
Lists of volcanoes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1600-15=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E190256
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1600-12=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1902423
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1402-03=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19021024
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1703-01=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E190212
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0502-13=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E190489
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-05=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1907328
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0502-13=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1911
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1102-18-&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E191266
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1401-04=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1913117
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0802-08=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1914112
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-08=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E191633
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0804-16=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E191749
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-03=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19181012
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-28=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1919519
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0501-02=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1919811
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0900-25=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1924215
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0802-01=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19241031
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-10=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1926327
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Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1507-06=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1916
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0900-30=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E193318
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-27=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1933710
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Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-07=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1947329
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0507-04=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1950126
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0503-01=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1951117
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-28=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1951831
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0505-02=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1952229
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1103-04-&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E195379
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1507-14=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1955727
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-25=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19551022
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-02=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1963218
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-27=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19641112
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Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0804-17=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1981515
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1401-12=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1982328
Jump up ^ Robock, Alan (2002), "Volcanic eruption, El Chichon" (PDF), The Earth system: physical and chemical dimensions of global environment change, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chichester, 1: 736
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Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0606-01=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1983718
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1103-01-&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1986327
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0900-36=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19861118
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-26=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E19861127
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-28=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1990210
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0703-083&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E199142
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1508-057&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E199188
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1103-04-&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1992627
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1505-10=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1993130
Jump up ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0502-14=&volpage=erupt&format=expanded#E1994919
External links[edit]
VEI glossary entry from a USGS website
How to measure the size of a volcanic eruption, from The Guardian
The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth, a 2004 article from the Bulletin of Volcanology
List of Large Holocene Eruptions (VEI > 4) from the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program
VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index) from the Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
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Pulse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about heartbeats. For other uses, see Pulse (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Pulse sites. In bold font the more useful sites.
Pulse evaluation at the radial artery.
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), on the inside of the elbow (brachial artery), at the wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
2 Characteristics of pulse
2.1 Rate
2.2 Rhythm
2.3 Volume
2.3.1 Hypokinetic pulse
2.3.2 Hyperkinetic pulse
2.4 Force
2.5 Tension
2.6 Form
2.7 Equality
2.8 Condition of arterial wall
2.9 Radio-femoral delay
3 Patterns
4 Common palpable sites
4.1 Upper limb
4.2 Lower limb
4.3 Head and neck
4.4 Torso
5 History
6 See also
7 References
Physiology[edit]
The pulse is a decidedly low tech and high yield and antiquated term still useful at the bedside in an age of computational analysis of cardiac performance. Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse.[1] The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.
Pressure waves generated by the heart in systole move the arterial walls. Forward movement of blood occurs when the boundaries are pliable and compliant. These properties form enough to create a palpable pressure wave.
The heart rate may be greater or lesser than the pulse rate depending upon physiologic demand. In this case, the heart rate is determined by auscultation or audible sounds at the heart apex, in which case it is not the pulse. The pulse deficit (difference between heart beats and pulsations at the periphery) is determined by simultaneous palpation at the radial artery and auscultation at the PMI, near the heart apex. It may be present in case of premature beats or atrial fibrillation.
Pulse velocity, pulse deficits and much more physiologic data are readily and simplistically visualized by the use of one or more arterial catheters connected to a transducer and oscilloscope. This invasive technique has been commonly used in intensive care since the 1970s.
The rate of the pulse is observed and measured by tactile or visual means on the outside of an artery and is recorded as beats per minute or BPM.
The pulse may be further indirectly observed under light absorbances of varying wavelengths with assigned and inexpensively reproduced mathematical ratios. Applied capture of variances of light signal from the blood component hemoglobin under oxygenated vs. deoxygenated conditions allows the technology of pulse oximetry.
Characteristics of pulse[edit]
Rate[edit]
Normal pulse rates at rest, in beats per minute (BPM):[2]
Infant heartbeat
Infant heartbeat
Problems playing this file? See media help.
newborn
(0–3 months old)
infants
(3 – 6 months)
infants
(6 – 12 months)
children
(1 – 10 years)
children over 10 years
& adults, including seniors
well-trained
adult athletes
99-149 89–119 79-119 69–129 59–99 39–59
The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but bradycardias can be dangerous. Symptoms of a dangerously slow heartbeat include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.[3]
Rhythm[edit]
A normal pulse is regular in rhythm and force. An irregular pulse may be due to sinus arrhythmia, ectopic beats, atrial fibrillation, paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter, partial heart block etc. Intermittent dropping out of beats at pulse is called "intermittent pulse". Examples of regular intermittent (regularly irregular) pulse include pulsus bigeminus, second-degree atrioventricular block. An example of irregular intermittent (irregularly irregular) pulse is atrial fibrillation.
Volume[edit]
The degree of expansion displayed by artery during diastolic and systolic state is called volume. It is also known as amplitude, expansion or size of pulse.
Hypokinetic pulse[edit]
A weak pulse signifies narrow pulse pressure. It may be due to low cardiac output (as seen in shock, congestive cardiac failure), hypovolemia, valvular heart disease (such as aortic outflow tract obstruction, mitral stenosis, aortic arch syndrome) etc.
Hyperkinetic pulse[edit]
A bounding pulse signifies high pulse pressure. It may be due to low peripheral resistance (as seen in fever, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, hyperkinetic heart syndrome (de), A-V fistula, Paget's disease, beriberi, liver cirrhosis), increased cardiac output, increased stroke volume (as seen in anxiety, exercise, complete heart block, aortic regurgitation), decreased distensibility of arterial system (as seen in atherosclerosis, hypertension and coarctation of aorta).
The strength of the pulse can also be reported:[4][5]
0 = Absent
1 = Barely palpable
2 = Easily palpable
3 = Full
4 = Aneurysmal or bounding pulse
Force[edit]
Also known as compressibility of pulse. It is a rough measure of systolic blood pressure.
Tension[edit]
It corresponds to diastolic blood pressure. A low tension pulse (pulsus mollis), the vessel is soft or impalpable between beats. In high tension pulse (pulsus durus), vessels feel rigid even between pulse beats.
Form[edit]
A form or contour of a pulse is palpatiory estimation of arteriogram. A quickly rising and quickly falling pulse (pulsus celer) is seen in aortic regurgitation. A slow rising and slowly falling pulse (pulsus tardus) is seen in aortic stenosis.
Equality[edit]
Comparing pulses and different places gives valuable clinical information.
A discrepant or unequal pulse between left and right radial artery is observed in anomalous or aberrant course of artery, coarctation of aorta, aortitis, dissecting aneurysm, peripheral embolism etc. An unequal pulse between upper and lower extremities is seen in coarctation to aorta, aortitis, block at bifurcation of aorta, dissection of aorta, iatrogenic trauma and arteriosclerotic obstruction.
Condition of arterial wall[edit]
A normal artery is not palpable after flattening by digital pressure. A thick radial artery which is palpable 7.5–10 cm up the forearm is suggestive of arteriosclerosis.
Radio-femoral delay[edit]
In coarctation of aorta, femoral pulse may be significantly delayed as compared to radial pulse (unless there is coexisting aortic regurgitation). The delay can also be observed in supravalvar aortic stenosis.
Patterns[edit]
Several pulse patterns can be of clinically significance. These include:
Pulsus alternans: an ominous medical sign that indicates progressive systolic heart failure. To trained fingertips, the examiner notes a pattern of a strong pulse followed by a weak pulse over and over again. This pulse signals a flagging effort of the heart to sustain itself in systole.
Pulsus bigeminus: indicates a pair of hoofbeats within each heartbeat. Concurrent auscultation of the heart may reveal a gallop rhythm of the native heartbeat.
Pulsus bisferiens: an unusual physical finding typically seen in patients with aortic valve diseases. If the aortic valve does not normally open and close, trained fingertips will observe two pulses to each heartbeat instead of one.
Pulsus tardus et parvus (or anacrotic pulse): a slower than normal rise in the tactile pulse caused by an increasingly stiff aortic valve. Loss of compliance in the aortic valve makes it progressively harder to open, thus requiring increased generation of blood pressure in the left ventricle.
Pulsus paradoxus: a condition in which some heartbeats cannot be detected at the radial artery during the inspiration phase of respiration. It is caused by an exaggerated decrease in blood pressure during this phase, and is diagnostic of a variety of cardiac and respiratory conditions of varying urgency.
Tachycardia: an elevated resting heart rate. In general an electrocardiogram (ECG) is required to identify the type of tachycardia.
Pulsatile This description of the pulse implies the intrinsic physiology of systole and diastole. Scientifically, systole and diastole are forces that expand and contract the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
A collapsing pulse is a sign of hyperdynamic circulation.
Common palpable sites[edit]
Upper limb[edit]
Front of right upper extremity
Axillary pulse: located inferiorly of the lateral wall of the axilla
Brachial pulse: located on the inside of the upper arm near the elbow, frequently used in place of carotid pulse in infants (brachial artery)
Radial pulse: located on the lateral of the wrist (radial artery). It can also be found in the anatomical snuff box.
Ulnar pulse: located on the medial of the wrist (ulnar artery).
Chinese medicine has focused on the pulse in the upper limbs for several centuries. The concept of pulse diagnosis is essentially a treatise based upon palpation and observations of the radial and ulnar volar pulses at the readily accessible wrist.
Lower limb[edit]
Femoral pulse: located in the inner thigh, at the mid-inguinal point, halfway between the pubic symphysis and anterior superior iliac spine (femoral artery).
Popliteal pulse: Above the knee in the popliteal fossa, found by holding the bent knee. The patient bends the knee at approximately 124°, and the physician holds it in both hands to find the popliteal artery in the pit behind the knee (Popliteal artery).
Dorsalis pedis pulse: located on top of the foot, immediately lateral to the extensor of hallucis longus (dorsalis pedis artery).
Tibialis posterior pulse: located on the medial side of the ankle, 2 cm inferior and 2 cm posterior to the medial malleolus (posterior tibial artery). It is easily palpable over Pimenta's Point.
Head and neck[edit]
Arteries of the neck.
Carotid pulse: located in the neck (carotid artery). The carotid artery should be palpated gently and while the patient is sitting or lying down. Stimulating its baroreceptors with low palpitation can provoke severe bradycardia or even stop the heart in some sensitive persons. Also, a person's two carotid arteries should not be palpated at the same time. Doing so may limit the flow of blood to the head, possibly leading to fainting or brain ischemia. It can be felt between the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, above the hyoid bone and lateral to the thyroid cartilage.
Facial pulse: located on the mandible (lower jawbone) on a line with the corners of the mouth (facial artery).
Temporal pulse: located on the temple directly in front of the ear (superficial temporal artery).
Although the pulse can be felt in multiple places in the head, people should not normally hear their heartbeats within the head. This is called pulsatile tinnitus, and it can indicate several medical disorders.
Torso[edit]
Apical pulse: located in the 5th left intercostal space, 1.25 cm lateral to the mid-clavicular line. In contrast with other pulse sites, the apical pulse site is unilateral, and measured not under an artery, but below the heart itself (more specifically, the apex of the heart). See also apex beat.
History[edit]
The first person to accurately measure the pulse rate was Santorio Santorii who invented the pulsilogium, a form of pendulum, based on the work by Galileo Galilei. A century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function.
See also[edit]
Heart rate
Pulse meter
Tempo
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulse.
Jump up ^ Temkin 165;BBC[a]
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services - National Ites of Health Pulse
Jump up ^ "Pulse Rate Measurement". Healthwise. WebMD. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "www.meddean.luc.edu". Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ "Vascular Surgery, University of Kansas School of Medicine". Retrieved 2009-05-20.
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Symptoms and signs relating to the cardiovascular system (R00–R03, 785)
Chest pain
Referred pain
Angina
Aerophagia
Auscultation
Heart sounds
Split S2
S3
S4
Gallop rhythm
Heart murmur
Systolic
Diastolic
Continuous
Pericardial friction rub
Heart click
Bruit
carotid
Pulse
Tachycardia
Bradycardia
Pulsus tardus et parvus
Pulsus paradoxus
doubled
Pulsus bisferiens
Dicrotic pulse
Pulsus bigeminus
Pulsus alternans
Pulse deficit
Vascular disease
Gangrene
Other
Palpitations
Apex beat
Cœur en sabot
Jugular venous pressure
Cannon A waves
Hyperaemia
Shock
Cardiogenic
Hypovolemic
Distributive
Septic
Neurogenic
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pulse&oldid=803419681"
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Cardiovascular physiology
Mathematics in medicine
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Pulsatile tinnitus

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Mid-clavicular line

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Puls – Czech
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Puls – Danish
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Puls – German
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Pulso – Spanish
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Pulso – Esperanto
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Pultsu – Basque
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Púls – Icelandic
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Pulss – Latvian
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Bols – Luxembourgish
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Pulsas – Lithuanian
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Pulzus – Hungarian
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Pulse – Simple English
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Pulz – Slovak
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