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Mace Windu
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Mace Windu
Star Wars character
Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu.
First appearance
The Phantom Menace (1999)
Last appearance
The Clone Wars: Legacy
– "Dark Disciple" (2016, novel)
Created by
George Lucas
Portrayed by
Samuel L. Jackson
Voiced by
Terrence C. Carson (most media)
Samuel L. Jackson (The Clone Wars)
Kevin Michael Richardson (Jedi Power Battles, Obi-Wan and Jedi Starfighter)
Donald Glover (Robot Chicken)
Adrian Holmes (The Yoda Chronicles and Droid Tales)
Information
Gender
Male
Occupation
Jedi Master, Jedi Council Member, High Jedi General, Master of the High Council
Affiliation
Galactic Republic
Homeworld
Haruun Kal
Mace Windu is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise, portrayed by actor Samuel L. Jackson in the prequel films and voiced by voice-actor Terrence C. Carson in other projects. He appears as a human male, Master of the Jedi High Council and one of the last members of the order's upper echelons before the Galactic Republic's fall. He is the Council's primary liaison, although the Clone Wars caused him to question his most firmly held beliefs.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Character conception and overview
2 Appearances
2.1 Film
2.2 Animated series
2.2.1 The Clone Wars (2008)
2.3 Comics
2.4 Legends
2.4.1 Clone Wars (2003)
2.4.2 Novels and comics
3 Merchandising
4 Reception
5 Further reading
6 References
7 External links
Character conception and overview[edit]
Several early incarnations of the character who would become Mace Windu were developed in the original Star Wars drafts as the narrator,[2] Princess Leia's brother and Luke Skywalker's friend.[3] Through the process of redrafting and copyediting, his character was removed from the original trilogy (Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi) but was reintroduced in 1994 when series creator George Lucas began writing the prequel trilogy.
According to an interview on the Late Show with David Letterman on May 13, 2005, the character's purple lightsaber was a personal request from Jackson to Lucas as a quid pro quo for appearing in the films, as well as a way of making the character unique and easily distinguishable.[4]
Appearances[edit]
Film[edit]
Introduced in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Windu appears as the Master of the Jedi High Council.[1] The maverick Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn comes before the Council and offers to train Anakin Skywalker, believing that the boy is the Chosen One of Jedi prophecy. Windu and the other Council members refuse, deeming Anakin too old and dangerously full of fear and anger. After the corrupt Trade Federation is defeated and Obi-Wan Kenobi apparently slays Darth Maul, who also kills Qui-Gon Jinn, Windu realizes that the Sith have returned, and he and the Council reluctantly allow Obi-Wan to train Anakin in Qui-Gon's stead.[5]
In Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, Windu initially refuses to believe that the assassination attempt on Padmé Amidala on Coruscant was authorized by former Jedi master Count Dooku. Having learned of Obi-Wan's whereabouts on Geonosis, Windu arrives to save Obi-Wan, Padme and Anakin from their death sentence in the stadium and kills the bounty hunter Jango Fett. With his fellow Jedi and the clone army for the Galactic Republic attacking the planet, Dooku flees. At the end of the film, Windu resolves to keep a closer eye on the increasingly corrupt Galactic Senate.[6]
In Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, Windu and the other members of the Jedi Council are concerned that Palpatine may not relinquish his emergency powers when the Clone Wars end. Their suspicions only grow when the Senate grants Palpatine a vote on the Jedi Council by appointing Anakin a personal representative. The Council grants Anakin a seat, but denies him the rank of Jedi Master and orders him to spy on Palpatine, causing Anakin's faith in the Jedi to diminish significantly. After Obi-Wan kills General Grievous, Anakin informs Windu of Palpatine's true identity as the Sith Lord Darth Sidious. Acting swiftly on this revelation, Windu and three other Jedi Masters attempt to arrest him, but Palpatine mercilessly kills Windu's companions and fights the Jedi Master. Windu subdues Palpatine by knocking away his lightsaber and deflecting the Sith Lord's Force lightning back into his face just as Anakin arrives, causing Palpatine's face to become disfigured as it was in the original trilogy. Ignoring Anakin's objections not to kill Palpatine, Windu counters that Palpatine has control of both the Senate and the courts, and is therefore too dangerous to be left alive. However, Anakin intervenes on Palpatine's behalf, severing Windu's lightsaber hand and leaving him helpless. Palpatine then uses his Force lightning to send Windu plummeting to his death.[7][8]
In his fourth film appearance; in the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Mace Windu has a supporting role.
During the early development of Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Jackson expressed interest to reprise his role as Windu as a Force ghost, due the fact that Windu was killed half-way through the last film.[9]
Animated series[edit]
The Clone Wars (2008)[edit]
In Star Wars: The Clone Wars (set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith), Mace Windu has a supporting role.
Comics[edit]
In 2017, Marvel released Star Wars: Jedi of the Republic—Mace Windu, a 5-issue series centered around Mace Windu during the early days of the Clone Wars. He leads a small team of Jedi on a mission to the planet Hissrich, to find out what the Separatists are doing there. During the mission, Windu's faith in the Jedi path is tested by his interactions with two new characters: AD-W4, a mercenary droid with a thirst for murdering Jedi; and Prosset Dibs, a literally blind Jedi Master who becomes disillusioned with the Jedi Order and turns on Windu. Ultimately, Windu ends up besting both adversaries in single combat, respectively, and his faith in the Jedi way is strengthened by the experience.
Legends[edit]
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded by Lucasfilm as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise.[10][11][12] Windu appears extensively in the Star Wars Legends of novels and comic books.
Clone Wars (2003)[edit]
Mace Windu is a supporting character in Genndy Tartakovsky's Star Wars: Clone Wars micro-series, which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith. The character's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. In the first chapters, he defends the grasslands planet Dantooine against a large hovering "fortress", and over the course, he loses his lightsaber, forcing him to instead use a lethal form of unarmed combat powered by the Force. In final chapters, he and fellow Jedi Master Yoda help defend the planet Coruscant from an attack by General Grievous. In the midst of the battle, he realizes that the attack is a ruse to distract the Jedi from Grievous's true objective: to "kidnap" Palpatine. Despite being too late to save the Supreme Chancellor, the Jedi Master uses the Force to crush Grievous's chest, inflicting upon the cyborg general a wheezing, asthmatic cough, setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith.
Novels and comics[edit]
Windu is the central character of Matthew Stover's novel Shatterpoint, in which he is called to his home planet of Haruun Kal to defeat his former apprentice Depa Billaba who has turned to the dark side of the Force. The novel establishes that Windu has the unique talent of seeing "shatterpoints", or faultlines in the Force that could affect the destinies of certain individuals and indeed the galaxy itself. Mace's "shatterpoint" ability also enables him to see people's weaknesses, allowing him to exploit their flaws and defeat them. It also explains that Windu is the creator and sole master of a style of lightsaber combat called Vaapad (Form VII), in which the user skirts dangerously close to the dark side — without giving into it — by actually enjoying the fight and the thrill of victory. All others who attempted to master the form either gave in to the dark side or were unable to properly master the technique. Stover also referenced these abilities in his Revenge of the Sith novelization. It was said that without his unique style only Yoda and Dooku could match him. However, with the use of Vaapad he was the greatest swordsman of his time, able to defeat Darth Sidious in lightsaber combat which even Yoda could not achieve. He was also able to overwhelm Dooku in lightsaber combat during the battle of Boz Pity which took place between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith.
Besides Shatterpoint, Windu has appeared in other Expanded Universe novels, such as Cloak of Deception, Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter, Rogue Planet, Outbound Flight, The Cestus Deception, Jedi Trial, Yoda: Dark Rendezvous and Labyrinth of Evil.
Merchandising[edit]
A Mace Windu action figure was added to the Star Wars Transformers toy line in 2006. It was a remold of the toy first used for Obi-Wan Kenobi. He becomes an Eta-2 Actis-class light interceptor starfighter with Astromech droid R4-M6.
Reception[edit]
IGN reported Mace Windu as the 27th top Star Wars character, stating that he is an important component of the series.[13]
Further reading[edit]
Star Wars portal
Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith Novelization - Novelization, 1st edition hardcover, 2005. Matthew Woodring Stover, George Lucas, ISBN 0-7126-8427-1
Shatterpoint (novel), 1st edition, 2003. Matthew Woodring Stover, ISBN 0-345-45573-8
The New Essential Guide to Characters, 1st edition, 2002. Daniel Wallace, Michael Sutfin, ISBN 0-345-44900-2
Star Wars: The Phantom Menace: The Visual Dictionary, hardcover, 1999. David West Reynolds, ISBN 0-7894-4701-0
Star Wars: Attack of the Clones: The Visual Dictionary, hardcover, 2002. David West Reynolds, ISBN 0-7894-8588-5
Revised Core Rulebook (Star Wars Roleplaying Game), 1st edition, 2002. Bill Slavicsek, Andy Collins, J.D. Wiker, Steve Sansweet, ISBN 0-7869-2876-X
Star Wars Roleplaying Game: Power of the Jedi Sourcebook, hardcover, 2002. Michael Mikaelian, Jeff Grubb, Owen K.C. Stephens, James Maliszewski, ISBN 0-7869-2781-X
Star Wars Galaxy Guide 7: Mos Eisley, softcover, 1993. Martin Wixted, ISBN 0-87431-187-X
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ James Whitlark, Ph.D. "Stage Eight in The Star Wars and Harry Potter Series?". whitlarks.com. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
Jump up ^ The Making of Star Wars: The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film
Jump up ^ "Samuel L. Jackson". IMDb.
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (DVD, 20th Century Fox, 1999), disc 1.
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (DVD, 20th Century Fox, 2002), disc 1.
Jump up ^ "Mace Windu". StarWars.com. LucasFilm. Retrieved 2012-04-29.
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode III: Attack of the Clones (DVD, 20th Century Fox, 2005), disc 1.
Jump up ^ "Samuel L. Jackson Wants To Play Mace Windu For Star Wars: Episode VII". 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Disney and Random House announce relaunch of Star Wars Adult Fiction line". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ McMilian, Graeme (April 25, 2014). "Lucasfilm Unveils New Plans for Star Wars Expanded Universe". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Legendary Star Wars Expanded Universe Turns a New Page". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ [1]
External links[edit]
Mace Windu in the StarWars.com Databank
Mace Windu on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki
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Progress
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is about the general idea of progress. For other uses, see Progress (disambiguation).
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John Gast, American Progress, c. 1872
Progress is the idea that advances in technology, science, and social organization can produce an improvement in the human condition, and therefore that entire societies, and humanity in general, can improve in terms of their social, political, and economic structures. This may happen as a result of direct human action, as in social enterprise or through activism, or as a natural part of sociocultural evolution.
The concept of progress was introduced in the early 19th century social theories, especially social evolution as described by Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. It was present in the Enlightenment's philosophies of history. As a goal, social progress has been advocated by varying realms of political ideologies with different theories on how it is to be achieved.
Contents
1 Measuring progress
2 Scientific progress
3 Social progress
3.1 Status of women
4 Modernization
5 Philosophy
5.1 Antiquity
5.2 Renaissance
5.3 The Enlightenment (1650–1800)
5.4 Romanticism
5.5 Marxist theory (late 19th century)
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Further reading
9 External links
Measuring progress[edit]
Specific indicators for measuring progress can range from economic data, technical innovations, change in the political or legal system, and questions bearing on individual life chances, such as life expectancy and risk of disease and disability.
GDP growth has become a key orientation for politics and is often taken as a key figure to evaluate a politician's performance. However, GDP has a number of flaws that make it a bad measure of progress, especially for developed countries. For example, environmental damage is not taken into account nor is the sustainability of economic activity. Wikiprogress has been set up to share information on evaluating societal progress. It aims to facilitate the exchange of ideas, initiatives and knowledge. HumanProgress.org is another online resource that seeks to compile data on different measures of societal progress.
The Social Progress Index is a tool developed by the International Organization Imperative Social Progress, which measures the extent to which countries cover social and environmental needs of its citizenry. There are fifty-two indicators in three areas or dimensions: Basic Human Needs, and Foundations of Wellbeing and Opportunities which show the relative performance of nations.
Indices that can be used to measure progress include:
Broad measures of economic progress
Disability-adjusted life year
Green national product
Gender-related Development Index
Genuine Progress Indicator
Gross National Happiness
Gross National Well-being
Happy Planet Index
Human Development Index
Legatum Prosperity Index
Social Progress Index
OECD Better Life Index
Subjective life satisfaction
Where-to-be-born Index
Wikiprogress
World Happiness Report
World Values Survey
Scientific progress[edit]
See also: History of science, Technological change, and Invention
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2018)
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented as a progressive accumulation of knowledge, in which true theories replaced false beliefs.[1] Some more recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in terms of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix of intellectual, cultural, economic and political trends. These interpretations, however, have met with opposition for they also portray history of science as an incoherent system of incommensurable paradigms, not leading to any scientific progress, but only to the illusion of progress.[2]
Social progress[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2018)
Aspects of social progress, as described by Condorcet, have included the disappearance of slavery, the rise of literacy, the lessening of inequalities between the sexes, reforms of harsh prisons and the decline of poverty.[3]
Status of women[edit]
How progress improved the degraded status of women in traditional society was a major theme of historians starting in the Enlightenment and continuing to today.[4] British theorists William Robertson (1721–1793) and Edmund Burke (1729–1797), along with many of their contemporaries, remained committed to Christian- and republican-based conceptions of virtue, while working within a new Enlightenment paradigm. The political agenda related beauty, taste, and morality to the imperatives and needs of modern societies of a high level of sophistication and differentiation. Two themes in the work of Robertson and Burke—the nature of women in 'savage' and 'civilized' societies and 'beauty in distress'—reveals how long-held convictions about the character of women, especially with regard to their capacity and right to appear in the public domain, were modified and adjusted to the idea of progress and became central to an enlightened affirmation of modern European civilization.[5]
Classics experts have examined the status of women in the ancient world, concluding that in the Roman Empire, with its superior social organization, internal peace, and rule of law, allowed women to enjoy a somewhat better standing than in ancient Greece, where women were distinctly inferior.[6] The inferior status of women in traditional China has raised the issue of whether the idea of progress requires a thoroughgoing reject of traditionalism—a belief held by many Chinese reformers in the early 20th century.[7]
Historians Leo Marx and Bruce Mazlish asking, "Should we in fact abandon the idea of progress as a view of the past," answer that there is no doubt "that the status of women has improved markedly" in cultures that have adopted the Enlightenment idea of progress.[8]
Modernization[edit]
Main article: Modernization
Modernization was promoted by classical liberals in the 19th and 20th centuries, who called for the rapid modernization of the economy and society to remove the traditional hindrances to free markets and free movements of people.[9] During the Enlightenment in Europe social commentators and philosophers began to realize that people themselves could change society and change their way of life. Instead of being made completely by gods, there was increasing room for the idea that people themselves made their own society—and not only that, as Giambattista Vico argued, because people made their own society, they could also fully comprehend it. This gave rise to new sciences, or proto-sciences, which claimed to provide new scientific knowledge about what society was like, and how one may change it for the better.[10]
In turn, this gave rise to progressive opinion, in contrast with conservational opinion. The social conservationists were skeptical about panaceas for social ills. According to conservatives, attempts to radically remake society normally make things worse. Edmund Burke was the leading exponent of this, although later-day liberals like Hayek have espoused similar views. They argue that society changes organically and naturally, and that grand plans for the remaking of society, like the French Revolution, National Socialism and Communism hurt society by removing the traditional constraints on the exercise of power.
The scientific advances of the 16th and 17th centuries provided a basis for Francis Bacon's book the New Atlantis. In the 17th century, Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle described progress with respect to arts and the sciences, saying that each age has the advantage of not having to rediscover what was accomplished in preceding ages. The epistemology of John Locke provided further support and was popularized by the Encyclopedists Diderot, Holbach, and Condorcet. Locke had a powerful influence on the American Founding Fathers.[11] The first complete statement of progress is that of Turgot, in his "A Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind" (1750). For Turgot, progress covers not only the arts and sciences but, on their base, the whole of culture—manner, mores, institutions, legal codes, economy, and society. Condorcet predicted the disappearance of slavery, the rise of literacy, the lessening of inequalities between the sexes, reforms of harsh prisons and the decline of poverty.[12]
John Stuart Mill's (1806–1873) ethical and political thought demonstrated faith in the power of ideas and of intellectual education for improving human nature or behavior. For those who do not share this faith the idea of progress becomes questionable.[13]
Alfred Marshall (1842–1924), a British economist of the early 20th century, was a proponent of classical liberalism. In his highly influential Principles of Economics (1890), he was deeply interested in human progress and in what is now called sustainable development. For Marshall, the importance of wealth lay in its ability to promote the physical, mental, and moral health of the general population.[14] After World War II, the modernization and development programs undertaken in the Third World were typically based on the idea of progress.[15]
In Russia the notion of progress was first imported from the West by Peter the Great (1672–1725). An absolute ruler, he used the concept to modernize Russia and to legitimize his monarchy (unlike its usage in Western Europe, where it was primarily associated with political opposition). By the early 19th century, the notion of progress was being taken up by Russian intellectuals and was no longer accepted as legitimate by the tsars. Four schools of thought on progress emerged in 19th-century Russia: conservative (reactionary), religious, liberal, and socialist—the latter winning out in the form of Bolshevist materialism.[16]
The intellectual leaders of the American Revolution, such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were immersed in Enlightenment thought and believed the idea of progress meant that they could reorganize the political system to the benefit of the human condition; both for Americans and also, as Jefferson put it, for an "Empire of Liberty" that would benefit all mankind.[17]
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810–1884) was one of the most influential political theorists in Argentina. Economic liberalism was the key to his idea of progress. He promoted faith in progress, while chiding fellow Latin Americans for blind copying of American and European models. He hoped for progress through promotion of immigration, education, and a moderate type of federalism and republicanism that might serve as a transition in Argentina to true democracy.[18]
In Mexico, Jose Mora (1795–1856) was a leader of classical liberalism in the first generation after independence, leading the battle against the conservative trinity of the army, the church, and the hacendados. He envisioned progress as both a process of human development by the search for philosophical truth and as the introduction of an era of material prosperity by technological advancement. His plan for Mexican reform demanded a republican government bolstered by widespread popular education free of clerical control, confiscation and sale of ecclesiastical lands as a means of redistributing income and clearing government debts, and effective control of a reduced military force by the government. Mora also demanded the establishment of legal equality between native Mexicans and foreign residents. His program, untried in his lifetime, became the key element in the Mexican Constitution of 1857.[19]
In Italy, the idea that progress in science and technology would lead to solutions for human ills was connected to the nationalism that united the country in 1860. The Piedmontese Prime Minister Camillo Cavour envisaged the railways as a major factor in the modernization and unification of the Italian peninsula. The new Kingdom of Italy, formed in 1861, worked to speed up the processes of modernization and industrialization that had begun in the north, but were slow to arrive in the Papal States and central Italy, and were nowhere in sight in the "Mezzogiorno" (that is, Southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia). The government sought to combat the backwardness of the poorer regions in the south and work towards augmenting the size and quality of the newly created Italian army so that it could compete on an equal footing with the powerful nations of Europe. In the same period, the government was legislating in favour of public education to fight the great problem of illiteracy, upgrade the teaching classes, improve existing schools, and procure the funds needed for social hygiene and care of the body as factors in the physical and moral regeneration of the race.[20]
In China, in the 20th century the KMT or Nationalist party, which ruled from the 1920s to the 1940s, advocated progress. The Communists under Mao Zedong adopted western models and their ruinous projects caused mass famines. After Mao's death, however, the new regime led by Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997) and his successors aggressively promoted modernization of the economy using capitalist models and imported western technology.[21]
Among environmentalists, there is a continuum between two opposing poles. The one pole is optimistic, progressive, and business-oriented, and endorses the classic idea of progress. For example, bright green environmentalism endorses the idea that new designs, social innovations and green technologies can solve critical environmental challenges. The other is pessimistic in respect of technological solutions,[22] warning of impending global crisis (through climate change or peak oil, for example) and tends to reject the very idea of modernity and the myth of progress that is so central to modernization thinking.[23] Similarly, Kirkpatrick Sale, wrote about progress as a myth benefiting the few, and a pending environmental doomsday for everyone.[24] An example is the philosophy of Deep Ecology.
Philosophy[edit]
Sociologist Robert Nisbet said that "No single idea has been more important than ... the Idea of Progress in Western civilization for three thousand years",[25] and defines five "crucial premises" of the idea of progress:
value of the past
nobility of Western civilization
worth of economic/technological growth
faith in reason and scientific/scholarly knowledge obtained through reason
intrinsic importance and worth of life on earth
Sociologist P. A. Sorokin said, "The ancient Chinese, Babylonian, Hindu, Greek, Roman, and most of the medieval thinkers supporting theories of rhythmical, cyclical or trendless movements of social processes were much nearer to reality than the present proponents of the linear view".[26] Unlike Confucianism and to a certain extent Taoism, that both search for an ideal past, the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition believes in the fulfillment of history, which was translated into the idea of progress in the modern age. Therefore, Chinese proponents of modernization have looked to western models. According to Thompson, the late Qing dynasty reformer, Kang Youwei, believed he had found a model for reform and "modernisation" in the Ancient Chinese Classics.[27]
Philosopher Karl Popper said that progress was not fully adequate as a scientific explanation of social phenomena.[28] More recently, Kirkpatrick Sale, a self-proclaimed neo-luddite author, wrote exclusively about progress as a myth, in an essay entitled "Five Facets of a Myth".[29]
Iggers (1965) says that proponents of progress underestimated the extent of man's destructiveness and irrationality, while critics misunderstand the role of rationality and morality in human behavior.[30]
In 1946 psychoanalyst Charles Baudouin claimed modernity has retained the "corollary" of the progress myth, the idea that the present is superior to the past, while at the same time insisting that it is free of the myth:
The last two centuries were familiar with the myth of progress. Our own century has adopted the myth of modernity. The one myth has replaced the other. ...
Men ceased to believe in progress; but only to pin their faith to more tangible realities, whose sole original significance had been that they were the instruments of progress. ..
This exaltation of the present ... is a corollary of that very faith in progress which people claim to have discarded. The present is superior to the past, by definition, only in a mythology of progress. Thus one retains the corollary while rejecting the principle. There is only one way of retaining a position of whose instability one is conscious. One must simply refrain from thinking.[31]
A cyclical theory of history was adopted by Oswald Spengler (1880–1936), a German historian who wrote The Decline of the West in 1920. World War I, World War II, and the rise of totalitarianism demonstrated that progress was not automatic and that technological improvement did not necessarily guarantee democracy and moral advancement. British historian Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975) felt that Christianity would help modern civilization overcome its challenges.[32]
The Jeffersonians said that history is not exhausted but that man may begin again in a new world. Besides rejecting the lessons of the past, they Americanized the idea of progress by democratizing and vulgarizing it to include the welfare of the common man as a form of republicanism. As Romantics deeply concerned with the past, collecting source materials and founding historical societies, the Founding Fathers were animated by clear principles. They saw man in control of his destiny, saw virtue as a distinguishing characteristic of a republic, and were concerned with happiness, progress, and prosperity. Thomas Paine, combining the spirit of rationalism and romanticism, pictured a time when America's innocence would sound like a romance, and concluded that the fall of America could mark the end of 'the noblest work of human wisdom.'[33]
Historian J. B. Bury wrote in 1920:[34]
To the minds of most people the desirable outcome of human development would be a condition of society in which all the inhabitants of the planet would enjoy a perfectly happy existence....It cannot be proved that the unknown destination towards which man is advancing is desirable. The movement may be Progress, or it may be in an undesirable direction and therefore not Progress..... The Progress of humanity belongs to the same order of ideas as Providence or personal immortality. It is true or it is false, and like them it cannot be proved either true or false. Belief in it is an act of faith.
In the postmodernist thought steadily gaining ground from the 1980s, the grandiose claims of the modernizers are steadily eroded, and the very concept of social progress is again questioned and scrutinized. In the new vision, radical modernizers like Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong appear as totalitarian despots, whose vision of social progress is held to be totally deformed. Postmodernists question the validity of 19th century and 20th century notions of progress—both on the capitalist and the Marxist side of the spectrum. They argue that both capitalism and Marxism over-emphasize technological achievements and material prosperity while ignoring the value of inner happiness and peace of mind. Postmodernism posits that both dystopia and utopia are one and the same, overarching grand narratives with impossible conclusions.
See also: Progress trap
Some 20th-century authors refer to the "Myth of Progress" to refer to the idea that the human condition will inevitably improve. In 1932, English physician Montague David Eder wrote: "The myth of progress states that civilization has moved, is moving, and will move in a desirable direction. Progress is inevitable... Philosophers, men of science and politicians have accepted the idea of the inevitability of progress."[35] Eder argues that the advancement of civilization is leading to greater unhappiness and loss of control in the environment. The strongest critics of the idea of progress complain that it remains a dominant idea in the 21st century, and shows no sign of diminished influence. As one fierce critic, British historian John Gray (b. 1948), concludes:[36]
Faith in the liberating power of knowledge is encrypted into modern life. Drawing on some of Europe's most ancient traditions, and daily reinforced by the quickening advance of science, it cannot be given up by an act of will. The interaction of quickening scientific advance with unchanging human needs is a fate that we may perhaps temper, but cannot overcome... Those who hold to the possibility of progress need not fear. The illusion that through science humans can remake the world is an integral part of the modern condition. Renewing the eschatological hopes of the past, progress is an illusion with a future.
Recently the idea of progress has been generalized to psychology, being related with the concept of a goal, that is, progress is understood as "what counts as a means of advancing towards the end result of a given defined goal."[37]
Antiquity[edit]
Historian J. B. Bury said that thought in ancient Greece was dominated by the theory of world-cycles or the doctrine of eternal return, and was steeped in a belief parallel to the Judaic "fall of man," but rather from a preceding "Golden Age" of innocence and simplicity. Time was generally regarded as the enemy of humanity which depreciates the value of the world. He credits the Epicureans with having had a potential for leading to the foundation of a theory of progress through their materialistic acceptance of the atomism of Democritus as the explanation for a world without an intervening deity.
“ For them, the earliest condition of men resembled that of the beasts, and from this primitive and miserable condition they laboriously reached the existing state of civilisation, not by external guidance or as a consequence of some initial design, but simply by the exercise of human intelligence throughout a long period."[citation needed] ”
Robert Nisbet and Gertrude Himmelfarb have attributed a notion of progress to other Greeks. Xenophanes said "The gods did not reveal to men all things in the beginning, but men through their own search find in the course of time that which is better." Plato's Book III of The Laws depicts humanity's progress from a state of nature to the higher levels of culture, economy, and polity. Plato's The Statesman also outlines a historical account of the progress of mankind.
Renaissance[edit]
During the Medieval period, science was to a large extent based on Scholastic (a method of thinking and learning from the Middle Ages) interpretations of Aristotle's work. The Renaissance of the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries changed the mindset in Europe towards an empirical view, based on a pantheistic interpretation of Plato. This induced a revolution in curiosity about nature in general and scientific advance, which opened the gates for technical and economic advance. Furthermore, the individual potential was seen as a never-ending quest for being God-like, paving the way for a view of Man based on unlimited perfection and progress.[38]
The Enlightenment (1650–1800)[edit]
Main article: Age of Enlightenment
In the Enlightenment, French historian and philosopher Voltaire (1694–1778) was a major proponent.[citation needed] At first Voltaire's thought was informed by the idea of progress coupled with rationalism. His subsequent notion of the historical idea of progress saw science and reason as the driving forces behind societal advancement.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that progress is neither automatic nor continuous and does not measure knowledge or wealth, but is a painful and largely inadvertent passage from barbarism through civilization toward enlightened culture and the abolition of war. Kant called for education, with the education of humankind seen as a slow process whereby world history propels mankind toward peace through war, international commerce, and enlightened self-interest.[39]
Scottish theorist Adam Ferguson (1723–1816) defined human progress as the working out of a divine plan, though he rejected predestination. The difficulties and dangers of life provided the necessary stimuli for human development, while the uniquely human ability to evaluate led to ambition and the conscious striving for excellence. But he never adequately analyzed the competitive and aggressive consequences stemming from his emphasis on ambition even though he envisioned man's lot as a perpetual striving with no earthly culmination. Man found his happiness only in effort.[40]
Some scholars consider the idea of progress that was affirmed with the Enlightenment, as a secularization of ideas from early Christianity, and a reworking of ideas from ancient Greece.[41][42][43]
Romanticism[edit]
In the 19th century, Romantic critics charged that progress did not automatically better the human condition, and in some ways could make it worse.[44] Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) reacted against the concept of progress as set forth by William Godwin and Condorcet because he believed that inequality of conditions is "the best (state) calculated to develop the energies and faculties of man". He said, "Had population and food increased in the same ratio, it is probable that man might never have emerged from the savage state". He argued that man's capacity for improvement has been demonstrated by the growth of his intellect, a form of progress which offsets the distresses engendered by the law of population.[45]
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) criticized the idea of progress as the 'weakling's doctrines of optimism,' and advocated undermining concepts such as faith in progress, to allow the strong individual to stand above the plebeian masses. An important part of his thinking consists of the attempt to use the classical model of 'eternal recurrence of the same' to dislodge the idea of progress.[46]
Iggers (1965) argues there was general agreement in the late 19th century that the steady accumulation of knowledge and the progressive replacement of conjectural, that is, theological or metaphysical, notions by scientific ones was what created progress. Most scholars concluded this growth of scientific knowledge and methods led to the growth of industry and the transformation of warlike societies into an industrial and pacific one. They agreed as well that there had been a systematic decline of coercion in government, and an increasing role of liberty and of rule by consent. There was more emphasis on impersonal social and historical forces; progress was increasingly seen as the result of an inner logic of society.[47]
Marxist theory (late 19th century)[edit]
Marx developed a theory of historical materialism. He describes the mid-19th century condition in The Communist Manifesto as follows:
The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty, and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all which is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real condition of life and his relations with his kind.[48]
Furthermore Marx described the process of social progress, which in his opinion is based on the interaction between the productive forces and the relations of production:
No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society.[49]
Capitalism is thought by Marx as a process of continual change, in which the growth of markets dissolve all fixities in human life, and Marx admits that capitalism is progressive and non-reactionary. Marxism further states that capitalism, in its quest for higher profits and new markets, will inevitably sow the seeds of its own destruction. Marxists believe that, in the future, capitalism will be replaced by socialism and eventually communism.
“ The reasonable man adapts himself to the world. The unreasonable man persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man. ”
— George Bernard Shaw
Many advocates of capitalism such as Schumpeter agreed with Marx's analysis of capitalism as a process of continual change through creative destruction, but, unlike Marx, believed and hoped that capitalism could essentially go on forever.
Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, two opposing schools of thought—Marxism and liberalism—believed in the possibility and the desirability of continual change and improvement. Marxists strongly opposed capitalism and the liberals strongly supported it, but the one concept they could both agree on was modernism, a trend of thought which affirms the power of human beings to make, improve and reshape their society, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation.
See also[edit]
Philosophy portal
Economics portal
Accelerating change
Constitutional economics
Global social change research project
Happiness economics
Leisure satisfaction
Law of Social Cycle
Money-rich, time-poor
Progressive utilization theory
Psychometrics
Social development
Social change
Social justice
Social order
Social regress
Technological progress
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Golinski, Jan (2001). Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science (reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780226302324. When [history of science] began, during the eighteenth century, it was practiced by scientists (or "natural philosophers") with an interest in validating and defending their enterprise. They wrote histories in which ... the science of the day was exhibited as the outcome of the progressive accumulation of human knowledge, which was an integral part of moral and cultural development.
Jump up ^ Kuhn, T., 1962, "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", University of Chicago Press, p. 137: "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."
Jump up ^ Nisbet, Robert (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. New York: Basic Books Ch. 5
Jump up ^ Allen, Ann Taylor (1999). "Feminism, Social Science, and the Meanings of Modernity: the Debate on the Origin of the Family in Europe and the United States, 1860–914," American Historical Review 104 (4): 1085–113; Nyland, Chris (1993). "Adam Smith, Stage Theory, and the Status of Women," History of Political Economy 25 (4): 617–40.
Jump up ^ Kontler, László (2004). "Beauty or Beast, or Monstrous Regiments? Robertson and Burke on Women and the Public Scene," Modern Intellectual History 1 (3): 305–30.
Jump up ^ Dimand, Robert William, & Chris Nyland (2003). The Status of Women in Classical Economic Thought.Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 109; Ryrie, Charles Caldwell (1958). The Place of Women in the Church, The Macmillan Company, Ch 1.
Jump up ^ Vernoff, Edward, & Peter J. Seybolt, (2007). Through Chinese Eyes: Tradition, Revolution, and Transformation, APEX Press, pp. 45ff.
Jump up ^ Marx, Leo, & Bruce Mazlish (1998). Progress: Fact or Illusion?. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Appleby, Joyce; Lynn Hunt, and Margaret Jacob (1995). Telling the Truth about History. W.W. Norton, p. 78.
Jump up ^ The following annotated reference list appears in J. B. Bury's study: The Idea of Progress, published in 1920 and available in full on the web:
The history of the idea of Progress has been treated briefly and partially by various French writers; e.g. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, vi. 321 sqq.; Buchez, Introduction a la science de l'histoire, i. 99 sqq. (ed. 2, 1842); Javary, De l'idee de progres (1850); Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des Anciens et des Modernes (1856); Bouillier, Histoire de la philosophie cartesienne (1854); Caro, Problemes de la morale sociale (1876); Brunetiere, "La Formation de l'idee de progres", in Etudes critiques, 5e serie. More recently M. Jules Delvaille has attempted to trace its history fully, down to the end of the eighteenth century. His Histoire de l'idee de progres (1910) is planned on a large scale; he is erudite and has read extensively. But his treatment is lacking in the power of discrimination. He strikes one as anxious to bring within his net, as theoriciens du progres, as many distinguished thinkers as possible; and so, along with a great deal that is useful and relevant, we also find in his book much that is irrelevant. He has not clearly seen that the distinctive idea of Progress was not conceived in antiquity or in the Middle Ages, or even in the Renaissance period; and when he comes to modern times he fails to bring out clearly the decisive steps of its growth. And he does not seem to realize that a man might be "progressive" without believing in, or even thinking about, the doctrine of Progress. Leonardo da Vinci and Berkeley are examples. In my Ancient Greek Historians (1909) I dwelt on the modern origin of the idea (p. 253 sqq.). Recently Mr. R. H. Murray, in a learned appendix to his Erasmus and Luther, has developed the thesis that Progress was not grasped in antiquity (though he makes an exception of Seneca),—a welcome confirmation.
Jump up ^ Pangle, Thomas L. (1990). The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke. University of Chicago Press.[page needed]
Jump up ^ Nisbet, Robert (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. New York: Basic Books Ch. 5
Jump up ^ Nisbet (1980) pp. 224–29.
Jump up ^ Caldari, Katia (2004). "Alfred Marshall's Idea of Progress and Sustainable Development," Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 26 (4): 519–36.
Jump up ^ Arndt, H. W. (1989). Economic Development: The History of an Idea. University of Chicago Press.[page needed]
Jump up ^ Ellison, Herbert J. (1965). "Economic Modernization in Imperial Russia: Purposes and Achievements," Journal of Economic History 25 (4): 523–40.
Jump up ^ Commager, Henry Steele (1969). "The Past as an Extension of the Present," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 17–27.
Jump up ^ Dougherty, John E. (1973). "Juan Bautista Alberdi: A Study of His Thought," Americas 29 (4): 489–501.
Jump up ^ Hart, John M. (1972). "Jose Mora: His Idea of Progress and the Origins of Mexican Liberalism," North Dakota Quarterly 40 (2): 22–29.
Jump up ^ DalLago, Enrico (2002). The American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno: Essays in Comparative History. Palgrave Macmillan.
Jump up ^ Smirnov, Dmitry (2004). "Deng Xiaoping and the Modernization of China," Far Eastern Affairs 32 (4): 20–31.
Jump up ^ Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 9, "Technological Optimism and Belief in Progress", New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0865717044, 464 pp.
Jump up ^ Jamison, Andrew (2001). The Making of Green Knowledge: Environmental Politics and Cultural Transformation. Cambridge University Press, pp 28ff.
Jump up ^ Five Facets of a Myth
Jump up ^ Nisbet (1980) p. 4.
Jump up ^ P. A. Sorokin, 1932 paper, quoted in Fay (1947).
Jump up ^ Youwei, Kang, & Lawrence G. Thompson (1958). Ta T'ung Shu: The One World Philosophy of Kang Yu-wei. London: Allen & Unwin.
Jump up ^ Popper (1957). The Poverty of Historicism. Routledge.
Jump up ^ Five Facets of a Myth
Jump up ^ Iggers (1965) p. 16.
Jump up ^ Charles Baudouin, The Myth of Modernity, Le Mythe du moderne (1946), as translated by Bernard Miall (1950), sections 1–7.
Jump up ^ Farrenkopf, John (1993). "Spengler's Historical Pessimism and the Tragedy of our Age," Theory and Society Vol. 22, Number 3, pp. 391–412.
Jump up ^ Commager, Henry Steele (1969). "The Past as an Extension of the Present," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 17–27.
Jump up ^ Bury (1920). The Idea of Progress. London: Macmillan and Co., p. 2.
Jump up ^ David Eder, Montague (1932). The Myth of Progress. The British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. XII. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Gray, John (2004). "An Illusion with a Future," Daedalus Vol. 133(3), pp 10+; also Gray (2004). Heresies: Against Progress and Other Illusions. Granta Books.
Jump up ^ Cerbaro, R. H. and Whisler, J. L. (2016). The Idea of Progress: A Theoretical and Concise Goal-Structure Model. Current Research in Psychology, 7 (1): 12.15, p. 13. DOI: 10.3844/crpsp.2016.12.15 [1]
Jump up ^ Cassirer, Ernst; Paul Oskar Kristeller and John Herman Randall (eds., 1948). The Renaissance Philosophy of Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.[page needed]
Jump up ^ Schuler, Jeanne A. (1991). "Reasonable Hope: Kant as Critical Theorist," History of European Ideas, 21 (4): 527–33.
Jump up ^ Bernstein, John Andrew (1978). "Adam Ferguson and the Idea of Progress," Studies in Burke and His Time 19 (2): 99–118.
Jump up ^ The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought By David Miller, Janet Coleman, p.402.
Jump up ^ Nisbet, Robert (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. New York: Basic Books.
Jump up ^ Ludwig Edelstein takes a minority view in seeing evidence for The Idea of Progress in Classical Antiquity, Johns Hopkins Press (1967).
Jump up ^ Murray, Christopher John, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850. Fitzroy Dearborn, Vol. II, p. 912.
Jump up ^ Levin, Samuel M. (1966). "Malthus and the Idea of Progress," Journal of the History of Ideas 27 (1): 92–108.
Jump up ^ Tassone, Giuseppe (2002). A Study on the Idea of Progress in Nietzsche, Heidegger and Critical Theory. E. Mellen Press.
Jump up ^ Iggers, George G. (1965). "The Idea of Progress: A Critical Reassessment," American Historical Review, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 1–17.
Jump up ^ Manifesto of the Communist Party: Chapter 1, Marx & Engels
Jump up ^ Marx, Karl. "Preface". Critique of political economy.
Further reading[edit]
Alexander, Jeffrey C., & Piotr Sztompka (1990). Rethinking Progress: Movements, Forces, and Ideas at the End of the 20th Century. Boston: Unwin Hymans.
Becker, Carl L. (1932). Progress and Power. Stanford University Press.
Benoist, Alan de (2008). "A Brief History of the Idea of Progress," The Occidental Quarterly, Vol. VIII, No. 1, pp. 7–16.
Brunetière, Ferdinand (1922). "La Formation de l'Idée de Progrés." In: Études Critiques. Paris: Librairie Hachette, pp. 183–250.
Burgess, Yvonne (1994). The Myth of Progress. Wild Goose Publications.
Bury, J.B. (1920). The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth (mirror). London: The Macmillan and Co.
Dawson, Christopher (1929). Progress and Religion. London: Sheed & Ward.
Dodds, E.R. (1985). The Ancient Concept of Progress and Other Essays on Greek Literature and Belief. New York: Oxford University Press.
Doren, Charles Van (1967). The Idea of Progress. New York: Praeger.
Fay, Sidney B. (1947). "The Idea of Progress," American Historical Review, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 231–46 in JSTOR, reflections after two world wars.
Iggers, Georg G. (1965). "The Idea of Progress: A Critical Reassessment," American Historical Review, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 1–17 in JSTOR, emphasis on 20th century philosophies of history
Inge, William Ralph (1922). "The Idea of Progress." In: Outspoken Essays, Second series. London: Longmans, Green & Co., pp. 158–83.
Kauffman, Bill. (1998). With Good Intentions? Reflections on the Myth of Progress in America. Praeger online edition, based on interviews in a small town.
Lasch, Christopher (1991). The True and Only Heaven: Progress and Its Critics. W. W. Norton online edition
Mackenzie, J. S. (1899). "The Idea of Progress," International Journal of Ethics, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 195–213, representative of late 19th century approaches
Mathiopoulos, Margarita. History and Progress: In Search of the European and American Mind (1989) online edition
Melzer, Arthur M. et al. eds. History and the Idea of Progress (1995), scholars discuss Machiavelli, Kant, Nietzsche, Spengler and others online edition
Nisbet, Robert (1979). "The Idea of Progress," Literature of Liberty, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 7–37.
Nisbet, Robert (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. New York: Basic Books.
Painter, George S. (1922). "The Idea of Progress," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 257–82.
Pollard, Sidney (1971). The Idea of Progress: History and Society. New York: Pelican.
Sklair, Leslie (1970). The Sociology of Progress. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. online edition
Slaboch, Matthew W. (2018). A Road to Nowhere: The Idea of Progress and Its Critics. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press.
Spadafora, David (1990). The Idea of Progress in Eighteenth Century Britain. Yale University Press.
Spalding, Henry Norman, Civilization in East and West : an introduction to the study of human progress, London, Oxford university press, H. Milford, 1939.
Teggart, F.J. (1949). The Idea of Progress: A Collection of Readings. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Tuveson, Ernest Lee (1949). Millennium and Utopia: A Study in the Background of the Idea of Progress. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Wright, Georg Henrik von (1999). The Philosophy of Georg Henrik von Wright Lewis Edwin Hahn and Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.) Open Court.
Zarandi, Merhdad M., ed. (2004). Science and the Myth of Progress. World Wisdom Books.
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of progress at Wiktionary
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