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White-collar worker
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In many countries (such as Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and United States), a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work may be performed in an office or other administrative setting. Other types of work are those of a blue-collar worker, whose job requires manual labor and a pink-collar worker, whose labor is related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales, or other service-oriented work. Many occupations blend blue, white and pink (service) industry categorizations.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Demographics
3 Health effects
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term refers to the white dress shirts of male office workers common through most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Western countries, as opposed to the blue overalls worn by many manual laborers.
The term "white collar" is credited to Upton Sinclair, an American writer, in relation to contemporary clerical, administrative, and management workers during the 1930s,[2] though references to white-collar work appear as early as 1935.
Demographics[edit]
Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs.[1]
The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt and tie. Employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress business casual or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred. "White-collar" employees may perform "blue-collar" tasks (or vice versa). An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers' orders or a construction worker who also performs desk work.
Office work
Health effects[edit]
Less physical activity among white-collar workers has been thought to be a key factor in increased life-style related health conditions such as fatigue, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and heart disease.[3] Workplace interventions such as alternative activity workstations, sit-stand desks, promotion of stair use are among measures being implemented to counter the harms of sedentary workplace environments.[4] A Cochrane systematic review published in 2016 concluded that "at present there is very low quality evidence that sit-stand desks can reduce sitting at work at the short term. There is no evidence for other types of interventions." Also, evidence was lacking on the long term health benefits of such interventions.[5]
See also[edit]
Designation of workers by collar color
Knowledge worker
White-collar crime
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Van Horn, Carl; Schaffner, Herbert (2003). Work in America: M-Z. CA, USA: ABC-Clio Ltd. p. 597. ISBN 9781576076767.
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition. Electronically indexed online document. White collar, usage 1, first example.
Jump up ^ Schröer, S; Haupt, J; Pieper, C (January 2014). "Evidence-based lifestyle interventions in the workplace--an overview". Occupational Medicine. 64 (1): 8–12. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqt136. PMID 24280187. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Commissaris, DA; Huysmans, MA; Mathiassen, SE; Srinivasan, D; Koppes, LL; Hendriksen, IJ (18 December 2015). "Interventions to reduce sedentary behavior and increase physical activity during productive work: a systematic review". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 42: 181–91. doi:10.5271/sjweh.3544. PMID 26683116. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Shrestha, N; Kukkonen-Harjula, KT; Verbeek, JH; Ijaz, S; Hermans, V; Bhaumik, S (17 March 2016). "Workplace interventions for reducing sitting at work". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3: CD010912. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010912.pub3. PMID 26984326. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Mills, Charles Wright. White Collar: the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book[s]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. N.B.: "First published [in] 1951."
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of white-collar at Wiktionary
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Fiction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the type of media content. For other uses, see Fiction (disambiguation).
An illustration from Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, depicting the fictional protagonist, Alice, playing a fantastical game of croquet.
Fiction is the classification for any story or setting that is derived from imagination—in other words, not based strictly on history or fact.[1][2][3] Fiction can be expressed in a variety of formats, including writings, live performances, films, television programs, animations, video games, and role-playing games, though the term originally and most commonly refers to the narrative forms of literature (see literary fiction),[4] including novels, novellas, short stories, and plays. Fiction is occasionally used in its narrowest sense to mean simply any "literary narrative".[5]
A work of fiction is an act of creative imagination, so its total faithfulness to the real-world is not typically assumed by its audience.[6] Therefore, fiction is not commonly expected to present only characters who are actual people or descriptions that are factually accurate. Instead, the context of fiction, not adhering precisely to the real world, is generally understood as being more open to interpretation.[7] Characters and events within a fictional work may even be set in their own context entirely separate from the known universe: an independent fictional universe. Fiction is regarded as the traditional opposite of non-fiction, whose creators assume responsibility for presenting only the historical and factual truth; however, the distinction between fiction and non-fiction can be unclear, for example, in postmodern literature.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Formats
2 Genre fiction
3 Literary fiction
4 Realism
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Formats[edit]
See also: List of fictional genres
Traditionally, fiction includes novels, short stories, fables, legends, myths, fairy tales, epic and narrative poetry, plays (including operas, musicals, dramas, puppet plays, and various kinds of theatrical dances). However, fiction may also encompass comic books, and many animated cartoons, stop motions, anime, manga, films, video games, radio programs, television programs (comedies and dramas), etc.
The Internet has had a major impact on the creation and distribution of fiction, calling into question the feasibility of copyright as a means to ensure royalties are paid to copyright holders.[9] Also, digital libraries such as Project Gutenberg make public domain texts more readily available. The combination of inexpensive home computers, the Internet and the creativity of its users has also led to new forms of fiction, such as interactive computer games or computer-generated comics. Countless forums for fan fiction can be found online, where loyal followers of specific fictional realms create and distribute derivative stories. The Internet is also used for the development of blog fiction, where a story is delivered through a blog either as flash fiction or serial blog, and collaborative fiction, where a story is written sequentially by different authors, or the entire text can be revised by anyone using a wiki.
Types of literary fiction in prose:[10]
Short story: A work of at least 2,000 words but under 7,500 words. The boundary between a long short story and a novella is vague.[11]
Novella: A work of at least 17,500 words but under 50,000 words. Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) is an example of a novella.[12]
Novel: A work of 50,000 words or more.
Genre fiction[edit]
Main article: Genre fiction
Fiction is commonly broken down into a variety of genres: subsets of fiction, each differentiated by a particular unifying tone or style, narrative technique, media content, or popularly defined criterion. Science fiction, for example, predicts or supposes technologies that are not realities at the time of the work's creation. For example, Jules Verne's novel From the Earth to the Moon was published in 1865 and only in 1969 did astronaut Neil Armstrong first land on the moon.
Historical fiction places imaginary characters into real historical events. In the early historical novel Waverley, Sir Walter Scott's fictional character Edward Waverley meets a figure from history, Bonnie Prince Charlie, and takes part in the Battle of Prestonpans. Some works of fiction are slightly or greatly re-imagined based on some originally true story, or a reconstructed biography.[13] Often, even when the author claims the fictional story is basically true, there may be artificial additions and subtractions from the true story to make it more interesting. One such example would be Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried, a series of historical fiction short stories about the Vietnam War.
Fictional works that explicitly involve supernatural, magical, or scientifically impossible elements are often classified under the genre of fantasy, including Lewis Carroll's Alice In Wonderland, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, and J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Creators of fantasy sometimes introduce entire imaginary creatures or beings such as dragons and fairies.[3]
Literary fiction[edit]
Main article: Literature
Literary fiction is defined as fictional works that are deemed to be of literary merit, as distinguished from most commercial, or "genre" fiction. The distinction can be controversial among critics and scholars.
Neal Stephenson has suggested that while any definition will be simplistic there is today a general cultural difference between literary and genre fiction. On the one hand literary authors nowadays are frequently supported by patronage, with employment at a university or a similar institution, and with the continuation of such positions determined not by book sales but by critical acclaim by other established literary authors and critics. On the other hand, he suggests, genre fiction writers tend to support themselves by book sales.[14] However, in an interview, John Updike lamented that "the category of 'literary fiction' has sprung up recently to torment people like me who just set out to write books, and if anybody wanted to read them, terrific, the more the merrier. ... I'm a genre writer of a sort. I write literary fiction, which is like spy fiction or chick lit".[15] Likewise, on The Charlie Rose Show, he argued that this term, when applied to his work, greatly limited him and his expectations of what might come of his writing, so he does not really like it. He suggested that all his works are literary, simply because "they are written in words".[16]
Literary fiction often involves social commentary, political criticism, or reflection on the human condition.[17] In general it focuses on "introspective, in-depth character studies" of "interesting, complex and developed" characters.[17][18] This contrasts with genre fiction where plot is the central concern.[19] Usually in literary fiction the focus is on the "inner story" of the characters who drive the plot, with detailed motivations to elicit "emotional involvement" in the reader.[20][21] The style of literary fiction is often described as "elegantly written, lyrical, and ... layered".[22] The tone of literary fiction can be darker than genre fiction,[23] while the pacing of literary fiction may be slower than popular fiction.[23] As Terrence Rafferty notes, "literary fiction, by its nature, allows itself to dawdle, to linger on stray beauties even at the risk of losing its way".[24]
Realism[edit]
See also: Literary realism
Realistic fiction typically involves a story whose basic setting (time and location in the world) is real and whose events could feasibly happen in a real-world setting; non-realistic fiction involves a story where the opposite is the case, often being set in an entirely imaginary universe, an alternative history of the world other than that currently understood as true, or some other non-existent location or time-period, sometimes even presenting impossible technology or a defiance of the currently understood laws of nature. However, all types of fiction arguably invite their audience to explore real ideas, issues, or possibilities in an otherwise imaginary setting, or using what is understood about reality to mentally construct something similar to reality, though still distinct from it.[note 1][note 2]
In terms of the traditional separation between fiction and non-fiction, the lines are now commonly understood as blurred, showing more overlap than mutual exclusion. Even fiction usually has elements of, or grounding in, truth. The distinction between the two may be best defined from the perspective of the audience, according to whom a work is regarded as non-fiction if its people, places, and events are all historically or factually real, while a work is regarded as fiction if it deviates from reality in any of those areas. The distinction between fiction and non-fiction is further obscured by an understanding, on the one hand, that the truth can be presented through imaginary channels and constructions, while, on the other hand, imagination can just as well bring about significant conclusions about truth and reality.[citation needed]
Literary critic James Wood, argues that "fiction is both artifice and verisimilitude", meaning that it requires both creative invention as well as some acceptable degree of believability,[25] a notion often encapsulated in poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge's term: willing suspension of disbelief. Also, infinite fictional possibilities themselves signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality, provocatively demonstrating that there is no criterion to measure constructs of reality.[26]
See also[edit]
Main list: Outline of fiction
Character (arts)
Fiction writing
Pseudohistory
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ As philosopher Stacie Friend explains, "in reading we take works of fiction, like works of non-fiction, to be about the real world—even if they invite us to imagine the world to be different from how it actually is. [Thus], imagining a storyworld does not mean directing one's imagining toward something other than the real world; it is instead a mental activity that involves constructing a complex representation of what a story portrays" (Friend, S., "The Real Foundation of Fictional Worlds", Australasian Journal of Philosophy: [1]).
Jump up ^ The research of Weisberg and Goodstein (2009) revealed that, despite not being specifically informed that, say, the fictional character Sherlock Holmes, had two legs, their subjects "consistently assumed that some real-world facts obtained in fiction, although they were sensitive to the kind of fact and the realism of the story." (Weisberg, D.S. & Goodstein, J., "What Belongs in a Fictional World?", Journal of Cognition and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 1, (March 2009), pp. 69-78. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deena_Weisberg/publication/233656603_What_Belongs_in_a_Fictional_World/links/54aadcd90cf2ce2df668ca52.pdf .)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "fiction." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2015.
Jump up ^ Sageng, Fossheim, & Larsen (eds.) (2012). The Philosophy of Computer Games. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 186-187.
^ Jump up to: a b William Harmon and C. Hugh Holman A Handbook to Literature (7th edition). New York: Prentice Hall, 1990, p. 212.
Jump up ^ "Definition of 'fiction'." Oxford English Dictionaries (online). Oxford University Press. 2015.
Jump up ^ M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms (7th edition). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace, 1999, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Farner, Geir (2014). "Chapter 2: What is Literary Fiction?". Literary Fiction: The Ways We Read Narrative Literature. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
Jump up ^ Culler, Jonathan (2000). Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 31. Non-fictional discourse is usually embedded in a context that tells you how to take it: an instruction manual, a newspaper report, a letter from a charity. The context of fiction, though, explicitly leaves open the question of what the fiction is really about. Reference to the world is not so much a property of literary [i.e. fictional] works as a function they are given by interpretation.
Jump up ^ Iftekharuddin, Frahat (ed.). (2003). The Postmodern Short Story: Forms and Issues. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23.
Jump up ^ Jones, Oliver. (2015). "Why Fan Fiction is the Future of Publishing." The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast Company LLC.
Jump up ^ Milhorn, H. Thomas. (2006). Writing Genre Fiction: A Guide to the Craft. Universal Publishers: Boca Raton. p. 3-4.
Jump up ^ J. A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms (1992). London: Penguin Books, 1999, p.600.
Jump up ^ Heart of Darkness Novella by Conrad - Encyclopædia Britannica,
Jump up ^ Whiteman, G.; Phillips, N. (13 December 2006). "The Role of Narrative Fiction and Semi-Fiction in Organizational Studies". ERIM Report Series Research in Management. ISSN 1566-5283. SSRN 981296  . |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Slashdot Interview from 20 October 2004 with Neal Stephenson
Jump up ^ Grossman 2006.
Jump up ^ The Charlie Rose Show from 14 June 2006 with John Updike Archived 3 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Saricks 2009, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Coles 2009, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Saricks 2009, p. 181-182.
Jump up ^ Coles 2007, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Coles 2009, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Saricks 2009, p. 179.
^ Jump up to: a b Saricks 2009, p. 182.
Jump up ^ Rafferty 2011.
Jump up ^ Wood, James. 2008. How Fiction Works. New York. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. p. xiii.
Jump up ^ George W. Young: Subversive Symmetry. Exploring the Fantastic in Mark 6:45-56. Brill, Leiden 1999, p. 98, 106-109. ISBN 90-04-11428-9
Bibliography[edit]
Eco, Umberto 2009. On the ontology of fictional characters: A semiotic approach. Sign Systems Studies 37(1/2): 82–98.
External links[edit]
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Subhasis Chattopadhyay, 'Claiming the Domain of the Literary: Mourning the Death of Reading Fiction, Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India 121 (6) (June 2016): 505-11
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General Tso's chicken
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
General Tso's Chicken
General Tso's chicken
Alternative names
General Tao[dubious – discuss] Chicken, Zuo Gong Ji
Course
Main
Serving temperature
Hot
Main ingredients
Chicken, ginger, garlic, soy sauce, rice vinegar
Shaoxing wine or sherry, sugar, sesame oil, scallions, hot chili peppers, batter
Variations
Orange chicken (Westernized version)
Cookbook: General Tso's Chicken
Media: General Tso's Chicken
General Tso's chicken
Traditional Chinese
左宗棠雞
Simplified Chinese
左宗棠鸡
showTranscriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Zuǒ Zōngtáng jī
Wade–Giles
Tsǒ Tsūngt'áng chī
IPA
[tswò tsʊ́ŋtʰǎŋ tɕí]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
jó jūng tòhng gaì
IPA
[tsɔ̌ː tsʊ́ŋ tʰɔ̏ːŋ kɐ̂i]
Jyutping
zo2 zung1 tong4 gai1
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
chó-chong-tn̂g-ke
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
左公雞
Simplified Chinese
左公鸡
showTranscriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Zuǒ gōng jī
Wade–Giles
Tsǒ kūng chī
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
jo2 gung1 gai1
IPA
[tsɔ̌ː kʊ́ŋ kɐ̂i]
Jyutping
jó gūng gaì
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
chó-kong-ke
General Tso's chicken (pronounced [tswò]) is a sweet deep-fried chicken dish that is served in North American Chinese restaurants (it is also seen with other variants, such as General Tse's chicken). The dish is named after Zuo Zongtang (also romanized Tso Tsung-t'ang), a Qing dynasty statesman and military leader, although there is no recorded connection to him nor is the dish known in Hunan, Zuo's home province.[1]
Contents
1 Name and origins
1.1 Peng Chang-kuei claim
1.2 Wang claim
2 Recipes
2.1 Regional differences
3 Nutrition
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References and further reading
7 External links
Name and origins[edit]
The dish has been associated with Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t'ang) (1812–1885), a Qing dynasty statesman and military leader from Hunan Province. Zuo himself could not have eaten the dish as it is today[2] and the dish is found neither in Changsha, the capital of Hunan Province, nor in Xiangyin County, where Zuo was born. Moreover, Zuo's descendants, who are still living in Xiangyin County, when interviewed, say that they have never heard of such a dish.[3]
There are several stories concerning the origin of the dish. Eileen Yin-Fei Lo states in her book The Chinese Kitchen that the dish originates from a simple Hunan chicken dish and that the reference to "Zongtang" was not a reference to Zuo Zongtang's given name, but rather a reference to the homonym "zongtang", meaning "ancestral meeting hall".[4] Consistent with this interpretation, the dish name is sometimes (but considerably less commonly) found in Chinese as "Zuo ancestral hall chicken" (Chung tong gai is a transliteration of "ancestral meeting hall chicken" from Cantonese; Zuǒ Zōngtáng jī is the standard name of General Tso's chicken as transliterated from Mandarin).
The dish or its variants are known by a number of names, including Governor Tso's chicken, General Tao’s Chicken, General Gao's / Gau's chicken, General Mao's chicken, General Tsao's chicken, General Tong's chicken, General Tang's chicken, General Cho's chicken, General Chai's chicken, General Joe's Chicken, T.S.O. Chicken, General Ching's chicken, General Jong's Chicken, House Chicken, or simply General's Chicken.
Peng Chang-kuei claim[edit]
Fuchsia Dunlop[1] argues that the recipe was invented by Taiwan-based Hunan cuisine chef Peng Chang-kuei,[5] [6] who had been an apprentice of Cao Jingchen (曹藎臣), a leading early 20th-century Chinese chef. Peng was the Nationalist government's banquet chef and fled with Kuomintang forces to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War.[5] There he continued his career as official chef until 1973, when he moved to New York to open a restaurant. That was where Peng started inventing new dishes and modifying traditional ones. One new dish, General Tso's chicken, was originally prepared without sugar and subsequently altered to suit the tastes of "non-Hunanese people". The popularity of the dish has now led to it being "adopted" by local Hunanese chefs and food writers, perhaps as an acknowledgment of the dish's unique status, upon which the international reputation of Hunanese cuisine was largely based.[1][3] When Peng opened a restaurant in Hunan in the 1990s introducing General Tso's chicken, the restaurant closed without success, as the locals found the dish too sweet.[3]
Peng's Restaurant[7] on East 44th Street in New York City claims that it was the first restaurant in the city to serve General Tso's chicken. Since the dish (and cuisine) was new, Peng made it the house speciality in spite of the dish's commonplace ingredients.[1] A review of Peng's in 1977 mentions that their "General Tso's chicken was a stir-fried masterpiece, sizzling hot both in flavor and temperature".[8]
Peng died from pneumonia in November 2016 at 98 years old[9].
Wang claim[edit]
New York's Shun Lee Palaces, located at East (155 E. 55th St.) and West (43 W. 65th St.), also claims that it was the first restaurant to serve General Tso's chicken and that it was invented by a Chinese immigrant chef named T. T. Wang in 1972. Michael Tong, owner of New York's Shun Lee Palaces, says "We opened the first Hunanese restaurant in the whole country, and the four dishes we offered you will see on the menu of practically every Hunanese restaurant in America today. They all copied from us."[2]
It has also been argued that the two stories can be somewhat reconciled in that the current General Tso's chicken recipe — where the meat is crispy fried — was introduced by Chef Wang but as "General Ching's chicken", a name which still has trace appearances on menus on the Internet (the identity of its namesake "General Ching" is, however, unclear); whereas the name "General Tso's chicken" can be traced to Chef Peng, who cooked it in a different way.[3]
Recipes[edit]
General Tso's chicken
Close-up view of General Tso's chicken
Traditional basic ingredients include:
Sauce: soy sauce, rice wine, rice-wine vinegar, sugar,[10] cornstarch, dried red chili peppers (whole), garlic.
Batter / breading: egg, cornstarch.
Dish: broccoli, chicken dark meat (cubed).
Regional differences[edit]
At the United States Naval Academy, the dish is served in the main mess hall, King Hall, as "Admiral Tso's Chicken", reflecting a nautical theme.[3]

One notable establishment outside of North America that serves General Tso's chicken is the Taiwanese restaurant Peng Chang-kuei, which is credited by some sources as the inventor of the dish.[5] Differences between this "original" dish and that commonly encountered in North America are that it is not sweet in flavor, the chicken is cooked with its skin and soy sauce plays a much more prominent role.[3]
Nutrition[edit]
A typical restaurant serving of General Tso's chicken may include up to 1,300 kilocalories, 11 grams of saturated fat and 3,200 milligrams of sodium [11] as well as exceed 300 mg of cholesterol.[12] One serving will typically be about 4 oz. (approximately 100 grams) of chicken thigh meat which contains 20-30 grams of protein,[13] greater than 30% of the daily recommended niacin needs and over 15% of the recommended B6, phosphorus and zinc needs.[12]
See also[edit]
Canada portal
United States portal
Food portal
American Chinese cuisine
Canadian Chinese cuisine
Crispy fried chicken
Lemon chicken
List of chicken dishes
Orange chicken
Pizza effect – the phenomenon of elements of a nation or people's culture being transformed or at least more fully embraced elsewhere, then re-imported back to their culture of origin.
Sesame chicken
The Search for General Tso – a 2014 documentary film about the dish and Chinese American culture
White cut chicken
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dunlop, Fuchsia (February 4, 2007). "Hunan Resources". The New York Times Magazine. Section 6, Page 75. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
^ Jump up to: a b Browning, Michael (April 17, 2002). "Who Was General Tso And Why Are We Eating His Chicken?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-02-24. Text available at WiredNewYork.com
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lee, Jennifer (2008). The Fortune Cookie Chronicles: Adventures in the World of Chinese Food. Twelve Books. ISBN 0-446-58007-4.
Jump up ^ Lo, Eileen Yin-Fei (1999). "Transplanting Chinese Foods in the West". The Chinese Kitchen. calligraphy by San Yan Wong (1st ed.). New York: William Morrow and Company. p. 416. ISBN 0-688-15826-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Curious History of General Tso's Chicken", Salon
Jump up ^ Dunlop (2006).
Jump up ^ http://www.pengyuan.com.tw/
Jump up ^ Sheraton, Mimi (March 18, 1977). "A Touch of Hunan, A Taste of Italy". The New York Times. New Jersey Weekly section, Page 68. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
Jump up ^ Everington, Keoni. "Inventor of General Tso's Chicken dies in Taipei at age 98 | Taiwan News". Taiwan News. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Search for General .Tso" (Movie). Ian Cheney. 2014.
Jump up ^ "Chinese Food: A Wok On The Wild Side", Center for Science in the Public Interest
^ Jump up to: a b "Nutritional Information For General Tso's Chicken", Lance Armstrong Foundation
Jump up ^ "Grams of Protein in Chicken - Chicken Thighs", High Protein Foods
References and further reading[edit]
Dunlop, Fuchsia (2006), "The Strange Tale of General Tso's Chicken", in Richard Hosking, Authenticity in the Kitchen: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2005, Oxford Symposium, pp. 165–177, ISBN 978-1-903018-47-7
"7 Chefs on the Enduring Appeal of General Tso's Chicken," Grub Street (January 8, 2015).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to General Tso's Chicken.
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Cold front
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Cold wave.
The symbol of a cold front: a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel
A retreating cold front with clear air behind
A cold front over the eastern and central region of the United States of America
A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 °C (54 °F).[1] When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer. When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front, the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development of cold fronts
2 Clouds
3 Precipitation
3.1 Undercutting
3.2 Frontogenetical circulation
4 Temperature changes
5 Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Development of cold fronts[edit]
The cooler and denser air wedges under the less-dense warmer air, lifting it. This upward motion causes lowered pressure along the cold front and can cause the formation of a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms when enough moisture is present. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles/spikes (pips) pointing in the direction of travel. A cold front's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop off, which in an isotherm analysis would show up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough.[2] Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and can produce sharper changes in weather. Since cold air is denser than warm air, it rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary.[3]
In the northern hemisphere, a cold front usually causes a shift of wind from southwest to northwest clockwise, also known as veering, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from northwest to southwest (anticlockwise, backing). Normally, cold fronts can be marked by these characteristics:
Weather phenomenon
Prior to the passing of the front
While the front is passing
After the passing of the front
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly Steadily cooling
Atmospheric pressure Decreasing steadily Lowest, then sudden increase Increasing steadily
Winds
Southwest to southeast (northern hemisphere)
Northwest to northeast (southern hemisphere)
Gusty; shifting
North to west, usually northwest (northern hemisphere)
South to west, usually southwest (southern hemisphere)
Precipitation/conditions* Light patchy rain can be produced by stratocumulus or stratus in the warm sector. In summer, sometimes thunderstorms if a preceding squall line is present. Prolonged rain (nimbostratus) or thunderstorms (cumulonimbus): depends on conditions. Showers, then clearing
Clouds* Often preceded by cirrus, cirrostratus then altostratus like a warm front (but usually with smaller amounts of these clouds). Areas of cirrocumulus and altocumulus within cirrostratus and altostratus more commonly seen than at a warm front. Larger cumulus clouds under the higher cloud types than at a warm front, where stratocumulus and cumulus humilis usually occur. Some of these cumulus clouds may produce showers ahead of the front. Cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus producing frequent showers, with a sheet of upper altostratus, through which the sun can sometimes be seen. Less commonly nimbostratus occurs with continuous rain. Patchy altocumulus or stratocumulus and higher cirrus clouds along with fast moving stratus fractus then eventually scattered cumulus and sometimes cumulonimbus.
Visibility* Fair to poor in haze Poor, but improving Good, except in showers
Dew Point High, steady Sudden drop Falling
*provided there is sufficient moisture.
Clouds[edit]
If the cold front is highly unstable, cumulonimbus clouds producing thunderstorms commonly form along the front. Anvil cirrus clouds may spread a considerable distance downwind from the thunderstorms.[4] The other cloud types associated with a cold front depend on atmospheric conditions such as air mass stability and wind shear.[5] As the front approaches, middle-étage gives way to altostratus and low-level stratocumulus with intermittent light precipitation if the warm airmass being displaced by the cold front is mostly stable. With significant airmass instability, vertically developed cumulus or cumulonimbus with showers and thunderstorms will form along the front.
After the passage of the cold front, the sky usually clears as high pressure builds in behind the system, although significant amounts of cumulus or stratocumulus, often in the form of long bands called cloud streets may persist if the air mass behind the front remains humid.[6] Small and unchanging amounts of cumulus or cirrus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are usually indications of continuing fair weather as long as the barometric pressure remains comparatively high.
Precipitation[edit]
A cold front as it appeared on the National Weather Service Wichita, Kansas WSR-88D on April 3, 2011. The thin blue line labeled "cold front" is the front, with severe thunderstorms seen developing behind the front, which is moving towards the bottom right.
A cold front commonly brings a narrow band of precipitation that follows along the leading edge of the cold front. These bands of precipitation are often very strong, [7] and can bring severe thunderstorms, hailstorms[8] and/or tornadoes. In the spring, these cold fronts can be very strong, and can bring strong winds when the pressure gradient is higher than normal. During the winter months, cold fronts sometimes come through an area with little or no precipitation. Wider rain bands can occur behind cold fronts which tend to have more stratiform, and less convective, precipitation.[9] These rainstorms sometimes bring flooding, and can move very slowly when the storm steering it is strong and embedded within a meridional flow pattern (with more pole to equator motion rather than west to east motion). In the winter, cold fronts can bring cold spells, and occasionally snow. In the spring or summer in temperate latitudes, hail may occasionally fall along with the rain. If moisture is not sufficient, such as when a system has previously moved across a mountain barrier, cold fronts can pass without cloudiness.
Undercutting[edit]
The idea that cold air wedges, or undercuts, the warm air is often used to depict how advancing cold fronts force warm air to rise along the sloping cold air, much like a snow shovel scooping up snow,[10] creating instability. Provided with sufficient moisture, the rising air would thus condense, creating storms, clouds, and/or rain. While this concept is used to generally describe frontal precipitation patterns, it is technically incorrect.[11]
Frontogenetical circulation[edit]
Frontogenesis is the process of creating or steepening the temperature gradient of a front. During this process the atmosphere reacts in an attempt to restore balance, the consequence is a circular motion along the front where air is being lifted up, along the cold front and dropping downward, behind the frontal boundary. This is the actual force of upward motion along a front that is responsible for clouds and precipitation.
As the temperature gradient steepens during frontogenesis, the thermal wind becomes imbalanced. To maintain balance, the geostrophic wind aloft and below adjust, such that regions of divergence/convergence form. Mass continuity would require a vertical transport of air along the cold front where there is divergence (lowered pressure). Although this circulation is described by a series of processes, they are actually occurring at the same time, observable along the front as a thermally direct circulation. There are several factors that influence the final shape and tilt of the circulation around the front, ultimately determining the kind and location of clouds and precipitation.[5][12]
Temperature changes[edit]
Cold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name "cold front". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50 °F (30 °C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs.[13] The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.
Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone[edit]
Occluded cyclone example. The triple point is the intersection of the cold, warm, and occluded fronts.
Cold fronts form when a cooler air mass moves into an area of warmer air in the wake of a developing extratropical cyclone. The warmer air interacts with the cooler air mass along the boundary, and usually produces precipitation. Cold fronts often follow a warm front or squall line. Very commonly, cold fronts have a warm front ahead but with a perpendicular orientation. In areas where cold fronts catch up to the warm front, the occluded front develops. Occluded fronts have an area of warm air aloft. When such a feature forms poleward of an extratropical cyclone, it is known as a trowal, which is short for TRough Of Warm Air aLoft.[14] A cold front is considered a warm front if it begins to retreat ahead of the next extratropical cyclone along the frontal boundary, and called a stationary front if it stalls.
See also[edit]
Cold wave
Air mass
Surface weather analysis
Texas Norther
Weather front
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.climate.umn.edu/doc/journal/cold_december_2013.htm
Jump up ^ David Roth (2006-12-14). "Unified Surface Analysis Manual" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski; Yvette P. Richardson (2011-09-20). Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-119-96667-8. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
Jump up ^ Lee M. Grenci; Jon M. Nese (2001). A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology: A Text / Laboratory Manual (3 ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 207–212. ISBN 978-0-7872-7716-1. OCLC 51160155.
^ Jump up to: a b Preview Text, Holton, James R., 2004: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press, 277 pp.
Jump up ^ Weston, K. J. (1980). "An observational study of convective cloud streets". Tellus. 32 (5): 433. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1980.tb00970.x.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
Jump up ^ Schemm, S.; L. Nisi, A. Martinov; D. Leuenberg & O. Martius (2016). "On the link between cold fronts and hail in Switzerland". Atmospheric Science Letters. 17 (5): 315–325. doi:10.1002/asl.660.
Jump up ^ K. A. Browning and Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global Energy and Water Cycles. Retrieved on 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ Meteorology Today p. 298, Ahrens, Donald C., 2007: Meteorology Today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment. Thomas Learning, Inc., 298pp.
Jump up ^ "Overrunning". NWS Glossary. National Weather Service. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
Jump up ^ Preview Text, Carlson, Toby N., 1991: Mid-Latitude Weather Systems. HarperCollins, 435 pp.
Jump up ^ Nav Canada (January 2005). Aviation Weather Services Guide. p. 36. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ St. Louis University (2003-08-04). "What is a TROWAL? via the Internet Wayback Machine". Archived from the original on 2006-09-16. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
External links[edit]
Cold Front: transition zone from warm air to cold air
Weather Fronts
Fronts: the boundaries between air masses
Weather portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_front&oldid=811756934"
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