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Propionibacterium acnes
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Propionibacterium acnes
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinobacteria
Order: Actinomycetales
Family: Propionibacteriaceae
Genus: Propionibacterium
Species: P. acnes
Subspecies: Propionibacterium acnes subsp. acnes[1]
Propionibacterium acnes subsp. defendens[1]
Propionibacterium acnes subsp. elongatum[1]
Binomial name
Propionibacterium acnes
(Gilchrist 1900)
Douglas & Gunter 1946
Cutibacterium (Propionibacterium) acnes is the relatively slow-growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium (rod) linked to the skin condition of acne;[2] it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis,[3] the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. The genome of the bacterium has been sequenced and a study has shown several genes can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activating the immune system).[4]
This bacterium is largely commensal and part of the skin flora present on most healthy adult humans' skin.[5] It is usually just barely detectable on the skin of healthy preadolescents. It lives primarily on, among other things, fatty acids in sebum secreted by sebaceous glands in the follicles. It may also be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract in humans[6] and many other animals.
It is named after its ability to generate propionic acid.
Contents
[hide]
1 Role in disease
2 Antimicrobial susceptibility
3 Photosensitivity
4 Other habitats
5 References
6 External links
Role in disease[edit]
P. acnes bacteria live deep within follicles and pores, away from the surface of the skin. In these follicles, P. acnes bacteria use sebum, cellular debris and metabolic byproducts from the surrounding skin tissue as their primary sources of energy and nutrients. Elevated production of sebum by hyperactive sebaceous glands (sebaceous hyperplasia) or blockage of the follicle can cause P. acnes bacteria to grow and multiply.[7]
P. acnes bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes.[8] These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients. They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle. The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of P. acnes in follicles can trigger inflammation.[9] This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris.[10][11][12]
The damage caused by P. acnes and the associated inflammation make the affected tissue more susceptible to colonization by opportunistic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Preliminary research shows healthy pores are only colonized by P. acnes, while unhealthy ones universally include the nonpore-resident Staphylococcus epidermidis, amongst other bacterial contaminants. Whether this is a root causality, just opportunistic and a side effect, or a more complex pathological duality between P. acnes and this particular Staphylococcus species is not known.[13]
P. acnes has also been found in corneal ulcers, and is a common cause of chronic endophthalmitis following cataract surgery. Rarely, it infects heart valves leading to endocarditis, and infections of joints (septic arthritis) have been reported.[6] Furthermore, Propionibacterium species have been found in ventriculostomy insertion sites, and areas subcutaneous to suture sites in patients who have undergone craniotomy. It is a common contaminant in blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures.
P. acnes has been found in herniated discs.[14] The propionic acid which it secretes creates micro-fractures of the surrounding bone. These micro-fractures are sensitive and it has been found that antibiotics have been helpful in resolving this type of low back pain.[15]
P. acnes can be found in bronchoalveolar lavage of approximately 70% of patients with sarcoidosis and is associated with disease activity, but it can be also found in 23% of controls.[16][17] The subspecies of P. acnes that cause these infections of otherwise sterile tissues (prior to medical procedures), however, are the same subspecies found on the skin of individuals who do not have acne-prone skin, so are likely local contaminants. Moderate to severe acne vulgaris appears to be more often associated with virulent strains.[18]
P. acnes is an opportunistic pathogen, causing a range of postoperative and device-related infections e.g., surgery,[19] post-neurosurgical infection,[20] joint prostheses, shunts and prosthetic heart valves. P. acnes may play a role in other conditions, including inflammation of the prostate leading to cancer,[21] SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteitis) syndrome, sarcoidosis and sciatica.[22] It is also suspected a main bacterial source of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease brains.[23]
Antimicrobial susceptibility[edit]
P. acnes bacteria are susceptible to a wide range of antimicrobial molecules, from both pharmaceutical and natural sources. Antibiotics are commonly used to treat infections caused by P. acnes. Acne vulgaris is the disease most commonly associated with P. acnes infection. The antibiotics most frequently used to treat acne vulgaris are erythromycin, clindamycin, doxycycline, and minocycline.[24][25][26] Several other families of antibiotics are also active against P. acnes bacteria, including quinolones, cephalosporins, pleuromutilins, penicillins, and sulfonamides.[27][28][29]
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant P. acnes bacteria represents a growing problem worldwide.[30] The problem is especially pronounced in North America and Europe.[31] The antibiotic families that P. acnes are most likely to acquire resistance to are the macrolides (e.g., erythromycin and azithromycin), lincosamides (e.g., clindamycin) and tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline and minocycline).[32][33]
However, P. acnes bacteria are susceptible to many types of antimicrobial chemicals found in over-the-counter antibacterial products, including benzoyl peroxide,[34] triclosan, chloroxylenol (PCMX), and chlorhexidine gluconate.
Several naturally occurring molecules and compounds are toxic to P. acnes bacteria. Some essential oils such as rosemary,[35] tea tree oil,[36] clove oil,[37] and citrus oils[38][39] contain antibacterial chemicals.
The elements silver,[40] sulfur,[41] and copper[42] have also been demonstrated to be toxic towards many bacteria, including P. acnes. Natural honey has also been shown to have some antibacterial properties that may be active against P. acnes.[43]
Photosensitivity[edit]
P. acnes glows orange when exposed to blacklight,[44] possibly due to the presence of endogenous porphyrins. The bacterium is killed by ultraviolet light. P. acnes is also especially sensitive to light in the 405–420 nanometer (near the ultraviolet) range due to an endogenic porphyrin–coporphyrin III. A total irradiance of 320 J/cm² is found to inactivate this bacterium in vitro.[45] This fact is used in phototherapy. Its photosensitivity can be enhanced by pretreatment with aminolevulinic acid, which boosts production of this chemical, although this causes significant side effects in humans, and in practice was not significantly better than the light treatment alone.[citation needed]
Other habitats[edit]
Unexpectedly, P. acnes was found to be an endophyte of plants. Notably, grapevine appears to host an endophytic population of P. acnes that is closely related to the human-associated strains and whose line diverged roughly 7,000 years ago, at about the same time when grapevine agriculture may have been established. This P. acnes subtype was dubbed Zappae in honour of the eccentric composer Frank Zappa, to highlight its unexpected and unconventional habitat.[46]
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Propionibacterium acnes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Propionibacterium (Kenyon College)
BBC News - "Harmless skin virus' fights acne"
Type strain of Propionibacterium acnes at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
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International Trade Organization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The International Trade Organization (ITO) was the proposed name for an international institution for the regulation of trade.
Led by the United States in collaboration with allies, the effort to form the organization from 1945 to 1948, with the successful passing of the Havana Charter, eventually failed due to lack of approval by the US Congress. Until the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1994, international trade was managed through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
Contents
1 History
1.1 Proposal of an international trade institution
1.2 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1.3 Havana Charter
1.4 Failure in United States Congress
1.5 Individual trade agreements and World Trade Organization
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Proposal of an international trade institution[edit]
The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, which established an international institution for monetary policy, recognized the need for a comparable international institution for trade to complement the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.[1] Bretton Woods was attended by representatives of finance ministries and not by representatives of trade ministries, the proposed reason why a trade agreement was not negotiated at that time.[2]
In early December 1945, the United States invited its war-time allies to enter into negotiations to conclude a multilateral agreement for the reciprocal reduction of tariffs on trade in goods. In July 1945, the US Congress had granted President Harry S. Truman the authority to negotiate and conclude such an agreement. At the proposal of the United States, the United Nations Economic and Social Committee adopted a resolution, in February 1946, calling for a conference to draft a charter for an International Trade Organization.
A Preparatory Committee was established in February 1946, and met for the first time in London in October 1946 to work on the charter of an international organization for trade; the work was continued from April to November 1947.[3]
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade[edit]
At the same time, the negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in Geneva advanced well, and by October 1947 an agreement was reached: on October 30, 1947 eight of the twenty-three countries that had negotiated the GATT signed the "Protocol of Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade".[4] Those eight countries were the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
Havana Charter[edit]
In March 1948, the negotiations on the ITO Charter were successfully completed in Havana Charter. The Havana Charter (formally the "Final Act of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment") provided for the establishment of the ITO, and set out the basic rules for international trade and other international economic matters. It was signed by 56[5] countries on March 24, 1948. It allowed for international cooperation and rules against anti-competitive business practices.
The Charter, proposed by John Maynard Keynes, was to establish the ITO and a financial institution called the International Clearing Union (ICU), and an international currency; the bancor. The Havana Charter institutions were to stabilize trade by encouraging nations to "net zero", with trade surplus and trade deficit both discouraged. This negative feedback was to be accomplished by allowing nations overdraft equal to half the average value of the country's trade over the preceding five years, with interest charged on both surplus and deficit.
Failure in United States Congress[edit]
The Charter never came into force, in part because in 1950 the United States government announced that it would not submit the treaty to the United States Senate for ratification. While repeatedly submitted to the US Congress, the charter was never approved. The most usual argument against the new organization was that it would be involved into internal economic issues.[6] On December 6, 1950 President Truman announced that he would no longer seek Congressional approval of the ITO Charter.[7] Because of the American rejection of the Charter, no other state ratified the treaty. Elements of the Charter would later become part of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
Individual trade agreements and World Trade Organization[edit]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, countries turned, from the early 1950s, to the only existing multilateral international institution for trade, the "GATT 1947", to handle problems concerning their trade relations. Therefore, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de facto international organization. It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters.[8]
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT before the eighth round—the Uruguay Round—concluded in 1994 with the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) as the GATT's replacement. The GATT principles and agreements were adopted by the WTO, which was charged with administering and extending them.
See also[edit]
Bretton Woods system
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 79
Jump up ^ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement12345, 1
Jump up ^ Irwin, Douglas A. The GATT's contribution to economic recovery in post-war Western Europe (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-10. Retrieved 2008-07-23.
Jump up ^ The negotiating countries decided to bring the provisions of the GATT into force immediately. Nevertheless, they also feared that to spend the political effort required to get the GATT through the legislature might jeopardize the later effort to get the ITO passed. Therefore, they preferred to take the ITO Charter and the GATT to their legislatures as a package. To resolve this problem, eight of these countries signed the Protocol of Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs (PPA) (P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80).
Jump up ^ Irwin, Douglas A. (1993). "The GATT's Contribution To Economic Recovery In Post War Western Europe". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System International Finance Discussion Papers number 442, March 1993.
Jump up ^ P.B. Kenen, The International Economy, I, 376
Jump up ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
* Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
Jump up ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81
* J.H. Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134
References[edit]
Bossche, Peter van den (2005). "The Origins of the WTO". The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82290-4.
Jackson, John H. (1994). "Managing the Trading System: The World Trade Organization and the Post-Uruguay Round GATT Agenda". In Peter B. Kenen. Managing the World Economy: Fifty Years after Bretton Woods. Institute for International Economics. ISBN 0-88132-212-1.
Kenen, Peter B. (1999 – first published 1994). "The Evolution of Trade Policy". The International Economy (Volume I) (in Greek). Translated by Andreas Sokodimos (Third ed.). Athens: Papazisis (in English: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 960-02-1365-8. Check date values in: |year= (help)
Palmeter, N. David; Mavroidis, Petros C. (2004). "Overview". Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization: Practice and Procedure. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53003-2.
External links[edit]
Havana Charter
Text of the Havana Charter - WTO official website
Pages 5 and 6 of an economics paper
Pages two and three of a paper concerning agricultural trade
Page 1
[1]
The WTO: An Historical, Legal, and Organizational Overview
Can World Trade Ever Be Fair? by Susan George at CounterPunch.org
Global Fracture a book by Michael Hudson that insightfully documents how developing countries have organized since the 1940s to restructure the global economic system, and failed every time.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Trade_Organization&oldid=853566103"
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