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Wildlife of Madagascar
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A Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), the most familiar of Madagascar's numerous species of lemur.
The composition of Madagascar's wildlife reflects the fact that the island has been isolated for about 88 million years. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India about 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.[1]
As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to an abundance of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.[2][3] Approximately 90 percent of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic,[4] including the lemurs (a type of strepsirrhine primate), the carnivorous fossa and many birds. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",[5] and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.[2]
Contents
1 Fauna
2 Flora
3 Environmental issues
3.1 Conservation
3.2 Research
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Fauna[edit]
Main articles: Fauna of Madagascar, List of birds of Madagascar, and List of mammals of Madagascar
The silky sifaka is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.[6]
Madagascar's isolation from other land masses throughout the Cenozoic Era has led to the evolution of a large proportion of endemic animal species and the absence of many taxa found on neighboring continents. Some of Madagascar's animals appear to represent lineages that have been present since the breakup of Gondwana, while many others, including all of the nonflying native mammals, are descendants of ancestors that survived rare rafting or swimming voyages from Africa (likely aided by currents).[7][8] As of 2012 it has over 200 extant mammal species, including over 100 species of lemurs, about 300 species of birds, more than 260 species of reptiles, and at least 266 species of amphibians. The island also has a rich invertebrate fauna including earthworms, insects, spiders and nonmarine molluscs.
Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.[2] In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur,[9] 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.[10] They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. Since the arrival of humans on Madagascar, at least 17 species of lemur have become extinct; all of them were larger than the surviving lemur species.[11]
A number of other mammals, including the cat-like fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.[2] The few families and genera of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic[12] (including one endemic family).[2] The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species,[12] including the smallest known,[13] and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons.
Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders and dragonflies.[2]
Flora[edit]
Main article: Flora of Madagascar
Comet orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale, the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of hawkmoth with a proboscis of matching length.
More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.[14] There are several endemic families including the Asteropeiaceae, Sarcolaenaceae and Sphaerosepalaceae. The humid eastern part of the island was formerly covered in rainforest with many palms, ferns and bamboo, although much of this forest has been reduced by human activity. The west has areas of dry deciduous forest with many lianas and with tamarind and baobabs among the dominant trees. Subhumid forest once covered much of the central plateau but grassland is now the dominant vegetation type there. The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar.[15]
Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island.[16] Three-fourths[17] of Madagascar's 860[14] orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's eight baobab species.[18] The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.[17]
Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine, used to treat Hodgkin's disease, leukemia and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.[19] The traveler's palm, known locally as ravinala[20] and endemic to the eastern rain forests,[21] is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.[22]
Environmental issues[edit]
Main articles: Deforestation in Madagascar and Illegal logging in Madagascar
Tavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (left), causing massive erosion (center) and silting of rivers (right).
Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.[23] Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.[24]
This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.[25] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy).[26]
As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1400 years ago.[27] By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.[25] More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.[28] According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.[29]
In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and has dramatically intensified under the administration of current head of state Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ouster.[30] It is anticipated that all the island's rainforests, excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern mountain slopes, will have been deforested by 2025.[31]
Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in 17th century or earlier, most probably due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.[32] Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.[33]
A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since the 2009 coup has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction.[9]
Conservation[edit]
Isalo National Park.
In 2003 Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).[34] In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra.[35]
Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.[36] To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York.[37]
Research[edit]
Current research in and on Madagascar and the Western Indian Ocean islands is published in the Madagascan open access journal Madagascar Conservation & Development, an initiative by the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Madagascar Research and Conservation Program and the Institute and Museum of Anthropology at the University of Zurich.[38]
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Conservation International (2007). "Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands". Biodiversity Hotspots. Conservation International. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Tattersall, Ian (2006). Origin of the Malagasy Strepshirhine Primates. Springer. pp. 1–6. ISBN 0-387-34585-X.
Jump up ^ Hobbes & Dolan (2008), p. 517
Jump up ^ Hillstrom & Collier Hillstrom (2003), p. 50
Jump up ^ Mittermeier, R.A.; Wallis, J.; Rylands, A.B.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Oates, J.F.; Williamson, E.A.; Palacios, E.; Heymann, E.W.; Kierulff, M.C.M.; Yongchen, L.; Supriatna, J.; Roos, C.; Walker, S.; Cortés-Ortiz, L.; Schwitzer, C., eds. (2009). "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010" (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, International Primatological Society, and Conservation International: 1–92.
Jump up ^ Kinver, M. (20 January 2010). "Mammals 'floated to Madagascar'". BBC News web site. BBC. Retrieved 20 January 2010. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ Ali, J. R.; Huber, M. (20 January 2010). "Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 463 (4 Feb. 2010): 653–656. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..653A. doi:10.1038/nature08706. PMID 20090678. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Black, Richard (13 July 2012). "Lemurs sliding toward extinction". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Mittermeier, R.; Ganzhorn, J.; Konstant, W.; Glander, K.; Tattersall, I.; Groves, C.; Rylands, A.; Hapke, A.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Mayor, M.; Louis, E.; Rumpler, Y.; Schwitzer, C.; Rasoloarison, R. (December 2008). "Lemur diversity in Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 29 (6): 1607–1656. doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Jungers, W.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (October 1997). "Phalangeal curvature and positional behavior in extinct sloth lemurs (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 94 (22): 11998–2001. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9411998J. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.22.11998. PMC 23681  . PMID 11038588. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Okajima, Yasuhisa; Kumazawa, Yoshinori (15 July 2009). "Mitogenomic perspectives into iguanid phylogeny and biogeography: Gondwanan vicariance for the origin of Madagascan oplurines". Gene. Elsevier. 441 (1–2): 28–35. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2008.06.011. PMID 18598742.
Jump up ^ Glaw, F.; Köhler, J. R.; Townsend, T. M.; Vences, M. (2012). Salamin, Nicolas, ed. "Rivaling the World's Smallest Reptiles: Discovery of Miniaturized and Microendemic New Species of Leaf Chameleons (Brookesia) from Northern Madagascar". PLoS ONE. 7 (2): e31314. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731314G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314. PMC 3279364  . PMID 22348069.
^ Jump up to: a b Callmander, Martin; et. al (2011). "The endemic and non-endemic vascular flora of Madagascar updated". Plant Ecology and Evolution. 144 (2): 121–125. doi:10.5091/plecevo.2011.513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Vences, Miguel; Wollenberg, Katharina; Vieites, David; Lees, David (June 2009). "Madagascar as a model region of species diversification". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 24 (8): 456–465. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.011. PMID 19500874. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Lavranos, John (2004). "Pachypodium makayense: A New Species From Madagascar". Cactus and Succulent Journal. 76 (2): 85–88.
^ Jump up to: a b Bradt (2011), p. 38
Jump up ^ Baum, D. A.; Small, R. L.; Wendel, J. F. (1998). "Biogeography and floral evolution of dandolines (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets". Systematic Biology. 47 (2): 181–207. doi:10.1080/106351598260879. PMID 12064226.
Jump up ^ Foster, Steven (December 2010). "From Herbs to Medicines: The Madagascar Periwinkle's Impact on Childhood Leukemia: A Serendipitous Discovery for Treatment". Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 16 (6): 347–350. doi:10.1089/act.2010.16609.
Jump up ^ Ellis (1859), p. 302
Jump up ^ McLendon, Chuck (16 May 2000). "Ravenala madagascariensis". Floridata.com. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre (24 August 2011). "Nature of Madagascar". Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Everglades, Madagascar Rain Forest on UNESCO List". ABC News. 30 July 2010. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ World Wildlife Fund, eds. (2001). "Madagascar subhumid forests". WildWorld Ecoregion Profile. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 2010-03-08. Retrieved 30 April 2006. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Gade, Daniel W. (1996). "Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar". Mountain Research and Development. 16 (2): 101–116. doi:10.2307/3674005. JSTOR 3674005.
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Jump up ^ Bachelard, Jerome; Marcus, Richard (2011). "Countries at the Crossroads 2011: Madagascar". Freedom House. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Green, Glen; Sussmand, Robert (April 1990). "Deforestation history of the eastern rainforests of Madagascar from satellite images". Science. 248 (4952): 212–215. Bibcode:1990Sci...248..212G. doi:10.1126/science.248.4952.212. PMID 17740137.
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Bibliography[edit]
Bradt, Hilary (2011). Madagascar, 10th Ed.: The Bradt Travel Guide. London: Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-341-2.
Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Birds I: Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins". In Hutchins, Michael. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 8 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0.
Ellis, William (1859). Three visits to Madagascar during ... 1853-1854-1856. London: Oxford University.
Emoff, Ron (2004). "Spitting into the wind: Multi-edged environmentalism in Malagasy song". In Dawe, Kevin. Island Musics. New York: Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-703-3.
Hillstrom, Kevin; Collier Hillstrom, Laurie (2003). Africa and the Middle East: a continental overview of environmental issues. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-688-0.
Hobbes, Joseph; Dolan, Andrew (2008). World Regional Geography. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-38950-7.
Kull, Christian (2004). [Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246 Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246] Check |url= value (help). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226461410.
External links[edit]
Large database of local names of fauna of Madagascar with English and scientific names
Madagascar Wildlife Conservation
WildMadagascar.org
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Samuel de Champlain Provincial Park
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Samuel de Champlain Provincial Park
IUCN category II (national park)
Location
Ontario, Canada
Nearest city
Mattawa, Ontario
Coordinates
46°17′30″N 78°52′30″W / 46.29167°N 78.87500°W / 46.29167; -78.87500Coordinates: 46°17′30″N 78°52′30″W / 46.29167°N 78.87500°W / 46.29167; -78.87500
Area
25.5 km2 (9.8 sq mi)
Governing body
Ontario Parks
Samuel de Champlain Provincial Park is a provincial park in Ontario, Canada.
The park spans both sides of the Mattawa River. It has an area of 25.5 square kilometres (9.8 sq mi) and is about 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) west of Mattawa, Ontario, Canada. It is administered by Ontario Parks, which classifies it as a natural environment park.
This park is popular in the summer with campers, providing many recreational activities such as canoeing, swimming, hiking, wildlife viewing, and other family activities. The visitors centre houses the Voyageur Heritage Centre, which highlights the historic importance of the Mattawa River to the fur trade through interactive exhibits. The park is also home to the Canadian Ecology Centre, an outdoor education centre, which provides educational programs on sustainable forestry.
The park is named after Samuel de Champlain, one of the first French explorers of Canada of the 17th century.
Looking south over Moore Lake
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Capital punishment in Canada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Capital punishment in Canada dates back to Canada's earliest history, including its period as a French colony and, after 1763, its time as a British colony. From 1867 to the elimination of the death penalty for murder on July 14, 1976, 1,481 people had been sentenced to death, and 710 had been executed. Of those executed, 697 were men and 13 were women. The only method used in Canada for capital punishment of civilians after the end of the French regime was hanging. The last execution in Canada was the double hanging of Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin on December 11, 1962, at Toronto's Don Jail.
The death penalty was de facto abolished in Canada in 1963, and Bill C-84 was enacted in 1976 resulting in the de jure abolition of the death penalty, except for certain military offences committed by members of the Canadian Armed Forces (cowardice, desertion, unlawful surrender, and spying for the enemy) which are prosecuted under the National Defence Act. In 1998, Canada eliminated the death penalty for these military offences as well.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Last executions in Canada
1.2 Military executions
1.3 Executioners
2 Methods
3 Public opinion
4 Policy regarding foreign capital punishment
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The execution of Stanislaus Lacroix, March 21, 1902, Hull, Quebec. At top right, onlookers watch from telephone poles.
In 1749, Peter Cartcel, a sailor aboard a ship in the Halifax harbour, stabbed Abraham Goodsides to death and wounded two other men. He was brought before a Captain's Court where he was found guilty and sentenced to death. Two days later he was hanged from the yardarm of the vessel as a deterrent to others.[2] This is one of the earliest records of capital punishment in English-speaking Canada. It is difficult to accurately state numbers of capital punishment since there were no systematic efforts to accurately record names, dates, and locations of executions until after 1867, and many records have been lost because of fires, floods, or decay.[3]
After Confederation, a revision of the statutes reduced the number of offences punishable by death to three: murder, rape, and treason. In 1868, Parliament also stated that the location of the execution was to be within the confines of the prison instead of public hangings.[4] By the 1870s, the jails had begun to build the gallows 5 feet (1.5 m) from the ground with a pit underneath instead of the previous high scaffold, the platform of which was level with the prison wall.[5]
In 1950, an attempt was made to abolish capital punishment. Ross Thatcher, at that time a Cooperative Commonwealth Federation Member of Parliament, moved Bill No. 2 in order to amend the Criminal Code to abolish the death penalty. Thatcher later withdrew it for fear of Bill No. 2 not generating positive discussion and further harming the chances of abolition. In 1956, the Joint Committee of the House and Senate recommended the retention of capital punishment as the mandatory punishment for murder, which opened the door to the possibility of abolition.[6]
In 1961, legislation was introduced to reclassify murder into capital or non-capital offences. A capital murder involved a planned or deliberate murder, murder during violent crimes, or the murder of a police officer or prison guard. Only capital murder carried the death sentence.[7]
Following the success of Lester Pearson and the Liberal Party in the 1963 federal election, and through the successive governments of Pierre Trudeau, the federal cabinet commuted all death sentences as a matter of policy. Hence, the de facto abolition of the death penalty in Canada occurred in 1963. On November 30, 1967, Bill C-168 was passed creating a five-year moratorium on the use of the death penalty, except for murders of police and corrections officers. On January 26, 1973, after the expiration of the five-year experiment, the Solicitor General of Canada continued the partial ban on capital punishment, which would eventually lead to the abolition of capital punishment.[8] On July 14, 1976, Bill C-84 was passed by a narrow margin of 130:124 in a free vote, resulting in the de jure abolition of the death penalty, except for certain offences under the National Defence Act. These were removed in 1998.[9]
On June 30, 1987, a bill to restore the death penalty was defeated by the House of Commons in a 148–127 vote, in which Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, Minister of Justice Ray Hnatyshyn, and Minister of External Affairs Joe Clark opposed the bill, whereas Deputy Prime Minister Donald Mazankowski and a majority of Progressive Conservative MPs supported it.[10][11][12][13]
First-degree murder, which before abolition was the offence of capital murder, now carries a mandatory life sentence without eligibility for parole until the person has served 25 years of the sentence.
Last executions in Canada[edit]
The last two people executed in Canada were Ronald Turpin, 29, and Arthur Lucas, 54, convicted for separate murders, at 12:02 am on December 11, 1962 at the Don Jail in Toronto.
The last woman to be hanged in Canada was Marguerite Pitre on January 9, 1953, for her part in the Albert Guay affair.
The last person sentenced to death was Mario Gauthier on May 14, 1976, for the murder of a prison guard in Quebec. He was reprieved as capital punishment was abolished for all common crimes on July 14 the same year.[14]
Military executions[edit]
During the First World War, 25 Canadian soldiers were executed. Most were shot for service offences such as desertion and cowardice, but two executions were for murder. For details of these see List of Canadian soldiers executed during World War I.
One Canadian soldier, Pte. Harold Pringle, was executed during the Second World War for murder.
Executioners[edit]
John Radclive
John Radclive was Canada's first professional executioner, placed on the federal payroll as a hangman by a Dominion order-in-council in 1892, on the recommendation of the justice minister Sir John Thompson:[15] Radclive is often described as having trained under British hangman William Marwood although there is no documentary proof for this. He can be shown to have hanged at least 69 people in Canada, although his life total was probably much higher. At his death, the Toronto Telegram said he had 150 executions. He died of alcohol-related illness in Toronto on February 26, 1911, at the age of 55.[16]
Arthur Ellis
Arthur Ellis was the pseudonym of Arthur B. English, a British man who became Canada's official hangman in 1913, after Radclive's death. Ellis worked as a hangman in Canada until the botched execution of Thomasina Sarao in Montreal in 1935, in which she was decapitated. He died in poverty in Montreal in July, 1938, and lies buried in the Mount Royal Cemetery.
The Crime Writers of Canada present annual literary awards – the Arthur Ellis Awards – named after this pseudonym. Ellis is prominently featured in the 2009 documentary Hangman's Graveyard.
Camille Branchaud
The executioner who worked as Camille Branchaud, a pseudonym, succeeded Ellis. Branchaud was on the Quebec government payroll as a hangman, and executed people elsewhere in the country on a piecework basis. The hangman was traditionally based in Montreal where between 1912 and 1960 the gallows at Bordeaux Prison saw more executions (85) take place than any other correctional facility in Canada.[17]
Branchaud carried out many executions (for which he was not paid) in the postwar period in Canada, such as the double hanging of Leonard Jackson and Steven Suchan of the Boyd Gang at the Don Jail in 1952, and Robert Raymond Cook's execution in Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta, in 1960.[18]
Methods[edit]
The first method of hanging was "hoisting" in which a rope would be thrown over a beam and the convicted person would then be hoisted into the air by others pulling on the rope.[citation needed] The slip knot would then tightly close around the neck until strangulation. A variation of this included the person with a rope around the neck to stand on a cart and then it would be pushed from under him. This led to the development of suspension in which "the drop" caused by jerking something from underneath the offender became the main component of the execution.[19] Executioners experimented with the length of the rope for the drop. They discovered new ways of causing instant unconsciousness and quick death upon hanging. In 1872, the length of a drop extended to nearly five feet which dislocated the neck perfectly. Almost one year later, the length of the drop was extended to seven feet.[20]
The majority of offenders put to death by Canadian civilian authorities were executed by the "long drop" technique of hanging developed in the United Kingdom by William Marwood. This method ensured that the prisoner's neck was broken instantly at the end of the drop, resulting in the prisoner dying of asphyxia while unconscious, which was considered more humane than the slow death by strangulation which often resulted from the previous "short drop" method. The short drop sometimes gave a period of suffering before death finally took place.
Early in his career, John Radclive persuaded several sheriffs in Ontario and Quebec to let him use an alternative method in which the condemned person was jerked into the air. A gallows of this type was used for the execution of Robert Neil at Toronto's Don Jail on February 29, 1888:
The old plan of a "drop" was discarded for a more merciful machine, by which the prisoner is jerked up from a platform on the ground level by a weight of 280 lbs, which is suspended by an independent rope pending the execution … At the words "Forgive us our trespasses," the executioner drove his chisel against the light rope that held the ponderous iron at the other end of the noose, and in an instant the heavy weight fell with a thud, and the pinioned body was jerked into the air and hung dangling between the rough posts of the scaffold.[21]
The hanging of Reginald Birchall in Woodstock, Ont. in November 1890 seems to be the last time a device of this kind was used.[citation needed] Radclive had first been exposed to executions as a Royal Navy seaman helping with shipboard hangings of pirates in the South China Sea, and it is possible he was trying to approximate something similar to hanging a man on a ship's yardarm. After Birchall's hanging, Radclive used the traditional long drop method, as did his successors.
While hanging was a relatively humane method of execution under ideal conditions with an expert executioner, mistakes could happen. Condemned prisoners were decapitated by accident at Headingley Jail in Manitoba and Bordeaux Jail in Montreal, and a prisoner at the Don Jail in Toronto hit the floor of the room below and was strangled by the hangman.[22]
Some Canadian jails—such as those in Toronto and Ottawa, Ontario; Headingley, Manitoba; and Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta—had permanent indoor execution facilities, but more typically offenders were hanged on a scaffold built for the occasion in the jail yard.
Military prisoners sentenced to death under Canadian Military Law were shot by a firing squad[citation needed].
Public opinion[edit]
Although reintroduction of the death penalty in Canada is extremely unlikely, support for capital punishment is similar to its support in the United States, where it is carried out regularly in some states and is on the books in most states and on the federal level. While opposition to the death penalty increased in the 1990s and early 2000s, in recent years Canadians have merged closer to America's position; in 2004 only 48 percent of Canadians favored death for murderers compared to 62 percent in 2010.[23] According to one poll, support for the death penalty in Canada is approximately the same as its support in the United States, at 63 percent in both countries as of 2013.[24] A 2011 poll by the Toronto Sun found that 66 percent of Canadians favored capital punishment, but only 41 percent would actually support its re-introduction in Canada.[25]
Since abolition only two parties are known to have advocated to bringing it back: the Reform Party of Canada (1988-2000) and the National Advancement Party of Canada (2014-since).[citation needed]
Among the reasons cited for banning capital punishment in Canada were fears about wrongful convictions, concerns about the state taking people's lives, and uncertainty about the death penalty's role as a deterrent for crime.[26] The 1959 conviction of 14-year-old Steven Truscott was a significant impetus (although certainly not the only one) toward the abolition of capital punishment.[citation needed] Truscott was sentenced to death for the murder of a classmate. His sentence was later commuted to a life sentence and in 2007 he was acquitted of the charges (although the appeal court did not state that he was in fact innocent).
Policy regarding foreign capital punishment[edit]
In the 1990s, Canada deported a criminal, Charles Ng to the United States, even though he appealed to the authorities, as he did not want to potentially face execution.
The Supreme Court of Canada, in the case United States v. Burns, (2001), determined that Canada should not extradite persons to face trial in other countries for crimes punishable by death unless Canada has received an assurance that the foreign state will not apply the death penalty, essentially overruling Kindler v. Canada (Minister of Justice), (1991). This is similar to the extradition policies of other nations such as Germany, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, Israel, Mexico, Colombia and Australia, which also refuse to extradite prisoners who may be condemned to death. Extradition where the death penalty is possible was ruled a violation of the European Convention of Human Rights in the case of Soering v United Kingdom outlawing the practice in member states of the Council of Europe, of which all of the European Union member states are part.
In November 2007, Canada's minority Conservative government reversed a longstanding policy of automatically requesting clemency for Canadian citizens sentenced to capital punishment. The ongoing case of Alberta-born Ronald Allen Smith, who has been on death row in the United States since 1982 after being convicted of murdering two people and who continues to seek calls for clemency from the Canadian government, prompted Canadian Public Safety Minister Stockwell Day to announce the change in policy. Day has stated that each situation should be handled on a case-by-case basis. Smith's case resulted in a sharp divide between the Liberals and the Conservatives, with the Liberals passing a motion declaring that the government "should stand consistently against the death penalty, as a matter of principle, both in Canada and around the world". However, an overwhelming majority of Conservatives supported the change in policy.[27]
In a 2011 interview given to Canadian media, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper affirmed his private support for capital punishment by saying, "I personally think there are times where capital punishment is appropriate." According to some polls, as of 2012, 63% of surveyed Canadians believe the death penalty is sometimes appropriate, while 61% said capital punishment is warranted for murder.[28]
See also[edit]
Albert Guay
Canadian Coalition Against the Death Penalty
List of revoked death sentences in Canada
Madame le Corbeau
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Capital Punishment". Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Allyson N. May and Jim Phillips, "Homicides in Nova Scotia, 1749–1815", in Crime and Deviance in Canada: Historical Perspectives, ed. Chris McCormick and Len Green. (Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2005), 87.
Jump up ^ Frank W. Anderson, A Concise History of Capital Punishment in Canada. (Calgary: Frontier Publishing, 1973), 5.
Jump up ^ Carolyn Strange, "Capital Punishment" in The Oxford Companion to Canadian History, Vol. 1, ed. Gerald Hallowell (Toronto: University of Oxford Press Canada, 2004), 115.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Concise History, 27–29.
Jump up ^ C.H.S. Jayewardene, The Penalty of Death (Toronto: D.C. Heath, 1977, 2).
Jump up ^ David B. Chandler, Capital Punishment in Canada (Ottawa: McCelland and Stewart Limited, 1976), 13.
Jump up ^ Chandler, Capital Punishment, 14.
Jump up ^ Abolition of the Death Penalty-text "Bill C-25 1998" Check |url= value (help). Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "CBC Archives". cbc.ca. 10 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2012-07-28.
Jump up ^ "Majority of Canadians support return of death penalty, poll finds". thestar.com. 8 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Canada Considers Restoring Death Penalty". tribunedigital-sunsentinel.
Jump up ^ http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/canada.html
Jump up ^ Martin L. Friedland. The Case of Valentine Shortis: A True Story of Crime and Politics in Canada, University of Toronto Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8020-6728-X, p.136
Jump up ^ Patrick Cain, "The agony of the executioner", Toronto Star, May 20, 2007
Jump up ^ Joint Committee on Capital and Corporal Punishment and Lotteries (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1955)
Jump up ^ Hustak, Alan, 1944–, They were hanged (Toronto, J. Lorimer, 1987)
Jump up ^ Anderson, Concise History, 12.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Concise History, 30–31.
Jump up ^ The Globe, Wednesday, February 29, 1888, p. 8
Jump up ^ Minutes of proceedings and evidence – Special Committee on the Criminal Code (Death Penalty) (Ottawa, Printer to the King, 1937)
Jump up ^ "Canadians' views on crime are hardening, poll finds". The Globe and Mail.
Jump up ^ "Majority of Canadians support the death penalty: poll". Yahoo News Canada. 20 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Most Canadians say death penalty OK". Toronto Sun.
Jump up ^ http://canada.justice.gc.ca
Jump up ^ Day favours case-by-case approach to Canadians facing death penalty, the Canadian Press (reprinted by CBC News), March 14, 2008.(retrieved on December 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ Tasha Kheiriddin: Tori Stafford case shows why Canada needs the death penalty Accessed March 2012: "Prior to the 2011 election, when asked about the subject in an interview by the CBC’s Peter Mansbridge, Prime Minister Stephen Harper said, 'I personally think there are times where capital punishment is appropriate.'" "So how do Canadians feel about the death penalty? Shortly after the Prime Minister’s interview, Abacus Data published a study finding that 66% of Canadians support the death penalty “in certain circumstances.”
External links[edit]
Canada and the Death Penalty (Department of Justice Canada)
CBC Digital Archives—Death Penalty Debate
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capital_punishment_in_Canada&oldid=814832183"
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Capital punishment in Canada
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