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Great Society
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For the 1960s band featuring Grace Slick, see The Great Society (band).
The Great Society was a set of domestic programs in the United States launched by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964–65. The main goal was the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. President Johnson first used the term "Great Society" during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan.
New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched during this period. The program and its initiatives were subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s and years following. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from John F. Kennedy's New Frontier.[citation needed] Johnson's success depended on his skills of persuasion, coupled with the Democratic landslide in the 1964 election that brought in many new liberals to Congress, making the House of Representatives in 1965 the most liberal House since 1938.[1]
Anti-war Democrats complained that spending on the Vietnam War choked off the Great Society. While some of the programs have been eliminated or had their funding reduced, many of them, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Older Americans Act and federal education funding, continue to the present. The Great Society's programs expanded under the administrations of Republican Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Economic and social conditions
1.1 Race
2 Johnson's speeches in Ohio and Michigan
3 The 1965 legislative program and the presidential task forces
4 The election of 1964
5 The two sessions of the Eighty-Ninth Congress
6 The major policy areas
6.1 Civil rights
6.2 The "War On Poverty"
6.2.1 The programs
6.3 Education
6.4 Health
6.4.1 Medicare
6.4.2 Medicaid
6.5 Welfare
6.6 The arts and cultural institutions
6.6.1 National endowments for the arts and the humanities
6.6.2 Public broadcasting
6.6.3 Cultural centers
6.7 Transportation
6.8 Consumer protection
6.9 The environment
6.10 Housing
6.11 Rural development
6.12 Labor
6.13 Conservative opposition
7 Legacy
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Bibliography
11 External links
Economic and social conditions[edit]
Unlike the old New Deal, which was a response to a severe financial and economic calamity, the Great Society initiatives came during a period of rapid economic growth. Kennedy proposed an across-the-board tax cut lowering the top marginal income tax rate in the United States by 20%, from 91% to 71%, which was enacted in February 1964, three months after Kennedy's assassination, under Johnson. The tax cut also significantly reduced marginal rates in the lower brackets as well as for corporations. The gross national product rose 10% in the first year of the tax cut, and economic growth averaged a rate of 4.5% from 1961 to 1968.[3]
Johnson's tax cut measure triggered[citation needed] what one historian described as "the greatest prosperity of the postwar years." GNP increased by 7% in 1964, 8% in 1965, and 9% in 1966. The unemployment rate fell below 5%, and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950. In 1968, when John Kenneth Galbraith published a new edition of The Affluent Society, the average income of the American family stood at $8,000, double what it had been a decade earlier.[4]
Disposable personal income rose 15% in 1966 alone. Federal revenues increased dramatically from $94 billion in 1961 to $150 billion in 1967. As the Baby Boom generation aged, two and a half times more Americans would enter the labor force between 1965 and 1980 than between 1950 and 1965.
Race[edit]
Social crisis confronted the nation. Racial segregation persisted in the Southern United States. The Civil Rights Movement was gathering momentum, and in 1964, urban riots began within black neighborhoods in New York City and Los Angeles. By 1968 hundreds[citation needed] of cities had major African-American riots that caused a severe conservative political backlash. Foreign affairs were generally quiet except for the Vietnam War, which escalated from limited involvement in 1963 to a large-scale military operation in 1968 that soon overshadowed the Great Society.
Johnson's speeches in Ohio and Michigan[edit]
Johnson's first public reference to the "Great Society" took place during a speech to students on May 7, 1964, at Ohio University in Athens, Ohio:
And with your courage and with your compassion and your desire, we will build a Great Society. It is a society where no child will go unfed, and no youngster will go unschooled.[5]
He later formally presented his specific goals for the Great Society in another speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on May 22, 1964.
We are going to assemble the best thought and broadest knowledge from all over the world to find these answers. I intend to establish working groups to prepare a series of conferences and meetings—on the cities, on natural beauty, on the quality of education, and on other emerging challenges. From these studies, we will begin to set our course toward the Great Society.[6]
The 1965 legislative program and the presidential task forces[edit]
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Kennedy had employed several task forces composed of scholars and experts to craft New Frontier legislation and to deal with foreign affairs. The reliance on experts appealed to Johnson, in part because the task forces would work in secret and outside of the existing governmental bureaucracy and directly for the White House staff. Almost immediately after the Ann Arbor speech, 14 separate task forces began studying nearly all major aspects of United States society under the guidance of presidential assistants Bill Moyers and Richard N. Goodwin.
The average task force had five to seven members and generally was composed of governmental experts and academics.[7] Only one of the task forces on the 1965 legislative program addressed foreign affairs and foreign economic policy. The rest were charged with domestic policy (agriculture, anti-recession policy, civil rights, education, efficiency and economy, health, income maintenance policy, intergovernmental fiscal cooperation, natural resources, pollution of the environment, preservation of natural beauty, transportation, and urban problems).
After the task force reports were submitted to the White House, Moyers began a second round of review. The recommendations were circulated among the agencies concerned and were evaluated by new committees composed mostly of government officials. Experts on relations with Congress were also drawn into the deliberations to get the best advice on persuading the Congress to pass the legislation. In late 1964 Johnson reviewed these initial Great Society proposals at his ranch with Moyers and Budget Director Kermit Gordon. Many of them were included in Johnson’s State of the Union Address delivered on January 4, 1965.
The task-force approach, combined with Johnson's electoral victory in 1964 and his talents in obtaining congressional approval, were widely credited with the success of the legislation agenda in 1965. Critics later cited the task forces as a factor in a perceived elitist approach to Great Society programs. Also, because many of the initiatives did not originate from outside lobbying, some programs had no political constituencies that would support their continued funding.
The election of 1964[edit]
With the exception of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[8] the Great Society agenda was not a widely discussed issue during the 1964 presidential election campaign. Johnson won the election with 61% of the vote, and he carried all but six states. Democrats gained enough seats to control more than two-thirds of each chamber in the Eighty-ninth Congress, with a 68–32 margin in the Senate and a 295–140 margin in the House of Representatives.[4]
The two sessions of the Eighty-Ninth Congress[edit]
The political realignment allowed House leaders to alter rules that had allowed Southern Democrats to kill New Frontier and civil rights legislation in committee, which aided efforts to pass Great Society legislation. In 1965, the first session of the Eighty-Ninth Congress created the core of the Great Society. It began by enacting long-stalled legislation such as Medicare and federal aid to education and then moved into other areas, including high-speed mass transit, rental supplements, truth in packaging, environmental safety legislation, new provisions for mental health facilities, the Teacher Corps, manpower training, the Head Start program, aid to urban mass transit, a demonstration cities program, a housing act that included rental subsidies, and an act for higher education.[4] The Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in US congressional history.[9]
The major policy areas[edit]
Civil rights[edit]
President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Historian Alan Brinkley has suggested that the most important domestic achievement of the Great Society may have been its success in translating some of the demands of the civil rights movement into law.[10] Four civil rights acts were passed, including three laws in the first two years of Johnson's presidency. The Civil Rights Act of 1964[8] forbade job discrimination and the segregation of public accommodations.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 assured minority registration and voting. It suspended use of literacy or other voter-qualification tests that had sometimes served to keep African-Americans off voting lists and provided for federal court lawsuits to stop discriminatory poll taxes. It also reinforced the Civil Rights Act of 1964[8] by authorizing the appointment of federal voting examiners in areas that did not meet voter-participation requirements. The Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 abolished the national-origin quotas in immigration law. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned housing discrimination and extended constitutional protections to Native Americans on reservations.
The "War On Poverty"[edit]
Main article: War on Poverty
The August 1964 signing of the Poverty Bill
The most ambitious and controversial part of the Great Society was its initiative to end poverty. The Kennedy Administration had been contemplating a federal effort against poverty. Johnson, who, as a teacher, had observed extreme poverty in Texas among Mexican-Americans, launched an "unconditional war on poverty" in the first months of his presidency with the goal of eliminating hunger, illiteracy, and unemployment from American life. The centerpiece of the War on Poverty was the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which created an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee a variety of community-based antipoverty programs.
Federal funds were provided for special education schemes in slum areas, including help in paying for books and transport, while financial aid was also provided for slum clearances and rebuilding city areas. In addition, the Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965 created jobs in one of the most impoverished regions of the country.[citation needed] The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 provided various methods through which young people from poor homes could receive job training and higher education.[11]
The OEO reflected a fragile consensus among policymakers that the best way to deal with poverty was not simply to raise the incomes of the poor but to help them better themselves through education, job training, and community development. Central to its mission was the idea of "community action", the participation of the poor in framing and administering the programs designed to help them.
The programs[edit]
The War on Poverty began with a $1 billion appropriation in 1964 and spent another $2 billion in the following two years. It gave rise to dozens of programs, among them the Job Corps, whose purpose was to help disadvantaged youth develop marketable skills; the Neighborhood Youth Corps, established to give poor urban youths work experience and to encourage them to stay in school; Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), a domestic version of the Peace Corps, which placed concerned citizens with community-based agencies to work towards empowerment of the poor; the Model Cities Program for urban redevelopment; Upward Bound, which assisted poor high school students entering college; legal services for the poor; and the Food Stamp Act of 1964 (which expanded the federal food stamp program).[12]
Programs included the Community Action Program, which initiated local Community Action Agencies charged with helping the poor become self-sufficient; and Project Head Start, which offered preschool education for poor children. In addition, funding was provided for the establishment of community health centers to expand access to health care,[13] while major amendments were made to Social Security in 1965 and 1967 which significantly increased benefits, expanded coverage, and established new programs to combat poverty and raise living standards.[14] In addition, average AFDC payments were 35% higher in 1968 than in 1960, but remained insufficient and uneven.[15]
Education[edit]
The most important educational component of the Great Society was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, designed by Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel. It was signed into law on April 11, 1965, less than three months after it was introduced. It ended a long-standing political taboo by providing significant federal aid to public education, initially allocating more than $1 billion to help schools purchase materials and start special education programs to schools with a high concentration of low-income children. During its first year of operation, the Act authorized a $1.1 billion program of grants to states, for allocations to school districts with large numbers of children of low income families, funds to use community facilities for education within the entire community, funds to improve educational research and to strengthen state departments of education, and grants for purchase of books and library materials.[16] The Act also established Head Start, which had originally been started by the Office of Economic Opportunity as an eight-week summer program, as a permanent program.
The Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, which was signed into law by Johnson a month after becoming president,[17] authorized several times more college aid within a five-year period than had been appropriated under the Land Grant College in a century. It provided better college libraries, ten to twenty new graduate centers, several new technical institutes, classrooms for several hundred thousand students, and twenty-five to thirty new community colleges a year.[18]
This major piece of legislation was followed by the Higher Education Act of 1965, which increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships and low-interest loans for students, and established a national Teacher Corps to provide teachers to poverty-stricken areas of the United States. The Act also began a transition from federally funded institutional assistance to individual student aid.
In 1964, basic improvements in the National Defense Education Act were achieved, and total funds available to educational institutions were increased. The yearly limit on loans to graduate and professional students was raised from $1,000 to $2,500, and the aggregate limit was raised from $5,000 to $10,000. The program was extended to include geography, history, reading, English, and civics, and guidance and counselling programs were extended to elementary and public junior high schools.[12]
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 offered federal aid to local school districts in assisting them to address the needs of children with limited English-speaking ability until it expired in 2002.[19]
The Great Society programs also provided support for postgraduate clinical training for both nurses and physicians committed to work with disadvantaged patients in rural and urban health clinics.[20]
Health[edit]
Medicare[edit]
Main article: Medicare (United States)
President Johnson signs the Social Security Act of 1965.
The Social Security Act of 1965 authorized Medicare and provided federal funding for many of the medical costs of older Americans.[21] The legislation overcame the bitter resistance, particularly from the American Medical Association, to the idea of publicly funded health care or "socialized medicine" by making its benefits available to everyone over sixty-five, regardless of need, and by linking payments to the existing private insurance system.
Medicaid[edit]
Main article: Medicaid
In 1966 welfare recipients of all ages received medical care through the Medicaid program. Medicaid was created on July 30, 1965 under Title XIX of the Social Security Act of 1965. Each state administers its own Medicaid program while the federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) monitors the state-run programs and establishes requirements for service delivery, quality, funding, and eligibility standards.
Welfare[edit]
A number of improvements were made to the Social Security program in terms of both coverage and adequacy of benefits. The Tax Adjustment Act of 1966 included a provision for special payments under the social security program to certain uninsured individuals aged 72 and over. The Social Security Amendments of 1965 included a 7% increase in cash benefits, a liberalization of the definition of disability, a liberalization of the amount a person can earn and still get full benefits (the so-called retirement test), payment of benefits to eligible children aged 18–21 who are attending school, payment of benefits to widows at age 60 on an actuarially reduced basis, coverage of self-employed physicians, coverage of tips as wages, liberalization of insured-status requirements for persons already aged 72 or over, an increase to $6,600 the amount of earnings counted for contribution and benefit purposes (the contribution and benefit base), and an increase in the contribution rate schedule.[14]
The Social Security Amendments of 1967 included a 13% increase in old-age, survivors, and disability insurance benefits, with a minimum monthly benefit of $55 for a person retiring at or after age-65 (or receiving disability benefits), an increase from $35 to $40 in the special age-72 payments, an increase from $1,500 to $1,680 in the amount a person may earn in a year and still get full benefits for that year, monthly cash benefits for disabled widows and disabled dependent widowers at age 50 at reduced rates, a liberalization of the eligibility requirements for benefits for dependents and Survivors of women workers, and an alternative insured-status test for workers disabled before age 31.[14]
Additionally, new guidelines for determining eligibility for disability insurance benefits, additional non-contributory wage credits for servicemen, broadened coverage of clergy and members of religious orders who have not taken a vow of poverty, and an increase in the contribution and benefit base from $6,600 to $7,800, beginning in 1968. In addition, the Social Security Amendments of 1967 provided the first major amendments of Medicare. These social security amendments extended the coverage of the program to include certain services previously excluded, simplified reimbursement procedures under both the hospital and medical insurance plans, and facilitated the administrative procedures concerning general enrollment periods.[14]
The Food Stamp Act of 1964 made the program permanent, while the Social Security Amendments of 1967 specified that at least 6% of monies for maternal and child health should be spent on family planning. By 1967, the federal government began requiring state health departments to make contraceptives available to all adults who were poor. Meal programs for low-income senior citizens began in 1965, with the federal government providing funding for "congregate meals" and "home-delivered meals."[22] The Child Nutrition Act, passed in 1966, made improvements to nutritional assistance to children such as in the introduction of the School Breakfast Program.[23]
The arts and cultural institutions[edit]
National endowments for the arts and the humanities[edit]
In September 1965, Johnson signed the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act into law, creating both the National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities as separate, independent agencies. Lobbying for federally funded arts and humanities support began during the Kennedy Administration. In 1963 three scholarly and educational organizations—the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), the Council of Graduate Schools in America, and the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa—joined together to establish the National Commission on the Humanities. In June 1964, the commission released a report that suggested that the emphasis placed on science endangered the study of the humanities from elementary schools through postgraduate programs. In order to correct the balance, it recommended "the establishment by the President and the Congress of the United States of a National Humanities Foundation."[24]
In August 1964, Representative William S. Moorhead of Pennsylvania proposed legislation to implement the commission's recommendations. Support from the White House followed in September, when Johnson lent his endorsement during a speech at Brown University. In March 1965, the White House proposed the establishment of a National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities and requested $20 million in start-up funds. The commission's report had generated other proposals, but the White House's approach eclipsed them. The administration's plan, which called for the creation of two separate agencies each advised by a governing body, was the version that the Congress approved. Richard Nixon dramatically expanded funding for NEH and NEA.[24]
Public broadcasting[edit]
Main article: Public Broadcasting Service
After the First National Conference on Long-Range Financing of Educational Television Stations in December 1964 called for a study of the role of noncommercial education television in society, the Carnegie Corporation agreed to finance the work of a 15-member national commission. Its landmark report, Public Television: A Program for Action, published on January 26, 1967, popularized the phrase "public television" and assisted the legislative campaign for federal aid. The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, enacted less than 10 months later, chartered the Corporation for Public Broadcasting as a private, non-profit corporation.
The law initiated federal aid through the CPB for the operation, as opposed to the funding of capital facilities, of public broadcasting. The CPB initially collaborated with the pre-existing National Educational Television system, but in 1969 decided to start the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). A public radio study commissioned by the CPB and the Ford Foundation and conducted from 1968 to 1969 led to the establishment of National Public Radio, a public radio system under the terms of the amended Public Broadcasting Act.
Cultural centers[edit]
Two long-planned national cultural and arts facilities received federal funding that would allow for their completion through Great Society legislation. A National Cultural Center, suggested during the Franklin Roosevelt Administration and created by a bipartisan law signed by Dwight Eisenhower, was transformed into the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, a living memorial to the assassinated president. Fundraising for the original cultural center had been poor prior to legislation creating the Kennedy Center, which passed two months after the president's death and provided $23 million for construction. The Kennedy Center opened in 1971.[25]
In the late 1930s the U.S. Congress mandated a Smithsonian Institution art museum for the National Mall, and a design by Eliel Saarinen was unveiled in 1939, but plans were shelved during World War II. A 1966 act of the U.S. Congress established the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden as part of the Smithsonian Institution with a focus on modern art, in contrast to the existing National Art Gallery. The museum was primarily federally funded, although New York financier Joseph Hirshhorn later contributed $1 million toward building construction, which began in 1969. The Hirshhorn opened in 1974.[26]
Transportation[edit]
Transportation initiatives started during President Johnson's term in office included the consolidation of transportation agencies into a cabinet-level position under the Department of Transportation.[27] The department was authorized by Congress on October 15, 1966 and began operations on April 1, 1967. Congress passed a variety of legislation to support improvements in transportation including The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 which provided $375 million for large-scale urban public or private rail projects in the form of matching funds to cities and states and created the Urban Mass Transit Administration (now the Federal Transit Administration), High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 which resulted in the creation of high-speed rail between New York and Washington, and the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966—a bill largely taken credit for by Ralph Nader, whose book Unsafe at Any Speed he claims helped inspire the legislation.
Consumer protection[edit]
In 1964, Johnson named Assistant Secretary of Labor Esther Peterson to be the first presidential assistant for consumer affairs.
The Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965 required packages to carry warning labels. The Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 set standards through creation of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act requires products identify manufacturer, address, clearly mark quantity and servings. The statute also authorized the HEW and the FTC to establish and define voluntary standard sizes. The original would have mandated uniform standards of size and weight for comparison shopping, but the final law only outlawed exaggerated size claims.
The Child Safety Act of 1966 prohibited any chemical so dangerous that no warning can make it safe. The Flammable Fabrics Act of 1967 set standards for children's sleepwear, but not baby blankets.
The Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 required inspection of meat which must meet federal standards. The Truth-in-Lending Act of 1968 required lenders and credit providers to disclose the full cost of finance charges in both dollars and annual percentage rates, on installment loan and sales. The Wholesome Poultry Products Act of 1968 required inspection of poultry which must meet federal standards. The Land Sales Disclosure Act of 1968 provided safeguards against fraudulent practices in the sale of land. The Radiation Safety Act of 1968 provided standards and recalls for defective electronic products.
The environment[edit]
Joseph A. Califano, Jr. has suggested that the Great Society's main contribution to the environment was an extension of protections beyond those aimed at the conservation of untouched resources.[28] In a message he transmitted to Congress, President Johnson said:
The air we breathe, our water, our soil and wildlife, are being blighted by poisons and chemicals which are the by-products of technology and industry. The society that receives the rewards of technology, must, as a cooperating whole, take responsibility for [their] control. To deal with these new problems will require a new conservation. We must not only protect the countryside and save it from destruction, we must restore what has been destroyed and salvage the beauty and charm of our cities. Our conservation must be not just the classic conservation of protection [against] development, but a creative conservation of restoration and innovation.
—  Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty; February 8, 1965[29]
At the behest of Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall, the Great Society included several new environmental laws to protect air and water. Environmental legislation enacted included:
Water Quality Act of 1965
Clean Air Act of 1963
Wilderness Act of 1964
Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966
National Trails System Act of 1968
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Aircraft Noise Abatement Act of 1968
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
Housing[edit]
In 1964, the quality of the housing program was improved by requiring minimum standards of code enforcement, providing assistance to dislocated families and small businesses and authorizing below market interest loans for rehabilitating housing in urban renewal areas.[12] The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 included important elements such as rent subsidies for low-income families, rehabilitation grants to enable low-income homeowners in urban renewal areas to improve their homes instead of relocating elsewhere, and improved and extended benefits for relocation payments.[16] The Demonstration Cities Act of 1966 established a new program for comprehensive neighborhood renewal, with an emphasis on strategic investments in housing renovation, urban services, neighborhood facilities, and job creation activities.[30][31]
Rural development[edit]
A number of measures were introduced to improve socio-economic conditions in rural areas. Under Title III of the 1964 Economic Opportunity Act, Special Programs to Combat Rural Poverty, the Office for Economic Opportunity was authorized to act as a lender of last resort for rural families who needed money to help them permanently increase their earning capacity. Loans could be made to purchase land, improve the operation of family farms, allow participation in cooperative ventures, and finance non-agricultural business enterprises, while local cooperatives which served low-income rural families could apply for another category of loans for similar purposes.[32]
Title III also made loans and grants available to local groups to improve housing, education, and child care services for migrant farm workers, while Titles I and II also included potentially important programs for rural development. Title I established the Job Corps which enrolled school dropouts in community service projects: 40% of the corpsmen were to work in a Youth Conservation Corps to carry out resource conservation, beautification, and development projects in the National Forests and countryside. Arguably more important for rural areas were the Community Action Programs authorized by Title II. Federal money was allocated to States according to their needs for job training, housing, health, and welfare assistance, and the States were then to distribute their shares of the Community Action grants on the basis of proposals from local public or non-profit private groups.[32]
The Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965 reorganized the Areas Redevelopment Administration (ARA) into the Economic Development Administration (EDA), and authorized $3.3 billion over 5 years while specifying seven criteria for eligibility. The list included low median family income, but the 6% or higher unemployment applied to the greatest number of areas, while the Act also mentioned outmigration from rural areas as a criterion. In an attempt to go beyond what one writer described as "ARA’s failed scattershot approach" of providing aid to individual counties and inspired by the European model of regional development, the EDA encouraged counties to form Economic Development Districts (EDDs) as it was recognized that individual distressed counties (called RAs or Redevelopment Areas) lacked sufficient resources for their own development.[32]
EDDs encompassed from 5 to 15 counties and both planned and implemented development with EDA funding and technical assistance, and each EDD had a "growth center" (another concept borrowed from Europe) called a redevelopment center if it was located in an RA or development center if in another county. With the exception of the growth centers, EDD counties were ineligible for assistance unless they were RAs, but they were all expected to benefit from "coordinated districtwide development planning."[32]
Labor[edit]
The Amendments made to the 1931 Davis-Bacon Act in 1964 extended the prevailing wage provisions to cover fringe benefits,[33] while several increases were made to the federal minimum wage.[34] The Service Contract Act of 1965 provided for minimum wages and fringe benefits as well as other conditions of work for contractors under certain types of service contracts.[35] A comprehensive minimum rate hike was also signed into law that extended the coverage of the Fair Labor Standards Act to about 9.1 million additional workers.[33]
Conservative opposition[edit]
Despite conservatives who attacked Johnson's Great Society making major gains in Congress in the 1966 midterm elections, and with anger and frustration mounting over the Vietnam War, Johnson was still able to secure the passage of additional programs during his last two years in office. Laws were passed to extend the Food Stamp Program, to expand consumer protection, to improve safety standards, to train health professionals, to assist handicapped Americans, and to further urban programs.[36]
In 1968, a new Fair Housing Act was passed, which banned racial discrimination in housing[37] and subsidized the construction or rehabilitation of low-income housing units.[38] That same year, a new program for federally funded job retraining for the hardcore unemployed in fifty cities was introduced, together with the strongest federal gun control bill (relating to the transportation of guns across State lines) in American history up until that point.[39]
By the end of the Johnson Administration, 226 out of 252 major legislative requests (over a four-year period) had been met, federal aid to the poor had risen from $9.9 billion in 1960 to $30 billion by 1968, one million Americans had been retrained under previously non-existent federal programs, and two million children had participated in the Head Start program.
Legacy[edit]
Interpretations of the War on Poverty remain controversial. The Office of Economic Opportunity was dismantled by the Nixon and Ford administrations, largely by transferring poverty programs to other government departments.[40] Funding for many of these programs were further cut in President Ronald Reagan's Gramm-Latta Budget in 1981.[citation needed]
Alan Brinkley has suggested that "the gap between the expansive intentions of the War on Poverty and its relatively modest achievements fueled later conservative arguments that government is not an appropriate vehicle for solving social problems."[10] One of Johnson's aides, Joseph A. Califano, Jr., has countered that "from 1963 when Lyndon Johnson took office until 1970 as the impact of his Great Society programs were felt, the portion of Americans living below the poverty line dropped from 22.2 percent to 12.6 percent, the most dramatic decline over such a brief period in this century."[28]
The percentage of African Americans below the poverty line dropped from 55 percent in 1960 to 27 percent in 1968.[41] From 1964 to 1967, federal expenditures on education rose from $4 billion to $12 billion, while spending on health rose from $5 billion to $16 billion. By that time, the federal government was spending $4,000 per annum on each poor family of four, four times as much as in 1961.[42]
See also[edit]
Interest group liberalism
Modern liberalism in the United States
Social programs in the United States
Social safety net
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Life, November 5, 1965
Jump up ^ Riley, Jason L. (2008). Let Them In: The Case for Open Borders. p. 98.
Jump up ^ Revenue Act of 1964
^ Jump up to: a b c Chafe, William H. The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
Jump up ^ "President Johnson's speech at Ohio University, May 7, 1964". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "President Johnson's speech at the University of Michigan from the LBJ Library". Lbjlib.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on June 2, 2002. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lester, Robert E., editor. Task Force Reports of the Johnson White House, 1963–1969 . LexisNexis, http://cisupa.proquest.com/ksc_assets/catalog/101686.pdf.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Civil Rights Act of 1964". Finduslaw.com. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Unger, Irwin, 1996: The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon. Doubleday, p. 104.
^ Jump up to: a b Alan Brinkley, "Great Society" in The Reader's Companion to American History, Eric Foner and John Arthur Garraty eds., ISBN 0-395-51372-3, Houghton Mifflin Books, p. 472
Jump up ^ Lowe, Norman. Mastering Modern World History.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Voting Record-88th Congress, 2nd Session" (PDF). ADA World. Americans for Democratic Action. October 1964. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Rachman, Fred D. (August 28, 2010). "Quality Measures Workgroup Testimony" (PDF). Alliance of Chicago Community Health Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "History of SSA During the Johnson Administration 1963–1968". Social Security Administration. Retrieved July 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Backlash against welfare mothers: past and present by Ellen Reese
^ Jump up to: a b "Voting Record-89th Congress, 1st Session" (PDF). ADA World. Americans for Democratic Action. November 1965. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lyndon B. Johnson: Remarks Upon Signing the Higher Education Facilities Act. Presidency.ucsb.edu (December 16, 1963). Retrieved July 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kennedy by Theodore C. Sorenson
Jump up ^ The Bilingual Education Act Archived 2006-08-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Fairman, Julie. Making Room in the Clinic: Nurse Practitioners and the Evolution of Modern ... Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Social Security Act Amendments (1965)". Ourdocuments.gov. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Poverty and the Government in America". google.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Child Nutrition Act of 1966 - Food and Nutrition Service". usda.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b "How NEH got its start". National Endowment for the Humanities. September 29, 1965. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Living Legacy: Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts". WOSU. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Hirshhorn Story". Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden. Archived from the original on July 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Grinder, R. Dale. "The United States Department of Transportation: A Brief History". U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on July 17, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b What Was Really Great About The Great Society: The truth behind the conservative myths Archived 2014-03-26 at the Wayback Machine. by Joseph A. Califano Jr.
Jump up ^ "Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty". Lbjlib.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Reality and Research: Social Science and U.S. Urban Policy Since 1960. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Conley, Richard Steven. The Presidency, Congress, and Divided Government: A Postwar Assessment. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Roth, Dennis. "The Johnson Administration and the Great Society". Federal Rural Development Policy in the Twentieth Century (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 24, 2014. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Bruno, Robert (January 3–5, 1998). "Presidential Labor Regimes: Democrats from Roosevelt to Clinton" (PDF). University of Illinois. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 21, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Boosting paychecks: the politics of supporting America's working poor by Daniel Paul Gitterman
Jump up ^ The COR/COTR Answer Book, Thi - Bob Boyd. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ M.J. Heale, The Sixties in America: History, Politics, and Protest (2001)
Jump up ^ The Housing status of black Americans By James Benjamin Stewart
Jump up ^ The Penguin Encyclopedia of American History by Robert A. Rosenbaum and Douglas Brinkley
Jump up ^ Truman to Carter: A post-War History of the United States of America by Peter J. Mooney and Colin Brown
Jump up ^ Bailey, Martha J.; Duquette, Nicolas J. (2014-06-01). "How Johnson Fought the War on Poverty: The Economics and Politics of Funding at the Office of Economic Opportunity". The Journal of Economic History. 74 (2): 351–388. doi:10.1017/S0022050714000291. ISSN 0022-0507.
Jump up ^ Mintz, S (2007). "The Great Society and the Drive for Black Equality". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved May 13, 2009.
Jump up ^ LBJ: Archtitect of American Ambition by Randall B. Woods
References[edit]
Bibliography[edit]
John A. Andrew. Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society. I.R. Dee, 1998 ISBN 1-56663-184-X
Eli Ginzberg and Robert M. Solow (eds.) The Great Society: Lessons for the Future ISBN 0-465-02705-9 (1974), 11 chapters on each program, by experts
Jeffrey W. Helsing Johnson's War/Johnson's Great Society: the guns and butter trap Praeger Greenwood 2000 ISBN 0-275-96449-3
Marshall Kaplan and Peggy L. Cuciti; The Great Society and Its Legacy: Twenty Years of U.S. Social Policy Duke University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-8223-0589-5
Barbara C. Jordan and Elspeth D. Rostow (editors) The Great Society: a twenty year critique: Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs 1986 ISBN 0-89940-417-0
Gordon, Kermit (ed.) Agenda for the Nation, The Brookings Institution. (1968)
Lyndon B. Johnson My Hope for America: Random House, 1964 ISBN 1-121-42877-0
Sidney M. Milkis and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. The Great Society And The High Tide Of Liberalism (2005)
Irwin Unger The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon: Doubleday, 1996 ISBN 0-385-46833-4
External links[edit]
President Johnson's speech at the University of Michigan from the LBJ Library
80,000 people filled Michigan Stadium to hear President Lyndon Johnson
Social Studies help on the Great Society
Johnson's Great Society speech on CNN
John Gardner Architect of the Great Society on PBS
The Great Society Congress Digital Exhibition
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Mad Dogs and Englishmen (song)
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Romney Brent sings "Mad Dogs and Englishmen", Words and Music, 1932
"Mad Dogs and Englishmen" is a song written by Noël Coward and first performed in The Third Little Show at the Music Box Theatre, New York, on 1 June 1931, by Beatrice Lillie. The following year it was used in the revue Words and Music and also released in a "studio version". It then became a signature feature in Coward's cabaret act.
The song is especially known for the line "Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun" with which most verses begin and end.
According to Sheridan Morley, Coward wrote the song while driving from Hanoi to Saigon "without pen, paper, or piano". Coward himself elucidated: "I wrestled in my mind with the complicated rhythms and rhymes of the song until finally it was complete, without even the aid of pencil and paper. I sang it triumphantly and unaccompanied to my travelling companion on the verandah of a small jungle guest house. Not only Jeffrey [Amherst], but the gecko lizards and the tree frogs gave every vocal indication of enthusiasm".[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 The Noonday Gun
2 Churchill and Roosevelt
3 Cultural references
4 References
5 External links
The Noonday Gun[edit]
The lines
In Hong Kong, they strike a gong, and fire off a noonday gun
To reprimand each inmate who's in late
refer to the Noonday Gun opposite the Excelsior Hotel in Hong Kong, which is still fired every day at noon by a member of Jardines. In 1968, Coward visited Hong Kong and fired the gun.
Churchill and Roosevelt[edit]
Coward wrote, "In Words and Music Romney Brent sang it as a missionary in one of Britain's tropical colonies. Since then I have sung it myself ad nauseam. On one occasion it achieved international significance. This was a dinner party given by Mr Winston Churchill on board HMS Prince of Wales in honour of President Franklin D. Roosevelt on the evening following the signing of the Atlantic Charter. From an eye-witness description of the scene it appears that the two world leaders became involved in a heated argument as to whether 'In Bangkok at twelve o'clock they foam at the mouth and run' came at the end of the first refrain or at the end of the second. President Roosevelt held firmly to the latter view and refused to budge even under the impact of Churchillian rhetoric. In this he was right and when, a little later, I asked Mr Churchill about the incident, he admitted defeat like a man."[2]
Cultural references[edit]
The song is performed by Judy Garland, Lena Horne, Terry-Thomas and dancers on The Judy Garland Show: Episode 4, which aired October 13, 1963.
The song is referenced in the 1964 novel, The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch by Philip K. Dick.
The song is referenced in episode 48 of My Favorite Martian, "Don't Rain on my Parade", which aired in 1964.
It is the title of act one of the 1965 The Man from U.N.C.L.E. episode "The Bow-Wow Affair".
The song is quoted and referenced in Mad Dogs & Englishmen, a 1970 live album by Joe Cocker and others[who?] (and in the 1971 film from the same tour as the album).
The song is performed in the second season of The Muppet Show, though was not likely seen by American audiences as it was added for British audiences.[citation needed]
The song is performed in Ten Little Indians (1989 film).[3]
The song is quoted in the 1995 Canadian/British film of the same name.
A 2002 Doctor Who novel bears the same title.
The song is referenced in the 2002 Justice League episode "The Brave and the Bold".
Mad Gods and Englishmen is a 2006 comic strip by Simon Spurrier and Boo Cook, for the character Harry Kipling.
A 2013 episode of Tom Kapinos' Californication is also named after the song.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Coward, Noël, The Complete Illustrated Lyrics 1st edition (1998), Overlook Hardcover, ISBN 0-87951-896-0
Jump up ^ Coward, Noël. The Noël Coward Song Book, quoted in the sleeve note to Cowardy Custard cast recording, RCA SER 5656/57
Jump up ^ "Ten Little Indians (1989)". IMDB. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
Jump up ^ IMDB
External links[edit]
Lyrics (www.traditionalmusic.co.uk)
"Mad Dogs and Englishmen" at Internet Archive (track #7, with the Ray Noble Orchestra, 1932)
"Mad Dogs and Englishmen" on YouTube, Noël Coward
"Mad Dogs and Englishmen" on YouTube, Coward on CBS
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mad_Dogs_and_Englishmen_(song)&oldid=787168266"
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Patter songs
Songs written by Noël Coward
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Company formation
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This article is about forming a company in the United Kingdom. For a more general discussion of forming a business, see Incorporation (business).
Company formation is the term for the process of incorporation of a business in the UK. It is also sometimes referred to as company registration. These terms are both also used when incorporating a business in the Republic of Ireland. Under UK company law and most international law, a company or corporation is considered an entity that is separate from the people who own or operate the company.
Today the majority of UK companies are formed the same day electronically. Companies can be created by individuals, specialised agents, solicitors or accountants. Many solicitors and accountants subcontract incorporation out to specialised company formation agents. Most agents offer company formation packages for less than £100. The cost of carrying out paper filing directly with Companies House is £20. This fee does not include the cost of witnessing documents or preparation of memorandum & articles of association for the company, which would usually be carried out by a solicitor or accountant. Forming a company via the paper filing method can take up to 4 weeks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formation process for limited companies
1.1 Paper process
1.1.1 Articles of association
1.1.2 Form IN01
1.1.3 Memorandum of association
1.2 Electronic process
2 Types of company
3 See also
4 Notes
5 External links
Formation process for limited companies[edit]
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Paper process[edit]
Under section 9 of the Companies Act 2006,[1] those forming a company must send the following documents, together with the registration fee, to the Registrar of Companies.
Most incorporations submitted by paper take around 5 working days to be accepted.
For detailed information see the Companies House guide.[2]
Articles of association[edit]
The articles of association (often referred to as just ‘articles’) is the document which sets out the rules for the running of the company's internal affairs. The company's articles delivered to the Registrar must be signed by each subscriber in front of a witness who must attest the signature.
In the event that articles are not registered for the new company, model (default) articles will be registered. These model articles can be chosen to be adopted in the IN01 form. This new procedure was introduced by the Companies Act 2006, Section 20.[3]
Form IN01[edit]
This contains the intended situation of the Registered Office, (this will be either in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland or Wales), the details of the consenting Secretary and Director(s), details of the subscribers and, in the case of a company limited by shares, details of the share capital. The form also includes the Statement of Compliance that the requirements of the Companies Act have been complied with.
Memorandum of association[edit]
This contains the names and signatures of the subscribers that wish to form the company and, in the case of a company limited by shares, a commitment by the subscribers to take at least one share each. A draft template is available on the Companies House website.[4] It sets out constitution of a company and the foundation on which the structure of a company is based. In other words, memorandum of association is considered the charter or constitution of the company because it lays down the objectives of the company precisely and clearly, defines scope of its relation with the investor and outside world.
Electronic process[edit]
The electronic process can be accessed using compatible software that works with the Companies House eFiling service[5] and an account with Companies House. Company formation agents have direct links into Companies House, to look up the company name, and submit the company. Different agents have differences in their processes caused by their website and software implementation. Companies House have a list of company formation agents that have passed integration testing.[6]
Types of company[edit]
The following can be formed by registration at Companies House:
Public limited company (plc)
Private company limited by shares (Ltd, Limited)
Company limited by guarantee
Unlimited company
Limited liability partnership (LLP)
Limited partnership (LP)
Societas Europaea (SE): European Union-wide company structure
Community interest company (CIC)
European economic interest grouping (EEIG)
See also[edit]
Incorporation (business) - US perspective
List of company registers
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Previously section 10 of the Companies Act 1985
Jump up ^ Companies House Guide to Company Formation
Jump up ^ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/46/section/20
Jump up ^ http://www.companieshouse.gov.uk/forms/formsOnline.shtml
Jump up ^ E-Filing compatible software providers
Jump up ^ E-filing company formation agents
External links[edit]
Companies House eFiling
Companies House list of formation agents
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Company_formation&oldid=814393442"
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The Last Battle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the novel by C. S. Lewis. For other uses, see Last Battle (disambiguation).
The Last Battle
First edition dustjacket
Author
C. S. Lewis
Illustrator
Pauline Baynes
Cover artist
Pauline Baynes
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Series
The Chronicles of Narnia
Genre
Children's fantasy novel, Christian literature
Publisher
The Bodley Head
Publication date
4 September 1956
Media type
Print (hardcover)
Pages
184 pp (first edition)[1]
42,854 words (US)[2]
ISBN
978-0-00-671682-2 (full-colour; Collins, 1998)
OCLC
752428300
LC Class
PZ8.L48 Las[3]
Preceded by
The Magician's Nephew
The Last Battle is a high fantasy novel for children by C. S. Lewis, published by The Bodley Head in 1956. It was the seventh and final novel in The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956). Like the others it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes and her work has been retained in many later editions.[1][3]
The Last Battle is set almost entirely in the Narnia world and the English children who participate arrive only in the middle of the narrative. The novel is set some 200 Narnian years after The Silver Chair and about 2500 years (and 49 Earth years) since the creation of the world narrated in The Magician's Nephew.[a] A false Aslan is set up in the north-western borderlands and conflict between true and false Narnians merges with that between Narnia and Calormen, whose people worship Tash. It concludes with termination of the world by Aslan, after a "last battle" that is practically lost.
Macmillan US published an American edition within the calendar year.[3]
Lewis and The Last Battle won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject.[4] The author wrote to illustrator Baynes, "is it not rather 'our' medal? I'm sure the illustrations were taken into account as well as the text."[5]
Contents
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Reception
4 Notes
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
Plot[edit]
In the north of Narnia, an ape named Shift persuades a well-meaning but simple-minded donkey called Puzzle to dress in a lion's skin (an echo from Aesop's story of The Ass in the Lion's Skin[6][7]) and pretend to be the Great Lion Aslan. Using Puzzle as his pawn, Shift deceives many of the Narnians into serving the Calormenes and cutting down Talking Trees for lumber. The money will be paid into "Aslan's" treasury, held by Shift, on the pretext that it will be used for the good of the Narnians.
Narnia has had peace and prosperity since the reign of King Caspian X, but Roonwit the Centaur warns Tirian, the latest king of Narnia, that strange and evil things are happening to Narnia and that the stars portend ominous developments. Tirian and his friend Jewel the Unicorn hear word of the death of the Talking Trees and rashly set out to confront the danger. Finding two Calormenes abusing a Narnian Talking Horse, they kill them; ashamed, they give themselves up to "Aslan". Awaiting judgement, Tirian recognises the farce that Shift has fabricated in league with the talking cat Ginger and the Calormene warlord Rishda Tarkaan: the lie that Aslan and the Calormene god Tash are one and the same. When he accuses the ape of lying, Tirian is tied to a tree.
Tirian calls on Aslan for help and receives a vision of the "Friends of Narnia" gathered in our world – Professor Kirke, Polly Plummer, Peter Pevensie, Edmund Pevensie, Lucy Pevensie, Eustace Scrubb, and Jill Pole, though he does not know who they are. They also see Tirian and, though Tirian can't speak to them, they guess he is a messenger from Narnia. A few minutes later by Narnian time – but a week later from their perspective – Jill and Eustace arrive in Narnia. They release the King and rescue Jewel. Puzzle, realising his folly, joins them.
A band of Dwarfs are also rescued, but because their faith in Aslan has been shattered, they refuse to help, claiming "the dwarfs are for the dwarfs".[8] Only one Dwarf, Poggin, is faithful to Aslan. Tirian learns that Shift and Rishda have unintentionally summoned the actual Tash to Narnia when he and the others see him travelling north. Farsight the eagle arrives to help, bearing news that Roonwit and the Narnian army have all been killed in battle.
Tirian and his small force advance on the stable to expose the truth of Shift's deception. Shift and Rishda plan to weed out the troublemakers by forcing them into the stable to "meet Tashlan."[9] But Ginger, sent in to aid in the deception, runs out in terror, having lost his ability to speak. Emeth, one of Rishda's men and a devout follower of Tash, insists on seeing his god. Rishda tries to dissuade him, but Emeth enters the stable. Angry at the deception in the name of Tash, he kills another soldier who was stationed in the stable to murder the rebellious Narnians, but then disappears.
Outside the stable, Tirian's group engages Shift and the Calormenes, but most of the remaining Narnians are all either killed or captured and sacrificed to Tash, by being thrown into the stable. Tirian throws Shift into the stable, and Tash, who has haunted the stable since Ginger briefly entered it, swallows the ape whole. This event frightens Rishda, who offers the remaining Narnians as sacrifices to Tash to avoid his god's wrath. But Tirian, left alone and fighting for his life, drags Rishda into the stable and finds himself in a vast and beautiful land. Tash appears, seizing Rishda, and advances on Tirian just as the Friends of Narnia appear, all dressed as kings and queens. (Susan does not appear, they explain, because she has stopped believing in Narnia, thinking it only a silly childhood game.) Peter in the name of Aslan orders Tash to return to his realm, and Tash vanishes with Rishda in his clutches. The faithless Dwarfs are present but cannot see they are in Aslan's country; they perceive themselves to be locked in a stable. Aslan demonstrates that, without faith, even he cannot help them.
The kings and queens bear witness to the end of the Narnian world. All the inhabitants, living and dead, gather outside the barn to be judged by Aslan; the faithful enter Aslan's Country while those who have opposed or deserted him become ordinary animals and vanish. The vegetation is eaten by dragons and giant lizards, and Father Time calls the stars down from the skies into the sea as it rises to cover Narnia. The land freezes when Father Time puts out the sun and the moon. Peter closes the door, and Aslan leads them to his country, telling them to go further in. Soon they encounter Emeth; Aslan has accepted his faithful service to Tash because it was good and therefore truly done to Aslan, whereas Tash is only served by evil.
They find they are in a new, "real" version of Narnia. (Digory mentions Plato, whose Allegory of the Cave describes multiple levels of reality.) They move up a waterfall to gates where they are greeted by Reepicheep and meet other characters from the earlier novels. They find they can see a real England, including the Pevensies' parents, parallelling the real Narnia. Aslan tells them that the English friends of Narnia and the Pevensies' parents have all died in a train crash. (Susan, who was not on the train, is the only surviving member of the family). The series ends with the revelation that it was only the beginning of the true story, "which goes on for ever, and in which every chapter is better than the one before".[10]
Characters[edit]
Tirian, the last king of Narnia, who leads the fight of Narnia against the Calormenes.
Jewel the Unicorn, retainer to King Tirian, also his best friend.
Eustace Scrubb, a friend of Narnia, who fights for the Narnians.
Jill Pole, friend of Eustace.
Shift, an ape who allies with Calormen and creates the "Tashlan" hoax. (The Narnian form of the False Prophet and the Antichrist.)
Puzzle, a donkey who is tricked by Shift. (The Narnian form of the Beast and an allusion to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin".)
Ginger, a cat, in league with Rishda Tarkaan.
Rishda Tarkaan, Calormene captain leading the battle against Narnia, taken away by Tash during the destruction of Narnia.
Emeth, a righteous soldier of Calormene, who discovers his true devotion to Aslan.
Tash, an evil god of Calormen, who haunts the stable, opposes Aslan, and swallows Rishda and Shift.
Aslan, the God of Narnia, son of the Emperor-over-the-Sea, who takes the form of a lion.
Peter Pevensie, the oldest of the Pevensies, High King Peter "the Magnificent" of Narnia.
Lucy Pevensie, sister of Peter, Queen Lucy "the Valiant" of Narnia.
Edmund Pevensie, brother of Lucy and Peter, King Edmund "the Just" of Narnia.
Digory Kirke, first friend of Narnia, who witnessed its creation, Lord Digory in Narnia.
Polly Plummer, friend of Digory, Lady Polly in Narnia.
Reception[edit]
Floyd C. Gale wrote in Galaxy Science Fiction that the book "is a delightful fantastic fable of the type which the English have excelled since—or perhaps because of—Lewis Carroll".[11]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In England it is 1949, seven years after The Silver Chair and 49 years after The Magician's Nephew. A manuscript by Lewis, the "Outline of Narnian History", dates major events in the Narnia world and simultaneous events in England. Since his death it has been published in books about Narnia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Bibliography: The Last Battle". ISFDB. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Scholastic Catalog – Book Information". Retrieved 23 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The last battle, a story for children" (first edition). Library of Congress Catalog Record.
"The last battle" (first US edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
Jump up ^ Carnegie Winner 1956. Living Archive: Celebrating the Carnegie and Greenaway Winners. CILIP. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Schakel, Peter J. (2002). Imagination and the arts in C. S. Lewis: journeying to Narnia and other worlds. University of Missouri Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 0-8262-1407-X.
Jump up ^ p. 359, fn. Paul Ford. 1986. Companion to Narnia. New York: Collier Books.
Jump up ^ p. 55. David Downing. 2005. Into the Wardrobe. Jossey-Bass
Jump up ^ Lewis, CS (1998). The Chronicles of Narnia. London: Collins. p. 707. ISBN 0007640218.
Jump up ^ Lewis, CS (1998). The Chronicles of Narnia. London: Collins. p. 722. ISBN 0007640218.
Jump up ^ Lewis, CS (1998). The Chronicles of Narnia. London: Collins. p. 767. ISBN 0007640218.
Jump up ^ Gale, Floyd C. (June 1957). "Galaxy's 5 Star Shelf". Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 107–110. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
Sources[edit]
Caughey, Shanna (2004), Revisiting Narnia: Fantasy, Myth and Religion in C. S. Lewis' Chronicles, Benbella Books, ISBN 978-1-932100-63-1
Downing, David C. (2005). Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-7879-7890-7.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Last Battle
The Last Battle at Faded Page (Canada)
The Last Battle in libraries (WorldCat catalog) —immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition
The Last Battle title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database (ISFDB)
Awards
Preceded by
The Little Bookroom Carnegie Medal recipient
1956 Succeeded by
A Grass Rope
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Works by C. S. Lewis
Poetry
Spirits in Bondage (1919)
Dymer (1926)
Fiction
The Pilgrim's Regress (1933)
The Screwtape Letters (1942)
The Great Divorce (1945)
Till We Have Faces (1956)
Screwtape Proposes a Toast (1959)
Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer (1964)
Boxen (1985)
The Space Trilogy
Out of the Silent Planet (1938)
Perelandra (1943)
That Hideous Strength (1945)
The Dark Tower (manuscript) (1977)
The Chronicles
of Narnia
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950)
Prince Caspian (1951)
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1952)
The Silver Chair (1953)
The Horse and His Boy (1954)
The Magician's Nephew (1955)
The Last Battle (1956)
Non-fiction
The Allegory of Love (1936)
The Personal Heresy (1939)
The Problem of Pain (1940)
A Preface to Paradise Lost (1942)
The Abolition of Man (1943)
Miracles (1947)
Mere Christianity (1952)
Surprised by Joy (1955)
The Four Loves (1960)
Studies in Words (1960)
The World's Last Night and Other Essays (1960)
An Experiment in Criticism (1961)
A Grief Observed (1961)
They Asked for a Paper: Papers and Addresses (1962)
Selections from Layamon's Brut (1963)
The Discarded Image (1964)
The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses (1965)
Of Other Worlds (1966)
God in the Dock (1970-1971)
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Puzzle (Narnia)

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Aesop's fables

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Jewel the Unicorn

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Floyd C. Gale

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http://lccn.loc.gov/56028857

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values: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1988 TV serial)

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Screwtape Proposes a Toast

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values: Последната битка (Хрониките на Нарния) – Bulgarian

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