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Tomb of the Unknowns
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The Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to U.S. service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, but it has never been officially named. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I "Unknown" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals.[1][2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Tomb of 1921
2 Tomb of 1931
3 The Unknown of World War I
4 The Unknowns of World War II and Korea
5 The Unknown of Vietnam
5.1 Identification of the Unknown
5.2 Redesignation of the crypt
6 Tomb guards
6.1 Weapons
6.2 Walking the mat
6.3 Changing of the Guard
6.4 Dedication
7 Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Tomb of 1921[edit]
Tomb as of November 11, 1922. The Tomb of 1931 would occupy this same location.
On March 4, 1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater. On November 11, 1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three-level marble tomb. The bottom two levels are six marble sections each and the top at least nine blocks with a rectangular opening in the center of each level through which the unknown remains were placed through the tomb and into the ground below. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening.[4][5][6]
Tomb of 1931[edit]
Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3, 1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb and the expenditure of $50,000 (with a completed cost of $48,000). A design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich[nb 1] and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21, 1929, a contract for completion of the Tomb itself was entered into. The Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels (cap, die, base and sub-base) of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides.[4][7]
Quarrying the Yule marble (3.9 miles south of Marble, Colorado by the Vermont Marble Company) was a one-year process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the base required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries. In late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. The quarrying involved 75 men. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons. A wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons.
On February 3, the block reached the marble mill site (in the town of Marble) after a four-day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8. The block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia.[8] By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, at Arlington.
Assembly began in September 1931. An imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed. Finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones.[4][9] (The brothers also carved the Lincoln statue for the Lincoln Memorial). The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9, 1932.[10]
The Tomb[nb 2] was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II (south) and Korea (north). Between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam (middle). His remains were positively identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie, United States Air Force and were removed. Those three graves are marked with white marble slabs flush with the plaza.
The Tomb has a flat-faced form and is relieved at the corners and along the sides by neo-classical pilasters set into the surface with objects and inscription carved into the sides. The 1931 symbolism[9] of the objects on the north, south and east sides changed over time.[4][7]
North and South panel with 3 wreaths on each side represent (in 1931) "a world of memories" but later the six major battles engaged in by American forces in France; Ardennes, Belleau Wood, Château-Thierry, Meusse-Argonne, Oisiu-Eiseu, and Somme. Each wreath has 38 leaves and 12 berries.
East panel that faces Washington, D.C., are three Greek figures representing Peace, Victory, and "American Manhood" but later "Valor" instead of "American Manhood"
Western panel is inscribed the words (centered on the panel):
HERE RESTS IN
HONORED GLORY
AN AMERICAN
SOLDIER
KNOWN BUT TO GOD
Tomb Dimensions[nb 3] as of 2004[11] (xxx)* 1931 die block dimension coming out of the quarry.[8]
Level
Length
Width
Height
Cubic Feet
Tons
Cap 12'-5.4" 6'-6.7" 1'-3.3" 100.69 8.56
Die 12'-3.0" (14'-0")* 6'-6.4" (7'-4.8")* 5'-2.1" (6"-0")* 385.43 (621.6)* 32.76 (52.84)*
Base 13'-10.0" 7'-11.9" 1'-11.1" 198.64 16.88
Sub-Base 14'-10.4" 9'-0.2" 1'-10.9" 255.81 21.74
The Unknown of World War I[edit]
The World War I Unknown arriving at the Washington Navy Yard, 1921 (colorized)
On Memorial Day, 1921, four unknown servicemen were exhumed from four World War I American cemeteries in France. U.S. Army Sgt. Edward F. Younger, who was wounded in combat, highly decorated for valor and received the Distinguished Service Cross in "The Great War" selected the Unknown of World War I from four identical caskets at the city hall in Châlons-en-Champagne, France, on October 24, 1921.[6] Younger selected the World War I Unknown by placing a spray of white roses on one of the caskets. He chose the third casket from the left. The chosen Unknown was transported to the United States aboard the USS Olympia. Those remaining were interred in the Meuse Argonne Cemetery, France.[6]
The World War I Unknown lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda from his arrival in the United States until Armistice Day, 1921. On November 11, 1921, President Warren G. Harding officiated at the interment ceremonies at the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery. During the ceremony, the World War I Unknown was awarded the Victoria Cross by Admiral of the Fleet Lord Beatty, on behalf of King George V of the United Kingdom.[12] (The United Kingdom Victoria Cross was placed with the soldier. Earlier, on March 4, 1921, the British Unknown Warrior was conferred the U.S. Medal of Honor by General of the Armies John Pershing.) In 1928, the Unknown Soldier was presented the Silver Buffalo Award for distinguished service to America's youth by the Boy Scouts of America.[13]
The Unknowns of World War II and Korea[edit]
The Korean War Unknown joins the two candidates from World War II aboard the USS Canberra
On August 3, 1956, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill to select and pay the tribute to the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War. The selection ceremonies and the interment of these Unknowns took place in 1958. The World War II Unknown was selected from remains exhumed from cemeteries in Europe, Africa, Hawaii, and the Philippines.[14]
Two Unknowns from World War II, one from the European Theater and one from the Pacific Theater, were placed in identical caskets and taken aboard the USS Canberra, a guided-missile cruiser resting off the Virginia Capes. Navy Hospital Corpsman 1st Class William R. Charette, then the U.S. Navy's only active-duty Medal of Honor recipient who was an enlisted man, selected the World War II Unknown. The remaining casket received a solemn burial at sea.[14]
Four unknown Americans who died in the Korean War were disinterred from the National Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii. Army Master Sergeant Ned Lyle made the final selection.[14]
Both caskets arrived in Washington on May 28, 1958, where they lay in the Capitol Rotunda until the morning of May 30, when they were carried on caissons to Arlington National Cemetery. President Eisenhower awarded each the Medal of Honor, and the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War were interred in the plaza beside their World War I comrade.[14]
The Unknown of Vietnam[edit]
The designation of the Vietnam Unknown has proven to be difficult. With improvements in DNA testing it is possible, though unlikely, that the recovered remains for every unknown soldier killed in the Vietnam War will be identified.
The Vietnam Unknown service member was designated by Medal of Honor recipient U.S. Marine Corps Sgt. Maj. Allan Jay Kellogg, Jr., during a ceremony at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, May 17, 1984.
Each branch of the Armed Services took part in the transportation to Honor the unknown. The Marines from Marine Barracks Hawaii consisted of an Honor Guard of 9 enlisted men and Lt. Denis Muller. The Vietnam Unknown was transported aboard the fast frigate USS Brewton, where the Marines stood guard over the casket during the seven day ocean voyage to Naval Air Station Alameda, California where the debarkation ceremony turned the unknown over to the USAF on May 24. The next day, the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were then flown from Travis Air Force Base, California, arriving at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. Once there the remains were turned over to the US Army, where the remains were taken to Fort McNair for placement upon the horse-drawn wagon which later carried the Unknown to the Capital Rotunda for display before interment. While on display for public viewing, all branches of the US Armed Forces stood in Honor, Guarding the casket of the Unknown for 2 weeks.
The Tomb guards stood at death watch for the entire day as thousands of people braved the dreary weather to pay their respects.
The presidential wreath was brought forward toward President Reagan during the interment ceremony for the Unknown Serviceman of the Vietnam Era at the Tomb of the Unknowns on May 28, 1984.
Many Vietnam veterans and President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan visited the Vietnam Unknown in the U.S. Capitol. An Army caisson carried the Vietnam Unknown from the Capitol to the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery on Memorial Day, May 28, 1984.
President Reagan presided over the funeral, and presented the Medal of Honor to the Vietnam Unknown, and also acted as next of kin by accepting the interment flag at the end of the ceremony. The interment flags of all Unknowns at the Tomb of the Unknowns are on view in the Memorial Display Room.
Identification of the Unknown[edit]
In 1994, Ted Sampley, a POW/MIA activist, determined that the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were likely those of Air Force 1st Lt. Michael Joseph Blassie, who was shot down near An Lộc, Vietnam, in 1972. Sampley published an article in his newsletter and contacted Blassie's family, who attempted to pursue the case with the Air Force's casualty office without result. In January 1998 CBS News broadcast a report based on Sampley's investigation which brought political pressure to support the identification of the remains.[15] The body was exhumed on May 14, 1998. Based on mitochondrial DNA testing, Department of Defense scientists confirmed the remains were those of Blassie. The identification was announced on June 30, 1998, and on July 10, Blassie's remains arrived home to his family in St. Louis, Missouri; he was reinterred at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery on July 11.[16][nb 4]
Redesignation of the crypt[edit]
The slab over the crypt that once held the remains of the Vietnam Unknown has since been replaced. The original inscription of "Vietnam" and the dates of the conflict has been changed to "Honoring and Keeping Faith with America's Missing Servicemen" as a reminder of the commitment of the Armed Forces to the fullest possible accounting of missing service members.
Tomb guards[edit]
The tomb guards are soldiers of the United States Army. The first military guards were troopers from the 3rd Cavalry, "Brave Rifles", who were posted nearby on Fort Myer. Since April 6, 1948, (known then as "Army Day"), when the regiment was reactivated, it has been guarded by soldiers from 3rd Infantry Regiment, "The Old Guard". The Old Guard is also posted to Fort Myer, Virginia, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery. It is considered one of the highest honors to serve as a Sentinel at the Tomb of the Unknowns. Fewer than 20 percent of all volunteers are accepted for training and of those only a fraction pass training to become full-fledged Tomb Guards. This attrition rate has made the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge the second least-awarded qualification badge of the United States military (the first being the Astronaut Badge).[17]
The soldier "walking the mat" does not wear rank insignia, so as not to outrank the Unknowns, whatever their ranks may have been. Non-commissioned officers (usually the Relief Commander and Assistant Relief Commanders), do wear insignia of their rank when changing the guard only. They have a separate uniform (without rank) that is worn when they actually guard the Unknowns or are "posted."
The duties of the sentinels are not purely ceremonial. The sentinels will confront people who cross the barriers at the tomb or who they perceive to be disrespectful or excessively loud.
Weapons[edit]
Over the years there have been several different types of weapons used by the Tomb Guards. The changes in weapons reflect the changes in the Army, including M1903 Springfield rifle, M1 Garand and M14 rifles, M1911 and M9 pistols. Tomb Guards currently carry M14 rifles, which are unloaded and affixed to ceremonial rifle stocks. These rifles are cleaned daily and kept ready for use at all times.[18]
Walking the mat[edit]
There is a meticulous routine that the guard follows when watching over the graves.[19] The Tomb Guard:
Marches 21 steps south down the black mat laid across the Tomb.
Turns and faces east, toward the Tomb, for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces north, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Marches 21 steps down the mat.
Turns and faces east for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces south, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Repeats the routine until the soldier is relieved of duty at the Changing of the Guard.
After each turn, the Guard executes a sharp "shoulder-arms" movement to place the weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors to signify that the Guard stands between the Tomb and any possible threat.
Out of respect for the interred, the sentinels command silence at the tombs. If the guard walking the mat must vocally confront a disturbance from spectators, or a threat, the routine is interrupted, and remains so until the disturbance is under control. The sentinel will exit the mat, place the weapon in port arms position, and confront the disturbance. Once under control, the sentinel then walks on the pavement to the other side of the mat, turns to shoulder arms, and continues the routine.
Twenty-one was chosen because it symbolizes the highest military honor that can be bestowed—the 21-gun salute.
The mat is usually replaced twice per year: before Memorial Day and before Veterans Day. This is required because of the wear on the rubber mat by the special shoes worn by Tomb Guards. The sentinels have metal plates built into the soles and inner parts of their shoes to allow for a more rugged sole and to give the signature click of the heel during maneuvers. The sentinels wear sunglasses because of the bright reflection from the marble surrounding the Tomb and the Memorial Amphitheater.
On the ground not covered by the mat, a rust pattern in the tile can be seen that corresponds to the precise steps taken during the changing of the guard. The metal from the guards' boots causes the brown rust markings on the stone. On the mat itself, footprints caused by standing guard are also visible.
Changing of the Guard[edit]
Changing of the Guard, 2005.
While Arlington National Cemetery is open, during the day in summer months from April 1 to September 30, the guard is changed every half hour. During the winter months, from October 1 to March 31, the guard is changed every hour. After the cemetery closes to the public (7 p.m. to 8 a.m. April through September, and 5 p.m. to 8 a.m. October through March), the guard is changed every 2 hours. The ceremony can be witnessed by the public whenever Arlington National Cemetery is open.[20][21]
The guard change is very symbolic, but also conducted in accordance with Army regulations. The relief commander or assistant relief commander, along with the oncoming guard, are both required for a guard change to take place. The relief commander orders the guard being relieved to "pass on your orders" to the oncoming guard. The guard being relieved will say to the oncoming guard, "Post and orders remain as directed." The oncoming guard's response is always, "Orders acknowledged." During changes when the public is witnessing the ceremony, the commander will inform the public that the ceremony is about to take place and that those in attendance should remain "silent and standing" throughout the entire event.
Dedication[edit]
A civilian guard was first posted at the Tomb on November 17, 1925, to prevent, among other things, families from picnicking on the flat marble slab with views of the city. A military guard was first posted on March 25, 1926. The first 24-hour guard was posted on midnight, July 2, 1937. The Tomb of the Unknowns has been guarded continuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, since that time.[22] Inclement weather,[23][24] terrorist attacks,[25] et cetera, do not cause the watch to cease.[26]
Since 1948, the Tomb Guards, a special platoon within the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) work on a team rotation of 24 hours on, 24 hours off, for five days, taking the following four days off. A guard takes an average of six hours to prepare his uniform – heavy wool, regardless of the time of year – for the next day's work. In addition to preparing the uniform, guards also conduct physical training, Tomb Guard training, participate in field exercises, cut their hair before the next work day, and at times are involved in regimental functions as well. Tomb Guards are required to memorize 17 pages of information about Arlington National Cemetery and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, including the locations of nearly 300 graves and who is buried in each one.[20]
A special Army decoration, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge is authorized for wear after passing a detailed test of 100 questions (from a pool of more than 300), a uniform test with two gigs (errors) or fewer (measured to the 1/64"), and a test on the guard changing sequence. After serving honorably for a period of nine months, and having passed the sequence of tests, a Tomb Guard is permanently awarded the Badge. Since the first award on February 7, 1958, fewer than 650 soldiers have completed training and been awarded this Badge, including four women. A small number of Tomb Guard Identification Badges have also been retroactively awarded to soldiers who served as Guards before 1959. Those numbers make the Badge the second rarest award currently issued in the United States Army; only the Army Astronaut Badge is rarer.[nb 5]
The badge was designed in 1956 and first issued to members of the Honor Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns on February 7, 1958. The badge was first issued only as a temporary wear item, meaning the soldiers could only wear the badge during their tenure as members of the Honor Guard. Upon leaving the duty, the badge was returned and reissued to incoming soldiers. In 1963, a regulation was enacted that allowed the badge to be worn as a permanent part of the military uniform, even after the soldier's completion of duty at the Tomb of the Unknowns.
Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument[edit]
The crack can be seen underneath the words "An American" and above the word "Soldier."
Cracking and weathering are causing concerns for the long-term preservation of the Tomb Monument. A November 1963 report first recorded horizontal cracking of the monument's marble die block. Though this was the first time that the damage was documented, the report made it clear that the cracks had become visible some time before that date.[27]
In 1963–1964, there were two cracks—referred to as "primary" and "secondary"—extending approximately 34 feet around the die block. By 1974, they had extended to 40 feet. They grew another 4.6 feet over the next 15 years. Inspection has determined that the cracks have increased horizontally since 1990. Analysis also indicates that the cracks are not surficial but extend partially through the block and will eventually extend all the way through.[27]
The 1990 report documented deterioration of the marble's surface. As much as 2.85 mm of the marble surface has been lost through weathering. The study projected that before 2010, the Tomb Monument will have been weathered enough to have a negative effect on the experience of the visitors and concludes the only solutions are to enclose or replace the monument.[27]
Several options have been considered to deal with the damage. Officials at Arlington National Cemetery determined that proper repair can return the Tomb Monument to an acceptable appearance. However, because the cracks will continue to lengthen and widen, continuous grouting, regrouting, touch-up, monitoring, and maintenance would be required. Therefore, a report commissioned by Arlington National Cemetery and published in June 2006 confirmed the Cemetery's conclusion that "replacement of the three pieces of the Tomb Monument is the preferred alternative". A final decision was scheduled to be made on September 30, 2007.[27]
The National Trust for Historic Preservation objects to the plan to replace the authentic Tomb Monument. The Trust expressed concern that Arlington National Cemetery seeks to replace the existing monument with marble from the original quarry, which experts agree is likely eventually to crack.[28]
The Trust has observed that the Cemetery's own 1990 report recommended that the monument be repaired and that the Cemetery, in fact, commissioned Oehrlein Architects to repair the stone. In 2007, Mary Oehrlein informed Congressional staff members that: "The existing monument can easily be repaired, as was done 17 years ago, using conventional conservation methods to re-grout the cracks. Once repaired, the fault lines would be virtually invisible from the public viewing areas."[29][30]
On September 26, 2007, U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka announced that an amendment crafted together with Senator Jim Webb will be added to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (H.R. 1585) that would require a report on the plans of the Secretary of the Army and the Secretary of Veterans Affairs to replace the monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns. The secretaries would be required to advise Congress on the current efforts to maintain and preserve the monument. Additionally, they would have to provide an assessment on the feasibility and advisability of repairing rather than replacing the Tomb Monument. Finally, if the secretaries choose replacement, they would have to report those plans and detail how they intend to dispose of the current monument. Once the report is provided, the secretaries are prevented from taking action to replace the monument for at least 180 days. The Akaka-Webb amendment was included in the bill by unanimous consent of the Senate.[31] An amendment to the Fiscal Year 2008 Defense Authorization Bill authorized a review of the monument's condition. The bill also authorized repair, but not replacement, of the monument.[32] Final passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2008 (H.R. 4986) was signed by President Bush on January 28, 2008.
October 21, 2011: Completed repair of the cracks in the Tomb.
In 2003 John Haines, a retired car dealer, offered to donate a large slab of marble to the Arlington National Cemetery to replace the existing marble. Haines paid $31,000 for the marble slab.[33] The marble was not removed from the quarry, however, because imperfections were found and the block was rejected.
In June 2009 Arlington National Cemetery and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers announced that the monument was to be repaired, not replaced.[34] In 2010, the cracks were filled but the repairs lasted only a few months.[35] As of June 2011, the cemetery was struggling to repair the cracks in the monument, one of which measured 28.4 feet (8.7 m) long, with another at 16.2 feet (4.9 m).[36] In September 2011, the cracks were filled again[35] and on October 21, 2011, inspection by the Corps of Engineers and other experts pronounced the repairs a success.[37]
See also[edit]
Civil War Unknowns Monument
Tomb of the Unknown Confederate Soldier
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier - for list of similar memorials in other countries
Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier
World War I memorials
Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Unknown Warrior - London, UK
The Unknown Soldier - Paris, France
Military rites
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Syracuse University Archives has an extensive collection of Lorimer Rich (1914 Syracuse graduate) papers pertaining to his architect design work of the Tomb, including 44 numbered drawings of the Tomb. http://archives.syr.edu/collections/alumni/rich_box.html Archived February 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Many sources reference the 1931 Tomb as a sarcophagus, but it is not: in a sarcophagus, the remains are placed in a hollowed-out portion of the stone; the marble in the Tomb was not hollowed out and the remains are underneath the Tomb.
Jump up ^ 1931 body block tonnage calculated in 2004 is different (by 5.9%) from the other source amount of 56 tons and can not be explained with certainty. Sub-base cubic footage and tons was calculated from the source dimensions because cubic feet and tons were not included in the source data table. Per cubic foot, the marble weighs 170 pounds.
Jump up ^ The identification took place after Blassie's family lobbied the Pentagon to perform the DNA testing. His remains (6 partial bones) had originally been recovered several months after his aircraft had been shot down and were not sufficient to allow for positive identification at the time. CNN.com "Home at last for a fallen hero". June 11, 1998. Also see: U.S. National Library of Medicine – Visible Proofs, "Michael Blassie unknown no more", May 23, 2006
Jump up ^ The Tomb Guard Identification Badge is the only badge awarded by the United States Army that can be revoked after a soldier has left the military. The Regimental Commander of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment has the authority to revoke a Badge from any Guard (past or present) for any act that would bring discredit upon the Tomb of the Unknowns. "Army Regulation 600-8-22 – "Military Awards" (11 December 2006); para. 8-40f" (PDF). Department of the Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Arlington National Cemetery: The Tomb of the Unknowns". Arlingtoncemetery.mil. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Congressional Medal of Honor Recipients - World War I Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (archived from the original on October 22, 2006).
Jump up ^ World War I Unknown Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery website.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Quartermaster Review September – October 1963". United States Army. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Configuration of 1921 Tomb". Library of Congress. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Unknown Soldier of World War I". The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969. United States Army. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Tomb". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on November 16, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Marble, Colorado: City of Stone"; by Duane Vandenbusche and Rex Myers; Golden Bell Press; Denver, Colorado; 6th printing February 1996
^ Jump up to: a b "The Vermont Marble Museum". Vermont Marble Company. April 1931. Archived from the original on December 27, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dedication photo". Syracuse University Archives. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Digital Scan of the Tomb, 2004". Direct Dimensions Inc, Owing Mills, Maryland. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Victoria Cross". The British Army 212 (Yorkshire) Field Hospital (volunteers) website. Archived from the original on December 29, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Silver Buffalo Award Winners 1929-1926". Boy Scouts of America National Council. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Quartermaster Review (January–February 1964)". United States Army. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert M. Poole (2009). On hallowed ground: the story of Arlington National Cemetery. Walker & Company. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0-8027-1548-6.
Jump up ^ Memorial day tribute: holiday holds special meaning for Blassie family - LaVonne Johnson, Citizen Airman. June 2003.
Jump up ^ McVeigh, Alex (February 11, 2009). "First Tomb Badge recipient laid to rest". The Official Home Page Of The United States Army.
Jump up ^ "Who Are The Tomb Guards". tombguard.org. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Changing of the Guard". Arlington, Virginia: Arlington National Cemetery. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Frequently Asked Questions". Society of the Honor Guard – Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Visiting Arlington National Cemetery". Retrieved September 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier FAQ". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Still Vigilant at the Tomb of the Unknowns Despite Irene - ABC News
Jump up ^ PHOTO: Despite Sandy, Soldiers Stand Guard At Tomb Of The Unknown Soldier : The Two-Way : NPR
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20091014110013/http://www.tombguard.org/Nov01_Jan02.pdf
Jump up ^ The Sentinel, "Post and Orders Remain as Directed" (PDF). August 2002 – September 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Arlington National Cemetery Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Repair or Replacement Project (draft)" (PDF). June 1, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 27, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Take Action for Historic Preservation". Nationaltrust.org. Retrieved September 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Crack Mars Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, ABC News May 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ John Paul Woodley, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works); William F. Tuerk, Under Secretary for Memorial Affairs, Department of Veterans Affairs (2008). "Report on Alternative Measures To Address Cracks in the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia". Congressional Record. Retrieved February 25, 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Akaka-Webb Amendment to Halt Replacement of the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns is Approved by Senate". September 26, 2007. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Ruane, Michael E., "Bid to Replace Tomb Monument Stalls", Washington Post, January 30, 2008, p. A03.
Jump up ^ Nancy Lofholm, Marble for Unknowns tomb just sits, Denver Post, August 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ McMichael, William (June 26, 2009). "Tomb of Unknowns to be repaired, not replaced". Army Times. Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b video by Army Corps of Engineers, Norfolk District
Jump up ^ Davenport, Christian, "Repairs On Persistent Cracks At Tomb Of Unknowns Delayed", Washington Post, June 9, 2011, p. B1.
Jump up ^ Army Corps of Engineers photos and text
Further reading[edit]
The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969, CHAPTER I, The Unknown Soldier of World War I, State Funeral, 23 October–11 November 1921 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tomb of the Unknowns.
Official U.S. Army Tomb Guard and Tomb of the Unknowns website
Arlington Cemetery official site
Arlington Historical Society
Arlington Convention and Visitors Service official website
Snopes's article on the Tomb of the Unknowns
Society of the Honor Guard - Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
Video of the Changing of the Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns, by Dover Lodge #489
video of a changing of the guard
The short film Interment Ceremony Of The Vietnam Unknown (1985) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Historic film footage of November 11, 1921 interment ceremony for the World War I Unknown Soldier at the tomb of 1921
The Unknowns - 2016 Documentary film
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tomb_of_the_Unknowns&oldid=798779277"
Categories:
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Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Military monuments and memorials in the United States
World War I memorials in the United States
American recipients of the Victoria Cross
American World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
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Boston Legal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Boston Legal
Genre
Legal drama
Comedy-drama
Created by
David E. Kelley
Starring
James Spader
Candice Bergen
William Shatner
Monica Potter
Mark Valley
Rhona Mitra
Lake Bell
René Auberjonois
Julie Bowen
Ryan Michelle Bathe
Justin Mentell
Constance Zimmer
Craig Bierko
Gary Anthony Williams
John Larroquette
Christian Clemenson
Tara Summers
Taraji P. Henson
Saffron Burrows
Composer(s)
Danny Lux
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
101 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
David E. Kelley
Bill D'Elia
Mike Listo
Lawrence Broch
Janet Leahy (2.04–3.24)
Scott Kaufer (1.01–2.03, 2.23)
Jeff Rake (1.01–1.13)
Running time
42 minutes
Production company(s)
David E. Kelley Productions
20th Century Fox Television
Distributor
20th Television
Release
Original network
ABC
Picture format
480i (SDTV),
720p (HDTV)
Original release
October 3, 2004 (2004-10-03) – December 8, 2008 (2008-12-08)
Chronology
Preceded by
The Practice
Boston Public
Boston Legal is an American legal comedy-drama created by David E. Kelley and produced in association with 20th Century Fox Television for ABC. The series aired from October 3, 2004 to December 8, 2008. The series stars James Spader, with William Shatner and Candice Bergen.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 The Practice characters
2.2 Main characters
3 Production
3.1 Development
4 Episodes
5 Reception
5.1 Ratings and audience profile
5.2 Awards
6 Home media
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
A spin-off of the long-running Kelley series The Practice, Boston Legal follows the exploits of former Practice character Alan Shore at the legal firm of Crane, Poole & Schmidt.
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of Boston Legal characters
The Practice characters[edit]
James Spader as Alan Shore (seasons 1-5; The Practice season 8)
William Shatner as Denny Crane (seasons 1-5; The Practice season 8)
Rhona Mitra as Tara Wilson (season 1, recurring 2; The Practice season 8)
Lake Bell as Sally Heep (season 1, guest 3; The Practice season 8)
Main characters[edit]
Candice Bergen as Shirley Schmidt (episodes 11-101)
René Auberjonois as Paul Lewiston (seasons 1-3, recurring 4-5)
Mark Valley as Brad Chase (seasons 1-3, recurring 4)
Monica Potter as Lori Colson (season 1, recurring 2)
Julie Bowen as Denise Bauer (seasons 2-3, guest 5)
Ryan Michelle Bathe as Sara Holt (season 2)
Justin Mentell as Garrett Wells (season 2)
Christian Clemenson as Jerry Espenson (seasons 4-5, recurring 2-3)
Constance Zimmer as Claire Simms (season 3)
Craig Bierko as Jeffrey Coho (season 3)
Gary Anthony Williams as Clarence Bell (seasons 3-4)
Taraji P. Henson as Whitney Rome (season 4)
Saffron Burrows as Lorraine Weller (season 4)
Tara Summers as Katie Lloyd (seasons 4-5)
John Larroquette as Carl Sack (seasons 4-5)
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
Prior to the show's premiere, it had a working title of Fleet Street, an allusion to the real street in Boston where the fictitious Crane, Poole & Schmidt had its offices. The working title was later modified to The Practice: Fleet Street, but this title was dropped in favor of Boston Legal.[1] The real building shown as the law office is located at 500 Boylston Street, 1.4 miles away from Fleet Street.
The American producers of the series also hired British writer Sir John Mortimer, QC, (creator of the UK legal series Rumpole of the Bailey) as a consultant for Boston Legal.[2]
The show's pilot was originally produced with former The Practice stars James Spader and Rhona Mitra, guest stars William Shatner and Lake Bell, and Mark Valley. It featured an expanded storyline with Larry Miller as Edwin Poole and John Michael Higgins as senior partner Jerry Austin. Monica Potter was later cast as junior partner Lori Colson and René Auberjonois as senior partner Paul Lewiston, replacing John Michael Higgins. The pilot premiered on ABC on October 3, 2004.[3]
On November 30, 2004, it was announced that Candice Bergen would join the cast as senior partner Shirley Schmidt,[4] a character the producers had planned to introduce for several months.[5] Lake Bell left the series mid-season, and René Auberjonois was promoted to main cast member.[6][7][8] Anthony Heald and Betty White also made regular guest appearances, having both appeared as the same characters on The Practice.
On April 5, 2005, the series was renewed for a second season, although ABC chose not to screen the final five episodes of Season 1 until April 24, 2005 to allow greater exposure of mid-season series Grey's Anatomy to a larger audience.[9] The success of Grey's Anatomy placed Boston Legal on hold until autumn 2005, when it returned for an extended season of 27 episodes.[10][11] Both Rhona Mitra and Monica Potter left the series during the hiatus, while Julie Bowen was cast as Denise Bauer.[12] Ryan Michelle Bathe and Justin Mentell were later cast as junior associates Sara Holt and Garrett Wells.[13] The second episode of Season 3 introduced Craig Bierko as Jeffrey Coho and Constance Zimmer as Claire Simms. In Episode 11, guest star Gary Anthony Williams joined the cast, with Craig Bierko leaving in Episode 15.
On June 4, 2007, TV Guide announced that René Auberjonois, Julie Bowen, Mark Valley, and Constance Zimmer would not return for Season 4.[14] On June 13, 2007, it was announced that actor John Larroquette (former The Practice guest star) would join the cast as a senior partner transferred from the New York offices of Crane, Poole & Schmidt, with actress Tara Summers joining as a young associate. Christian Clemenson (former The Practice guest star), who had guest-starred occasionally as Jerry Espenson (a brilliant but socially inept lawyer) – was promoted to main cast.[15] Production also stated that René Auberjonois, Mark Valley, Julie Bowen, and Constance Zimmer may return in guest roles.[16] On July 2, 2007, it was reported that both René Auberjonois and Mark Valley would return in recurring roles;[17] It was also announced that Taraji P. Henson would join the cast in Season 4, with Saffron Burrows appearing in a recurring role. Burrows later became a full-time cast member.[18]
On May 13, 2008, ABC announced that Boston Legal would return for a fifth (and final) season in the fall.[19][20] Saffron Burrows did not return as a series regular, having joined the cast of My Own Worst Enemy. The final season consisted of 13 episodes to reach the "100" episode mark, which facilitated successful syndication.[21] There was speculation that Boston Legal might receive an additional episode-order if the show had another strong showing in the Emmy Awards and produced solid ratings in its new fall time slot.[22] The season began airing on September 22, 2008.
On June 18 and June 20, 2008, it was reported that Gary Anthony Williams and Taraji P. Henson would not return for Season 5 as Clarence Bell and Whitney Rome, respectively.[23][24] On July 17, 2008, Boston Legal was nominated for a series-high seven Emmy nominations, including for Best Drama Series for the second consecutive year. Spader, Bergen, and Shatner were each nominated for their respective roles.
Boston Legal's two-hour-long series finale aired on Monday, December 8, 2008, at 9:00PM Eastern/8:00PM Central. David E. Kelley stated in an interview with the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette on December 7, 2008 that it was ABC's decision to end Boston Legal, and that he "had to fight to bring it back for a short season of 13 episodes".[25]
The series features a trademark routine whereby characters would occasionally break the fourth wall and make comments implying they are aware that they are characters in a television show. Shatner, being famous for portraying Captain Kirk, also makes occasional Star Trek references.[26]
The series aired on TV Land in the past[when?].
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Boston Legal episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 17 October 3, 2004 (2004-10-03) March 20, 2005 (2005-03-20)
2 27 September 27, 2005 (2005-09-27) May 16, 2006 (2006-05-16)
3 24 September 26, 2006 (2006-09-26) May 29, 2007 (2007-05-29)
4 20 September 25, 2007 (2007-09-25) May 21, 2008 (2008-05-21)
5 13 September 22, 2008 (2008-09-22) December 8, 2008 (2008-12-08)
Reception[edit]
Ratings and audience profile[edit]
According to Nielsen Media Research, Boston Legal drew the richest viewing audience on television, based on the concentration of high-income viewers in its young adult audience (Adult 18–49 index w/$100k+ annual income).[27]
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of Boston Legal on ABC.
Note: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps. All times mentioned in this section were in the Eastern and Pacific time zones.
Season
Timeslot
Season Premiere
Season Finale
TV Season
Season
Rank
Viewers
(in millions)
1
Sunday 10:00 pm October 3, 2004 March 20, 2005 2004–2005 #28 12.53[28]
2
Tuesday 10:00 pm September 27, 2005 May 16, 2006 2005–2006 #47 10.30[29]
3
September 19, 2006 May 29, 2007 2006–2007 #62 9.57[30]
4
Tuesday 10:00 pm
Wednesday 10:00 pm September 25, 2007 May 21, 2008 2007–2008 #51 9.62[31]
5
Monday 10:00 pm September 22, 2008 December 8, 2008 2008–2009 #47 9.62[32]
Awards[edit]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Boston Legal
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2005 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (James Spader)
2005 Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (William Shatner)
2006 Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Christian Clemenson)
2007 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (James Spader)
James Spader also won the 2004 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for the same role on "The Practice".
Golden Globe Awards:
2004 Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries, or TV Movie (William Shatner)
Peabody Awards
2005, as David E. Kelley Productions, in association with 20th Century Fox Television[33]
Home media[edit]
DVD Name
Region 1
Region 2
Region 4
Season 1 May 23, 2006 July 24, 2006 August 9, 2006
Season 2 November 21, 2006 March 5, 2007 February 21, 2007
Season 3 September 18, 2007 January 14, 2008 October 10, 2007
Season 4 September 23, 2008 October 13, 2008 December 3, 2008
Season 5 May 5, 2009 May 11, 2009 August 5, 2009
The Complete Series May 5, 2009[34] May 11, 2009 November 18, 2009[35]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pergament, Alan (July 19, 2004). "Marketing, Legal Factors Influence TV'S Name Game". The Buffalo News. Retrieved December 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ The Christian Science Monitor. "In appreciation of John Mortimer". The Christian Science Monitor.
Jump up ^ Levin, Gary (2004-10-04). "'Housewives' lifts ABC's spirits — and ratings". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
Jump up ^ ABC press release (November 30, 2004). "Candice Bergen Joins the Cast of ABC's 'Boston Legal'". The Futon Critic. Retrieved December 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Rice, Lynette. [1] "Legal Aid"]. "Entertainment Weekly" online, January 10, 2005.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Development Update: November 29–30 - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Development Update: November 15–18 - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - René Auberjonois Joins the Cast of ABC's 'Boston Legal'". TheFutonCritic.com. 2013-09-14. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - ABC's Medical Drama Series 'Grey's Anatomy' Premieres Sunday, March 27 at 10:00 P.M., Et". TheFutonCritic.com. 2013-09-14. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Building on a Slate of Returning Series That Produced the Largest Season-To-Season Adult 18-49 Audience Growth for Any Major Network in at Least 25 Years, ABC Announces the Addition of Five New Comedies, Six New Dramas and One New Alternative Series to Its 2005-06 Primetime Schedule - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Grey's Anatomy to Continue Airing Sundays at 10:00 P.M. on the ABC Television Network - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Development Update Special: Who's in and Who's Out - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Three New Cast Members Join ABC's "Boston Legal" - TheFutonCritic.com". thefutoncritic.com.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael. "Boston Legal Cleans House, Drops Four Actors!". TV Guide online, June 13, 2007.
Jump up ^ Ausiello Report Archived June 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. at TV Guide
Jump up ^ "Larroquette added to 'Boston Legal' bill". Reuters, June 14, 2007.
Jump up ^ "More cast changes at 'Boston Legal'". Reuters, July 2, 2007
Jump up ^ "Actress Burrows makes it 'Legal'". July 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Boston Legal". TVGuide.com.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Michael (May 11, 2008). "'Boston Legal' set for fifth season". Variety.
Jump up ^ "Zap2It". Zap2It.
Jump up ^ Martin, Ed (May 31, 2008). "Why Boston Legal is One of Broadcast's Best". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ Welcome to AccessAtlanta! | AccessAtlanta Archived June 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ BET.com – What The Flick » Working Girl
Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (December 7, 2008). "'Boston Legal's' Kelley delivers parting shots". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved December 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Alessandra (February 14, 2006). "THE TV WATCH; Beneath the Quirks, There's Always a Message for the Masses". New York Times.
Jump up ^ "ABC Renews BOSTON LEGAL, MEN IN TREES, BROTHERS, UGLY, HOUSEWIVES, GREY'S, LOST, 7 More For Next Season!!", Ain'tItCoolNews.com.
Jump up ^ "ABC Medianet". ABC Medianet. 2005-05-24. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "ABC Medianet". ABC Medianet. 2006-05-31. Archived from the original on 2014-10-11. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "ABC Medianet". ABC Medianet. 2007-06-05. Archived from the original on 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "ABC Medianet". ABC Medianet. 2008-05-28. Archived from the original on 2010-04-13. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ "ABC Medianet". ABC Medianet. 2009-05-19. Archived from the original on 2009-06-23. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
Jump up ^ 65th Annual Peabody Awards, May 2006.
Jump up ^ "Amazon.com: Boston Legal Season 1-5 Complete Collection: William Shatner, James Spader, Candice Bergen: Movies & TV". amazon.com.
Jump up ^ "Buy Boston Legal - The Complete Series (28 Disc Tin Set) on DVD-Video from EzyDVD.com.au". ezydvd.com.au. Archived from the original on 2009-10-05.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Boston Legal
Boston Legal on IMDb
Boston Legal at TV.com
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Second Continental Congress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Second Continental Congress
Thirteen Colonies
United States
Type
Type
Unicameral
History
Established
May 10, 1775
Disbanded
March 1, 1781
Preceded by
First Continental Congress
Succeeded by
1st Confederation Congress
Leadership
President of Congress
Peyton Randolph (first)
Samuel Huntington (last)
Secretary
Charles Thomson
Structure
Seats
Variable; ~60
Authority
President of the Continental Congress
Meeting place
mainly at Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
from December 1776 to July 1778 various locations,
see below
Footnotes
Though there were about 50 members of the Congress at a given time, it was the states that had votes, so there were effectively only 13 seats.
The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774. The Second Congress managed the Colonial war effort and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties such as the Olive Branch Petition.[1]
The Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, effectively reconvening the First Continental Congress. Many of the 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president (Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson).[2] Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24.[3]
Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second. On May 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself.[4] On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to the American Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Dates and places of sessions
3 See also
4 References
4.1 Bibliography
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is part of a series on the
United States
Continental Congress
Predecessors
Albany Congress 1754
Stamp Act Congress 1765
1st Continental Congress
Declaration and Resolves
Continental Association
Petition to the King
2nd Continental Congress
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The First Continental Congress had sent entreaties to King George III to stop the Coercive Acts; they had also created the Continental Association to establish a coordinated protest of those acts, putting a boycott on British goods. The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 to plan further responses if the British government had not repealed or modified the acts; however, the American Revolutionary War had already started by that time with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and the Congress was called upon to take charge of the war effort.
For the first few months of the war, the Patriots carried on their struggle in an ad-hoc and uncoordinated manner. They had seized arsenals, driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On June 14, 1775, the Congress voted to create the Continental Army out of the militia units around Boston and appointed George Washington of Virginia as commanding general.[6] On July 6, 1775 Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale and necessity for taking up arms in the Thirteen Colonies."[7] On July 8, they extended the Olive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation; however, it was received too late to do any good. Silas Deane was sent to France as a minister (ambassador) of the Congress, and American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts.
The Continental Congress had no explicit legal authority to govern,[8] but it assumed all the functions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money (called "Continentals"), and disbursing funds. The Congress had no authority to levy taxes and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to support the war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests.
Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such a drastic action. Advocates of independence moved to have reluctant colonial governments revise instructions to their delegations, or even replace those governments which would not authorize independence. On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was. On May 15, they adopted a more radical preamble to this resolution, drafted by John Adams, which advised throwing off oaths of allegiance and suppressing the authority of the Crown in any colonial government that still derived its authority from the Crown. That same day, the Virginia Convention instructed its delegation in Philadelphia to propose a resolution that called for a declaration of independence, the formation of foreign alliances, and a confederation of the states. The resolution of independence was delayed for several weeks, as advocates of independence consolidated support in their home governments.
The Assembly Room in Philadelphia's Independence Hall where the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence.
On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee offered a resolution before the Congress declaring the colonies independent. He also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states.[9] Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreign alliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britain's colonies. American leaders had rejected the divine right of kings in the New World, but recognized the necessity of proving their credibility in the Old World.[10] Congress formally adopted the resolution of independence, but only after creating three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states. These three things together constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for conducting vital domestic and foreign affairs.[9]
City Tavern in Philadelphia, the delegates' favorite place to eat and meet informally[11][12]
Congress finally approved the resolution of independence on July 2, 1776. They next turned their attention to a formal explanation of this decision, the United States Declaration of Independence which was approved on July 4 and published soon thereafter.
The Congress moved from Philadelphia to Baltimore in the winter of 1776 to avoid capture by British forces who were advancing on Philadelphia. Henry Fite's tavern was the largest building in Baltimore Town at the time and provided a comfortable location of sufficient size for Congress to meet. Its site at the western edge of town was beyond easy reach of the British Royal Navy's ships should they try to sail up the harbor and the Patapsco River to shell the town. Congress was again forced to flee Philadelphia at the end of September 1777, as British troops occupied the city; they moved to York, Pennsylvania and continued their work.
Congress passed the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, after more than a year of debate, and sent them to the states for ratification. Jefferson's proposal was rejected for a Senate to represent the states and a House to represent the people, but a similar proposal was adopted later in the United States Constitution. One issue of debate was large states wanting a larger say, nullified by small states who feared tyranny. The small states won and each state had one vote.[13] Congress urged the individual states to pass the Articles as quickly as possible, but it took three and a half years for all the states to ratify them. The State Legislature of Virginia was the first of the Thirteen States to ratify the Articles on December 16, 1777, and the State Legislature of Maryland was the last on February 2, 1781.
Dates and places of sessions[edit]
May 10, 1775 – December 12, 1776, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
December 20, 1776 – February 27, 1777, Henry Fite House, Baltimore, Maryland
March 5, 1777 – September 18, 1777, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia
September 27, 1777 (one day only), Court House, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
September 30, 1777 – June 27, 1778, Court House, York, Pennsylvania
July 2, 1778 – July 20, 1778, College Hall, Philadelphia
July 23, 1778 – March 1, 1781, Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia
See also[edit]
History of the United States (1776–89)
Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760–1789)
List of delegates to the Continental Congress
Presidents of the Continental Congress
References[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763–1815, p. 113
Jump up ^ Burnett, Continental Congress, pp. 64–67
Jump up ^ Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, p. 189
Jump up ^ Worthington C. Ford; et al., eds. (1904–1939). Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Washington, DC. pp. 2:44–48. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ ibid. pp. 2:192–93.
Jump up ^ Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763–1815, p. 59
Jump up ^ Find Documents: Results
Jump up ^ Bancroft, Ch. 34, p. 353 (online)
^ Jump up to: a b The Declaration of Independence in World Context, Organization of American Historians, Magazine of History, Volume18, Issue 3, pp. 61–66 (2004)
Jump up ^ Howard Jones, Crucible of power: a history of American foreign relations to 1913
Jump up ^ Staib, Walter. City Tavern Cookbook: 200 Years of Classic Recipes from America's First Gourmet Restaurant, pp. 5, 11–15, Running Press, Philadelphia, London, 1999. ISBN 0-7624-0529-5.
Jump up ^ Staib, Walter. City Tavern Baking & Dessert Cookbook: 200 Years of Authentic American Recipes from Martha Washington's Chocolate Mousse Cake to Thomas Jefferson's Sweet Potato Biscuits, pp. 8–10, 14–15, Running Press, Philadelphia, London, 2003. ISBN 0-7624-1554-1.
Jump up ^ Miller (1948) ch. 22
Bibliography[edit]
Burnett, Edward Cody (1941). The Continental Congress. New York: Norton.
Fowler, William M., Jr. (1980). The Baron of Beacon Hill: A Biography of John Hancock. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-27619-5.
Further reading[edit]
Adams, Willi Paul. The First American Constitutions: Republican Ideology and the Making of the State Constitutions in the Revolutionary Era. U. of North Carolina Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7425-2069-2
Francis D. Cogliano, Revolutionary America, 1763-1815: A Political History. London: 2000. ISBN 0-415-18057-0
Worthington C. Ford, et al. ed. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. (34 vol., 1904–1937) online edition
Henderson, H. James (2002) [1974]. Party Politics in the Continental Congress. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8191-6525-5.
Peter Force, ed. American Archives 9 vol 1837-1853, major compilation of documents 1774-1776. online edition
Kruman, Marc W. Between Authority and Liberty: State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America. U. of North Carolina Pr., 1997. ISBN 0-8078-4797-6
Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (1998)
Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 (1948) ISBN 0-313-20779-8
Montross, Lynn (1970) [1950]. The Reluctant Rebels; the Story of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-389-03973-X.
Rakove, Jack N. The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress. Knopf, 1979. ISBN 0-8018-2864-3
External links[edit]
Full text of Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789
Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774-1789
Interactive Flash Version of John Trumbull's "Declaration of Independence"
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values: Икенсе Континенталь конгресс – Bashkir

values: Другі Кантынентальны Кангрэс – Belarusian

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