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Quartering Acts
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Quartering Act is a name given to a minimum of two Acts of British Parliament in the local governments of the American colonies to provide the British soldiers with any needed accommodations and housing. It also required colonists to provide food for any British soldiers in the area. Each of the Quartering Acts was an amendment to the Mutiny Act and required annual renewal by Parliament.[1] They were originally intended as a response to issues that arose during the French and Indian War and soon became a source of tension between the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies and the government in London, England. These tensions would later fuel the fire that led to the American Revolution.
Contents
[hide]
1 Quartering Act of 1765
2 Quartering: in time of War
3 Modern relevance
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Quartering Act of 1765[edit]
Main article: Intolerable Acts
General Thomas Gage, commander-in-chief of forces in British North America, and other British officers who had fought in the French and Indian War, had found it hard to persuade colonial assemblies to pay for quartering and provisioning of troops on the march. Therefore, he asked Parliament to do something. Most colonies had supplied provisions during the war, but the issue was disputed in peacetime. The Province of New York was their headquarters, because the assembly had passed an Act to provide for the quartering of British regulars, but it expired on January 2, 1764,[2] The result was the Quartering Act of 1765, which went far beyond what Gage had requested. No standing army had been kept in the colonies before the French and Indian War, so the colonies asked why a standing army was needed after the French had been defeated in battle.
This first Quartering Act[3] was given Royal Assent on May 15, 1765,[4] and provided that Great Britain would house its soldiers in American barracks and public houses, as by the Mutiny Act of 1765, but if its soldiers outnumbered the housing available, would quarter them in "inns, livery stables, ale houses, victualing houses, and the houses of sellers of wine and houses of persons selling of rum, brandy, strong water, cider or metheglin", and if numbers required in "uninhabited houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings." Colonial authorities were required to pay the cost of housing and feeding these troops.
When 1,500 British troops arrived at New York City in 1766 the New York Provincial Assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act and did not supply billeting for the troops. The troops had to remain on their ships. With its great impact on the city, a skirmish occurred in which one colonist was wounded following the Assembly's refusal to provide quartering. For failure to comply with the Quartering Act, Parliament suspended the Province of New York's Governor and legislature in 1767 and 1769, but never carried it out, since the Assembly soon agreed to contribute money toward the quartering of troops;[5] the New York Assembly allocated funds for the quartering of British troops in 1771. The Quartering Act was circumvented in all colonies other than Pennsylvania.
This act expired on March 24, 1776.
The Quartering Act of 1774 was known as one of the Coercive Acts in Great Britain, and as part of the intolerable acts in the colonies. This act applied to all colonies and stated that the British troops could live and eat in colonial homes without the owners' permission.
Quartering: in time of War[edit]
During the French and Indian War Britain had forcibly seized quarters in private dwellings.[6] In the American Revolutionary War, the New York Provincial Congress barracked Continental Army troops in private homes.[7] The Americans strongly opposed the quartering of British troops in their homes because the British Parliament had created the Mutiny Act under which the British army was supposed to be prohibited against quartering troops in private homes of citizens against their will. Although Parliament passed these laws in 1723, 1754, and 1756 the British Army ignored them in the Colonies. Because of this violation of their rights the colonies believed that liberty itself would be destroyed. Along with the fear of a loss of liberty, the colonists felt that the British army should be subordinate to civil authority since Parliament already stated that the army couldn’t force quartering through the Mutiny Act.[8]
With the growing worries of illegal quartering by the British, the Pennsylvania Assembly met and denied any quartering bill that guaranteed citizens could deny soldiers to stay in private homes. When the Assembly finally passed the quartering bill, the passage stating how soldiers could or could not be quartered in homes was omitted and it only outlined how the soldiers were to be quartered in public houses. That winter’s harsh conditions led the British commander, Col. Henry Bouquet, to order the colonists to quarter his troops in other places than just private homes. Bouquet felt his troops couldn’t survive the winter without better living conditions. Bouquet wrote a letter to the governor of Pennsylvania telling him to issue a warrant to allow the quartering of his troops in private homes. The governor issued the warrant but left it blank instead of directly listing what Col. Bouquet could or could not do. The Pennsylvania Assembly was outraged when they learned what their governor had done. But instead of asking for a veto on the warrant they asked for a review on how many troops could be quartered in a single home at a time. But the only response they received was that the king’s troops must and will be quartered. In response to this the Assembly met on a Sunday for the first time. There they wrote a letter to the governor asking why their constitutional rights were being violated when The British Parliament laws favored the colonists.[9]
In response to what was happening to the colonists, Benjamin Franklin opened up an Assembly meeting suggesting that soldiers could be quartered in public houses in the suburbs. This meant instead of the troops be directly in the city they would be in houses on the outskirts of the city on farms where they could potentially have more space. Governor Denny attended this Pennsylvania meeting and bluntly answered that the commander in chief had requested quartering for the troops in Philadelphia and if anybody had a problem with this then they should talk to Lord Loudoun. The committeemen brought to light that they felt Denny was siding with the British military when instead as governor he should work to protect the rights of the colonists. The ongoing quarrel between State Assembly, governor, and Lord Loudoun wasn’t a dispute between legislature and executive powers; but a contest for political liberty. The colonists had the same rights through British Parliament laws but they were not granted to them and instead threatened by bayonets for personal gain.[9]
In Albany, New York the mayor had allocated $1,000 for the building of barracks for Loudoun’s troops, but the barracks had not been built by the time the troops arrived. The mayor told Loudoun that he knew his rights and refused to let the troops be quartered in Albany. When the mayor stayed adamant on his beliefs of not allowing the troops to be quartered, Loudoun had them forcefully apply themselves in private homes.[9]
In an early August committee meeting in Boston, Massachusetts, the governor was able to get the committee to pass a bill to grant money for the building of barracks. These barracks would accommodate up to one thousand troops. The barracks were built and all that had to be done was convince Loudoun to obey the procedures set by parliament. Everything went smoothly until two recruiting officers complained to governor Pawnall of Massachusetts that they were denied quarters in Boston. The response was that it was illegal to quarter in private homes in Boston and the committeemen suggested that they stay at the newly built barracks at Castle William. The timing of this new meeting with Lord Loudoun was extremely unfortunate. He was currently suffering losses in northern New York while trying to hold off the French and Indians. When he heard of what happened with the committeemen he argued that the current military crisis made it acceptable to quarter troops in private homes. A bill was then brought to the governor to sign that said troops could be quartered in homes but innkeepers had the right to complain to a judge if they felt too many soldiers were there. Loudon was enraged with this and threatened to force troops upon civilians again. By the end of December, the Massachusetts legislature was able to get Loudoun to agree to quarter his troops at Castle William, which meant through the long process the colonists, were able to uphold their legal rights.[10]
On May 3, 1765 the British Parliament met and finally passed a Quartering Act for the Americans. The act stated that troops could only be quartered in barracks and if there wasn’t enough space in barracks then they were to be quartered in public houses and inns. If still not enough space then the governor and council were to find vacant space, but at no time was it legal to quarter troops in private homes.[11]
Modern relevance[edit]
A section of the United States Declaration of Independence listing the colonies' grievances against the King explicitly notes:
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us.
The Third Amendment to the United States Constitution, expressly prohibited the military from peacetime quartering of troops without consent of the owner of the house. A product of their times, the relevance of the Acts and the Third Amendment has greatly declined since the era of the American Revolution, having been the subject of only one case in over 200 years,[citation needed] Engblom v. Carey in 1982.[citation needed]
The Quartering Act was one of the reasons for the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution[citation needed], which prohibits infringing on the right of the people to keep and bear arms. Standing armies were mistrusted, and the First Congress considered quartering of troops to have been one of the tools of oppression before and during the American revolution.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Dragonnade
The Mutiny Acts
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ William Winthrop, Military Law and Precedents, 19-20 (2d ed., Government Printing Office 1920); "Quartering Act."
Jump up ^ Kammen, pg. 355
Jump up ^ 5 Geo. III, c. 33.
Jump up ^ Gordon Wood, The American Revolution (New York: Random House, 2002).
Jump up ^ America During the Age of Revolution, 1766-1767, Library of Congress
Jump up ^ Anderson, p. 649
Jump up ^ Schecter, pg. 90
Jump up ^ Rogers, pg. 7
^ Jump up to: a b c Rogers, pg. 8
Jump up ^ Rogers, pg. 9
Jump up ^ Rogers, pg. 10
References[edit]
Ammerman, David (1999). "The Tea Crisis and its Consequences, through 1775". In Greene, Jack P.; Pole, J. R. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Kammen, Michael (1975). Colonial New York, A History. ISBN 0-684-14325-9.
Ketchum, Richard (2002). Divided Loyalties, How the American Revolution Came to New York. ISBN 0-8050-6120-7.
Rogers, J. Alan (February 1970). "Colonial Opposition to the Quartering of Troops During the French and Indian War". Military Affairs. 34 (1): 7–11. doi:10.2307/1984545.
Schecter, Barnet (2002). The Battle of New York. ISBN 0-8027-1374-2.
Cannon, John (2009). 'Intolerable Acts', The Oxford Companion to British History. ISBN 9780199567638.
Gerlach, Don (1966). "A Note on the Quartering Act of 1774". The New England Quarterly. The New England Quarterly Inc. 39 (1): 80–88. doi:10.2307/363643. JSTOR 363643.
External links[edit]
Text of the Act of 1765
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text:
House of Lords Act 1999
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
House of Lords Act 1999
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long title
An Act to restrict membership of the House of Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage; to make related provision about disqualifications for voting at elections to, and for membership of, the House of Commons; and for connected purposes.
Citation
1999 c. 34[1]
Introduced by
Margaret Beckett[2]
Territorial extent
England and Wales; Scotland; Northern Ireland
Dates
Royal assent
11 November 1999[3]
Commencement
11 November 1999[4]
Status: Current legislation
Text of statute as originally enacted
Revised text of statute as amended
The House of Lords Act 1999 (c. 34) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that was given Royal Assent on 11 November 1999.[3] The Act reformed the House of Lords, one of the chambers of Parliament. For centuries, the House of Lords had included several hundred members who inherited their seats; the Act removed such a right. However, as part of a compromise, the Act did permit ninety-two hereditary peers to remain in the House on an interim basis. Another ten were created life peers to enable them to remain in the House.[5]
The Act decreased the membership of the House from 1,330 in October 1999 to 669 in March 2000.[6] As another result of the Act, the majority of the Lords were now life peers, whose numbers had been gradually increasing since the Life Peerages Act 1958.[7] As of August 2017, there were 802 Peers, of whom 25 were senior Church of England bishops,[8] whose determination is governed by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Bill
3 Membership of the House of Lords
3.1 First election to the House of Lords
3.2 Subsequent by-elections
4 Labour proposals to remove remaining hereditary peers
5 Proposals in 2012 for elections to most seats in the Lords
6 2016
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
Prior to the 16th century, the Lords was the stronger of the two houses of Parliament.[10] A process of gradual developments combined with such moments of crisis as the English Civil Wars transferred the political control of England, first from the Crown to the House of Lords and then to the House of Commons.[11] The rising wealth of the Commons eventually allowed it to wage two civil wars, dethrone two kings, and gradually reduce the power of the Lords. Prior to the House of Lords Act 1999, the power of the Lords had been diminished by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 which stripped the Lords of the ability to block, or veto, adoption of most bills; at most it could delay bills for one year. Furthermore, the Commons has absolute power when it comes to money bills.[12]
Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1997–2007)
After eighteen years of Conservative rule, the Labour party led by Tony Blair won a landslide victory at the 1997 general election,[13] in the process inflicting the biggest defeat for the Conservatives since 1832.[14] The Labour Party had for years endorsed abolition of the unelected House of Lords in its election platforms,[15] though since 1992 this had changed to a policy of reforming the House instead.[16]
During the 20th century, Liberal and Labour governments proposed many bills that were opposed by the House of Lords, which had been dominated by Conservatives since the 1890s, leading to delay and, where proposed before elections, their dropping from the legislative agenda.[7] In the first year of the Blair government, the Lords passed back Government bills 38 times.[17] The rejection considered the most contentious was of the European Elections Bill,[18] against which the Lords voted five times. Blair stated that the Conservatives were using the hereditary peers to "frustrate" and "overturn the will of the democratically elected House of Commons".[19] Here Blair found an opportunity to implement one of Labour's campaign promises, reforming the Lords.[20]
On 24 November 1998, in opening the second session of Parliament, the Queen delivered her annual Speech from the Throne; the Speech is written for her by the ruling party and outlines that party's legislative agenda for the forthcoming year. In it, she suggested that her Government (i.e. the ruling Labour Party) would pursue a reform of the House of Lords. These remarks were followed by shouts of "Hear! Hear!" from supportive Labour Members of Parliament, and by similar shouts of "Shame! Shame!" from Conservative peers; such outbursts were unprecedented, for the Queen's Speech is with few exceptions heard by a silent Parliament.[21]
Bill[edit]
The House of Lords Bill was expected to face a tough fight in the House of Lords. Several Lords threatened to disrupt the Government's other bills if they continued with the plan to abolish the hereditaries' right to sit in the House of Lords. The Earl of Onslow, for instance, said, "I'm happy to force a division on each and every clause of the Scotland Bill. Each division takes 20 minutes and there are more than 270 clauses."[22] Lords had plenty of other means by which they could obstruct the Government's programme.
Lord Randall put forward the idea of phasing out the hereditary peers by disqualifying their heirs.[23]
Baroness Jay reminded the House that under the Salisbury Convention they could not block the bill.[24]
William Hague, Leader of the Opposition (1997–2001)
In order to convince some peers to vote for reform, Tony Blair announced that he would compromise by allowing a number of hereditary peers to remain in the House of Lords on an interim basis. On 2 December 1998, the Conservative Leader of the Opposition, William Hague, rose in the House of Commons to attack Blair's plans. He suggested that Blair's changes indicated his lack of principles, claiming that Blair wanted to turn the House of Lords into a "House of Cronies". Hague further suggested that the Conservative Party would never agree to such constitutional reforms that were "based on no comprehensive plan or principle."[25] Hague's remarks backfired when Blair revealed that the Conservative Party in the House of Lords, rather than oppose his reforms, would definitely support them, and that he had done a secret deal with the Conservative leader in the House of Lords, Viscount Cranborne.[25] Hague immediately removed Cranborne from office,[26] but, in protest, several Conservative Lords who held front-bench positions resigned.[27]
Margaret Beckett, Leader of the House of Commons (1998–2001)
On 19 January 1999, the Leader of the House of Commons, Margaret Beckett, introduced the House of Lords Bill into the House of Commons.[2] The House of Commons passed the bill by a vote of 340 to 132 on 16 March.[28] The next day it was presented to the House of Lords, where debate on the bill was far longer. One significant amendment made to the Bill was the so-called Weatherill Amendment, named for the Lord Weatherill, the former Speaker of the House of Commons. The Weatherill Amendment put into place the deal agreed to by the Prime Minister and Viscount Cranborne, and allowed 92 hereditary peers to remain members of the House of Lords.[29]
Several controversies relating to the technicalities of the bill were brought up in the House of Lords. One issue regarded the language used in clauses 1 to 7, which was described by Lord Mayhew of Twysden as "uncertain in its effects and would leave the position of most hereditary Peers uncertain if the Bill was enacted."[30] A second issue was related to the Acts of Union 1707 uniting Scotland and England into the Kingdom of Great Britain.[31] After lengthy debates, both matters were referred to the House of Lords Committee on Privileges.
Under the Acts of Union 1707, Scottish Lords would be entitled to elect 16 representative peers to sit on their Lordships' behalf in the House of Lords. In 1963, the Peerage Act was passed, allowing all Scottish peers to sit in the House, not just 16 of them. It was felt that removing all Scottish representation would breach the Articles.[32] The Government, however, responded that the Articles did envisage a change in the election of representative peers. It was argued that some portions of the Treaty were entrenched, while others were not. For instance, Scotland and England were united "forever," the Scottish Court of Session was to "remain in all time coming within Scotland as it is now constituted,"[33] and the establishment of the Church of Scotland was "effectually and unalterably secured."[34] However, it was suggested, the election of Scottish representative peers was not entrenched, and therefore could be amended. Furthermore, the Government argued that Parliament was entirely sovereign and supreme, and could at its will change the Articles of Union. For example, the Treaty of Union joining Great Britain and Ireland required that the two nations be united "forever".[35] Nonetheless, in 1922, by an Act of Parliament, most of Ireland was made independent as the Irish Free State. Thus, even entrenched clauses were argued to be open to amendment by the authority of Parliament. The Committee agreed and reported to the House on 20 October 1999 that the Bill was indeed lawful in this regard.[36]
After the Committee's first and second reports were considered,[36][37] the Lords passed the bill 221 to 81 on 26 October 1999.[38] During the session, Earl of Burford, son of the Duke of St Albans, launched a protest at the constitutional implications of the bill from the Woolsack, and was ejected from the chamber.[39] Once the Lords settled the differences between their version of the bill and the Commons version thereof, the Bill received Royal Assent on 11 November 1999 and became an Act of parliament.[3] The Act then came into force the same day.[4]
Membership of the House of Lords[edit]
The House of Lords Act 1999 provides firstly that "No-one shall be a member of the House of Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage."[1] (The Act treats the Principality of Wales and the Earldom of Chester as hereditary peerages, though those titles, granted normally to the heir-apparent, are not technically hereditary.) The Act then provides that 92 peers, including the Earl Marshal, the Lord Great Chamberlain and 90 other peers elected in accordance with the Standing Orders of the House, would be excepted from the exclusion of hereditary peers, and that after the first session of the next Parliament, whenever one of these seats fell vacant, the Lords would have to proceed to a by-election. The Act also provided that a hereditary peer would be entitled to vote in elections for, and sit in, the House of Commons, unless he or she was a member of the House of Lords. Previously, hereditary peers had been constitutionally disqualified from being electors to, or members of, the House of Commons. The first hereditary peer to gain a seat in the Commons under this provision was John Thurso.[40]
Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, was made a life peer in 1999
The Act prevents even hereditary peers who are the first to hold their titles from sitting automatically in the House of Lords. The Government did agree, however, to give life peerages (the titles of which are indicated in parentheses) to four such new hereditary peers: Toby Low, 1st Baron Aldington (Baron Low), Frederick Erroll, 1st Baron Erroll of Hale (Baron Erroll of Kilmun), Francis Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford, 1st Baron Pakenham (Baron Pakenham of Cowley) and Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon (Baron Armstrong-Jones). Additionally, life peerages were created for former Leaders of the House of Lords: John Ganzoni, 2nd Baron Belstead (Baron Ganzoni), Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington (Baron Carington of Upton), Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne (Baron Gascoyne-Cecil), George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe (Baron Jellicoe of Southampton), Malcolm Shepherd, 2nd Baron Shepherd (Baron Shepherd of Spalding) and David Hennessy, 3rd Baron Windlesham (Baron Hennessy).[5]
Life peerages were also offered to members of the royal family with new hereditary peerages, but declined (as it would have meant they would hold seats in the House of Lords): Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; Prince Charles, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay; Prince Andrew, Duke of York; and Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex.[41] The Dukes of Gloucester and Kent had both inherited their titles from their fathers, the first dukes.
First election to the House of Lords[edit]
Before the granting of Royal Assent, the Lords had adopted a Standing Order making provision for the election of peers.[42] The Order provided that there be elected:
Two Labour peers
Three Liberal Democrat peers
Twenty-eight Crossbench peers
Forty-two Conservative peers
Fifteen peers, to serve as Deputy Speakers and in other offices, by the entire House of Lords
The elections for officers of the House were held on 27 and 28 October 1999, while those for peers elected by party were held on 3 and 4 November; the results were proclaimed to the House on 29 October and 5 November.[43][44] Voters were required to rank in order of preference, on a ballot prepared by the Clerk of the Parliaments, as many candidates as there were places to be filled. The candidates receiving the greatest number of votes (without regard to the ranking on the ballots, so in effect block voting) were declared elected. Only if there were ties would the ranking be examined. Thereafter, until November 2002, if a vacancy occurred, the next-highest vote-getter (the rankings being examined, again, only in the case of ties) in the original election would fill the seat. This procedure was used on two occasions.
Subsequent by-elections[edit]
Main article: By-elections to the House of Lords
Since November 2002, by-elections have been held to fill vacancies. Two by-elections were held in 2003, one in 2004, four in 2005, one in each of 2007, 2008 and 2009, two in 2010, four in 2011, two in 2013, four in 2014, six in 2015, two in 2016 and two in 2017. Voting is by preferential voting, with peers ranking the candidates in order of preference. As many or as few preferences as desired may be indicated. To win the election, a peer must receive a majority of first preference votes. If no candidate receives such a majority, the candidate with the fewest number of first preference votes is eliminated, with each of his votes being redistributed according to the second preference marked on the ballot (see Instant-runoff voting). The process is continued until one candidate receives a majority.[citation needed]
Labour proposals to remove remaining hereditary peers[edit]
The Labour Government expected eventually to present a bill for a second stage of House of Lords reform, thus removing the remaining 92 hereditary peers;[45] the history of such attempts between 1997 and 2009 is set out in a report in The Guardian.[46] Proposals called The House of Lords: Reform were published by order of the House on 1 January 2007, with a foreword by Jack Straw. In 2009, Labour introduced the Constitutional Reform and Governance Bill, which would have ended the by-elections to fill vacancies for hereditary peers, thereby removing them through attrition.[47] However, in order to ensure the passage of the bill through Parliament before the 2010 general election, this clause was dropped from the bill entirely, along with other clauses relating to the exclusion and suspension of peers from the House of Lords.
Proposals in 2012 for elections to most seats in the Lords[edit]
In August 2012, the coalition government of David Cameron and Nick Clegg dropped plans to reform the House of Lords by making it mostly elected and slashing its size.[48] Deputy Prime Minister and Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg spearheaded the push to bring in the changes.[48] The government wanted four-fifths of members of a reformed House of Lords to be elected. They would have served 15-year terms of office, after which they could not run for re-election. The number of peers was to be almost halved, from 826 to 450. The chamber would have kept the title of House of Lords, after names like Senate and Reformed House were rejected. Peers were each to represent a specific region of the United Kingdom, as constituted for the election of Members of the European Parliament. One-third of seats would have been filled by elections held every five years. Of the remaining 90 members, 12—rather than the current 26—would have been Church of England bishops. The remainder were to continue to be appointed, and all hereditary peers were to be removed.[48] The government had scheduled passage of its bill for the spring of 2013, and the elections were to have taken place in 2015, but the effort stalled when in July 2012, 91 Conservatives in the Commons rebelled against the government in a vote on how to timetable the House of Lords Reform Bill.[48][49]
2016[edit]
A bill proposed by Labour peers to abolish by-elections (and therefore phase out hereditary peers) was filibustered in 2016 by Conservative hereditary peer Lord Trefgarne.[50]
See also[edit]
Reform of the House of Lords
Roll of the Peerage
List of elected hereditary peers under the House of Lords Act 1999
By-elections to the House of Lords
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "House of Lords Act 1999 (original text)". 11 November 1999. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hansard, Vol 323 No 22 Col 714". 19 January 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Hansard, Vol 337 No 149 Col 1306". 11 November 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "House of Lords – Annual Report and Accounts 1999–2000". Retrieved 19 May 2008. the Bill received Royal Assent and came into immediate effect on 11 November, the last day of the 1998–99 session.
^ Jump up to: a b "Snowdon leads Lords converts". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 2 November 1999. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "House of Lords – Annual Report and Accounts 1999–2000". Retrieved 19 May 2008. This major change had the effect of reducing the total membership of the House from 1,330 in October 1999 – the highest figure ever recorded – to 669 in March 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Cracknell, Richard (15 June 2000). Lords Reform: The interim House – background statistics; Research Paper 00/61 (PDF). House of Commons Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2000. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Lords by party, type of peerage and gender". UK Houses of Parliament. Retrieved 2017-08-29.
Jump up ^ bbc.com: "What is the role of bishops in UK politics?", 25 Jan 2012
Jump up ^ "Parliament: The political institution". Archived from the original on 16 October 2006. Retrieved 23 May 2008. During the 15th century, King Henry V put the Commons on an equal footing with the Lords.
Jump up ^ "Parliament: The political institution". Archived from the original on 16 October 2006. Retrieved 23 May 2008. The Bill of Rights was agreed in 1689. This established Parliament's authority over the monarch
Jump up ^ "Parliament: The political institution". Archived from the original on 16 October 2006. Retrieved 23 May 2008. The Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949 increased the authority of the Commons over the Lords when passing new laws. The Acts removed the powers of the Lords to amend any Bills concerning money and reduced the amount of time they could delay a Bill.
Jump up ^ "1997: Labour landslide ends Tory rule". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 15 April 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "The 1997 General Election". History Learning Site. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2008. the [percentage] of Tory votes for all votes cast, was the lowest since 1832
Jump up ^ The New Hope for Britain; Labour Party Manifesto 1983. The Labour Party. 1983. Archived from the original on 25 May 1998. Retrieved 22 May 2008. Take action to abolish the undemocratic House of Lords as quickly as possible
Jump up ^ It's time to get Britain working again; Labour Party Manifesto 1992. The Labour Party. 1992. Archived from the original on 25 May 1998. Retrieved 22 May 2008. Further constitutional reforms will include those leading to the replacement of the House of Lords with a new elected Second Chamber
Jump up ^ "Vote 2001: House of Lords reform". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 27 March 2001. Retrieved 19 May 2008. In the first year of Tony Blair's government there were 38 defeats.
Jump up ^ "Euro bill forced through". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 3 December 1998. Retrieved 19 May 2008. This was the first constitutional measure to have been guillotined (broken down into pieces) and where a government needed to use the Parliament Act procedures.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 319 Col 931". 18 November 1998. Retrieved 21 May 2008.
Jump up ^ New labour: because Britain deserves better; Labour Party Manifesto 1997. The Labour Party. 1997. pp. 32–33. Archived from the original on 16 August 2000. Retrieved 22 May 2008. The House of Lords must be reformed. As an initial, self-contained reform, not dependent on further reform in the future, the right of hereditary Peers to sit and vote in the House of Lords will be ended by statute...
Jump up ^ "Queen's speech spells end for peers". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 24 November 1998. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ Sewell, Dennis (16 October 1998). "Matrix of Power; Lords Reform". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "UK Politics | Labour peer attacks 'degrading' Lords reform". BBC News. 1998-10-13. Retrieved 2014-08-11.
Jump up ^ "House of Lords Reform (Hansard, 14 October 1998)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 2014-08-11.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hansard, Vol 321 Col 875". 2 December 1998. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "'I require you to step down'". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 2 December 1998. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hague leadership in crisis". BBC News. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 3 December 1998. Retrieved 19 May 2008. Tory Lords are already in open revolt over his sacking of their leader Viscount Cranborne, with six of them resigning.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 327 No 55 Col 995". 16 March 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ White, Michael; Lucy Ward (12 May 1999). "Suspicious peers back reform". guardian.co.uk. London: Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 23 May 2008. peers reluctantly endorsed the compromise 'Weatherill amendment' which will reprieve 92 of its 750 hereditary members
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 604 No 127 Cols 1399–1422". 27 July 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 604 No 127 Cols 1422–1433". 27 July 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Second Report from the Committee for Privileges; Statement of Issues agreed between the Lord Gray and Her Majesty's Government". The Stationery Office. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2008. The primary issue that the question raises is whether the Bill (as so amended) would... breach Article XXII of the Acts of Union of 1706 and 1707.
Jump up ^ "Second Report from the Committee for Privileges; Extract of the Union with Scotland Act 1706 (Article XIX)". The Stationery Office. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Second Report from the Committee for Privileges; Extract of the Union with Scotland Act 1706 (Article XXV s2)". The Stationery Office. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Second Report from the Committee for Privileges; Case for Her Majesty's Government (point 68)". The Stationery Office. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 10 September 2005. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Second Report from the Committee for Privileges". The Stationery Office. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 19 November 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2008. it is the unanimous opinion of the Committee that the House of Lords Bill (as amended on Report) would not, if enacted, breach the provisions of the Treaty of Union between England and Scotland.
Jump up ^ "First Report from the Committee for Privileges". The Stationery Office. 18 October 1999. Archived from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 606 No 142 Col 290". 26 October 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Uk Politics One lord a-leaping". BBC Online. 26 October 1999. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "John Thurso MP Biography". Archived from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2008. He is the first and only hereditary peer to have been elected to the Commons having previously sat in the Lords.
Jump up ^ Watt, Nicholas (3 November 1999). "Dismay as Snowdon stays in Lords". guardian.co.uk. London: Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 23 May 2008. four "peers of the royal blood", whose titles were created in their lifetimes, would not take life peerages
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 604 No 126 Cols 1290–1292". 26 July 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 606 No 145 Col 510". 29 October 1999. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hansard, Vol 606 No 150 Cols 1135–1136". 5 November 1999. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "HC Hansard, Vol 321 Col 875". 2 December 1998. Retrieved 23 May 2008. Yes, we are certainly prepared to agree to a proposal that would allow us to remove the hereditary peers altogether, in two stages. We are perfectly prepared to agree that in the first stage one in 10 hereditaries stays, and in the second stage they go altogether.
Jump up ^ theguardian.com: "Labour's attempts to reform the House of Lords", dated 27 January 2009
Jump up ^ "Constitutional Reform and Governance Bill".
^ Jump up to: a b c d bbc.com: "Q&A: House of Lords reform", 6 Aug 2012
Jump up ^ bbc.com: "Lords reform: How the Commons war will be fought", 10 Jul 2012
Jump up ^ "Hereditary peers reform plan runs out of time". BBC News Online. BBC. 9 December 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
External links[edit]
Home Office document from the Constitutional Unit Annex B lists the hereditary peers who lost their seats.
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Do while loop
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Do While loop flow diagram
Loop constructs
Do while loop
While loop
For loop
Foreach loop
Infinite loop
Control flow
In most computer programming languages, a do while loop is a control flow statement that executes a block of code at least once, and then repeatedly executes the block, or not, depending on a given boolean condition at the end of the block.
The do while construct consists of a process symbol and a condition. First, the code within the block is executed, and then the condition is evaluated. If the condition is true the code within the block is executed again. This repeats until the condition becomes false. Because do while loops check the condition after the block is executed, the control structure is often also known as a post-test loop. Contrast with the while loop, which tests the condition before the code within the block is executed, the do-while loop is an exit-condition loop. This means that the code must always be executed first and then the expression or test condition is evaluated. If it is true, the code executes the body of the loop again. This process is repeated as long as the expression evaluates to true. If the expression is false, the loop terminates and control transfers to the statement following the do-while loop. In other words, whereas a while loop sets the truth of a statement as a condition precedent for the code's execution, a do-while loop provides for the action's ongoing execution subject to defeasance by the condition's falsity, which falsity (i.e., the truth of the condition's negation) is set as a condition subsequent.
It is possible, and in some cases desirable, for the condition to always evaluate to true, creating an infinite loop. When such a loop is created intentionally, there is usually another control structure (such as a break statement) that allows termination of the loop.
Some languages may use a different naming convention for this type of loop. For example, the Pascal language has a "repeat until" loop, which continues to run until the control expression is true (and then terminates) — whereas a "while" loop runs while the control expression is true (and terminates once the expression becomes false).
Contents
1 Equivalent constructs
2 Demonstrating do while loops
2.1 ActionScript 3
2.2 Ada
2.3 BASIC
2.4 C#
2.5 C
2.6 C++
2.7 CFScript
2.8 D
2.9 Fortran
2.10 Java
2.11 JavaScript
2.12 Kotlin
2.13 PL/I
2.14 Python
2.15 Racket
2.16 Ruby
2.17 Smalltalk
2.18 Swift
2.19 Visual Basic .NET
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Equivalent constructs[edit]
do { do_work(); } while (condition);
is equivalent to(==/===)
do_work(); while (condition) { do_work(); }
In this manner, the do ... while loop saves the initial "loop priming" with do_work(); on the line before the while loop.
As long as the continue statement is used, the above is technically equivalent to the following (though these examples are not typical or modern style used in everyday computers):
while (true) { do_work(); if (!condition) break; }
or
LOOPSTART: do_work(); if (condition) goto LOOPSTART;
Demonstrating do while loops[edit]
These example programs calculate the factorial of 5 using their respective languages' syntax for a do-while loop.
ActionScript 3[edit]
var counter:int = 5; var factorial:int = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; /* Multiply, then decrement. */ } while (counter > 0); trace(factorial);
Ada[edit]
The Wikibook Ada_Programming has a page on the topic of: Control
with Ada.Integer_Text_IO; procedure Factorial is Counter : Integer := 5; Factorial : Integer := 1; begin loop Factorial := Factorial * Counter; Counter := Counter - 1; exit when Counter = 0; end loop; Ada.Integer_Text_IO.Put (Factorial); end Factorial;
BASIC[edit]
Early BASICs (such as GW-BASIC) used the syntax WHILE/WEND. Modern BASICs such as PowerBASIC provide both WHILE/WEND and DO/LOOP structures, with syntax such as DO WHILE/LOOP, DO UNTIL/LOOP, DO/LOOP WHILE, DO/LOOP UNTIL, and DO/LOOP (without outer testing, but with a conditional EXIT LOOP somewhere inside the loop). Typical BASIC source code:
Dim factorial As Integer Dim counter As Integer factorial = 1 counter = 5 Do factorial = factorial * counter counter = counter - 1 Loop While counter > 0 Print factorial
C#[edit]
int counter = 5; int factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; /* Multiply, then decrement. */ } while (counter > 0); System.Console.WriteLine(factorial);
C[edit]
int counter = 5; int factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; /* Multiply, then decrement. */ } while (counter > 0); printf("factorial of 5 is %d\n", factorial);
C++[edit]
int counter = 5; int factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; } while (counter > 0); std::cout<<"factorial of 5 is "<<factorial<<std::endl;
CFScript[edit]
factorial = 1; count = 10; do { factorial *= count--; } while (count > 1); writeOutput(factorial);
D[edit]
int counter = 5; int factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; // Multiply, then decrement. } while (counter > 0); writeln("factorial of 5 is ", factorial);
Fortran[edit]
With legacy FORTRAN 77 there is no DO-WHILE construct but the same effect can be achieved with GOTO:
INTEGER CNT,FACT CNT=5 FACT=1 1 CONTINUE FACT=FACT*CNT CNT=CNT-1 IF (CNT.GT.0) GOTO 1 PRINT*,FACT END
With Fortran 90 and later, the do-while loop is actually the same as the for loop.[1]
program FactorialProg integer :: counter = 5 integer :: factorial = 1 factorial = factorial * counter counter = counter - 1 do while (counter > 0) factorial = factorial * counter counter = counter - 1 end do print *, factorial end program FactorialProg
Java[edit]
int counter = 5; int factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; /* Multiply, then decrement. */ } while (counter > 0); System.out.println("The factorial of 5 is " + factorial);
JavaScript[edit]
var counter = 5; var factorial = 1; do { factorial *= counter--; } while (counter > 0); console.log(factorial);
[2]
Kotlin[edit]
var counter = 5 var factorial = 1 do { factorial *= counter-- }while(counter > 0) println("Factorial of 5 is $factorial")
[3]
PL/I[edit]
The PL/I DO statement subsumes the functions of the post-test loop (do until), the pre-test loop (do while), and the for loop. All functions can be included in a single statement. The example shows only the "do until" syntax.
declare counter   fixed initial(5);
declare factorial fixed initial(1);
do until(counter<=0);
  factorial = factorial * counter;
  counter = counter - 1;
  end;
put(factorial);

Python[edit]
Python lacks a specific do while flow control construct. However, the equivalent may be constructed out of a while loop with a break.
counter = 5 factorial = 1 while True: factorial *= counter counter -= 1 if counter == 0: break print(factorial)
Racket[edit]
In Racket, as in other Scheme implementations, a "named-let" is a popular way to implement loops:
#lang racket (define counter 5) (define factorial 1) (let loop () (set! factorial (* factorial counter)) (set! counter (sub1 counter)) (when (> counter 0) (loop))) (displayln factorial)
Compare this with the first example of the while loop example for Racket. Be aware that a named let can also take arguments.
Racket and Scheme also provide a proper do loop.
(define (factorial n) (do ((counter n (- counter 1)) (result 1 (* result counter))) ((= counter 0) result) ; Stop condition and return value. ; The body of the do-loop is empty. ))
Ruby[edit]
counter = 10 factorial = 2 begin factorial *= counter counter -= 2 end while counter > 1 puts factorial
Smalltalk[edit]
| counter factorial | counter := 5. factorial := 1. [counter > 0] whileTrue: [factorial := factorial * counter. counter := counter - 1]. Transcript show: factorial printString
Swift[edit]
Swift 2.x:
var counter = 5 var factorial = 1 repeat { factorial *= counter counter -= 1 } while counter > 0 print(factorial)
Swift 1.x:
var counter = 5 var factorial = 1 do { factorial *= counter counter -= 1 } while counter > 0 println(factorial)
Visual Basic .NET[edit]
Dim counter As Integer = 5 Dim factorial As Integer = 1 Do factorial *= counter counter -= 1 Loop While counter > 0 Console.WriteLine(factorial)
See also[edit]
Control flow
For loop
Foreach
While loop
Repeat loop (disambiguation)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Microsoft visual basic". msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved 21 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Mozilla Developer Network Documentation - The Do While Loop in JavaScript".
Jump up ^ "Kotlin Control Flow - While - Kotlin Programming Language".
External links[edit]
do {...} while (0) in C macros
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Do_while_loop&oldid=853728607"
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