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Ray Donovan
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This article is about the TV series. For the former United States Secretary of Labor, see Raymond J. Donovan. For the fictional character, see A Guy Thing.
Ray Donovan
Genre
Crime drama
Family drama
Created by
Ann Biderman
Starring
Liev Schreiber
Paula Malcomson
Eddie Marsan
Dash Mihok
Steven Bauer
Katherine Moennig
Pooch Hall
Kerris Dorsey
Devon Bagby
Jon Voight
Composer(s)
Marcelo Zarvos
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
59 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Bryan Zuriff
Mark Gordon
Ann Biderman
Producer(s)
Allen Coulter
Location(s)
Los Angeles, California / New York City, New York
Running time
45–60 minutes
Production company(s)
The Mark Gordon Company
Ann Biderman Co.
Bider Sweet Productions
David Hollander Productions
Showtime Networks
Distributor
CBS Television Distribution
Release
Original network
Showtime
Original release
June 30, 2013 (2013-06-30) – present (present)
External links
Official website
www.sho.com/sho/ray-donovan/home
Ray Donovan is an American television crime drama series created by Ann Biderman for Showtime. The twelve-episode first season premiered on June 30, 2013.[1][2][3] The pilot episode broke viewership records, becoming the biggest premiere of all time on Showtime.[4] Showtime renewed the show for a fourth season, which premiered on June 26, 2016.[5] On August 11, 2016, Showtime renewed the show for a fifth season, which premiered on August 6, 2017.[6][7] On October 23, 2017, the series was renewed for a 12-episode sixth season, to be filmed in New York City and debut in 2018.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Premise
2 Episodes
3 Cast and characters
3.1 Main cast
3.2 Recurring cast
4 Reception
5 Awards and nominations
6 Home media release
7 References
8 External links
Premise[edit]
The drama is set in Los Angeles, California, where Irish-American Ray Donovan (Liev Schreiber), originally from South Boston, works for the powerful law firm Goldman & Drexler, representing the rich and famous. Donovan is a "fixer": a person who arranges bribes, payoffs, threats, and other shady activities, to ensure the outcome desired by the client. Good at his job, and no common hood, Ray is normally a devoted family man as well. He experiences his own problems when his menacing father, Mickey Donovan (Jon Voight), is unexpectedly released from prison, and the FBI attempts to bring down Ray and his associates.
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Ray Donovan episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 12 June 30, 2013 (2013-06-30) September 22, 2013 (2013-09-22)
2 12 July 13, 2014 (2014-07-13) September 28, 2014 (2014-09-28)
3 12 July 12, 2015 (2015-07-12) September 27, 2015 (2015-09-27)
4 12 June 26, 2016 (2016-06-26) September 18, 2016 (2016-09-18)
5 12 August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06) October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29)
Cast and characters[edit]
Main cast[edit]
Liev Schreiber as Raymond "Ray" Donovan.
Paula Malcomson as Abby Donovan, Ray's wife.
Eddie Marsan as Terrence "Terry" Donovan, Ray's older brother. A former boxer, suffers from Parkinson's disease.
Dash Mihok as Brendan "Bunchy" Donovan, Ray's younger brother. Identifies himself as an alcoholic and a sexual anorexic.
Pooch Hall as Daryll Donovan, Ray's younger half-brother (via Mickey and Claudette). A professional boxer, trained by Terry, he also drives limos.
Steven Bauer as Avi Rudin, Ray's right-hand man. Former IDF soldier and ex-Mossad agent.
Katherine Moennig as Lena Barnum, Ray's investigative assistant.
Kerris Dorsey as Bridget Donovan, Ray's daughter.
Devon Bagby as Conor Donovan, Ray's son.
Jon Voight as Mickey Donovan, Ray's father.
Recurring cast[edit]
Elliott Gould as Ezra Goldman, Ray's mentor and boss (seasons 1-3)
Peter Jacobson as Lee Drexler, Ezra's business partner
Denise Crosby as Deb Goldman
William Stanford Davis as Potato Pie
Ambyr Childers as Ashley Rucker
Josh Pais as Stu Feldman
Sheryl Lee Ralph as Claudette
Austin Nichols as Tommy Wheeler
Brooke Smith as Frances Simpson
Michael McGrady as Frank Barnes
Craig Ricci Shaynak as Kenneth "Tiny" Benson, Sully's nephew (seasons 1–2)
Octavius J. Johnson as Marvin Gaye Washington (seasons 1–2)
Frank Whaley as FBI Agent Van Miller (season 1)
Johnathon Schaech as Sean Walker (season 1)
James Woods as Patrick "Sully" Sullivan (season 1)
Rosanna Arquette as Linda (season 1)
Hank Azaria as Ed Cochran (season 2-4)
Sherilyn Fenn as Donna Cochran (season 2)
Ann-Margret as June Wilson (season 2)
Kip Pardue as FBI Agent Thomas Volcheck (season 2)
Wendell Pierce as Ronald Keith (seasons 2-3)
Crispin Alapag as Pablo Ramirez (season 2)
Vinessa Shaw as Kate McPherson (season 2)
Jeryl Prescott as Cherry (season 2)
Omar Dorsey as Cookie Brown (season 2)
Jamie Donnelly as Peggy Shaugnessy (season 2)
Eion Bailey as Steve Knight (season 2)
Brian Geraghty as Detective Jim Halloran (season 2)
Steph DuVall as Shorty (season 2)
Ian McShane as Andrew Finney (season 3)[9]
Katie Holmes as Paige Finney (season 3)[10]
Guy Burnet as Casey Finney (season 3)
Jason Butler Harner as Varick Strauss (season 3)
Leland Orser as Father Romero (season 3–4)
Michael Hyatt as Detective Sheila Muncie (season 3–4)
Christy Williams as Michelle (season 3)
Aaron Staton as Greg Donellen (season 3-4)
Alyssa Diaz as Teresa (season 3–5)
Fairuza Balk as Ginger (season 3)
Bronson Pinchot as Flip Brightman (season 3)
Embeth Davidtz as Sonia Kovitzky (season 4)
Richard Brake as Vlad (season 4)
Lisa Bonet as Marisol (season 4)
Ted Levine as Little Bill Primm (season 4)[11]
Gabriel Mann as Jacob Waller (Season 4)[12]
Paula Jai Parker as Sylvie Starr (season 4)
Susan Sarandon as Samantha Winslow (season 5)
C. Thomas Howell as Dr. Brogan (season 5)
Graham Rogers as Smitty (season 5)
Rhys Coiro as Rob Heard (season 5)
Lili Simmons as Natalie James (season 5)
Reception[edit]
Rotten Tomatoes ratings per season
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
Rating
76[13] 80[14] 77[15]
Ray Donovan has received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the first season a rating of 76% based on reviews from 38 critics, with the sites consensus stating: "Ray Donovan moves quickly between genres and tones, with Liev Schreiber and Jon Voight's performances making the whiplash worth it".[16] Metacritic gives the first season a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on reviews from 36 critics, indicating "generally positive reviews".[17]
Tim Goodman, writing for The Hollywood Reporter, said that "Showtime has another gem on their hands" and the casting of Liev Schreiber and Jon Voight was "gold".[18]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Association
Category
Recipients
Result
Ref.
2013 Critics' Choice Television Awards Most Exciting New Series Ray Donovan Won [19]
2014 Satellite Awards Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Jon Voight Nominated [20]
Critics' Choice Television Awards Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Nominated [21]
Golden Globe Awards Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama Liev Schreiber Nominated [22]
Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Jon Voight Won
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Nominated [23]
Writers Guild of America Awards Best New Series Ray Donovan Nominated [24]
2015 Golden Globe Awards Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama Liev Schreiber Nominated [22]
Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Jon Voight Nominated
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Liev Schreiber Nominated [23]
2016 Satellite Awards Best Actor – Television Series Drama Nominated [25]
Best Television Series – Drama Ray Donovan Nominated
Golden Globe Awards Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama Liev Schreiber Nominated [22]
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Nominated [23]
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Jon Voight Nominated
Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series David Hollander Nominated
Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour) Harrison Marsh, Robert Edmondson, R. Russell Smith Nominated
Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Hank Azaria Won
2017 Canadian Society of Cinematographers Awards TV Series Cinematography Robert McLachlan Nominated [26]
Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Liev Schreiber Nominated [23]
Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Hank Azaria Nominated
Home media release[edit]
The first season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 10, 2014.[27] The second season was released on both media on May 26, 2015. The third season was released on DVD on December 29, 2015. The fourth season was released on DVD on December 27, 2016
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Showtime(R) 2013 Original Series Premiere Slate". The Futon Critic. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Sara Bibel (June 11, 2012). "Showtime Orders Twelve Episodes of Two New Dramas, 'Ray Donovan' and 'Masters of Sex'". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. Retrieved July 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Littleton, Cynthia (June 11, 2012). "Showtime gives series orders to 'Donovan,' 'Sex'". Variety. Retrieved July 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Michael. "TV Ratings: 'Ray Donovan' Premiere Tops 'Homeland' With Showtime Record". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ Abrams, Natalie (August 11, 2015). "'Showtime renews Masters of Sex, Ray Donovan'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik (August 11, 2016). "'Ray Donovan' Renewed For Season 5 On Showtime". Deadline. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb (April 28, 2017). "Episodes' Final Season, Ray Donovan Get August Premiere Dates".
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (October 23, 2017). "Ray Donovan Renewed for Season 6 — But a 'Big' Change Is In Store". TVLine. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ian McShane Joins Showtime's 'Ray Donovan'". Deadline Hollywood. January 21, 2015. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth (January 27, 2015). "Katie Holmes Joins 'Ray Donovan' Season 3". Variety. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (February 10, 2016). "Ted Levine & Ismael Cruz Cordova Join 'Ray Donovan' In Recurring Roles". Retrieved September 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth (February 10, 2016). "'Revenge' Alum Gabriel Mann Joins Showtime's 'Ray Donovan' (EXCLUSIVE)". Retrieved September 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ray Donovan: Season 1 (2013)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ray Donovan: Season 2 (2014)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ray Donovan: Season 3 (2015)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ray Donovan: Season 1". rottentomatoes.com.
Jump up ^ "Ray Donovan". Metacritic.
Jump up ^ Tim Goodman. "Ray Donovan: TV Review". The Hollywood Reporter.
Jump up ^ The BTJA Announces Icon Award Recipient and Most Exciting New Series Honorees (June 10, 2013). criticschoice.com. Retrieved June 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "18th Satellite Awards Winners". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Critics' Choice TV Awards 2014: And the nominees are.." Retrieved 2 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Ray Donovan Golden Globes Wins". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Ray Donovan Emmy Awards". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "66th Writers Guild Awards Winners". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg. "Satellite Awards Nominees Unveiled". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "CSC Awards 2017". www.csc.ca. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (March 10, 2014). "Ray Donovan - 'The 1st Season' of the Showtime Series on DVD and Blu-ray". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved March 20, 2014.
External links[edit]
Official website
Ray Donovan on IMDb
Ray Donovan at TV.com
Ray Donovan at Metacritic
Ray Donovan at Rotten Tomatoes
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Howard Frankland Bridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
W. Howard Frankland Bridge
Eastbound traffic toward Tampa in 2005
Coordinates
27°55′41″N 82°35′15″W / 27.92793°N 82.58755°W / 27.92793; -82.58755Coordinates: 27°55′41″N 82°35′15″W / 27.92793°N 82.58755°W / 27.92793; -82.58755
Carries
I-275
Crosses
Old Tampa Bay
Locale
St. Petersburg to Tampa, Florida
Maintained by
Florida Department of Transportation
ID number
150107 (northbound) 150210 (southbound)
Characteristics
Total length
15,872 feet (4,838 m) (northbound)
15,900 feet (4,846 m) (southbound)
Width
58.4 feet (17.8 m) (northbound)
68.9 feet (21.0 m) (southbound)
Clearance below
43.0 feet (13.1 m) (northbound)
48.9 feet (14.9 m) (southbound)
History
Opened
1960 (northbound)
1990 (southbound)
Statistics
Daily traffic
135,000[1][2][3]
The W. Howard Frankland Bridge is the central bridge spanning Old Tampa Bay from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. It is one of three bridges connecting Hillsborough County and Pinellas County; the others being Gandy Bridge and Courtney Campbell Causeway. The bridge carries Interstate 275 and is by far the most traveled of the bay's bridges.[1][2][3]
The bridge is often incorrectly referred to as the Howard Franklin Bridge.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Bypass system
3 Reconstruction of the bridge approaches
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The original span looking west toward St. Petersburg
Named for the man who proposed it, Tampa businessman Howard Frankland, the bridge opened in April 1960 and carried four lanes (two lanes in each direction separated by a short, narrow barrier). The bridge and approaches cost $16 million.[4]
Because of the bridge's design, including its lack of emergency shoulders, it proved to be dangerous. Accidents were common on the bridge and traffic backed up on both sides, leading to local nicknames, the "Howard Frankenstein Bridge" and "The Car-Strangled Spanner".[5] In 1962, a steel-reinforced tapered concrete barrier was installed "to prevent cars from hurtling the median and crashing into oncoming traffic." Ten people had already died.[6] The bridge was the subject of a 60 Minutes broadcast in the 1960s noting the below-average construction methods used.[citation needed]
Planning for a larger-capacity replacement began in 1978. Original plans ranged from a large, multi-lane suspension (or similar type) bridge, to two parallel bridges (with the central span reserved for HOV lanes). As traffic projections increased, further exacerbated by a disaster on the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in 1980, it was clear that the new bridge would need to handle at least eight lanes (four in each direction). By 1987, it was concluded that a parallel, four lane span would be built. Plans were also made to rehabilitate the older bridge after the new bridge opened.
Construction began on the new span in 1988. The new $54 million southbound span was opened to traffic in 1990. The older bridge was then closed, rehabilitated, and reopened in 1992. The older northbound span is shorter and has a steeper hump than the newer southbound span.
Bypass system[edit]
Before the parallel bridge was built, I-275 utilized a bypass designation system. Whenever there would be a major delay at the Howard Frankland Bridge, special signs would alert drivers to the delay and direct them to utilize the bypass, which ran along SR 694 and across the Gandy Bridge, to the Lee Roy Selmon Expressway, Willow Avenue, Howard Avenue, and ending at Interstate 275. Special shields (marked N and S) along the route made sure that drivers were using the correct thoroughfare.
Reconstruction of the bridge approaches[edit]
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)
After the widening project in 1992, Interstate 275 was increased to eight lanes on the bridge itself. However, this did not increase capacity on either end of the bridge. Backups were still seen on the Howard Frankland heading into Tampa, primarily due to a bottleneck at the SR 60/Veterans Expressway exit. On the St. Petersburg side, after a comprehensive reconstruction project that took over ten years, lane counts were increased from four lanes prior to the bridge to six lanes through downtown St. Petersburg, and eight lanes from Gandy Boulevard to the bridge.
A reconstruction project was planned to begin in 2007 for I-275 between the Howard Frankland and downtown Tampa. However, due to rising cost of materials, FDOT planned to reconstruct the interstate in smaller phases rather than the original larger two-phase project. Once the reconstruction project is finished (about 2013), major traffic congestion on the Howard Frankland is expected to be significantly reduced.
See also[edit]
Bridges portal
Florida portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b 2006 Average Annual Daily Traffic Counts in Pinellas County (A.A.D.T.) (PDF) (Map). Pinellas County Metropolitan Planning Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-15. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
^ Jump up to: a b PTMS and TTMS Sites, 2006, Pinellas County (15) (PDF) (Map). Florida Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "2006 Annual Average Daily Traffic Report" (PDF). Florida Department of Transportation. pp. Site 0062. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
Jump up ^ Franklands to Play Key Role in Bridge Opening St. Petersburg Times, Jan 15, 1960
Jump up ^ The Francis Scott Key Bridge on the Baltimore Beltway is also derisively referred to as "The Car Strangled Spanner," from which those stopped in traffic can actually see Fort McHenry and the harbor where the national anthem was written by the bridge's namesake.
Jump up ^ Bayway Paving Job to Start in Two Weeks St. Petersburg Times, Jan 30, 1962
External links[edit]
Howard Frankland Bridge page at Interstate275Florida.com
I-275 plan hits $100M bump Article on the 2006 I-275 expansion setback St. Petersburg Times (June 28, 2006)
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Tuscany
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Tuscany (disambiguation).
Tuscany
Toscana
Region of Italy

Flag
Coat of arms
Country
Italy
Capital
Florence
Government
• President
Enrico Rossi (MDP)
Area
• Total
22,990.18 km2 (8,876.56 sq mi)
Population (2015)
• Total
3,749,430
• Density
160/km2 (420/sq mi)
Demonym(s)
English: Tuscan
Italian: toscano
Citizenship[1]
• Italian
90%
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
GDP/ Nominal
€106.1[2] billion (2008)
GDP per capita
€28,500[3] (2008)
NUTS Region
ITE
Website
www.regione.toscana.it
Tuscany (/ˈtʌskəni/ TUSK-ə-nee; Italian: Toscana, pronounced [toˈskaːna]) is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres (8,900 square miles) and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants (2013). The regional capital is Florence (Firenze).
Tuscany is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy and its influence on high culture. It is regarded as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance[4] and has been home to many figures influential in the history of art and science, and contains well-known museums such as the Uffizi and the Pitti Palace. Tuscany produces wines, including Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano and Brunello di Montalcino. Having a strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is sometimes considered "a nation within a nation".
Tuscany is traditionally a popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto.[5] The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited seaside destination in the region,[5] with seaside tourism accounting for approximately 40% of tourist arrivals in Tuscany. Additionally, Siena, Lucca, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val d'Orcia are also internationally renowned and particularly popular spots among travellers.
Seven Tuscan localities have been designated World Heritage Sites: the historic centre of Florence (1982); the Cathedral square of Pisa (1987); the historical centre of San Gimignano (1990); the historical centre of Siena (1995); the historical centre of Pienza (1996); the Val d'Orcia (2004), and the Medici Villas and Gardens (2013). Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves, making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations that attract millions of tourists every year.[6] In 2012, the city of Florence was the world's 89th most visited city, with over 1.834 million arrivals.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 History
2.1 Appennini and Villanovan cultures
2.2 Etruscans
2.3 Romans
2.4 Medieval period
2.5 Renaissance
2.6 Modern era
3 Culture
3.1 Art
3.2 Art schools
3.2.1 Main artistic centres
3.3 Language
3.4 Music
3.5 Literature
3.6 Cuisine
3.7 Postage stamps
4 Economy
4.1 Agriculture
4.2 Industry
4.3 Tourism
4.4 Fashion
5 Demographics
6 Government and politics
7 Administrative divisions
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 External links
Geography[edit]
Thornthwaite climate classification of Tuscany
A: Im > 100 B: 80 < Im < 100 B1-B2: 20 < Im < 80 C2: 0 < Im < 20 C1: −33,3 < Im < 0 D: Im < −33,3
Roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north, Marche to the northeast, Umbria to the east and Lazio to the southeast. The comune (municipality) of Badia Tedalda, in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo, has an exclave named Ca' Raffaello within Marche.
Tuscany has a western coastline on the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea, among which is the Tuscan Archipelago, of which the largest island is Elba. Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres (8,878 sq mi). Surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains, and with few (but fertile) plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture. Hills make up nearly two-thirds (66.5%) of the region's total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres (5,904 sq mi), and mountains (of which the highest are the Apennines), a further 25%, or 5,770 square kilometres (2,230 sq mi). Plains occupy 8.4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres (750 sq mi)—mostly around the valley of the River Arno. Many of Tuscany's largest cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including the capital Florence, Empoli and Pisa.
The climate is fairly mild in the coastal areas, and is harsher and rainy in the interior, with considerable fluctuations in temperature between winter and summer,[8] giving the region a soil-building active freeze-thaw cycle, in part accounting for the region's once having served as a key breadbasket of ancient Rome.[9]
Sunflower field in Maremma
Tuscan landscape near Siena
Hilly landscape in Val d'Orcia
Vineyard in Tuscany
Valley in Tuscany
History[edit]
Main article: History of Tuscany
Appennini and Villanovan cultures[edit]
Main articles: Apennine culture and Villanovan culture
Cinerary urns of the Villanovan culture
The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks.[10] The Tuscan area was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture in the late second millennium BC (roughly 1350–1150 BC) who had trading relationships with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations in the Aegean Sea.[10] Following this, the Villanovan culture (1100–700 BC) saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms.[10] City-states developed in the late Villanovan (paralleling Greece and the Aegean) before "Orientalization" occurred and the Etruscan civilization rose.[10]
Etruscans[edit]
Main article: Etruscan civilization
The Chimera of Arezzo, Etruscan bronze, 400 BC
The Etruscans (Latin: Tusci) created the first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art.[11] The Etruscans lived in Etruria well into prehistory.[10] The civilization grew to fill the area between the Arno River and Tiber River from the 8th century BC, reaching its peak during the 7th and 6th centuries BC, finally succumbing to the Romans by the 1st century.[12] Throughout their existence, they lost territory (in Campania) to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Celts.[11] Despite being seen as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks,[13] the cultures of Greece, and later Rome, influenced the civilization to a great extent. One reason for its eventual demise[12] was this increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans.[11]
Romans[edit]
Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace.[11] These developments included extensions of existing roads, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, and the construction of many buildings, both public and private. However, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather.[11] The Roman civilization in the West collapsed in the 5th century AD, and the region fell briefly to Goths, then was re-conquered by the Byzantine Empire. In the years following 572, the Longobards (Lombards) arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia.[11]
Medieval period[edit]
Battle of Montaperti, 1260
See also: March of Tuscany
Pilgrims travelling along the Via Francigena between Rome and France brought wealth and development during the medieval period.[11] The food and shelter required by these travellers fuelled the growth of communities around churches and taverns.[11] The conflict between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, factions supporting the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, split the Tuscan people.[11] The two factions gave rise to several powerful and rich medieval communes in Tuscany: Arezzo, Florence, Lucca, Pisa, and Siena.[11] Balance between these communes was ensured by the assets they held: Pisa, a port; Siena, banking; and Lucca, banking and silk.[14] But by the time of the Renaissance, Florence had become the cultural capital of Tuscany.[14]
One family that benefitted from Florence's growing wealth and power was the ruling Medici family. Its scion Lorenzo de' Medici was one of the most famous of the Medici. The legacy of his influence is visible today in the prodigious expression of art and architecture in Florence. His famous descendant Catherine de' Medici married Prince Henry (later King Henry II) of France in 1533.
The Black Death epidemic hit Tuscany starting in 1348.[15] It eventually killed 70% of the Tuscan population.[16][17] According to Melissa Snell, "Florence lost a third of its population in the first six months of the plague, and from 45% to 75% of its population in the first year."[18] In 1630, Florence and Tuscany were once again ravaged by the plague.[19]
Guido of Arezzo
A page from Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (1202)
Battle of Giglio (1241)
Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy
Renaissance[edit]
Further information: The Renaissance and Italian Renaissance
Primavera (1482) by Botticelli
Hanging and burning of Girolamo Savonarola in Piazza della Signoria in Florence 1498 - Painting depicting Renaissance Florence
Tuscany, especially Florence, is regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance. Though "Tuscany" remained a linguistic, cultural and geographic conception, rather than a political reality, in the 15th century, Florence extended its dominion in Tuscany through the annexation of Arezzo in 1384, the purchase of Pisa in 1405 and the suppression of a local resistance there (1406). Livorno was bought in 1421 and became the harbour of Florence.
From the leading city of Florence, the republic was from 1434 onward dominated by the increasingly monarchical Medici family. Initially, under Cosimo, Piero the Gouty, Lorenzo and Piero the Unfortunate, the forms of the republic were retained and the Medici ruled without a title, usually without even a formal office. These rulers presided over the Florentine Renaissance. There was a return to the republic from 1494 to 1512, when first Girolamo Savonarola then Piero Soderini oversaw the state. Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici retook the city with Spanish forces in 1512, before going to Rome to become Pope Leo X. Florence was dominated by a series of papal proxies until 1527 when the citizens declared the republic again, only to have it taken from them again in 1530 after a siege by an Imperial and Spanish army. At this point Pope Clement VII and Charles V appointed Alessandro de' Medici as the first formal hereditary ruler.
The Sienese commune was not incorporated into Tuscany until 1555, and during the 15th century Siena enjoyed a cultural 'Sienese Renaissance' with its own more conservative character. Lucca remained an independent republic until 1847 when it became part of Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the will of its people. Piombino and other strategic towns constituted the tiny State of the Presidi under Spanish control.
Leonardo da Vinci
Lorenzo de Medici
Niccolò Machiavelli, author of The Prince
Amerigo Vespucci
Modern era[edit]
See also: Grand Duchy of Tuscany
Map of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
In the 16th century, the Medicis, rulers of Florence, annexed the Republic of Siena, creating the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The Medici family became extinct in 1737 with the death of Gian Gastone, and Tuscany was transferred to Francis, Duke of Lorraine and husband of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, who let rule the country by his son. The dynasty of the Lorena ruled Tuscany until 1860, with the exception of the Napoleonic period, when most of the country was annexed to the French Empire. After the Second Italian War of Independence, a revolution evicted the last Grand Duke, and after a plebiscite Tuscany became part of the new Kingdom of Italy. From 1864 to 1870 Florence became the second capital of the kingdom.
Under Benito Mussolini, the area came under the dominance of local Fascist leaders such as Dino Perrone Compagni (from Florence), and Costanzo and Galeazzo Ciano (from Leghorn). Following the fall of Mussolini and the armistice of 8 September 1943, Tuscany became part of the Nazi-controlled Italian Social Republic, and was conquered almost totally by the Anglo-American forces during summer 1944. Following the end of the Social Republic, and the transition from the Kingdom to the modern Italian Republic, Tuscany once more flourished as a cultural centre of Italy. After the establishment of regional autonomy in 1975, Tuscany has always been ruled by centre-left governments.
Cosimo I de' Medici, first Grand Duke of Tuscany
Galileo Galilei
Pinocchio, created by Carlo Collodi (1883)
An Italian partisan in Florence (August 1944)
Culture[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2009)
Tuscany has an immense cultural and artistic heritage, expressed in the region's churches, palaces, art galleries, museums, villages and piazzas. Many of these artifacts are found in the main cities, such as Florence and Siena, but also in smaller villages scattered around the region, such as San Gimignano.
Art[edit]
Michelangelo's David
Tuscany has a unique artistic legacy, and Florence is one of the world's most important water-colour centres, even so that it is often nicknamed the "art palace of Italy" (the city is also believed to have the largest concentration of Renaissance art and architecture in the world).[20] Painters such as Cimabue and Giotto, the fathers of Italian painting, lived in Florence and Tuscany, as well as Arnolfo and Andrea Pisano, renewers of architecture and sculpture; Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masaccio, forefathers of the Renaissance; Ghiberti and the Della Robbias, Filippo Lippi and Angelico; Botticelli, Paolo Uccello, and the universal genius of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.[21][22]
The region contains numerous museums and art galleries, many housing some of the world's most precious works of art. Such museums include the Uffizi, which keeps Botticelli's The Birth of Venus, the Pitti Palace, and the Bargello, to name a few. Most of the frescos, sculptures and paintings in Tuscany are held in the region's abundant churches and cathedrals, such as Florence Cathedral, Siena Cathedral, Pisa Cathedral and the Collegiata di San Gimignano.
Art schools[edit]
A painting from the Sienese school by Pietro Lorenzetti
Main articles: Florentine school, Sienese school, and Lucchese School
In the medieval period and in the Renaissance, there were four main Tuscan art schools which competed against each other: the Florentine School, the Sienese School, the Pisan School and the Lucchese School.
The Florentine School refers to artists in, from or influenced by the naturalistic style developed in the 14th century, largely through the efforts of Giotto di Bondone, and in the 15th century the leading school of the world. Some of the best known artists of the Florentine School are Brunelleschi, Donatello, Michelangelo, Fra Angelico, Botticelli, Lippi, Masolino, and Masaccio.
The Sienese School of painting flourished in Siena between the 13th and 15th centuries and for a time rivaled Florence, though it was more conservative, being inclined towards the decorative beauty and elegant grace of late Gothic art. Its most important representatives include Duccio, whose work shows Byzantine influence; his pupil Simone Martini; Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti; Domenico and Taddeo di Bartolo; and Sassetta and Matteo di Giovanni. Unlike the naturalistic Florentine art, there is a mystical streak in Sienese art,[citation needed] characterized by a common focus on miraculous events, distortions of time and place, and often dreamlike coloration, with less attention to proportions. In the 16th century the Mannerists Beccafumi and Il Sodoma worked there. While Baldassare Peruzzi was born and trained in Siena, his major works and style reflect his long career in Rome. The economic and political decline of Siena by the 16th century, and its eventual subjugation by Florence, largely checked the development of Sienese painting, although it also meant that many Sienese works in churches and public buildings were not discarded or destroyed by new paintings or rebuilding. Siena remains a remarkably well-preserved Italian late-Medieval town.
The Lucchese School, also known as the School of Lucca and as the Pisan-Lucchese School, was a school of painting and sculpture that flourished in the 11th and 12th centuries in the western and southern part of the region, with an important center in Volterra. The art is mostly anonymous. Although not as elegant or delicate as the Florentine School, Lucchese works are remarkable for their monumentality.
Main artistic centres[edit]
Arezzo
Florence
Pisa
Prato
Siena
Grosseto
San Gimignano
In the province of Arezzo:
Arezzo
Castiglion Fiorentino
Cortona
Lucignano
Poppi
Sansepolcro
In the province of Florence:
Florence
Fiesole
Certaldo
In the Province of Grosseto:
Grosseto
Massa Marittima
Orbetello
Pitigliano
Roselle
Sorano
Sovana
In the province of Livorno:
Campiglia Marittima
Livorno
Bibbona
Bolgheri
Piombino
Populonia
Suvereto
In the province of Lucca:
Barga
Castelnuovo di Garfagnana
Castiglione di Garfagnana
Lucca
Pietrasanta
Villa Basilica
In the province of Massa and Carrara:
Massa and Carrara
Pontremoli
Fivizzano
+ Fosdinovo
In the province of Pisa:
Pisa
San Miniato
Volterra
Vicopisano
In the province of Prato:
Carmignano
Poggio a Caiano
Prato
In the province of Pistoia:
Pescia
Pistoia
In the province of Siena:
Colle di Val d'Elsa
Pienza
Montepulciano
Montalcino
San Gimignano
Siena
Language[edit]
Main article: Tuscan dialect
Apart from standard Italian, the Tuscan dialect (dialetto toscano) is spoken in Tuscany. The Italian language is a "literary version" of Tuscan. It became the language of culture for all the people of Italy,[23] thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini. It would later become the official language of all the Italian states and of the Kingdom of Italy, when it was formed.[23]
Music[edit]
Giacomo Puccini
Main article: Music of Tuscany
See also: Music of Florence
Tuscany has a rich ancient and modern musical tradition, and has produced numerous composers and musicians, including Giacomo Puccini and Pietro Mascagni. Florence is the main musical centre of Tuscany. The city was at the heart of much of the Western musical tradition. It was there that the Florentine Camerata convened in the mid-16th century and experimented with setting tales of Greek mythology to music and staging, resulting in the first operas, fostering the further development of the operatic form, and the later developments of separate "classical" forms such as the symphony.
There are numerous musical centres in Tuscany. Arezzo is indelibly connected with the name of Guido d'Arezzo, the 11th-century monk who invented modern musical notation and the do-re-mi system of naming notes of the scale; Lucca hosted possibly the greatest Italian composer of Romanticism, Giacomo Puccini; and Siena is well known for the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, an organization that currently sponsors major musical activities such as the Siena Music Week and the Alfredo Casella International Composition Competition. Other important musical centres in Tuscany include Livorno, Pisa and Grosseto.
Literature[edit]
Tuscan poet and literary figure Petrarch
Several famous writers and poets are from Tuscany, most notably Florentine author Dante Alighieri. Tuscany's literary scene particularly thrived in the 13th century and the Renaissance.
In Tuscany, especially in the Middle Ages, popular love poetry existed. A school of imitators of the Sicilians was led by Dante da Maiano, but its literary originality took another line — that of humorous and satirical poetry. The democratic form of government created a style of poetry which stood strongly against the medieval mystic and chivalrous style. Devout invocation of God or of a lady came from the cloister and the castle; in the streets of the cities everything that had gone before was treated with ridicule or biting sarcasm. Folgóre da San Gimignano laughs when in his sonnets he tells a party of Sienese youths the occupations of every month in the year, or when he teaches a party of Florentine lads the pleasures of every day in the week. Cenne della Chitarra laughs when he parodies Folgore's sonnets. The sonnets of Rustico di Filippo are half-fun and half-satire, as is the work of Cecco Angiolieri of Siena, the oldest humorist we know, a far-off precursor of François Rabelais and Michel de Montaigne.
Another type of poetry also began in Tuscany. Guittone d'Arezzo made art abandon chivalry and Provençal forms for national motives and Latin forms. He attempted political poetry, and although his work is often obscure, he prepared the way for the Bolognese school. Bologna was the city of science, and philosophical poetry appeared there. Guido Guinizelli was the poet after the new fashion of the art. In his work the ideas of chivalry are changed and enlarged. Only those whose heart is pure can be blessed with true love, regardless of class. He refuted the traditional credo of courtly love, for which love is a subtle philosophy only a few chosen knights and princesses could grasp. Love is blind to blasons but not to a good heart when it finds one: when it succeeds it is the result of the spiritual, not physical affinity between two souls. Guinizzelli's democratic view can be better understood in the light of the greater equality and freedom enjoyed by the city-states of the center-north and the rise of a middle class eager to legitimise itself in the eyes of the old nobility, still regarded with respect and admiration but in fact dispossessed of its political power. Guinizelli's Canzoni make up the bible of Dolce Stil Novo, and one in particular, "Al cor gentil" ("To a Kind Heart") is considered the manifesto of the new movement which would bloom in Florence under Cavalcanti, Dante and their followers. His poetry has some of the faults of the school of d'Arezzo. Nevertheless, he marks a great development in the history of Italian art, especially because of his close connection with Dante's lyric poetry.
In the 13th century, there were several major allegorical poems. One of these is by Brunetto Latini, who was a close friend of Dante. His Tesoretto is a short poem, in seven-syllable verses, rhyming in couplets, in which the author professes to be lost in a wilderness and to meet with a lady, who represents Nature, from whom he receives much instruction. We see here the vision, the allegory, the instruction with a moral object, three elements which we shall find again in the Divine Comedy. Francesco da Barberino, a learned lawyer who was secretary to bishops, a judge, and a notary, wrote two little allegorical poems, the Documenti d'amore and Del reggimento e dei costumi delle donne. The poems today are generally studied not as literature, but for historical context. A fourth allegorical work was the Intelligenza, which is sometimes attributed to Compagni, but is probably only a translation of French poems.
In the 15th century, humanist and publisher Aldus Manutius published the Tuscan poets Petrarch and Dante Alighieri (Divine Comedy), creating the model for what became a standard for modern Italian.
Cuisine[edit]
An assortment of Tuscan foods (from Lucca): various wine and cheese, and different sorts of salamis and hams
Main article: Tuscan cuisine
See also: Tuscan wine
Simplicity is central to the Tuscan cuisine. Legumes, bread, cheese, vegetables, mushrooms and fresh fruit are used. Olive oil is made up of Moraiolo, Leccino and Frantoiano olives. White truffles from San Miniato appear in October and November. Beef of the highest quality comes from the Chiana Valley, specifically a breed known as Chianina used for Florentine steak. The indigenous Cinta Senese breed of pork is also produced.[24]
Wine is a famous and common produce of Tuscany. Chianti is arguably the most well-known internationally. So many British tourists come to the area where Chianti wine is produced that this specific area has been nicknamed "Chiantishire".
Postage stamps[edit]
4 crazie stamp from 1851
Main article: Postage stamps and postal history of Tuscany
Between 1851 and 1860, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, an independent Italian state until 1859 when it joined the United Provinces of Central Italy, produced two postage stamp issues which are among the most prized classic stamp issues of the world, and include the most valuable Italian stamp. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was an independent Italian state from 1569 to 1859, but was occupied by France from 1808 to 1814. The Duchy comprised most of the present area of Tuscany, and its capital was Florence. In December 1859, the Grand Duchy officially ceased to exist, being joined to the duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy, which was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later in March 1860. In 1862 it became part of Italy, and joined the Italian postal system.
Economy[edit]
Vineyards in the Chianti region
Agriculture[edit]
The subsoil in Tuscany is relatively rich in mineral resources, with iron ore, copper, mercury and lignite mines, the famous soffioni (fumarole) at Larderello, and the vast marble mines in Versilia. Although its share is falling all the time, agriculture still contributes to the region's economy. In the region's inland areas cereals, potatoes, olives and grapes are grown. The swamplands, which used to be marshy, now produce vegetables, rice, tobacco, beets and sunflowers.[8]
Industry[edit]
The industrial sector is dominated by mining, given the abundance of underground resources. Also of note are textiles, chemicals/pharmaceuticals, metalworking and steel, glass and ceramics, clothing and printing/publishing sectors. Smaller areas specialising in manufacturing and craft industries are found in the hinterland: the leather and footwear area in the south-west part of the province of Florence, the hot-house plant area in Pistoia, the ceramics and textile industries in the Prato area, scooters and motorcycles in Pontedera, and the processing of timber for the manufacture of wooden furniture in the Cascina area. The heavy industries (mining, steel and mechanical engineering) are concentrated along the coastal strip (Livorno and Pisa areas), where there are also important chemical industries. Also of note are the marble (Carrara area) and paper industries (Lucca area).[8]
Tourism[edit]
Maremma encapsulates the most visited seaside destinations in Tuscany. Above, the Tuscan littoral of Monte Argentario
Tuscany is a traditionally popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto.[5] Additionally, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val d'Orcia are also internationally renowned and particularly popular spots among travellers.
As far as seaside tourism is concerned, which represents 40% of tourist arrivals in the region, Castiglione della Pescaia's sea has been repeatedly nominated as Italy's best sea by the Italian non-governmental environmentalist organisation Legambiente.[25] Castiglione gained the first place in the most recent ranking too, published in 2015. The town is also the most visited seaside destination in Tuscany, and fourth most visited overall, with circa 1.3 million tourist arrivals recorded in 2015.[25] Other popular seaside destination are Grosseto (second most popular after Castiglione), Orbetello (third most popular), Monte Argentario, Viareggio, Elba and Giglio Island.
Many towns and cities in Tuscany have great natural and architectural beauty. There are many visitors throughout the year. As a result, the services and distribution activities, so important to the region's economy, are wide-ranging and well-organised.
Fashion[edit]
See also: Fashion in Florence and Fashion designers of Florence
The Via de' Tornabuoni in Florence, the city's top fashion and shopping street, contains some of the world's most luxurious clothing and jewelry houses, such as Cartier, Ferragamo, Gucci, Versace and Bulgari, to name a few.
The fashion and textile industry are the pillars of the Florentine economy. In the 15th century, Florentines were working with luxury textiles such as wool and silk. Today the greatest designers in Europe utilize the textile industry in Tuscany, and especially Florence.
Italy has one of the strongest textile industries in Europe, accounting for approximately one quarter of European production. Its turnover is over 25 billion euros. It is the third largest supplier of clothing after China and Japan. The Italian fashion industry generates 60% of its turnover abroad.[26]
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Year
Pop.
±%
1861
1,920,000 —
1871
2,124,000 +10.6%
1881
2,187,000 +3.0%
1901
2,503,000 +14.4%
1911
2,670,000 +6.7%
1921
2,810,000 +5.2%
1931
2,914,000 +3.7%
1936
2,978,000 +2.2%
1951
3,159,000 +6.1%
1961
3,286,000 +4.0%
1971
3,473,000 +5.7%
1981
3,581,000 +3.1%
1991
3,530,000 −1.4%
2001
3,498,000 −0.9%
2011
3,750,000 +7.2%
2017
3,742,437 −0.2%
Source: ISTAT 2011
The population density of Tuscany, with 161 inhabitants per square kilometre (420/sq mi) in 2008, is below the national average (198.8/km2 or 515/sq mi). This is due to the low population density of the provinces of Arezzo, Siena, and especially Grosseto (50/km2 or 130/sq mi). The highest density is found in the province of Prato (675/km2 or 1,750/sq mi), followed by the provinces of Pistoia, Livorno, Florence and Lucca, peaking in the cities of Florence (more than 3,500/km2 or 9,100/sq mi), Livorno, Prato, Viareggio, Forte dei Marmi and Montecatini Terme (all with a population density of more than 1,000/km2 or 2,600/sq mi). The territorial distribution of the population is closely linked to the socio-cultural and, more recently, economic and industrial development of Tuscany.[8]
Accordingly, the least densely populated areas are those where the main activity is agriculture, unlike the others where, despite the presence of a number of large industrial complexes, the main activities are connected with tourism and associated services, alongside many small firms in the leather, glass, paper and clothing sectors.[8]
Italians make up 93% of the total population. Starting from the 1980s, the region has attracted a large flux of immigrants, particularly from China. There is also a significant community of British and American residents. As of 2008[update], the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 275,149 foreign-born immigrants live in Tuscany, equal to 7% of the total regional population.
Government and politics[edit]
Main article: Politics of Tuscany
Tuscany is a stronghold of the center-left Democratic Party, forming with Emilia-Romagna, Umbria and Marche the so-called Italian political "Red Quadrilateral". Since 1970, Tuscany has been continuously governed by the Socialist-Communist or PD-led governments. At the February 2013 elections, Tuscany gave more than 40% of its votes to Pier Luigi Bersani, and only 20.7% to Silvio Berlusconi.[27] At the 2014 European elections, Tuscany gave 56.4% of its votes to Matteo Renzi's center-left Democratic Party.[28] Tuscany was one of only three regions to vote YES in the 2016 Italian constitutional referendum.
Administrative divisions[edit]
Tuscany is divided into nine provinces and one Metropolitan City:
Florence
Arezzo
Grosseto
Siena
Livorno
Pisa
Lucca
Pistoia
Prato
Massa and
Carrara
Province
Area (km²)
Population
Density (inh./km²)
Province of Arezzo 3,232 345,547 106.9
Metropolitan City of Florence 3,514 983,073 279.8
Province of Grosseto 4,504 225,142 50.0
Province of Livorno 1,218 340,387 279.4
Province of Lucca 1,773 389,495 219.7
Province of Massa and Carrara 1,157 203,449 175.8
Province of Pisa 2,448 409,251 167.2
Province of Pistoia 965 289,886 300.4
Province of Prato 365 246,307 674.8
Province of Siena 3,821 268,706 81.9
See also[edit]
Cities and towns in Tuscany
People from Tuscany
Line of succession to the Tuscan throne
Tuscan Archipelago
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". Retrieved 10 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
Jump up ^ "European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - Regional GDP per inhabitant in 2008 GDP per inhabitant ranged from 28% of the EU27 average in Severozapaden in Bulgaria to 343% in Inner London".
Jump up ^ Burke, P., The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries (1998)
^ Jump up to: a b c "La Maremma regina del turismo. Solo le città d'arte la superano. Castiglione presenze record". 8 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Florence receives an average of 10 million tourists a year, making the city one of the most visited in the world.
Jump up ^ Bremner, Caroline; Grant, Michelle (27 January 2014). "Top 100 City Destinations Ranking". Euromonitor International. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "TOSCANA - Geography and history". Retrieved 9 March 2011. Text finalised in March 2004 - Eurostat.
Jump up ^ Military Channel (Discovery Network) documentary series Rome: Power and Glory, episode "The Grasp of an Empire", copyright unknown, rebroadcast 11-12:00 hrs EDST, 2009-06-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Barker 2000, p. 5
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Jones 2005, p. 2
^ Jump up to: a b Barker 2000, p. 1
Jump up ^ Barker 2000, p. 4
^ Jump up to: a b Jones 2005, p. 3
Jump up ^ Kohn, George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. Infobase Publishing. p. 126. ISBN 0-8160-6935-2.
Jump up ^ Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004). The Black Death, 1346-1353: The Complete History. Boydell & Brewer. p. 303. ISBN 0-85115-943-5.
Jump up ^ "The Economic Impact of the Black Death". EH.Net.
Jump up ^ Snell, Melissa (2006). "The Great Mortality". About.com Education. Retrieved 2009-04-19.
Jump up ^ Cipolla, Carlo M. (1981). Fighting the Plague in Seventeenth Century Italy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Jump up ^ Miner, Jennifer (2008-09-02). "Florence Art Tours, Florence Museums, Florence Architecture". Travelguide.affordabletours.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Florentine Art and Architecture". Annenberg Learner. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Renaissance Artists http://library.thinkquest.org/2838/artgal.htm
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Language | Italy". Lifeinitaly.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
Jump up ^ Piras, 221-239.[clarification needed]
^ Jump up to: a b "Legambiente e Touring Club Italiano presentano: “Il Mare più bello”, la Guida Blu 2015 - Legambiente".
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 2 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "::: Ministero dell'Interno ::: Archivio Storico delle Elezioni".
Jump up ^ "::: Ministero dell'Interno ::: Archivio Storico delle Elezioni".
References[edit]
Barker, Graeme; Rasmussen, Tom (2000). The Etruscans. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22038-0.
Jones, Emma (2005). Adventure Guide Tuscany & Umbria. Edison, NJ: Hunter. ISBN 1-58843-399-4.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutTuscanyat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Geographic data related to Tuscany at OpenStreetMap
©Official Tourism Site of Tuscany
Official website of the Tuscany Region (in Italian)
Official website of the Opera della Primaziale Pisana
APUANEAT Typical Products & Resorts Tuscany guide
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VIAF: 128956370
LCCN: n81041919
GND: 4060485-8
BNF: cb119361811 (data)
NDL: 00651835
Coordinates: 43°46′17″N 11°15′15″E / 43.77139°N 11.25417°E / 43.77139; 11.25417
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