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Plug-in electric vehicle
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For the more general category of electric drive for all type of vehicles, see electric vehicle. For the specific electric drive cars and SUVs, see electric car and plug-in hybrid.
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As of January 2018[update], the Nissan Leaf (left) is the world's all-time top-selling highway-legal all-electric car (over 300,000), and the Chevrolet Volt (right) is the world's best-selling plug-in hybrid (134,500 as of December 2016[update]).[1][2]
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[3][4][5] In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs).
Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no local air pollution. They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode. Despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. The global market share of the light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved 0.86% of total new car sales in 2016, up from 0.62% in 2015 and 0.38% in 2014.[6] However, the stock of plug-in electric cars represented just 0.15% of the 1.4 billion motor vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2016.[7]
As of December 2016[update], plug-in electric vehicles are more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery packs. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and, in the case of all-electric vehicles, drivers' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars. Plug-in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks. Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all-electric range.
As of December 2016[update], there were over 60 models of highway capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world.[8] Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles achieved the 2 million unit milestone in December 2016.[7] The 3 million milestone was achieved in November 2017.[9] The global ratio between the stock of all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) was 61:39 at the end of 2016.[6] As of January 2018[update], the Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car in history, with global sales of over 300,000 units.[1] The Tesla Model S ranks second with more than 200,000 units sold worldwide as of November 2017[update].[10]
As of December 2017[update], China has the world's largest stock of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles with cumulative sales of more than 1,2 million plug-in electric passenger cars.[7][11] Among country markets, the United States ranks second with almost 765,000 plug-in electric cars sold through December 2017.[7][12][13] More than 943,000 light-duty plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe up until December 2017,[7][14] with sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment led by Norway with over 200,000 units registered.[15] China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric all-electric buses, and plug-in commercial and sanitation trucks, with a stock of new energy vehicles sold of more than 1,7 million units through December 2017.[16][17][18] As of December 2016[update], China was the world's largest plug-in electric bus market with a stock of almost 343,500 vehicles.[19]
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
1.1 Plug-in electric vehicle
1.2 Battery electric vehicles
1.3 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
1.4 Aftermarket conversions
1.5 New energy vehicles
2 Advantages
2.1 Lower operating and maintenance costs
2.2 Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
2.2.1 Carbon footprint during production
2.2.2 Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.
2.2.3 Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries
2.3 Less dependence on imported oil
2.4 Vehicle-to-grid
3 Disadvantages
3.1 Cost of batteries and cost of ownership
3.2 Availability of recharging infrastructure
3.2.1 Battery swapping
3.2.2 Other charging solutions
3.3 Potential overload of the electrical grid
3.4 Risks associated with noise reduction
3.5 Risks of battery fire
3.6 Rare-earth metals availability and supply security
3.7 Car dealers reluctance to sell
4 Government incentives
5 Production plug-in electric vehicles available
5.1 Sales and main markets
5.1.1 China
5.1.2 United States
5.1.3 Japan
5.1.4 Europe
5.1.4.1 Norway
5.1.4.2 France
5.1.4.3 United Kingdom
5.1.4.4 Germany
5.1.4.5 Netherlands
5.2 Top selling PEV models
5.2.1 All-electric cars and vans
5.2.2 Plug-in hybrids
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
9 Books
Terminology[edit]
Brammo Empulse electric motorcycle at a charging station.
Plug-in electric vehicle[edit]
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion.[3][4] Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV)[4] and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.[20]
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[3][4] Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.[3][4]
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range.[21][22] In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.[23] While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobiles or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters, motorcycles, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, light trucks or light commercial vehicles, buses, trucks or lorries, and military vehicles.[24]
Battery electric vehicles[edit]
Main article: Battery electric vehicle
U.S. Army GEM e2 neighborhood electric vehicle.
A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion.[4][25] BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.[4]
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all-electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER).[26][27]
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles[edit]
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source.[4][28] A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.[28][29][30]
Several Prius+ converted plug-in hybrids.
Aftermarket conversions[edit]
See also: Plug-in hybrid conversions and electric vehicle conversion
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.[31][32][33]
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.[31]
New energy vehicles[edit]
In China the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles.[34]
Advantages[edit]
Lower operating and maintenance costs[edit]
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.[35][36] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.[35]
The operating cost of the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid in the U.S. is estimated at US$0.03 per mile while operating in all-electric mode.[35][37]
In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per kWh,[38] the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon.[35] As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous.[35]
According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile. The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6 cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with 11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile. The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi (160 km), the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.[39]
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[35][36]
The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States. The analysis is based on a plug-in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3.4 miles per kW-hr (like the Mitsubishi i MiEV) and a gasoline-powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg‑imp) (like the 2012 Fiat 500). The EEI estimated that operating a plug-in would have had an equivalent cost of around US$1.50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and around US$1.00 a gallon since the late 1990s. In contrast, the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations, costing more than US$3.50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis, then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US$1.50 during 1999 and 2001, only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US$4.00 before the beginning of the 2007–2009 financial crisis, by early 2012 has fluctuated around US$3.50. The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric-gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon.[40][41]
Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions[edit]
See also: Air pollution and carbon emissions in electric cars and Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in hybrids
RechargeIT converted Toyota Prius plug-in hybrids at Google's Mountain View campus. The garage has recharging facilities powered by solar panels.
Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[36] In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[3][36] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles.[36][42] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[3]
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal.[36][43] However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.[36]
Carbon footprint during production[edit]
Ricardo
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider.[44] The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions
and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies[44]
Type of vehicle
(powertrain)
Estimated
emissions in production
(tonnes CO2e)
Estimated
lifecycle emissions
(tonnes CO2e)
Percentage of
emissions
during production
Standard gasoline vehicle 5.6 24 23%
Hybrid electric vehicle 6.5 21 31%
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle 6.7 19 35%
Battery electric vehicle 8.8 19 46%
Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150,000 km (93,000 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity.
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.[44]
Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study found that CO
2 emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%, offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime.[45]
Uniti
The Swedish automotive startup Uniti Sweden AB has been working on an electric city car entirely designed to be sustainable. The CEO Lewis Horne said “When people sell electric cars, the motivation is sustainability. So, why are they so heavy, and why are they the same cars? Where you just take out petrol and you put in the huge battery and you call it sustainable. But it’s not.”. The company has been designing a car that uses sustainable and recycled material such as bio-composite to reduce the footprint of the car during production.[46] In addition, the fully automated factory provided in partnership with Siemens will be able to work with the lights turned off during 22h per day to save energy.[47]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.[edit]
Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving. For the first time, the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[48][49]
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.[48]
In order to account for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kWh in California to 986 g CO2/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kWh.[48]
Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA
for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market[48]
Vehicle
Overall
fuel
economy
(mpg-e)
Utility
factor(2)
(share EV
miles)
Tailpipe CO2
(g/mi)
Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2
Low
(g/mi)
Avg
(g/mi)
High
(g/mi)
BMW i3 124 1 0 93 175 266
Chevrolet Spark EV 119 1 0 97 181 276
Honda Fit EV 118 1 0 99 185 281
Fiat 500e 116 1 0 101 189 288
Nissan Leaf 114 1 0 104 194 296
Mitsubishi i 112 1 0 104 195 296
Smart electric drive 107 1 0 109 204 311
Ford Focus Electric 105 1 0 111 208 316
Tesla Model S (60 kWh) 95 1 0 122 229 348
Tesla Model S (85 kWh) 89 1 0 131 246 374
BMW i3 REx(3) 88 0.83 40 134 207 288
Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED 84 1 0 138 259 394
Toyota RAV4 EV 76 1 0 153 287 436
BYD e6 63 1 0 187 350 532
Chevrolet Volt 62 0.66 81 180 249 326
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid 58 0.29 133 195 221 249
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid 57 0.33 130 196 225 257
Cadillac ELR 54 0.65 91 206 286 377
Ford C-Max Energi 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
Ford Fusion Energi 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
BMW i8 37 0.37 198 303 351 404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid 31 0.39 206 328 389 457
McLaren P1 17 0.43 463 617 650 687
Average MY 2014 gasoline car
24.2
0
367
400
400
400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven
using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[48][50][51]
Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg‑imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp).[52][53]
The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The UCS also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg‑US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg‑imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg‑US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg‑imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus.[53][54][55] The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg‑US (7.1 L/100 km).[52]
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.33 kWh per mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg‑US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg‑US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg‑US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg‑US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg‑imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.[56][57]
Change from 2009 to 2012 of the percentage of Americans that live in regions where powering an electric vehicle on the regional electricity grid produces lower global warming emissions than a gasoline car expressed in terms of combined cith/highway fuel economy rating. Source: Union of Concerned Scientists.[58]
In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg‑US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.[58][59]
National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[60][61] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The marginal analysis, applied to plug-in electric vehicles, found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand.[61]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries[edit]
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km for an electric car and 40 g CO2/km for a petrol car. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg‑US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg‑imp) petrol car.[62][63]
The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2/km, which is equivalent to a 220 mpg‑US (1.1 L/100 km; 260 mpg‑imp) petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.[62][63][64]
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car:
Country comparison of full life cycle assessment
of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars and
emissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car[62][64]
Country
PEV well-to-wheels
carbon dioxide equivalent
emissions per electric car
expressed in (CO2e/km)
Power
source
PEV well-to-wheels
emissions equivalent
in terms of mpg US
of petrol-powered car
Equivalent
petrol car
Sweden 81 Low carbon 159 mpg‑US (1.48 L/100 km) Hybrid
multiples
France 93 123 mpg‑US (1.91 L/100 km)
Canada 115 Fossil light 87 mpg‑US (2.7 L/100 km) Beyond
hybrid
Spain 146 61 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km)
Japan 175 Broad mix 48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km) New
hybrid
Germany 179 47 mpg‑US (5.0 L/100 km)
United Kingdom 189 44 mpg‑US (5.3 L/100 km)
United States 202 Fossil heavy 40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km) Efficient
petrol
Mexico 203 40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km)
China 258 Coal-based 30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km) Average
petrol
Australia 292 26 mpg‑US (9.0 L/100 km)
India 370 20 mpg‑US (12 L/100 km)
Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km
Source: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.[64]
Less dependence on imported oil[edit]
See also: Energy resilience, Energy security, and Mitigation of peak oil
Evolution of oil prices since 1987 (average Brent spot prices – adjusted for U.S. inflation).
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests.[36][65][66] In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.[67][68]
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.[36][65][66][69]
Vehicle-to-grid[edit]
Main article: Vehicle-to-grid
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.[70] A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S. this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.[71] In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[70][72][73]
Disadvantages[edit]
Tesla Model S electric car (left) and Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid (right) at the parking spots reserved for green cars at San Francisco International Airport.
Cost of batteries and cost of ownership[edit]
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
Cost of batteries
As of 2015[update], plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack was about US$1,700/kWh of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-40 about 8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40.[74][75] As of June 2012[update], and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S, the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-hour.[76] A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kWh in 2007 to US$500 per kWh in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kWh in 2015 and US$125 per kWh by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[77]
According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), battery prices fell 65% since 2010, and 35% just in 2015, reaching US$350 per kWh. The study concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US$120 per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.[78]
Cost of ownership
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is US$4,819 more expensive.[79] These findings assumed a battery cost of US$600 per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US$10,000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US$14,400. The study also assumed a gasoline price of US$3.75 per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year, an average price of electricity of US$0.12 per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay US$1,500 to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.[80]
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.[80]
Comparison of net lifetime savings
among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars
for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices)[80]
Description
Conventional
ICE
Hybrid electric
(HEV)
Plug-in hybrid
(PHEV)
Battery electric
(BEV)
Scenario: 2010 costs
(battery US$600 per kWh, gasoline US$3.75 per gallon, and electricity US$0.12 per kWh)
Purchase price US$21,390 US$22,930 US$30,235 US$33,565
Total net present cost US$32,861 US$33,059 US$38,239 US$37,680
Cost differential with conventional car - US$197 US$5,377 US$4,819
Scenario: Future Costs – Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices
(battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost US$34,152 US$32,680 US$34,601 US$30,674
Cost differential with conventional car - (US$1,472) US$449 (US$3,478)
Scenario: Future Costs – Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices
(battery US$150 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost US$34,152 US$32,080 US$32,549 US$26,971
Cost differential with conventional car - (US$2,072) (US$1,603) (US$7,181)
Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency
ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp)
HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg‑imp)
(battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost US$32,829 US$31,366 US$34,403 US$30,674
Cost differential with conventional car - (US$463) US$2,574 (US$1,155)
Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time. Does not take into account other differences in cost of ownership.
According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013, the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles. For comparison, the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution. The study took into account the manufacturer's suggested retail price, taxes, credits, destination charge, electric charging station, fuel cost, maintenance cost, and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf.[81]
Electric Power Research Institute comparison of
the Leaf versus average conventional and hybrid cars.
Vehicle
Operating mode
(powertrain)
Total ownership cost
US Average
California
Nissan Leaf SV All-electric $37,288 $35,596
Chevrolet Volt Plug-in hybrid $44,176 $40,800
Average Conventional Gasoline $44,949 $46,561
Average Hybrid Gasoline-electric hybrid $44,325 $45,416
Notes: Costs are based on a gasoline price of $3.64 per gallon, an electricity rate of $0.12/kWh, and a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 miles.
The average conventional car was constructed by averaging of Honda Civic EX, Chevrolet Cruze LTZ, Ford Focus Titanium, and Volkswagen Passat.
The average hybrid car was constructed from Ford Fusion Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE, and Toyota Prius trim IV.
Availability of recharging infrastructure[edit]
Converted Toyota Prius plug-in hybrids recharging at San Francisco City Hall charging station.
See also: Charging station and Range anxiety
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[82][83] Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.[83][84] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[85] However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.[84]
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars.[84] Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees.[84][86] Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website.[86] As of December 2013[update], Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.[87][88][89]
The importance to build the infrastructure necessary to support electric vehicles is illustrated by the decision of Car2Go in San Diego, California, that due to insufficient charging infrastructure decided to replace all of its all-electric car fleet with gasoline-powered cars starting on 1 May 2016. When the carsharing service started in 2011, Car2Go expected 1,000 charging stations to be deployed around the city, but only 400 were in place by early 2016. As a result, an average of 20% of the carsharing fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don’t have enough electricity in them to be driven. Also, many of the company’s 40,000 San Diego members say they often worry their Car2Go will run out of charge before they finish their trip.[90]
Battery swapping[edit]
See also: Battery swapping, Better Place (company), and Tesla supercharger
Better Place's battery switching station in Israel
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs.[91][92] Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii.[93] The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network.[94] The robotic battery-switching operation was completed in about five minutes.[95]
After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.[96][97]
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[98] In June 2013, Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations. At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.[99][100] The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. These will be followed by the Washington, DC to Boston corridor.[99]
Other charging solutions[edit]
Roof-mounted solar panels of the REVA NXR concept car.
Nissan Leaf SV roof-mounted solar panel.
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked.[101][102][103] Another proposed technology is REVive, by Reva. When the REVA NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. Reva has not provided details on how the system will work.[104][105] The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12-volt lead-acid accessory battery.[106] The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof/spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery.[107]
Potential overload of the electrical grid[edit]
The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.[84][108]
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin, Texas. The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground, and as of June 2013[update], the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone. This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's $7,500 rebate incentive, which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug-hybrid electric cars.[109]
Risks associated with noise reduction[edit]
Main article: Electric vehicle warning sounds
The 2011 Nissan Leaf had a switch to manually turn off its electric warning sound system.
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.[110][111] Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.[112][113][114] At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.[111]
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012, include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.[115][116][117][118][119] As of January 2014[update], most of the hybrids and plug-in electric and hybrids available in the United States, Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system.[120]
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010.[121] In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010.[122][123][124] A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in January, 2013. It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18.6 mph (30 km/h) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises.[125][126] The regulation is planned to come into force in 2018.[127] In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.[128][129]
Risks of battery fire[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents
Frontal crash test of a Volvo C30 DRIVe Electric to assess the safety of the battery pack.
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion.[130] To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range.[131][132] When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries. Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.[133][134][135][136] Also, during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner's first year of service, at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium-ion batteries, resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013.[137][138]
Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV. As of November 2013[update], four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all-electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars.
The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen.[139] The second reported incident occurred in the United States on October 1, 2013, when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack.[140][141] A second reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013, in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. On November 6, 2013, a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.[142]
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research is looking at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident.[143] Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.[144][145]
Rare-earth metals availability and supply security[edit]
Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare-earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[146][147] As of 2011[update], the Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 lb (9.1 kg) of the rare-earth element lanthanum,[148] and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium.[149] While only 0.25 oz (7 g) of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) are required in a smartphone and 1.1 oz (30 g) in a tablet computer, electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes, businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries. As of 2016[update] a hybrid electric passenger car might use 11 lb (5 kg) of LCE, while one of Tesla's high performance electric cars could use as much as 180 lb (80 kg).[150]
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[146][147][151][152]
Lithium
The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.[151][153]
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia.[147][154] In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[155][156]
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia,[147][151] and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium.[151][155] Other important reserves are located in Chile, China, and Brazil.[147][155] Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japanese and South Korean governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests.[151][157][158]
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries (about 10 kg of lithium per car)[159] could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey.[160] Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[161]
A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles. BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1% of the known reserves of lithium, nickel, manganese, and copper through 2030, and 4% of the world’s cobalt. After 2030, the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials, making packs lighter, smaller, and cheaper.[78]
Rare-earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare-earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare-earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the largest source of rare-earth metals and are 80% of China's production. In 2010 China accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare-earth elements.[148] Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.[152][162][163]
Prices of several rare-earth elements increased sharply by mid-2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare-earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam, and Kazakhstan.[162][163][164][165]
Evolution of global rare-earth oxides production by country (1950–2000)
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare-earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply.[163][166] A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare-earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies.[167][168] China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare-earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.[169]
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160).[170][171] The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare-earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare-earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals.[171][172] A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.[171][173]
In order to avoid its dependence on rare-earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare-earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare-earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare-earth materials. The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor.[149]
Car dealers reluctance to sell[edit]
With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.[174][175] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.[174] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.[175]
Car dealerships play a crucial role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown a dealership exhibiting first generation Chevrolet Volts.
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance.[174] According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.[174]
A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California’s major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.[175][176]
In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople’s knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “discouraged sale of EV,” with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.[177]
The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car’s benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.[175]
Government incentives[edit]
Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S.
See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in California
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.
As of 2010[update], 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of plug-in and hybrid vehicles.[23][178] Other countries offering subsidies and tax incentives include China, the United States, Japan, South Korea, India, some provinces in Canada, and Costa Rica.[179][180]
Production plug-in electric vehicles available[edit]
See also: List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles and electric car use by country
The General Motors EV1 was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed all-electric car of the modern era from a major automaker.
During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles. PSA Peugeot Citroën launched several electric "Électrique" versions of its models starting in 1991, notably the Citroën C15, C25 and Berlingo and Peugeot J5 and Partner panel vans and the Citroën AX and Saxo and Peugeot 106 superminis. The Saxo was the best-selling and most produced ever electric car at the time.[citation needed] Other models were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.[181] In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, as of 2011[update], most electric vehicles in the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) or electric quadricycles. Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.[182] As of October 2015[update], the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America, with global sales of more than 50,000 units since 1998.[183] Sales of low-speed electric vehicles experienced considerable growth in China between 2012 and 2016. As of December 2016[update], the Chinese stock of NEVs was estimated to be between 3 million and 4 million units, with most powered by lead-acid batteries.[19]
Two plug-in electric cars, a Honda Fit EV all-electric car (left) and a Ford C-Max Energi plug-in hybrid (right), charging from an on-street public charging station in San Francisco.
As of December 2016[update], there were over 60 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-utility vans available in the world.[8] As of August 2015[update], there were 45 different plug-in electric passenger car models offered in Europe, 20 available in North America, 19 in China, 14 in Japan, and 7 in Australia.[184] There are also available several commercial models of plug-in motorcycles, all-electric buses, and heavy-duty trucks.
Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2015,[185] the two million mark in December 2016,[7] and the three million milestone was achieved in November 2017.[9] The Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance is the world's leading electric vehicle manufacturer. The Alliance reached sales of 500,000 electric vehicles delivered globally in October 2017, including the models manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors, now part of the Alliance.[186]
The Tesla Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car for two years running, 2015 and 2016.[187][188]
BYD Auto is the world's second largest plug-in electric car manufacturer with more than 300,000 units delivered in China through December 2017.[7][189][190] Its Qin plug-in hybrid is the company's top selling model with over 89,000 units sold in China through December 2017, making it the all-time best-selling plug-in electric car in the country.[187][191] As of September 2017[update], Tesla ranked as the world's third largest plug-in electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of over 250,000 units in September 2017.[192][193][189] Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car for two years running, 2015 and 2016,[187][188] and Model S global sales passed the 200,000 unit mark in the fourth quarter of 2017.[10] As of early November 2016, BMW had sold 100,000 plug-in cars, accounting for global sales its BMW i cars and BMW iPerformance plug-in hybrid models.[194]
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with 61,722 units sold, mostly plug-in hybrids, followed by Tesla, with 50,580 units sold in 2015.[195][196][197] BYD was the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer for a second year running, with 101,183 units sold in 2016, one more time followed again by Tesla with 76,243 units delivered.[7][198] In 2017 BYD ranked for the third year in a row as the global top plug-in car manufacturer with 113,669 units delivered.[191][190] The Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance was the top selling automotive group with 119,995 units sold worldwide in 2017.[199]
Sales and main markets[edit]
Detroit Electric car charging in 1919. During the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at about 30,000 vehicles.[200]
The global stock of plug-in electric vehicles between 2005 and 2009 consisted exclusively of all-electric cars, totaling about 1,700 units in 2005, and almost 6,000 in 2009. The plug-in stock rose to about 12,500 units in 2010, of which, only 350 vehicles were plug-in hybrids.[201][202] By comparison, during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.[200] After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in late December 2010, the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers, plug-in car sales grew to about 50,000 units in 2011, jumped to 125,000 in 2012, and rose to almost 213,000 plug-in electric cars and utility vans in 2013. Sales totaled over 315,000 units in 2014, up 48% from 2013,[203] By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans reached the one million sales milestone.[185][204] Sales of plug-in electric vehicles achieved the one million milestone almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). While it took four years and 10 months to reach one-million PEV sales, it took more than around nine years and a few months for HEVs to reach its first million sales.[185][204] A 2016 analysis by the Consumer Federation of America (CFA) found that five years after its introduction, sales of plug-in electric cars in the American market outsold conventional hybrids during the same period.[205]
The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) was 60:40 between 2014 and the first half of 2016, mainly due to the large all-electric market in China. In the U.S. and Europe, the ratio approached a 50:50 split.[206] All-electric cars oversold plug-in hybrids in 2016, with pure electrics representing about 61% of the global stock,[6] up from 58.9% at the end of 2015.[201] The global ratio between battery BEVs and PHEVs was 66:34 in 2017.[207] Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles since 2010 achieved the one million unit milestone in September 2016.[208]
Annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in the world's top markets between 2011 and 2017.[19][203][209]
In five years, global sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have increased more than ten-fold, totaling more than 565,000 units in 2015. Plug-in sales in 2015 increased about 80% from 2014, driven mainly by China and Europe.[203] Both markets passed in 2105 the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015.[210][211] About 775,000 plug-in cars and vans were sold in 2016, and cumulative global sales totaled an estimated 2.032 million plug-in cars and utility vans by the end of 2016.[7] The global market share of the light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved a record 0.86% of total new car sales in 2016, up from 0.62% in 2015 and 0.38% in 2014.[6] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just 0.15% of the 1.4 billion motor vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2016, up from 0.1% in 2015.[7][78] Global light-duty plug-in vehicle sales passed the 3 million milestone in November 2017.[9] About 1.2 million plug-ins cars and vans were sold worldwide in 2017, with China accounting for about half of global sales in 2017.[11]
Top-selling light-duty plug-in electric vehicle global markets by country or region as of December 2016[update].[7]
As of December 2016[update], with cumulative sales of more than 645,000 plug-in electric passenger cars, China has the world's largest fleet of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, after having overtook during 2016 both the U.S. and Europe in terms of cumulative sales. This figure accounts for both, domestically produced new energy passenger cars and imports.[7][16][212] The fleet of Chinese plug-in cars represents 43.0% of the global stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles at the end of 2016.[209] Among country markets, the U.S. ranks second, with over 570,000 plug-in passenger cars sold through December 2016,[12] representing 28.1% of the global stock of plug-ins.[209] Japan has the world's third largest plug-in stock, with about 147,500 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles sold in the country between July 2009 and December 2016.[209] As of December 2016[update], about 637,500 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in Europe, representing 31.4% of the global stock, the second largest after China.[7][209] The region was the world's largest light-duty plug-in market until October 2016.[16]
As of December 2016[update], more than 951,000 new energy vehicles have been sold in China since 2011, making the country the world's leader when all plug-in automotive segments are considered, including passenger cars, electric buses, and commercial plug-in heavy-duty trucks.[16][17] The stock of new energy vehicles in China achieved the 500,000 unit milestone in March 2016.[213] As of December 2016[update], China had the world's largest electric bus stock with about 343,500 vehicles, up from 173,000 plug-in electric buses in 2015, both representing almost the entire global stock of plug-in buses.[19][201][214] The European market account for 1,273 plug-in electric buses and the U.S. for only 200.[19]
Top 10 countries or autonomous territories by plug-in electric passenger car market share
of total new car sales between 2013 and 2017
Rank
Country
or territory
Market
share (%)
2017
Rank
Country
or territory
Market
share (%)
2016[209][215]
Rank
Country
or territory
Market
share (%)
2015[210][216]
Rank
Country
or territory
Market
share (%)
2014[217]
Rank
Country
or territory
Market
share (%)
2013[218]
1 Norway 39.2%[219] 1 Norway 29.1 % 1 Norway 22.39 % 1 Norway 13.84 % 1 Norway 6.10 %
2 Iceland 14%[220] 2 Netherlands 6.4 % 2 Netherlands 9.74 % 2 Netherlands 3.87 % 2 Netherlands 5.55 %
3 Sweden 5.2%[221] 3 Hong Kong ~5 % 3 Hong Kong 4.84 % 3 Iceland[222] 2.71 % 3 Iceland 0.94 %
4 Netherlands 2.6%[223] 4 Iceland 4.6 % 4 Iceland[224] 2.93 % 4 Estonia[222] 1.57 % 4 Japan 0.91 %
5 Switzerland 2.6%[225] 5 Sweden 3.5 % 5 Sweden 2.62 % 5 Sweden[226] 1.53 % 5 France(2) 0.83 %
6 Belgium 2.6 %[227] 6 Switzerland 1.8 % 6 Denmark 2.29 % 6 Japan 1.06 % 6 Estonia 0.73 %
7 Finland 2.6 %[228] 7 Belgium 1.8 % 7 Switzerland 1.98 % 7 Denmark[229] 0.88 % 7 Sweden[226] 0.71 %
8 China 2.1%[11] 8 Austria 1.6 % 8 France 1.19 % 8 Switzerland[230] 0.75 % 8 US 0.60 %
9 Austria 2.1%[231] 9 France 1.4 % 9 UK 1.07 % 9 US 0.72 % 9 Switzerland 0.44 %
10 France 1.98%[232] 10 UK 1.37 % 10 Austria[233] 0.90 % 10 France(2) 0.70 % 10 Denmark 0.29 %
Selected regional markets
Plug-in electric passenger car market share between 2013 and 2017
California[234] 4.8% % California[234] 3.6 % California[234] 3.1 % California[234] 3.2 % California[234] 2.5 %
Europe[14] 2% Europe(1)[235] 1.3 % Europe(1)[236] 1.41 % Europe(1)[237] 0.66 % Europe(1)[238] 0.49 %
Notes: (1) European figures correspond to European Union member countries plus EFTA countries (Norway and Switzerland)
2) The French market share corresponds to combined sales all-electric passenger cars and utility vans only (plug-in hybrids not included).
China[edit]
Further information: New energy vehicles in China
Annual sales of domestically built new energy vehicles in China by year (2011-2017).[239][240][241][242][243][17][18]
Domestically built new energy vehicle sales in China totaled 1,728,447 units between 2011 and 2017. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks,[16][17][18] and only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies.[244] China is the world's largest electric bus market, and its electric bus stock grew nearly sixfold between 2014 and 2015,[201] reaching 343,500 units in 2016, doubling the 2015 stock.[19]
As of December 2016[update], China ranked as the world's largest plug-in electric bus market with a stock of 343,500 vehicles.[19] Shown a BYD K9 bus in Shenzhen.
As of December 2017[update], cumulative sales of domestically produced highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars totaled over 1,2 million units since 2005, of which, a total of 579,000 were sold in 2017, representing about half of global plug-in car sales in 2017.[201][11][18][245] Domestically produced cars account for about 96% of new energy car sales in China.[11][246] A particular feature of the Chinese passenger plug-in market is the dominance of small entry level vehicles.[247]
Since 2014 the BYD Qin ranked as the all-time top selling new energy passenger vehicle in China, with 89,393 units sold through 2017.[187][191]
In September 2016, the Chinese stock of plug-in passenger cars reached the same level of the American stock,[248] and by November 2016, China’s cumulative total plug-in passenger vehicles sales had surpassed those of Europe, allowing China to become the market with the world's largest stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with almost 600,000 plug-in passenger cars.[16][212] China also surpassed the U.S. and Europe in terms of annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, both in calendar years 2015 and current-year-to-date through November.[16][212]
The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 achieved the 500,000 unit milestone in March 2016, making the country the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses and plug-in trucks.[213] Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars achieved the 500,000 unit milestone in September 2016, excluding imports.[244] As of December 2017[update], the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid, with 89,393 units sold since its inception, continued to rank as the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in the country.[187][191] The BAIC EC-Series all-electric city car was Chinese the top selling plug-in car in 2017 with 78,079 units sold in China, making also the city car the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017. BYD Auto was again the top selling Chinese car manufacturer in 2017.[190][191][11][249]
United States[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States
See also: Plug-in electric vehicles in California
U.S. plug-in electric vehicle cumulative sales since 2008 passed the 500,000 unit milestone in August 2016.[250] Graph shows cumulative sales by month by type of powertrain from December 2010 up to December 2017.[251][252]
As of December 2017[update], cumulative sales totaled 764,666 highway legal plug-in electric cars in the U.S. since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008.[12][13] As of December 2016[update], the American stock represented 28.1% of the global light-duty plug-in stock, down from about 40% in 2014.[209][7] As of December 2016[update], the U.S. has the world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars, after having being overtook by Europe in 2015 and China during 2016.[16][212] California is the largest U.S. car market, and accounts for approximately 48% percent of cumulative plug-in sales in the American market from 2011 to June 2016, and also accounts for about 50% of nationwide all-electric car sales and 47% of total plug-in hybrid sales. The other nine states that follow California's Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) regulations have accounted for another 10% of cumulative plug-in car sales in the U.S. during the same period.[253] California's plug-in stock totaled almost 270,000 units at the end of 2016.[209]
Comparison of plug-in electric car market shares California vs United States (2011-2017)
Nationwide sales climbed from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013.[254] In 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,248 units, and fell to 114,248 in 2015.[255] A total of 157,181 plug-in cars were sold in 2016, up 37.6% from 2015,[256] and rose to 194,479 in 2017, up 23.7% from 2016.[13] The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% of new car sales in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales in 2014.[255][257][258] As plug-in car sales slowed down during 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales,[255] but increased to 0.90% in 2016.[256] The plug-in segment passed the 1% market share for the first time in 2017, with 1.13% of the country's total annual new car sales.[13] The highest-ever monthly market share for plug-in electric vehicles was achieved in December 2017 with 1.58% of new car sales. The previous record was achieved in September 2017.[13][259] Monthly sales of plug-in cars in the American market passed the 1% mark for the first time in September 2016 (1.12%).[260] December 2017 is also the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with 25,149 units delivered.[13][259]
Japan[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Japan
As of December 2016[update], the Nissan Leaf is the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in Japan, with almost 72,500 units sold since inception.[261]
As of December 2017[update], Japan had a stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles of about 207,200.[19][262] As of 2016[update], the Japanese stock consisted of 86,390 all-electric cars (57.1%) and 64,860 plug-in hybrids (42.9%).[19] Plug-in segment sales climbed from 1,080 units in 2009 to 12,630 in 2011, and reached 24,440 in 2012.[201] Global sales of pure electric cars in 2012 were led by Japan with a 28% market share of the segment sales. Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug-in hybrid sales in 2012,[263] and until 2016, the country ranked third.[7]
The plug-in segment sales remained flat in 2014 with 30,390 units sold, and a market share of 1.06% of total new car sales in the country (kei cars not included).[217] Sales totaled 24,660 units in 2015 and 24,851 units in 2016.[19] The rate of growth of the Japanese plug-in segment slowed down from 2013, with annual sales falling behind Europe, the U.S. and China during 2014 and 2015.[210][264] The segment market share fell from 0.68% in 2014 to 0.59% in 2016.[19] The decline in plug-in car sales reflects the Japanese government and the major domestic carmakers decision to adopt and promote hydrogen fuel cell vehicles instead of plug-in electric vehicles.[265][266] Sales recovered in 2017, with almost 56,000 plug-in cars sold, and the segment's market share reached 1.1%.[262] Since December 2010, Nissan has sold 72,494 Leafs through December 2016, making the Leaf the all-time best-selling plug-in car in the country.[261]
Europe[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Europe
For more details of European and other countries, see electric car use by country.
See also: Plug-in electric cars in Sweden
The Renault Zoe was the top selling plug-in electric car in Europe in 2016 and 2017.[267][268][14]
As of December 2017[update], about 943,600 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in Europe, making the region the world's second largest after China.[7][209][14] As of December 2017[update], European sales of plug-in cars and vans are led by Norway with over 200,000 units registered, followed by France with almost 158,000, and the UK with over 137,000 units.[7][15][232][269] Norway was the top selling plug-in country market in Europe in 2016 and 2017.[209][219] The other top selling European markets in terms of cumulative registrations are Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden.[209]
Cumulative sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Europe passed the 500,000 unit milestone in May 2016.[270] Norway passed the 100,000th registered plug-in unit milestone in April 2016,[271] France passed the same milestone in September 2016,[272] and the Netherlands in November 2016.[273] The UK achieved the 100,000 unit mark in March 2017.[209][274]
As of December 2015[update], France ranked as the largest European market for light-duty electric commercial vehicles or utility vans, accounting for nearly half of all vans sold in the European Union.[275] The French market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% of new vans registered in 2014, and 1.30% in 2015.[276] Denmark is the second largest European market, with over 2,600 plug-in electric vans sold in 2015, with an 8.5% market share of all vans sold in the country. Most of the van sold in the Danish market are plug-in hybrids, accounting for almost all of the plug-in hybrid van sales across the EU.[275] European sales of plug-in electric cars passed 200,000 units for the first time in 2016, and the plug-in segment achieved a market share of 1.3%.[235] Sales in 2017 exceeded 300,000 units with a market share of 2%.[14]
Norway[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway
Historical evolution of the Norwegian plug-in electric car segment market share of new car sales and monthly records through 2017 Source: Norwegian Road Federation (OFV)
As of December 2017[update], the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in Norway totaled more than 200,000 units,[15] making Norway the European country with the largest stock of plug-in cars and vans, and the fourth largest in the world.[7][209] As of 31 December 2017[update], and accounting for both new and used imports registrations, the Norwegian light-duty plug-in electric fleet consisted of 141,951 all-electric passenger cars and vans, and 67,171 plug-in hybrids.[277] The registered plug-in stock includes almost 2,700 all-electric vans and about 24,500 used imported electric cars from neighboring countries as of December 2017[update].[219][278][279][280] The government's target of 50,000 all-electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached in April 2015, more than two years earlier than expected, thanks to the successful policies implemented to promote electric vehicle adoption that include fiscal and non-monetary incentives.[281][282] The milestone of 100,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered was achieved in April 2016,[271][283] and 100,000 all-electric vehicles in December 2016, representing about 10% of all pure electric cars that have been sold worldwide.[284][285]
The Norwegian fleet of plug-in electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because 98% of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower.[286][287] Norway, with about 5.2 million people, is the country with the largest EV ownership per capita in the world.[288][289][290] In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug-in electric.[291] The plug-in car market penetration reached 2% in March 2015,[292] passed 3% in December 2015,[293][294] and achieved 5% at the end of 2016.[209]
France[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in France
Registration of highway capable plug-in electric vehicles in France by type of vehicle between 2010 and 2017.[295][296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303][232]
As of December 2017[update], the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in France totaled 149,797 plug-in cars and electric utility vans delivered since 2010,[209][232] As of December 2016[update], the country ranked as the third largest plug-in market in Europe after Norway and the Netherlands, and the world's sixth.[7] As of December 2017[update], and accounting for registrations since 2010, the plug-in electric stock consisted consisted of 92,256 all-electric passenger cars, 25,269 all-electric utility vans, and 32,272 plug-in hybrids.[303][232][272] The stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in France passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2016.[272][304]As of December 2015[update], France is the country with the world's largest market for light-duty electric commercial vehicles or utility vans. Nearly half of the vans sold in the European Union are sold in France as a result of a national purchase incentive scheme, which French companies have embraced.[275] The market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% of new vans registered in 2014, and 1.30% in 2015.[276]
United Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the United Kingdom
Registration of plug-in electric vehicles in the UK between 2011 and December 2017.[305][306][307][308][309][310][311]
More than 137,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until December 2017, including about 5,100 plug-in commercial vans.[269] Since the launch of the Plug-In Car Grant in January 2011, a total of 127,509 eligible cars have been registered through December 2017,[311] and, as of December 2016[update], the number of claims made through the Plug-in Van Grant scheme totaled 2,938 units since the launch of the scheme in 2012.[312] Before the introduction of series production plug-in vehicles, a total of 1,096 all-electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010.[313] Before 2011, the G-Wiz, a heavy quadricycle, listed as the top-selling EV for several years.[314] As of December 2016[update], the UK had the fourth largest European stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles,[7] and with 36,907 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2016, ranked as the second best selling European market that year after Norway.[209]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Germany
Annual registration of plug-in electric cars in Germany by type of vehicle between 2010 and 2017.[315][316][317][318][319][320][321]
As of December 2017[update], a total of 129,246 plug-in electric cars have been registered in Germany since 2010.[209][321] The country is the largest passenger car market in Europe, however, as of December 2016[update], ranked as the fifth largest plug-in market in Europe.[270][209] About 80% of the plug-in cars registered in the country through September 2016 were registered since January 2014.[315][319][322] The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013, before that, official statistics only registered all-electric vehicles because plug-in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids. As a result, the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug-in electric car registrations.[323]
A record of 54,492 plug-in cars were registered in 2017, up 217% the previous year, and consisting of 29,436 plug-in hybrids and 25,056 all-electric cars.[321] Registrations in 2017 achieved a market share of 1.58%.[321] The top selling models in 2017 were the Audi A3 e-tron (4,454), Renault Zoe (4,322), and BMW i3 (4,319).[324]
Netherlands[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands
Number of registered plug-in electric vehicles on the road in the Netherlands from 2011 to 2017.[325][326][327][328][329][330][223]
As of 31 December 2017[update], there were 121,542 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in the Netherlands, consisting of 98,217 range-extended and plug-in hybrids, 21,115 pure electric cars, and 2,210 all-electric light utility vans. When buses, trucks, motorcycles, quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for, the Dutch plug-in electric-drive fleet climbs to 123,499 units.[223] The country's electric vehicle stock reaches 165,886 units when fuel cell electric vehicles (43), mopeds (4,376), electric bicycles (37,652), and microcars (316) are accounted for.[223] A distinct feature of the Dutch plug-in market is dominance of plug-in hybrids, which represented 81% of the country's stock of passenger plug-in electric cars and vans registered at the end of December 2017.[223]
The Netherlands listed as the world's third best-selling country market for light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2015, with 43,971 units registered that year.[210] Until December 2015, the Netherlands had Europe's largest fleet light-duty plug-in vehicles.[210] Plug-in sales fell sharply during 2016, and as a result, by early October 2016, the Netherlands listed as the third largest European plug-in market, after being surpassed during the year by both Norway and France.[272][271] As of July 2016[update], the Netherlands had the second largest plug-in market concentration per capita in the world after Norway.[331] The stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in the Netherlands achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2016.[273][332] However, due to changes in tax rules, the plug-in market share declined from 9.9% in 2015, to 6.7% in 2016, and fell to 2.6% in 2017.[223]
Top selling PEV models[edit]
For more details of sales by model, see list of modern production plug-in electric vehicles.
All-electric cars and vans[edit]
The Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling highway legal plug-in electric car in history. Global sales passed the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.[1]
The world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of more than 300,000 units through early January 2018.[1] The United States is the world's largest Leaf market with 114,827 units sold through December 2017.[2][13] The other two top markets are Japan with 74,494 units delivered up until December 2016,[261] and Europe with about 66,000 units through November 2016.[2] The European market is led by Norway with 19,407 new units registered up until December 2016,[8][333] and the UK with 15,000 September 2016.[8]
Ranking second is the all-electric Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of more than 200,000 cars as of November 2017[update],[10] with the United States as its leading market with about 118,817 units delivered through December 2017.[334][256][13] As of September 2016[update], Norway ranked as the Model S largest overseas market, with 11,763 new units registered,[335][336][337][338] followed by China with 5,524 units registered through September 2015.[339][340] The Tesla Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car for two years in a row, 2015 and 2016.[187][188] The BAIC EC-Series all-electric city car ranked as the world's top selling plug-in car in 2017 with 78,079 units sold in China.[11] The world's all-time top selling all-electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E., with global sales of 25,205 electric vans delivered through December 2016.[341]
The following table presents global sales of the top selling highway-capable electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and December 2016. The table includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans with cumulative sales of about or over 20,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production all-electric car in 2008, the Tesla Roadster.
Top selling highway legal electric cars and light
utility vehicles produced between 2008 and December 2016(1)
Model
Market
launch
Global
sales
Sales
through
Nissan Leaf Dec 2010 + 250,000 Dec 2016[342]
Tesla Model S Jun 2012 158,159 Dec 2016[343][334]
BMW i3 Nov 2013 ~ 65,500 Dec 2016[187]
Renault Zoe Dec 2012 61,205 Dec 2016[341]
BAIC EV series 2012 42,626(3) Dec 2016[344][345][346][347]
Mitsubishi i-MiEV family Jul 2009 ~ 37,600 Jun 2016[348]
BYD e6 Oct 2011 34,862(3) Dec 2016[345][344][349][350][347]
Tesla Model X Sep 2015 25,524 Dec 2016[187]
Renault Kangoo Z.E. Oct 2011 25,205 Dec 2016.[341]
Volkswagen e-Golf May 2014 24,498(4) Jun 2016[255][351][352][353][354]
JAC J3/iEV family 2010 23,241(3) Jun 2016[344][345][346][355][356][357]
Cumulative global sales 2008 – Dec 2016 0ver 1,230,000 Dec 2016[6]
Notes:
(1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of
100 km/h (62 mph). Several models, such as the Chery QQ3 EV/eQ EV, Kandi EV and
the Zotye Zhidou E20, are highway legal in China but do not meet this requirement.
(2) BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant.
(3) Sales in main China only. (4) Sales in Europe and the U.S. only.
Plug-in hybrids[edit]
The Volt/Ampera family is the world's best selling plug-in hybrid. Combined global sales of Volt and Ampera models passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.[358]
As of December 2016[update], the Volt/Ampera family is the world's best selling plug-in hybrid and the third best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf and the Model S.[2] Chevrolet Volt and Opel/Vauxhaul Ampera combined sales totaled about 134,500 units worldwide through December 2016, including just over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016.[2][8] Volt sales are led by the United States with 113,489 units delivered, followed by Canada with 8,884 units, both through December 2016.[12][359] The Netherlands is the leading European market with about 6,000 Amperas and Volts registered as of December 2015[update].[8]
Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with around 119,500 units sold worldwide as of December 2016[update].[187] As of March 2016[update], Europe ranked as the Outlander P-HEV leading market with 65,529 units sold, followed by Japan with 33,730 units.[360] European sales are led by the UK with 26,600 units sold through December 2016,[361] followed by the Netherlands with 25,984 units registered by the end of 2016.[325]
Ranking third is the first generation Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with 75,400 units sold worldwide through April 2016.[362] The United States is the market leader with 44,767 units delivered through December 2016.[363][250][256][364] Japan ranks next with about 22,100 units, followed by Europe with 10,500 units, both, through April 2016.[362] The leading European market is the Netherlands with 4,134 units registered as of 30 November 2015[update].[365] Production of the first generation Prius Plug-in ended in June 2015.[366] The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, the Toyota Prius Prime, was released in the United States in November 2016.[367]
The following table presents cumulative sales through December 2016 of those plug-in hybrid models that have sold about 10,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid vehicle in December 2008, the BYD F3DM.
Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars
between 2008 and December 2016
Model
Market
launch
Global
sales
Sales
through
Chevrolet Volt(1) Dec 2010 ~134,500 Dec 2016[2]
Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV Jan 2013 ~119,500 Dec 2016[187]
Toyota Prius PHV Jan 2012 ~77,850 Dec 2016[187]
BYD Qin(2) Dec 2013 68,655 Dec 2016[187]
BYD Tang(2) Jun 2015 49,780 Dec 2016[347][368]
Ford Fusion Energi(3) Feb 2013 43,713 Dec 2016[255][369][370][256][258]
Ford C-Max Energi(4) Oct 2012 35,705 Dec 2016[255][370][371][256][352]
SAIC Roewe 550 PHEV(2) Nov 2013 26,856 Dec 2016[344][372][347]
Volkswagen Golf GTE Aug 2014 24,089 Jun 2016[373][354]
Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid Nov 2012 21,185 Jun 2016[373][374][375][376]
Audi A3 Sportback e-tron(5) Aug 2014 18,467 Jun 2016[370][373][351][354][377]
BMW i8 Aug 2014 10,000 Nov 2016[194]
Volvo XC90 T8(5) Aug 2015 9,044 Jun 2016[255][370][351][352][354]
Cumulative global sales Dec 2008 – Dec 2016 ~800,000 Dec 2016[6]
Notes: (1) Includes Vauxhall/Opel Ampera sales in Europe, and Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand.
This figure includes over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through December 2016.[8]
(2) Sales in China only. (3) Sales in the U.S. and Canada only. (4) Only includes European sales for 2015.
(5) Only accounts for CYTD 2016 sales in Europe, U.S. and Canada.
See also[edit]
All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
Electric car
Electric car use by country
Electric motorcycle
Electric vehicle battery
Electric vehicle warning sounds
Hybrid tax credit (U.S.)
List of electric cars currently available
List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
Neighborhood electric car
New energy vehicles in China
Plug In America
Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
RechargeIT (Google.org PHEV program)
Renewable energy by country
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c Henry Lee & Grant Lovellette (July 2011). "WillElectric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market?" (PDF). Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government. Retrieved 2011-08-07. Discussion Paper #2011-08, pages 9–18.
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^ Jump up to: a b Kevin Morrow; et al. (November 2008). "Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Review. Final Report" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Program. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
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Jump up ^ "Renault-Nissan and Project Better Place Sign MoU for Mass Marketed EVs in Israel; Implementing New Ownership Model". Green Car Congress. 2008-01-28. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
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^ Jump up to: a b Mark Rogowsky (2013-06-21). "Tesla 90-Second Battery Swap Tech Coming This Year". Forbes. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Electric cars and noise: The sound of silence". Economist. 7 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
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Jump up ^ "GM Says Volt Crew Working to Resolve 'Silent EV' Sound Safety Issue". Edmunds.com. 2009-11-25. Archived from the original on 2009-11-29. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
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Jump up ^ "Proposal for Noisier Electric Cars at Low Speed". The New York Times. Associated Press. 2013-01-07. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
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Jump up ^ "Apple to recall 1.8 million notebook batteries – Aug. 24, 2006". cnn.com.
Jump up ^ "PC Notebook Computer Batteries Recalled Due to Fire and Burn Hazard". Archived from the original on 2013-01-08.
Jump up ^ "Lenovo and IBM Announce Recall of ThinkPad Notebook Computer Batteries Due to Fire Hazard".
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Jump up ^ "Dreamliner: Boeing 787 planes grounded on safety fears". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
Jump up ^ "Japanese airlines ground Boeing 787s after emergency landing". Reuters. 2013-01-16. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
Jump up ^ China Autoweb (2012-05-28). "Initial details on fiery crash involving BYD e6 that killed 3". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Jump up ^ Christopher Jensen (2013-10-02). "Tesla Says Car Fire Started in Battery". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ Steven Russolillo (2013-10-04). "Musk Explains Why Tesla Model S Caught on Fire". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ Jaclyn Trop (2013-11-07). "Another Fire Raises Questions for Tesla". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
Jump up ^ Neil Roland (2012-08-09). "Feds Researching Fire Risks from EV Batteries". MSN Autos. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
Jump up ^ General Motors (2011-01-19). "Detroit First Responders Get Electric Vehicle Safety Training". General Motors News. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
Jump up ^ Nissan (2010). "2011 LEAF First Responder's Guide" (PDF). Nissan North America. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Irving Mintzer (2009). David B. Sandalow, ed. Chapter 6: Look Before You Leap: Exploring the Implications of Advanced Vehicles for Import Dependence and Passerger Safety (PDF). The Brookings Institution. pp. 107–126. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. in "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Clifford Krauss (2009-03-09). "The Lithium Chase". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Folger (June 2011). "Rare Earth Elements: The Secret Ingredients of Everything". National Geographic. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Alan Ohnsman (2011-01-14). "Toyota Readying Motors That Don't Use Rare Earths". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2011-01-19.
Jump up ^ Hiscock, Geoff (2015-11-18). "Electric vehicles, storage units drive prices up". The Nikkei. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Simon Romero (2009-02-02). "In Bolivia, Untapped Bounty Meets Nationalism". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Jerry Garret (2010-04-15). "A Case for and Against Electric Cars". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
Jump up ^ "Página sobre el Salar (Spanish)". Evaporiticosbolivia.org. Archived from the original on 2011-03-23. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ Brendan I. Koerner (2008-10-30). "The Saudi Arabia of Lithium". Forbes. Retrieved 2011-05-12. Published on Forbes Magazine dated November 24, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009" (PDF). U. S. Geological Survey. January 2009. Retrieved 2010-03-07. See page 95.
Jump up ^ Hammond, C. R. (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition. CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4.
Jump up ^ "Japan To Offer Technical Aid On Lithium To Bolivia". Green Car Congress. 2010-09-12. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
Jump up ^ "S. Korean companies to help Bolivia develop lithium industries". Trading Markets. 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
Jump up ^ Gaines, LL. Nelson, P. (2010). "Lithium-Ion Batteries: Examining Material Demand and Recycling Issues". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 11 June 2016. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Study finds resource constraints should not be a limiting factor for large-scale EV battery production". Green Car Congress. 2011-06-17. Retrieved 2011-06-17.
Jump up ^ "University of Michigan and Ford researchers see plentiful lithium resources for electric vehicles". Green Car Congress. 2011-08-03. Retrieved 2011-08-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Keith Bradsher (2009-08-31). "China Tightens Grip on Rare Minerals". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Rare earths and China – Dirty business". The Economist. 2010-09-30. Retrieved 2010-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Rare earths – Digging in". The Economist. 2010-09-02. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Worries mount over China's 'rare earth' export ban". EurActiv.com. 2010-06-11. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ Keith Bradsher (2010-09-23). "Amid Tension, China Blocks Crucial Exports to Japan". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Critical Materials Strategy" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. December 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ Keith Bradsher (2010-12-15). "U.S. Called Vulnerable to Rare Earth Shortages". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ Keith Bradsher (2010-12-28). "China to Tighten Limits on Rare Earth Exports". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
Jump up ^ "H.R.6160 – Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010". Open Congress. 2010-09-29. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c James T. Areddy (2010-10-01). "U.S. Congress Spurs Rare Earth Race". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
Jump up ^ "As Tensions Over Rare Earth Supplies Rise, New Solutions Are Beginning to Emerge". HybridCars.com. 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
Jump up ^ "S. 3521: Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010". Govtrack.us. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Matt Ritchel (2015-11-24). "A Car Dealers Won't Sell: It's Electric". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Eric Cahill & Dan Sperling (2014-11-03). "The Future Of Electric Vehicles Part 1: Car Dealers Hold The Key". Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
Jump up ^ Cahill, Eric; Davies-Shawhyde, Jamie; Turrentine, Thomas S. (October 2014). "New Car Dealers and Retail Innovation in California's Plug-In Electric Vehicle Market". Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2015-11-29. Working Paper – UCD-ITS-WP-14-04. Click on the bar "Download PDF"
Jump up ^ Eric Evarts (2014-04-22). "Dealers not always plugged in about electric cars, Consumer Reports' study reveals". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 2015-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Growing Number of EU Countries Levying CO2 Taxes on Cars and Incentivizing Plug-ins". Green Car Congress. 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
Jump up ^ "Global Incentives for EVs". My electric car Australia. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
Jump up ^ Patricia Leitón (2018-01-25). "Cuatro agencias están listas para ofrecer autos eléctricos exonerados apenas rija ley" [Four dealerships are ready to offer exempted electric cars as soon as the law goes into effect]. La Nación (San José) (in Spanish). Retrieved 2018-01-22.
Jump up ^ Sherry Boschert (2006). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada. ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
Jump up ^ Danny King (2011-06-20). "Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb". Edmunds.com Auto Observer. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Jump up ^ Stephen Edelstein (2015-11-03). "Polaris Updates GEM Low-Speed Electric Vehicles". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ JATO Dynamics (November 2015). "From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 – 2015" (PDF). Valencia News. Retrieved 2015-11-21. pp. 5–7 and 13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeff Cobb (2015-09-16). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-09-16. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.
Jump up ^ Caroline Sasia (2017-10-17). "RENAULT-NISSAN-MITSUBISHI SPONSORS WOMEN'S FORUM GLOBAL MEETING". Alliance Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi. Retrieved 2018-01-23. During the Global Meeting, the Alliance, which recently reached the historic milestone of aggregate sales of 500,000 electric vehicles worldwide (Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Cobb, Jeff (2017-01-26). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year In A Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-26. See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sharan, Zachary (2017-02-04). "Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016". EV Volumes. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-07). "China's BYD Becomes World's Third-Largest Plug-in Car Maker". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Top 10 Automakers by 2017 NEV Sales". Gasgoo China Automotive News. 2018-01-18. Retrieved 2018-01-29. "According to the data released by China Passenger Car Association (CPCA), BYD topped the rank with annual NEV delivery of 113,669 units, increasing 11% year on year. With NEV deliveries soaring 125% on an annual basis to 104,520 units, BAIC BJEV took the second place among the top ten automakers."
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kane, Mark (2018-01-26). "BYD #1 In World For Plug-In Electric Car Sales In 2017, Beats Tesla Again". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2018-01-29. "BYD sold 108,612 passenger plug-in cars in China in 2017, enough to make it the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer for the third year in a row."
Jump up ^ Kane, Mark (2017-10-04). "Tesla Has Delivered More Than 250,000 EVs, ~55% In The U.S." InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
Jump up ^ "_Update_Letter_2017-3Q.pdf Tesla Third Quarter 2017 Update". Tesla. 2017-11-01. Retrieved 2018-01-10.
^ Jump up to: a b "Three years since the market launch of BMW i. 100,000 electrified BMW on the road" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group Press Club Global. 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2016-11-07. Three year after the market launch of the BMW i3, the BMW Group has delivered more than 100,000 purely electric-powered cars and plug-in hybrids to customers worldwide. The BMW i3 alone has reached more than 60,000 units, and the BMW i8 has more than 10,000 delivered since the middle of 2014. Additionally, there are the approximately 30,000 iPerformance plug-in hybrids sold worldwide.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-12). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06. The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 with 50,366 units sold, followed by the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000), the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (over 40,000), the BYD Qin (31,898) and the BMW i3 (24,057). The Model S is also the second-best seller ever with 107,148 sales since its mid-2012 launch, behind the Nissan Leaf and ahead of GM’s Volt/Ampera family, credited with 106,000 sales.
Jump up ^ John Voelcker (2016-01-15). "Who Sold The Most Plug-In Electric Cars In 2015? (It's Not Tesla Or Nissan)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-01-17. BYD Auto delivered 31,898 Qins, 18,375 Tangs, and 7,029 e6s during 2015. Added to that are small numbers of the T3 small commercial van and e5 battery-electric compact sedan, along with 2,888 Denza EV compact hatchbacks built by its joint venture with Daimler. Altogether, BYD sold a total of 61,722 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China in 2015.
Jump up ^ Natasha Li (2016-03-04). "Alternative Energy Vehicles Account HALF of BYD's Profits for the Very First Time in 2015". Gasgoo Automotive News. Retrieved 2016-03-07. BYD Auto delivered 69,222 new energy vehicles in China in 2015, including buses, of which, a total of 61,722 were passenger vehicles, mostly plug-in hybrids, led by the Qin and Tang.
Jump up ^ Jin Peiling (2017-01-10). "谁是2016年电动汽车市场的霸主？" [Who is the dominant electric vehicle market in 2016?] (in Chinese). Daily Observation Car. Archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Retrieved 2017-01-15. BYD sold more than 100,000 new energy passenger cars in China in 2016, about 30,000 more units than Tesla Motors. The BYD Tang was the top selling plug-in car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units delivered.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2018-01-29). "2017 Global Sales by OEM". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Justin Gerdes (2012-05-11). "The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2016). "Global EV Outlook 2016: Beyond one million electric cars" (PDF). IEA Publications. Retrieved 2016-09-07. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) See pp. 4–5, and 24–25 and Statistical annex, pp. 34–37.
Jump up ^ Clark, Pilita; Campbell, Peter (2016-08-31). "Motor Industry: Pressure on the Pump". Financial Times. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (2016-03-28). "Fact #918: March 28, 2016 – Global Plug-in Light Vehicles Sales Increased By About 80% in 2015". Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Nic Lutsey (2015-09-29). "Global milestone: The first million electric vehicles". International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). Retrieved 2015-10-10.
Jump up ^ Voelcker, John (2016-11-02). "Electric car sales remain ahead of hybrids after five years". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ "The Electric Vehicle World Sales Database: Stable 60:40 Ratio". EV-Volumes. Archived from the original on 2016-10-17. Retrieved 2016-10-17.
Jump up ^ EVvolumes.com (January 2018). "Global Plug-in Sales for 2017-Q4 and the Full Year (prelim.)". EVvolumes.com. Retrieved 2018-02-17. Global registrations totaled around 1.2 million units in 2017, 57 % higher than 2016. These include all global BEV and PHEV passenger cars sales, light trucks in USA/Canada and light commercial vehicle in Europe. In 2017, 66 % of sales were pure electric (BEV) and 34 % were plug-in hybrids (PHEV). The segment market share was 1.3%, and in December the global plug-in share touched the 2 % mark for the first time.
Jump up ^ Shahan, Zachary (2016-11-22). "1 Million Pure EVs Worldwide: EV Revolution Begins!". Clean Technica. Retrieved 2016-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Cobb, Jeff (2017-01-17). "Top 10 Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries of 2016". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-18). "Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-12. About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. The United States was the leading market with 411,120 units sold since 2008, followed by China with 258,328 units sold since 2011. Japan ranks third, followed by the Netherlands (88,991), Norway (77,897), France (74,291), and the UK (53,254). Over 21,000 units were sold in Japan in 2015.
Jump up ^ Berman, Brad (2016-02-13). "US Falls Behind Europe and China in Global Plug-in Vehicle Market". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d King, Danny (2016-12-29). "China far ahead of US, Europe in total electric vehicle sales". Autoblog.com. Retrieved 2017-01-08. Last year, China overtook both the US and Europe in annual sales of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids. This year, it will move ahead of both the US and Europe in cumulative plug-in vehicle sales.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-05-11). "China Reports 500,000th Plug-in Vehicle Sold". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-05-12. The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 passed the 500,000 unit milestone in March 2016, consisting of 366,219 all-electric vehicles (72.9%) and 136,353 plug-in hybrids (27.1%). With 31,772 NEVs sold in April 2016, cumulative sales totaled 534,344 NEVs between January 2011 and April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Global Electric Bus Market 2015 – Size, Share, Development, Growth and Demand Forecast to 2020". Research and Markets (Press release). Dublin: Reuters. 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2017-01-31). "Markets Roundup December 2016 (Special Edition)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2017-02-08. For countries with top PEV market share in 2016 see "II. Engines of Growth: By EV share - Hong Kong ~5%, Iceland 4.6%, Switzerland 1.8%, Belgium 1.8, and 1.6% Austria.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2016-02-03). "Markets Roundup December 2015 (Special Edition)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17. For countries with top PEV market share in 2015 see "Engines of Growth:" Hong Kong 4.84%, Denmark 2.29%, Sweden 2.62%, and Switzerland 1.98%.
^ Jump up to: a b Jeff Cobb (2015-02-18). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2014". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18. </ref >A total of 303,866 new passenger vehicles were registered in 2014, and a total of 4,656 super clean cars, resulting in a PEV market share of 1.53% of new car sales.
Jump up ^ Zachary Shahan (2013-03-07). "Electric vehicle market share in 19 countries". ABB Conversations. Retrieved 2014-04-12.
^ Jump up to: a b c Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). "Bilsalget i 2017" [Car sales in 2017] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2017-01-10.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2018-01-23). "Iceland December 2017". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
Jump up ^ Bil Sweden (2018-01-08). "Definitiva nyregistreringar under 2017" [Definitive new registrations in 2017] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2018-01-31. Download the pdf file "PressRel1712_DEF.pdf" See tables: "Nyregistrerade supermiljöbilar december 2017", "Nyregistrerade miljöbilar per typ december 2017" and "Nyregistrerade eldrivna lätta lastbilar (högst 3,5 ton) per modell"
^ Jump up to: a b Jose Pontes (2015-02-06). "Markets Roundup December 2014 (Special Edition)". EV Sales. Retrieved 2015-03-15. See section "Engines of Growth – by EV share" Estonia's market shared in 2014 climbed to 1.57% from 0.68% in 2013. Iceland's market share grew from 0.21% in 2012, to 0.94% in 2013, to 2.71% in 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Statistics Electric Vehicles in the Netherlands" (PDF). Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Dutch National Office for Enterprising -. RVO. January 2018. Retrieved 2018-01-16. With a total of 25,134 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs registered by the end of December 2017, the plug-in hybrid is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands. The Tesla Model S is the best selling all-electric car with 8,028 units registered.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2016-01-29). "Iceland December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17. Plug-in electric car sales in Iceland reached a market share of 2.93%f of new car sales in 2015.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2018-01-09). "Switzerland December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Bil Sweden (2015-01-02). "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" [New registrations in December 2014 (preliminar)] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-01-04. Download file "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" see tables: "Nyregistrerade supermiljöbilar december 2014" with summary of plug-in passenger car registrations by model for 2013 (revised) and 2014, and table "Nyregistrerade eldrivna lätta lastbilar (högst 3,5 ton) per modell:" for plug-in utility vans registrations for the same two years.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2018-01-04). "Belgium December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2018-01-23). "Finland December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2015-01-10). "Denmark December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15. Denmark's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.88% of total new car sales.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2015-01-18). "Switzerland December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15. Switzerland's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.75% of total new car sales.
Jump up ^ Jose Pontes (2018-01-17). "Austria December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2018-01-09). "Près de 31 000 véhicules électriques immatriculés en France en 2017 !" [Nearly 31,000 electric vehicles registered in France in 2017!] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2018-01-17. A total of 41,724 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in France in 2017 consisting of 24,910 all-electric cars, 6,011 electric utility vans and 10,803 plug-in hybrid cars. The plug-in car segment achieved a market share of 1.98% of new car registrations in the country in 2017.
Jump up ^ Statistik Austria (2016-03-16). "Kraftfahrzeuge – Neuzulassungen: Neuzulassungen nach Jahren" [Motor vehicles – registrations: Registrations by year] (in German). Statistik Austria. Retrieved 2016-03-20. Download the file "Kfz-Neuzulassungen Jänner bis Dezember 2015." A total of 2,778 passenger plug-in electric cars were sold in Austria in 2015 (consisting of 1,677 all-electrics, 931 gasoline-powered plug-in hybrids, and 170 diesel-powered plug-in hybrids) out of 308,555 passenger cars, resulting in a market share of 0.90% (see pp. 78 PDF version).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA) (February 2018). "New Vehicle Registrations in State Predicted to Exceed 2 Million Units Again in 2018" (PDF). CNCDA. Retrieved 2018-02-17. Registrations through December 2017 since 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b LeSage, Jon (2016-02-06). "Renault Zoe Ekes By Mitsubishi Outlander in 2016 European Plug-in Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
Jump up ^ Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2016-02-15). "PHEVs – Take off or transitory blip?". AID Newsletter. Retrieved 2016-02-19. Market share only includes Western European countries. A total of 95,140 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in Europe in 2015.
Jump up ^ Staff (February 2016). "Europe Plug-in Sales Q4 and Full Year 2015". EVvolumes.com. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
Jump up ^ International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) (2014). "European Vehicle Market Statistics Pocketbook" (PDF). ICCT. Retrieved 2016-02-21. See page 88: EU-28 market share in 2013 was 0.42% (includes all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids). Adjusted to consider sales/registrations in Norway (5.79%) and Switzerland (0.57%) the market share rises to 0.49%.
Jump up ^ Jiang Xueqing (2014-01-11). "New-energy vehicles 'turning the corner'". China Daily. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
Jump up ^ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2016-01-20). "New energy vehicles enjoyed a high-speed growth". CAAM. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
Jump up ^ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2015-01-14). "The sales and production of new energy vehicles boomed". CAAM. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
Jump up ^ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (2012-01-16). "5,579 electric cars sold in China in 2011". Wind Energy and Electric Vehicle Review. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
Jump up ^ Cars21.com (2013-02-13). "EV sales increase 103.9% in China in 2012– Electric China Weekly No 17". Cars21.com. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-28). "China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-28. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.
Jump up ^ Liu Wanxiang (2017-01-11). "乘联会：新能源乘用车2016年销量32万辆 比亚迪\吉利\北汽稳居前三" [By the Federation: new energy passenger car sales in 2016 totaled 320,000 units. BYD, Geely and BAIC were the top three manufacturers] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2017-01-12. Sales of new energy vehicles in China totaled 320,081 units, consisting of 239,830 all-electric cars and 80,251 plug-in hybrid vehicless.
Jump up ^ Dune, Michael J. (2016-12-14). "China's Automotive 2030 Blueprint: No. 1 Globally In EVs, Autonomous Cars". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-12-14.
Jump up ^ Majeed, Abdul (2016-09-29). "China faces acid test in vehicle emissions". Business Line. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-17). "China Now Ties US For Leadership In Cumulative Global Plug-In Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-17. As of September 2016[update], the U.S. and China are technically tied for first place as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market. The U.S. has cumulative plug-in car sales of 522,519 units while China has 521,649 domestically produced plug-in cars. Europe is still the world's largest regional market with almost 50,000 more units sold that both countries, totaling about 570,000 light-duty plug-in vehicles.
Jump up ^ "Top 10 NEV Models by 2017 Sales". Gasgoo China Automotive News. 2018-01-18. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-02. See other figures in graphs.
Jump up ^ Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA) (January 2018). "Electric Drive Sales Dashboard". EDTA. Retrieved 2018-01-13. Sales figures sourced from HybridCars.com and direct reports submitted by EDTA member companies
Jump up ^ HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. "HybridCars Dashboard". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-06.
Jump up ^ California Air Resources Board (CARB) (2017-01-18). "California's Advanced Clean Cars Midterm Review: Summary Report for the Technical Analysis of the Light Duty Vehicle Standards" (PDF). CARB. Retrieved 2017-01-19. See pp. ES 44.
Jump up ^ Stacy C. Davis; Susan W. Diegel & Robert G. Boundy (July 2014). "Transportation Energy Data Book Edition 33" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-30. Retrieved 2014-09-02. See Table 6.5: Hybrid and Plug-in Vehicle Sales, 1999–2013, pp. 6–9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-06). "December 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-02-13. Plug-in electric car sales in the U.S. totaled 114,248 units in 2015, consisting of 71,105 all-electric cars and 43,143 plug-in hybrids, with corresponding market shares of 0.25% and 0.41%. Sales in 2014 totaled 123,347 units.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Cobb, Jeff (2017-01-05). "December 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-12-06. Plug-in electric car sales in the U.S. totaled 157,181 units, consisting of 84,246 all-electric cars and 72,935 plug-in hybrids. The plug-in car segment achieved a market share of 0.90% of new car sales. December sales totaled 23,288 units with a market share of 1.39%. The top selling model in 2016 was the Tesla Model S with 29,156 units sold, followed by the Chevrolet Volt(24,739) and the Tesla Model X (18,028).
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2013-01-08). "December 2012 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2013-01-14. See the section: December 2012 Plug-in Electric Car Sales Numbers. A total of 53,172 plug-in electric vehicles were sold during 2012. Sales of the Fisker Karma, Coda and Wheego are not included, as these carmakers do not report monthly sales on a regular basis.
^ Jump up to: a b Jeff Cobb (2014-01-06). "December 2013 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-03-21. Shows U.S. total sales for 2012 and 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Kane, Mark (2018-01-11). "2017 US Plug-In EV Sales Charted: Market Grows 26%, Record 1.6% Share In December". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-04). "Plug-in Cars Have Their Best-Ever US Sales in September". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kane, Mark (2017-01-25). "Nissan LEAF Sets Sales Record In Japan For 2016". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2017-01-26. A total of 14,795 Leafs were sold in Japan in 2016, and a total of 72,494 units since its inception.
^ Jump up to: a b Jose Pontes (2018-02-02). "Japan December 2017". EV Sales. Retrieved 2018-02-17. About 56,000 plug-in electric cars were sold in Japan in 2017.
Jump up ^ International Energy Agency, Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (April 2013). "Global EV Outlook 2013 – Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2013-04-20. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) See pp. 4, 6–8, and 11–12.
Jump up ^ Kane, Mark (2016-04-02). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales Visualized From 2011 to 2015". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
Jump up ^ Shirouzu, Norihiko; Lienert, Paul (2015-10-28). "Auto power play: Japan's hydrogen car vs China's battery drive". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
Jump up ^ Deign, Jason (2015-02-10). "Japan Makes a Big Bet on the Hydrogen Economy". Green Tech Media. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2017-01-30). "La France s'impose comme le leader des ventes de véhicules 100% électriques en Europe en 2016" [France has emerged as the leader in vehicle sales 100% electric in Europe in 2016] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2017-02-05. Sales in the European light-duty all-electric vehicle market reached a record of 102,625 registrations in 2016 (includes passenger cars and utility vans).
Jump up ^ Pontes, Jose (2017-02-03). "Europe's Best-Selling Electric Car = Renault Zoe". EV-Sales.blogspot.com. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Lane, Ben (January 2018). "Electric car market statistics". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2018-01-11. As of 31 December 2017[update], the total UK light-duty electric fleet totals 137,100 plug-in electric vehicles, consisting of about 132,000 plug-in cars and 5,100 plug-in electric commercial vans. This figure includes a significant number of registered plug-in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-06-15). "Europe Buys Its 500,000th Plug-in Vehicle". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-06-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cobb, Jeff (2016-05-09). "Norway Is Fourth Country To Register 100,000 Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09. As of April 2016[update], the United States is the leading country market with a stock of about 450,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles delivered since 2008. China ranks second with around 300,000 units sold since 2011, followed by Japan with about 150,000 plug-in units sold since 2009, both through March 2016. European sales are led by Norway with over 100,000 units registered by the end of April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-10). "France Becomes Fifth Nation To Buy 100,000 Plug-in Vehicles". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-17). "The Netherlands Becomes Sixth Country To Buy 100,000 Plug-in Vehicles". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-18.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2017-04-05). "March 2017 – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fergusson, Malcolm (October 2016). "Electric Vehicles in Europe - 2016: Approaching adolescence" (PDF). Transport & Environment. Retrieved 2016-10-13. See pp. 15-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Automobile Propre (August 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d'utilitaires électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-10-02. See "Ventes d’utilitaires électriques en 2016/2015/2014 for all-electric utility van registrations. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014, and rose to 1.30% in 2015.
Jump up ^ Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) (January 2018). "Norwegian EV market". Norsk Elbilforening. Retrieved 2017-01-11. Place the pointing device over the graph to show the cumulative number of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids in Norway at the end of each year. As of 31 December 2017[update], the registered light-duty plug-in electric stock totaled 209,122 units, consisting of 141,951 all-electric battery electric vehicles and 67,171 plug-in hybrids.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-11). "Almost Half The Cars Bought In Norway Last Month Were Electrified". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Jump up ^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2016-12-01). "Bilsalget i november" [Car sales in November] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 2016-12-10. Retrieved 2016-12-03.
Jump up ^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2017-01-02). "Bilsalget i desember" [Car sales in December] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
Jump up ^ Petter Haugneland (2015-04-20). "50.000 elbiler på norske veier!" [50,000 electric cars on Norwegian roads!] (in Norwegian). Norsk elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Archived from the original on 2015-04-25. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-20). "Norway Celebrates 50,000th Plug-in Car Sold; Will EV Incentives Continue?". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-20.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-05-17). "Dossier : A la découverte du véhicule électrique en Norvège" [Dossier: Discovering the electric vehicle in Norway] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-19. In April 2016 Norway just exceeded the threshold of 100 000th registered electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids included.
Jump up ^ Frydenlund, Ståle (2016-12-13). "Norway now has 100,000 electric cars". Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-12-13.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2015-12-19). "Norway's 100,000th EV Constitutes 10-Percent Of The World's Total". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-12-19.
Jump up ^ Figenbaum, Erik; Kolbenstvedt, Marika (June 2016). "Learning from Norwegian Battery Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle users". Institute of Transport Economics (TØI), Norwegian Centre for Transport Research. Retrieved 2016-08-17. TØI report 1492/2016. See pp. 1.
Jump up ^ Alister Doyle & Nerijus Adomaitis (2013-03-13). "Norway shows the way with electric cars, but at what cost?". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
Jump up ^ Joly, David (2015-10-16). "Norway is A Model For Encouraging Electric Car Sales". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
Jump up ^ Agence France-Presse (2011-05-15). "Electric cars take off in Norway". The Independent. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
Jump up ^ AVERE (2012-06-07). "Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018". AVERE. Archived from the original on 2013-10-24. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
Jump up ^ Klippenstein, Matthew (2014-04-08). "One Percent Of Norway's Cars Are Already Plug-In Electrics". Green Car Reports. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-17). "Norway Electric Car Incentives Will Hit Sales Cap Next Week". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
Jump up ^ Petter Haugneland (2016-02-29). "Nasjonal transportplan: Elbil er klimaløsningen" [National Transport: EV is the climate solution] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
Jump up ^ "Number of electric cars worldwide climbs to 1.3 million" (PDF) (Press release). Stuttgart: Zentrum für Sonnenenergieund Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (ZSW). 2016-02-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-06. Retrieved 2016-03-04. Around 3% of some 2.64 million cars in Norway run on electricity by the end of 2015 (includes all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids).
Jump up ^ Autoactu.com (May 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations de voitures électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric car registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-05-14. See "Ventes de voitures électriques en 2016/2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010" It shows all electric car registrations between 2010 and 2016.
Jump up ^ AVERE-France (2014-01-08). "Baromètre AVERE-France Janvier 2014" [Barometer AVERE-France January 2014] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
Jump up ^ Justin Aschard (2012-11-07). "Novembre 2012 – Ventes de véhicules électriques (CCFA)" [November 2012 – Sales of electric vehicles (CCFA)] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique. Retrieved 2013-02-16. See table Bilan annuel des ventes de véhicules électriques (Annual sales of electric vehicles) for detailed sales by category during 2010 and 2011.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2013-01-07). "Bilan des Immatriculations pour l'Année 2012" [Record Registrations for 2012] (in French). AVERE. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-16. A total of 5,663 electric cars and 3,651 electric vans were registered in France in 2012.
Jump up ^ AVERE-France (2015-01-05). "Le marché du véhicule électrique maintient sa progression en 2014" [The electric vehicle market continues to grow in 2014] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-07). "Immatriculations des voitures électriques : + 62,1% en 2015" [All-electric car registrations: + 62.1% in 2015] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 17,779 all-electric cars were registered in France in 2015.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-08). "Immatriculations des hybrides rechargeables : La barre des 5.000 est franchie !" [Plug-in hybrid registrations: The 5,000 barrier is achieved!] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 5,006 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2015.
Jump up ^ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-12). "Immatriculations des utilitaires électriques : + 9,6% en 2015" [All-electric utility vehicle registrations: + 9.6% in 2015] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 4,916 all-electric utility vans were registered in France in 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2017-01-09). "Plus de 27 000 véhicules électriques immatriculés en 2016, après un mois de décembre record" [More than 27,000 electric vehicles registered in 2016, after a record month of December] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2017-01-09. A total of 33,774 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in France in 2016 consisting of 27,751 all-electric cars, 5,556 electric utility vans and 6,467 plug-in hybrid cars. The plug-in car segment achieved a market share of 1.40% of new car registrations in the country in 2016.
Jump up ^ Foucaud, Isabelle (2016-10-01). "Plus de 100.000 véhicules électriques circulent aujourd'hui en France" [More than 100,000 electric vehicles currently on the road in France]. Le Figaro (in French). Retrieved 2016-10-10. Environment Minister, Ségolène Royal, said there are more than 100,000 electric vehicles currently on the road in France.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2015-01-07). "December 2014 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 14,518 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2014, consisting of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids, up from 3,586 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013. A total of 2,476,435 new cars were registered in 2014.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2016-01-07). "December 2015 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2016-01-21. A total of 28,188 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2015, consisting of 9,934 pure electrics and 18,254 plug-in hybrids. A total of 2,633,503 new cars were registered in 2015.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2012-01-06). "December 2011 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2013-01-07). "December 2012 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-01-07). "December 2013 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2014-01-12. A total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2017-01-05). "December 2016 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2017-01-09. Registrations in 2016 totaled 36,907 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 10,264 all-electric cars and 26,643 plug-in hybrids. Of these, a total of 35,447 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Since its launch in 2011, a total of 83,052 cars eligible for the PICG have been registered through December 2016. A total of 2,692,786 new cars were registered in 2016, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 1.37% of new car sales.
^ Jump up to: a b Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2018-01-05). "December – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2018-01-11. Registrations in 2017 totaled 47,263 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 13,597 all-electric cars and 33,6663 plug-in hybrids. Of these, a total of 45,187 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Since its launch in 2011, a total of 127,509 cars eligible for the PICG have been registered through December 2017. A total of 2,540,617 new cars were registered in 2017, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 1.86% of new car sales.
Jump up ^ RAC Foundation (February 2017). "Claims made through the Plug-in Van Grant scheme". UK: RAC Foundation. Retrieved 2017-02-24. See graph with PIVG cumulative claims and claims by quarter.
Jump up ^ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (April 2011). "Motor Industry Facts 2011" (PDF). SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14. Download the pdf report. Data available by year in Table: AFV Registrations, pp.15. Data shows all type of EVs, including quadricycles. A total of 1,096 electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010
Jump up ^ Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield (2013-08-30). "TLC needed: Can cars like the G-Wiz still have a purpose in life?". The Green Car Website. Retrieved 2013-10-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2015). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2014" [New Registrations Barometer December 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-27. A total of 13,049 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany during 2014, consisting of 8,522 all-electric cars and 4,527 plug-in hybrids.
Jump up ^ Autobild (2012-01-12). "2011 Full Year Best-Selling Electric Cars in Germany in 2011". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31. Cumulative number of registered electric cars was 4,541 as of January 1, 2012. All-electric car and van registrations in 2010 totaled 541 units and 2,154 in 2011..
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2013-01-31). "Neuzulassungen E-Mobilität 2012-Kaum Zuwachs wegen Twizy" [Registrations E-mobility – Low growth due to Twizy]. Auto Bild (in German). Retrieved 2013-02-14. A total of 2,956 all-electric cars were registered in Germany during 2012.
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen – Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2013" [Monthly registrations – New registrations Barometer in December 2013] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,385 plug-in hybrids and 6,051 all-electric cars were registered during 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2016). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2015" [New Registrations Barometer December 2015] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-21. A total of 23,464 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany during 2015, consisting of 12,363 all-electric cars and 11,101 plug-in hybrids.
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2017). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2016" [New Registrations Barometer December 2015] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2017-01-11. A total of 25,154 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany in 2016, consisting of 11,410 all-electric cars and 13,744 plug-in hybrids.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2018-01-12). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2017" [New Registrations Barometer December 2017] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2018-01-12. A total of 29,436 plug-in hybrids and 25,056 all-electrric cars were registered in Germany in 2017.
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (October 2016). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im September 2016" [New Registrations Barometer September 2016] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2016-10-07. A total of 17,074 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany between January and September 2016, consisting of 7,678 all-electric cars and 9,396 plug-in hybrids.
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen – Neuzulassungsbarometer im Juni 2014" [Monthly registrations – New registrations Barometer in June 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,575 plug-in hybrids and 4,188 electric cars were registered during the first six months of 2014.
Jump up ^ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA) (January 2018). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen nach Marken und Modellreihen im Dezember 2017 (FZ 10) (XLS, 153 KB, Datei ist nicht barrierefrei)" [New registrations of passenger cars by segments and models in December 2016] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2018-01-13. Click on the link Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen nach Marken und Modellreihen im Dezember 2017 (FZ 10) (XLS, 153 KB, Datei ist nicht barrierefrei) to download the file with registrations figures.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische auto – Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische auto" [Figures electric transport – Top 5 registered plug-in hybrids – Top 10 registered fully electric vehicle models] (PDF). Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) - Dutch National Office for Enterprising - (in Dutch). BovagWebsite. January 2017. Retrieved 2017-01-13. With a total of 25,984 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs registered by the end of December 2016, the plug-in hybrid is the all-time top registered plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands.
Jump up ^ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Special: Analyse over 2014" [Special: Analysis over 2014] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-02-24. See total 2014 registration by type of PEV under the heading "31-12-2014". The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 was 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations.
Jump up ^ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (December 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische auto (31-12-2015)" [Figures electric transport – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland – Top 10 registered fully electric vehicle models (31-12-2015)] (PDF) (in Dutch). BOVBAG. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
Jump up ^ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014) – Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014)" [Figures electric transport – Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands, Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (12-31-2014) and Top 6 registered all-electric vehicle models (12-31-2014)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-04-27. Click the url to download the file "2014-cijfers-elektrisch-vervoer-tm-december-2014.pdf.pdf" See under the heading "31-12-2014" for total registrations figures at the end of December 2014. A total of 2,645 Model S sedans were registered in the Netherlands as of December 2014[update], and it ranks as the top registered all-electric vehicles in the country.
Jump up ^ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2013). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer (30-12-2013)" [Figures electric transport (30-12-2013)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2014-08-23.
Jump up ^ RAI. "Verkoopstatistieken -nieuwverkoop personenautos" [Sales Statistics – New passenger car sales] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Archived from the original on 2014-03-28. Retrieved 2013-02-02. Download pdf file for detailed sales in 2011 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201112") and 2012 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201212").
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Concentration of plug-in electrified car registrations per 1,000 people". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-04. As of July 2016[update], Norway had a concentration of registered plug-in cars per 1,000 people of 21.52, the Netherlands of 5.63, California of 5.83, and the United States national average was 1.52.
Jump up ^ "Nederland registreert meer dan 100.000 elektrische voertuigen" [Netherlands registers more than 100,000 electric vehicles] (in Dutch). Engineering Ring Net. 2016-11-18. Retrieved 2016-12-16.
Jump up ^ Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) (2017-01-05). "Elbilsalget: Ned i fjor – venter ny vekst i år" [EV Sales: Down from last year - awaiting new growth this year] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, Jeff (2016-12-05). "Tesla Model S Is Second Plug-in Car To Cross 150,000 Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-12-05. The Volt/Ampera family of vehicles is the world's all-time third best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf (240,000), and the Tesla Model S (over 150,000), with 130,500 vehicles sold globally through November 2016.
Jump up ^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2014" [Car sales in 2014] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-01-14. A total of 10,639 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2013, consisting of: 7,885 new electric cars, 2,086 used imported all-electric cars, 328 new plug-in hybrid cars and 340 new all-electric vans. A total of 23,390 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2014, consisting of: 18,094 new electric cars, 3,063 used imported all-electric cars, 1,678 new plug-in hybrid cars and 555 new all-electric vans.
Jump up ^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2015" [Car sales in 2015] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 2016-02-09. Retrieved 2016-03-05. Registrations of new plug-in electric vehicles totaled 25,779 electric cars (zero emission vehicles totaled 25,788 accounting for 9 hydrogen vehicles), 7,964 plug-in hybrids and 712 all-electric vans in 2015. In addition, registrations of used imports totaled 5,122 electric cars and 55 electric vans. Plug-in electric vehicle registrations totaled 39,632 units.
Jump up ^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (October 2016). "Bilsalget i september" [Car sales in September] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
Jump up ^ OFV (January 2014). "Bilsalget i desember og hele 2013" [Car sales in December and during 2013] (in Norwegian). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). Archived from the original on 2014-01-04. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
Jump up ^ Jake Spring (2015-10-23). "CORRECTED-(OFFICIAL)-UPDATE 2-Tesla CEO says negotiating with China on local production". Reuters. Retrieved 2015-10-24. Tesla sold sold 3,025 Model S cars in China from January to September 2015.
Jump up ^ Staff (2015-03-07). "Tesla cutting 30% of staff in China". Want China Times. Archived from the original on 2015-03-08. Retrieved 2015-03-09. Tesla imported 4,800 Model S cars in 2014, but only 2,499 of those vehicles were registered for road use in China.
^ Jump up to: a b c Groupe Renault (January 2017). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2017-01-18. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "(décembre 2016)" to download the file "XLSX - 239 Ko" for CYTD sales in 2016, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" (See more) to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" - Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" - "XLSX - 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" - "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX - 227 Ko" for 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 sales. Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report
Jump up ^ "Nissan Intelligent Mobility at CES" (Press release). Las Vegas: Nissan USA. 2017-01-05. Retrieved 2017-01-07.
Jump up ^ "Tesla Q4 2016 Production and Deliveries". Tesla Motors (Press release). Palo Alto: Market Wired. 2017-01-03. Retrieved 2017-01-04. Tesla delivered approximately 22,200 vehicles in Q4, of which 12,700 were Model S and 9,500 were Model X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Staff (2015-01-14). "2014 EV Sales Ranking". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-02-07. A total of 5,234 E150 EVs (EV200), and about 1,000 J3 EVs were sold in China in 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Staff (2016-01-14). "Sales Ranking of China-made Pure-electric Cars in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-08-16. A total of 16,488 BAIC E-Series EVs, and over 9,000 JAC iEVs were sold in China in 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Henry Lee; Sabrina Howell; Adam Heal (June 2014). "Leapfrogging or Stalling Out? Electric Vehicles in China". Belfer Center, Harvard Kennedy School. Retrieved 2016-08-16. Download EVS in China (full report). See Table 2: Chinas's EV Sales by Brand, 2011–2013, pp. 19. BAIC E150 EVs sales totaled 644 units in 2012 and 1,466 in 2013. JAC J3 EV sales totaled 2,485 units in 2012 and 1,309 in 2013
^ Jump up to: a b c d Staff (2017-01-19). "Best-selling China-made EVs in 2016". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2017-01-25. Three BYD Auto models topped the Chinese ranking of best-selling new energy passenger cars in 2016. The BYD Tang SUV was the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2016 with 31,405 units sold, followed by the BYD Qin with 21,868 units sold, and ranking third overall in 2016 was the BYD e6 with 20,605 units.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-08-10). "Global 10 Best-Selling Plug-In Cars Are Accelerating Forward". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-13. As of June 2016[update], cumulative global sales of the top selling plug-in electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf (over 228,000), followed by the Tesla Model S (129,393), Votl/Ampera family (about 117,300), Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV (about 107,400), Toyota Prius PHV (over 75,400), BYD Qin (56,191), Renault Zoe (51,193), BMW i3 (around 49,500), Mitsubishi i-MiEV family (about 37,600) and BYD Tang (37,509).
Jump up ^ Mat Gasnier (2013-01-14). "China Full Year 2012: Ford Focus triumphs". Best Selling Car Blog. Retrieved 2013-01-22.
Jump up ^ Mat Gasnier (2014-01-14). "China December 2013: Focus on the all-new models". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-01-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cobb, Jeff (2016-07-05). "June 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pontes, Jose (2016-01-30). "Europe December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 1,230 Ford C-Max Energi, 11,214 VW e-Golf, and 2,653 Volvo XC90 T8s were sold in Europe in 2015.
Jump up ^ Pontes, Jose (2015-01-31). "Europe December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-07. European VW e-Golf sales totaled 3,328 units in 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Edelstein, Stephen (2016-08-16). "European electric and plug-in hybrid sales for Jan–June 2016". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-08-16. A total of 5,692 VW Golf GTEs, 5,035 Volvo XC90s, 3,912 VW e-Golfs, and 3,341 Audi A3-eTrons were sold in Europe during the first half of 2016.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2016-07-17). "China June 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-15. A total of 9,977 BAIC E-series, and 7,862 JAC iEVs were sold in China during the first half of 2016.
Jump up ^ China Auto Web (2012-09-30). "JAC Delivers 500 J3 EVs ("ievs")". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2013-04-19. A total of 1,585 of the first and second generation JAC J3 models were sold during 2010 and 2011.
Jump up ^ China Auto Web (2013-03-25). "Chinese EV Sales Ranking for 2012". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2013-04-19. A total of 2,485 JAC J3 EVs were sold in 2012.
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2015-11-04). "GM Sells Its 100,000th Volt in October". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-11-04. About 102,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family have been sold worldwide by the end of October 2015.
Jump up ^ Cain, Timothy (January 2017). "Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures". Good Car Bad Car. Retrieved 2017-01-05.
Jump up ^ "Global Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sales Pass the 100,000 Mark" (Press release). UK: Mitsubishi Motors UK. 2016-05-19. Retrieved 2016-05-22. As of March 2016[update], a total of 65,529 units have been sold in Europe (21,052 in the UK and 44,477 in the rest of Europe), 33,730 in Japan, 2,015 in Australia and 259 in the rest of the world, for a total of 101,533 units sold worldwide.
Jump up ^ Mitsubishi UK (2017-01-20). "Further evolution for the 2017 Mitsubishi Outlander". Automotive World. Retrieved 2017-01-21. The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the UK’s best-selling Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle. At its introduction in 2014 it effectively created the ultra-low emission vehicle segment, notching up 10,000 sales in the UK within the first ten months and amassing a total sales figure of 26,600 by the end of 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Worldwide Sales of Toyota Hybrids Surpass 9 Million Units" (Press release). Toyota City, Japan: Toyota. 2016-05-20. Retrieved 2016-05-22.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-02). "October 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-11-04. Tesla sales for 3Q 2016 have been restated based upon information provided from the company corresponding to U.S. sales during 3Q 2016. Tesla reported 9,156 Model S and 5,428 Model X sold during the third quarter of 2016. The combined effect of both models totaled 1,116 less units than originally estimated, so the revised current-year-to-date figure for sales through September is 108,397 units. The revised CYTD figure for Model S is 20,856 and 12,328 for the Model X. October sales figures already reflect this adjustment.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Jeff (2016-12-02). "November 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2017-01-08.
Jump up ^ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (December 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (30-11-2015)" [Figures electric transport – Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (11-30-2015)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2016-03-26.
Jump up ^ Brad Berman (2015-05-01). "Toyota Halts Production of Prius Plug-in Hybrid Until Late 2016". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
Jump up ^ Voelcker, John (2016-12-01). "Plug-in electric car sales for Nov: Volt soars, Prius Prime arrives (UPDATE)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
Jump up ^ Staff (2016-02-13). "Best-selling China-made SUVs in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-01-17. A total of 18,375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015.
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2015-01-06). "December 2014 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-01-06. See sections: "December 2014 Plug-in Hybrid Car Sales Numbers" and "December 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers"
^ Jump up to: a b c d Klippenstein, Matthew. "Canadian Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales". Green Car Reports 7date=February 2016. Retrieved 2017-02-21. Tesla Model S sales figures from IHS data.
Jump up ^ Jeff Cobb (2015-02-11). "2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2016-01-12). "China December 2015 (3rd Update)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 10,711 SAIC Roewe 550 PHEVs were sold in China in 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gibbs, Nick (2016-03-15). "Hybrid sales expected to triple in Europe as tougher CO2 rules loom". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2016-02-22. Sales in Europe as reported by JATO Dynamics: Mitsubishi Ourlander sales totaled 19,853 units in 2014 and 31,214 in 2015; VW Golf GTE sales totaled 1,097 units in 2014 and 17,300 in 2015; Audi A3 e-tron sales totaled 1,154 units in 2014 and 11,791 in 2015; Volvo V60 sales totaled 5,441 units in 2014 and 6,349 in 2015. During 2015 a total of 5,481 all-electric BMW i3s and 6,566 i3 REx models (total 12,047). A total of 3,940 i3 REx models were sold in 2014.
Jump up ^ "2012 (Full Year) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars & Plug-In Hybrid Models". BestSellingCars.com. 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-07-05. 42 Volvo V60 plug-in hybrids were sold in Sweden in 2012.
Jump up ^ Jim Motavalli (2014-06-30). "Confirmed: Volvo To Offer Plug-In Hybrid Option on All Models". PluginCars.com. Retrieved 2014-09-03. Volvo sold 7,739 V60 plug-in hybrids in 2013.
Jump up ^ Jose, Pontes (2016-07-26). "Europe June 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-16. Volvo V60 Plug-in sales in Europe totaled 1,614 units during the first half of 2016.
Jump up ^ Voelckr, John (2016-01-19). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales For 2015 Fall Slightly From 2014". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 49 Audi A3 e-trons were sold in the U.S. in 2015.
External links[edit]
Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 2013.
Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website
Competitive Electric Town Transport, Institute of Transport Economics (TØI), Oslo, August 2015.
Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025–2030) Technologies (includes BEVs and PHEVs), Argonne National Laboratory, June 2016.
Driving Electrification – A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014.
Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States, Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, Carnegie Mellon University. 2015
eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity, U.S. Department of Energy
Electric Vehicle Timeline: Electric Cars, Plug-In Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles (1900–2014), Union of Concerned Scientists
EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2013.
From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 – 2015, JATO Dynamics, November 2015.
Global EV Outlook 2013– Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020, International Energy Agency (IEA), April 2013
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles – The Electric Drive Gains Traction, IA-HEV, International Energy Agency (IEA), May 2013
Influence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains, Carnegie MellonVehicle Electrification Group
NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Vehicle Owner/General Public
NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department
New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
PEVs Frequently Asked Questions
Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, June 2013
Powering Ahead – The future of low-carbon cars and fuels, the RAC Foundation and UK Petroleum Industry Association, April 2013.
Plugging In: A Consumer's Guide to the Electric Vehicle Electric Power Research Institute
Plug-in America website
Plug-in Cars website
Plug-in Electric Vehicle Deployment in the Northeast Georgetown Climate Center
Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets (Norway, Netherlands, California, United States, France, Japan, and Germany), UC Davis, October 2014.
Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
Shade's of Green – Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink that Footprint, February 2013.
State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
The Great Debate – All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014
UK Plug-in Car Grant website
Transport Action Plan: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative, United Nations, Climate Summit 2014, September 2014
U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University
Books[edit]
David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6.
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