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2018 24 Hours of Le Mans
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2018 24 Hours of Le Mans
Previous: 2017 Next: 2019
Index: Races | Winners
Toyota Gazoo Racing No. 8 Toyota TS050 Hybrid, Winner of the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans
Circuit de la Sarthe track
The 86th 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 86e 24 Heures du Mans) was an automobile endurance event that took place on 16 and 17 June 2018,[1] at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France. It was the 86th running of the 24 Hour race organised by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest, and the second round of the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship.
The race was won by the No. 8 Toyota Gazoo Racing driven by Fernando Alonso, Kazuki Nakajima, and Sébastien Buemi, who also started from pole position. Toyota entered the only hybrid LMP1 cars and dominated the race weekend.
The LMP2 class was won by Signatech Alpine, after G-Drive TDS Racing finished first but were subsequently disqualified.[2] The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey-Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.[3]
Contents
1 Circuit changes
2 Entries
2.1 Automatic invitations
2.2 Entry list
3 Qualifying
3.1 Qualifying results
4 Race
4.1 Race result
5 Standings after the race
6 References
7 External links
Circuit changes[edit]
During the winter following the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans, modifications were made to the Porsche Curves section of the Circuit de la Sarthe to increase safety. Barriers on the inside of the final right-hand corner were dismantled and relocated further away from the circuit, allowing for the construction of paved run-off area and escape roads. This same alteration had been done on the barriers outside the corner the previous year. This modification re-profiled the corner slightly, shortening the lap distance by 3 metres (9.8 ft). The ACO also constructed a new starting line gantry 145 metres (476 ft) further up the main straight to allow more cars on the straight at the start of the race. The finish line and all timing beacons however remain at the previous starting line at the exit of the Ford Chicane.[4]
Entries[edit]
Automatic invitations[edit]
Automatic entry invitations are earned by teams that won their class in the previous running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, or won championships in the European Le Mans Series, Asian Le Mans Series, and the Michelin GT3 Le Mans Cup. The second-place finisher in the European Le Mans Series LMGTE championship also earns an automatic invitation. Two participants from the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship are chosen by the series to be automatic entries by the ACO regardless of their performance or category. As invitations are granted to teams, they were allowed to change their cars from the previous year to the next, but not allowed to change their category. The LMGTE class invitations from the European and Asian Le Mans Series are allowed to choose between the Pro and Am categories. European Le Mans Series' LMP3 champion is required to field an entry in LMP2 while the Asian Le Mans Series LMP3 champion may choose between LMP2 or LMGTE Am. The Michelin Le Mans Cup LMP3 champion does not receive an automatic entry and the GT3 champion is limited to the LMGTE Am category[5].
Reason invited
LMP1
LMP2
LMGTE Pro
LMGTE Am
1st in the 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche LMP Team Jackie Chan DC Racing Aston Martin Racing JMW Motorsport
1st in the European Le Mans Series (LMP2 and LMGTE)
G-Drive Racing JMW Motorsport
2nd in the European Le Mans Series (LMGTE)
TF Sport
1st in the European Le Mans Series (LMP3) United Autosports
WeatherTech SportsCar Championship at-large entries JDC-Miller Motorsports Keating Motorsport
1st in the Asian Le Mans Series (LMP2 and GT) Jackie Chan DC Racing X Jota FIST-Team AAI
1st in the Asian Le Mans Series (LMP3)
2nd in the Asian Le Mans Series (GT)
FIST-Team AAI
1st in the Michelin Le Mans Cup (GT3) Ebimotors
Entry list[edit]
Further information: 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship § Teams and drivers
The initial entry list was announced, along with the FIA World Endurance Championship and European Le Mans Series entries, on 9 February.[6][7]
Qualifying[edit]
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Coming into the race, Toyota was the heavy favorite for the overall victory due to its hybrid power capabilities in the LMP1 category, amongst its mostly new non-hybrid/privateer rival teams of Rebellion Racing, SMP Racing, DragonSpeed, ByKolles Racing Team, and CEFC TRSM Racing. The recent departure of Porsche from the LMP1 category in 2017 and Audi in 2016, Toyota was the only hybrid prototype, for the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship. Consequently, this merged the hybrids and non-hybrids/privateers together in the LMP1 class. The race featured the debut of Ginetta's chassis raced by CEFC TRSM Racing with a Mecachrome engine. It joined the Rebellion R13, raced by Rebellion Racing, BR Engineering BR1, raced by SMP Racing and DragonSpeed (making their debut in LMP1), and the CLM P1/01, raced by ByKolles Racing. Fernando Alonso also made his first 24 Hours of Le Mans race start, racing with Toyota. Toyota led throughout all the test, practice, and qualifying sessions. Its time in qualifying of a 3:15.377 was good enough to place first on the grid, well ahead of the other cars in its class. Its sister car took 2nd overall followed by Rebellion Racing on the grid.
The #32 LMP2 car from United Autosports, which qualified in 24th place
LMP2 was the biggest class in the race with 20 entries, IDEC Sport claimed the top spot after claiming the fastest time in qualifying of a 3:24.842 and 10th overall followed closely behind by the DragonSpeed, G-Drive Racing, and TDS Racing, all in Oreca 07's in 11th, 12th, and 13th places overall off the grid. Jackie Chan DC Racing, last year's LMP2 winner started 15th in class, 26th overall starting position. In LMGTE both classes were mainly controlled by Porsche. LMGTE Pro was led by the Porsche GT Team with 3:42.504 and 31st overall, with another one of its sister cars in second off the grid in the class and 32nd overall. Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK and AF Corse where 3rd, 33rd overall and 4th, 34th overall respectively to start the race. The new BMW M8 GTE was deployed and raced by BMW Team MTEK made its Le Mans debut and started off the grid 12th in class, 42nd overall. The sister car started behind it in 43rd overall. Dempsey-Proton was able to qualify top in the LMGTE Am class, with a time of 3:50.728 and placed 44th overall, ahead of the second of the LMGTE Pro entries of Corvette and Ferrari. Gulf Racing UK and the sister Dempsey-Proton car rounded out the top 3 in LMGTE Am on the grid.
Qualifying results[edit]
Provisional pole positions in each class are denoted in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted with a gray background.
Pos.
Class
No.
Team
Qualifying 1[8]
Qualifying 2[9]
Qualifying 3[10]
Gap
Grid
1
LMP1 8 Toyota Gazoo Racing 3:17.270 3:18.021 3:15.377
1
2
LMP1 7 Toyota Gazoo Racing 3:17.377 3:19.860 3:17.523 +2.000
2
3
LMP1 1 Rebellion Racing 3:19.662 3:23.261 3:19.449 +4.072
3
4
LMP1 17 SMP Racing 3:19.483 3:27.288 3:22.121 +4.106
4
5
LMP1 3 Rebellion Racing 3:19.945 3:22.000 3:24.156 +4.568
5
6
LMP1 10 DragonSpeed 3:21.110 4:05.947 3:23.413 +5.733
6
7
LMP1 11 SMP Racing 3:21.408 3:22.548 No time +6.031
7
8
LMP1 4 ByKolles Racing Team 3:22.505 3:25.330 3:42.221 +7.128
8
9
LMP1 6 CEFC TRSM Racing 3:30.339 3:24.343 3:23.757 +8.380
9
10
LMP2 48 IDEC Sport 3:24.956 3:29.270 3:24.842[A 1] +9.465
10
11
LMP2 31 DragonSpeed 3:26.508 3:30.168 3:24.883 +9.506
11
12
LMP2 26 G-Drive Racing 3:26.447 3:27.975 3:25.160 +9.780
12
13
LMP2 28 TDS Racing 3:25.240 3:25.291 3:38.752[A 2] +9.863
13
14
LMP1 5 CEFC TRSM Racing 3:30.481[A 2] 3:25.268 3:32.100 +9.891
14
15
LMP2 23 Panis Barthez Competition 3:29.421 3:28.008 3:25.376 +9.999
15
16
LMP2 36 Signatech Alpine Matmut 3:26.681 3:28.069 3:27.297 +11.304
16
17
LMP2 39 Graff-SO24 3:29.860 3:26.701 3:29.696 +11.324
17
18
LMP2 22 United Autosports 3:26.772 3:32.989 3:27.646 +11.395
18
19
LMP2 38 Jackie Chan DC Racing 3:27.999 3:31.581 3:27.120 +11.743
19
20
LMP2 37 Jackie Chan DC Racing 3:27.468 3:40.074 3:27.226 +11.849
20
21
LMP2 40 G-Drive Racing 3:31.291 3:27.280 3:27.503 +11.903
21
22
LMP2 47 Cetilar Villorba Corse 3:27.993 3:28.292 No time +12.616
22
23
LMP2 29 Racing Team Nederland 3:28.556 3:32.343 3:28.111 +12.734
23
24
LMP2 32 United Autosports 3:30.347 3:28.159 3:29.299 +12.782
24
25
LMP2 35 SMP Racing 3:28.629 3:32.178 3:32.432 +13.252
25
26
LMP2 34 Jackie Chan DC Racing 3:33.755 3:36.004 3:29.474 +14.097
26
27
LMP2 44 Eurasia Motorsport 3:35.385[A 2] 3:39.949 3:33.585 +18.208
27
28
LMP2 33 Jackie Chan DC Racing 3:35.237 3:36.604 3:36.517[A 1] +19.860
28
29
LMP2 50 Larbre Compétition 3:38.206 3:39.569 3:39.401 +22.829
29
30
LMP2 25 Algarve Pro Racing 3:44.177 3:46.772 3:39.518 +24.141
30
31
LMGTE Pro 91 Porsche GT Team 3:47.504 3:51.150 3:50.141 +32.127
31
32
LMGTE Pro 92 Porsche GT Team 3:49.097 3:51.101 3:51.631 +33.720
32
33
LMGTE Pro 66 Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK 3:49.181 3:52.849 3:50.166 +33.804
33
34
LMGTE Pro 51 AF Corse 3:49.854 3:53.032 3:49.494 +34.117
34
35
LMGTE Pro 68 Ford Chip Ganassi Team USA 3:49.582 3:53.352 3:50.706 +34.205
35
36
LMGTE Pro 93 Porsche GT Team 3:50.261 3:49.621 3:49.589 +34.212
36
37
LMGTE Pro 69 Ford Chip Ganassi Team USA 3:50.593 3:52.298 3:49.761 +34.384
37
38
LMGTE Pro 94 Porsche GT Team 3:50.089 No time No time +34.712
38
39
LMGTE Pro 63 Corvette Racing – GM 3:50.789 3:52.994 3:50.242 +34.865
39
40
LMGTE Pro 71 AF Corse 3:50.669 3:53.998 3:50.246 +34.869
40
41
LMGTE Pro 67 Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK 3:50.429 3:53.883 3:52.292 +35.052
41
42
LMGTE Pro 82 BMW Team MTEK 3:50.579 3:53.999 3:52.123 +35.202
42
43
LMGTE Pro 81 BMW Team MTEK 3:50.596 3:55.150 3:53.078 +35.219
43
44
LMGTE Am 88 Dempsey-Proton Racing 3:50.728 4:09.946 3:56.232 +35.351
44
45
LMGTE Pro 64 Corvette Racing – GM 3:50.952 3:52.923 3:51.124 +35.575
45
46
LMGTE Pro 52 AF Corse 3:52.112 3:52.572 3:50.957 +35.580
46
47
LMGTE Am 86 Gulf Racing UK 3:52.517 4:03.603 3:51.391 +36.014
47
48
LMGTE Am 77 Dempsey-Proton Racing 3:51.930 4:09.835 No time +36.553
48
49
LMGTE Am 54 Spirit of Race 3:52.756 3:51.956 3:56.496 +36.579
49
50
LMGTE Pro 97 Aston Martin Racing 3:52.486 3:55.424 3:53.534 +37.109
50
51
LMGTE Am 56 Team Project 1 3:52.985 3:58.235 3:54.406 +37.608
51
52
LMGTE Am 90 TF Sport 3:55.661 4:01.710 3:53.070 +37.693
52
53
LMGTE Am 80 Ebimotors 3:55.569 3:58.072 3:53.402 +38.025
53
54
LMGTE Am 61 Clearwater Racing 3:55.076 3:55.727 3:53.409 +38.032
54
55
LMGTE Am 84 JMW Motorsport 3:54.384 3:53.439 3:58.615 +38.062
55
56
LMGTE Pro 95 Aston Martin Racing 3:54.780 3:56.630 3:53.523 +38.146
56
57
LMGTE Am 98 Aston Martin Racing 3:54.307 3:58.707 3:53.817 +38.440
57
58
LMGTE Am 85 Keating Motorsport 3:54.000 3:58.661 3:54.668 +38.623
58
59
LMGTE Am 99 Proton Competition 4:03.107 3:54.720 3:54.953 +39.343
59
60
LMGTE Am 70 MR Racing 3:54.951 4:02.540 3:55.343 +39.574
60
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b The No. 33 DC Racing Ligier and No. 48 IDEC Oreca had their fastest lap time deleted for failing to slow to 80 km/h in a Slow Zone.[11]
^ Jump up to: a b c The No. 28 TDS Oreca, No. 44 Eurasia Ligier, and No. 6 TRSM Ginetta-Mechachrome had several lap times deleted for failing to stop for a mandatory weight check. These included their fastest times of the session.[12][13][14]
Race[edit]
The race began at 15:00 Central European Summer Time, with tennis champion Rafael Nadal waving the French tricolour at the starting line.[15] Sébastien Buemi led the field from pole position in the No. 8 Toyota.[16]
As had been widely predicted, the two hybrid Toyota cars dominated the race.[17] The lead swapped between the Toyotas several times over the first half of the race, before the #8 car was assessed a 60-second penalty when Buemi exceeded the speed limit in a caution zone during the night.[17][3] This put the #7 car over two minutes ahead, a lead they maintained until Fernando Alonso closed the gap during a quadruple stint in the dark.[17][3] After 16 hours, Kazuki Nakajima took the #8 car into the lead, which they maintained for the rest of the race.[17] During the final hour, Kamui Kobayashi in the #7 Toyota missed a pit stop, forcing him to complete most of a lap on electrical batteries alone when he ran out of fuel.[17] The car made it back to the pits on the next lap, allowing Toyota to complete a one-two finish, ending with the #8 car two laps ahead of the #7 car.[17]
Toyota were the second Japanese manufacturer to win at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, following Mazda's triumph in 1991. Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi, and Kazuki Nakajima all earned their first wins.[18] Buemi and Nakajima had come close at the 2016 race, when their car broke down whilst leading on the final lap.[3] Alonso's win meant he had completed two of the three legs of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.[3]
In the LMP2 class, G-Drive TDS Racing finished two laps ahead of their competitors, but were subsequently disqualified when it was discovered that they had made illegal modifications to their pit lane refuelling equipment.[2] Signatech Alpine were therefore promoted to LMP2 class winners.[2]
The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey-Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.[3]
Race result[edit]
The minimum number of laps for classification (70% of the overall winning car's race distance) was 272 laps. Class winners are in bold.[19]
Pos
Class
No
Team
Drivers
Chassis
Tyre
Laps
Time
Engine
1
LMP1 8 Toyota Gazoo Racing Sébastien Buemi
Kazuki Nakajima
Fernando Alonso Toyota TS050 Hybrid M 388 24:00.52.247
Toyota 2.4 L Turbo V6
2
LMP1 7 Toyota Gazoo Racing Mike Conway
Kamui Kobayashi
José María López Toyota TS050 Hybrid M 386 +2 Laps
Toyota 2.4 L Turbo V6
3
LMP1 3 Rebellion Racing Thomas Laurent
Gustavo Menezes
Mathias Beche Rebellion R13 M 376 +12 Laps
Gibson GL458 4.5 L V8
4
LMP1 1 Rebellion Racing Bruno Senna
André Lotterer
Neel Jani Rebellion R13 M 375 +13 Laps
Gibson GL458 4.5 L V8
5
LMP2 36 Signatech Alpine Matmut Nicolas Lapierre
Pierre Thiriet
André Negrão Alpine A470 D 367 +21 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
6
LMP2 39 Graff-SO24 Vincent Capillaire
Jonathan Hirschi
Tristan Gommendy Oreca 07 D 366 +22 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
7
LMP2 32 United Autosports Hugo de Sadeleer
Will Owen
Juan Pablo Montoya Ligier JS P217 D 365 +23 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
8
LMP2 37 Jackie Chan DC Racing Jazeman Jaafar
Nabil Jeffri
Weiron Tan Oreca 07 D 361 +27 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
9
LMP2 31 DragonSpeed Roberto González
Pastor Maldonado
Nathanaël Berthon Oreca 07 M 360 +28 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
10
LMP2 38 Jackie Chan DC Racing Ho-Pin Tung
Gabriel Aubry
Stéphane Richelmi Oreca 07 D 356 +32 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
11
LMP2 29 Racing Team Nederland Giedo van der Garde
Jan Lammers
Frits van Eerd Dallara P217 M 356 +32 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
12
LMP2 33 Jackie Chan DC Racing David Cheng
Nicholas Boulle
Jacques Nicolet Ligier JS P217 D 355 +33 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
13
LMP2 23 Panis Barthez Competition Julien Canal
Thimothé Buret
Will Stevens Ligier JS P217 M 352 +36 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
14
LMP2 35 SMP Racing Viktor Shaytar
Harrison Newey
Norman Nato Dallara P217 D 345 +43 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
15
LMGTE
Pro 92 Porsche GT Team Michael Christensen
Kévin Estre
Laurens Vanthoor Porsche 911 RSR M 344 +44 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
16
LMGTE
Pro 91 Porsche GT Team Richard Lietz
Gianmaria Bruni
Frédéric Makowiecki Porsche 911 RSR M 343 +45 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
17
LMGTE
Pro 68 Ford Chip Ganassi Team USA Joey Hand
Dirk Müller
Sébastien Bourdais Ford GT M 343 +45 Laps
Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L Turbo V6
18
LMGTE
Pro 63 Corvette Racing – GM Jan Magnussen
Antonio García
Mike Rockenfeller Chevrolet Corvette C7.R M 342 +46 Laps
Chevrolet 5.5 L V8
19
LMP2 47 Cetilar Villorba Corse Roberto Lacorte
Giorgio Sernagiotto
Felipe Nasr Dallara P217 D 342 +46 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
20
LMGTE
Pro 52 AF Corse Toni Vilander
Pipo Derani
Antonio Giovinazzi Ferrari 488 GTE Evo M 341 +47 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
21
LMGTE
Pro 66 Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK Stefan Mücke
Olivier Pla
Billy Johnson Ford GT M 340 +48 Laps
Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L Turbo V6
22
LMGTE
Pro 51 AF Corse James Calado
Alessandro Pier Guidi
Daniel Serra Ferrari 488 GTE Evo M 339 +49 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
23
LMGTE
Pro 95 Aston Martin Racing Nicki Thiim
Marco Sørensen
Darren Turner Aston Martin Vantage AMR M 339 +49 Laps
Aston Martin 4.0 L Turbo V8
24
LMGTE
Pro 71 AF Corse Davide Rigon
Sam Bird
Miguel Molina Ferrari 488 GTE Evo M 338 +50 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
25
LMGTE
Am 77 Dempsey-Proton Racing Matt Campbell
Christian Ried
Julien Andlauer Porsche 911 RSR M 335 +53 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
26
LMGTE
Am 54 Spirit of Race Thomas Flohr
Francesco Castellacci
Giancarlo Fisichella Ferrari 488 GTE M 335 +53 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
27
LMGTE
Pro 93 Porsche GT Team Patrick Pilet
Nick Tandy
Earl Bamber Porsche 911 RSR M 334 +54 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
28
LMGTE
Am 85 Keating Motorsports Ben Keating
Jeroen Bleekemolen
Luca Stolz Ferrari 488 GTE M 334 +54 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
29
LMGTE
Am 99 Proton Competition Patrick Long
Tim Pappas
Spencer Pumpelly Porsche 911 RSR M 334 +54 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
30
LMGTE
Am 84 JMW Motorsport Liam Griffin
Cooper MacNeil
Jeff Segal Ferrari 488 GTE M 332 +56 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
31
LMGTE
Am 80 Ebimotors Fabio Babini
Christina Nielsen
Erik Maris Porsche 911 RSR M 332 +56 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
32
LMP2 50 Larbre Compétition Erwin Creed
Romano Ricci
Thomas Dagoneau Ligier JS P217 M 332 +56 Laps
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
33
LMGTE
Pro 81 BMW Team MTEK Nick Catsburg
Martin Tomczyk
Philipp Eng BMW M8 GTE M 332 +56 Laps
BMW S63 4.0 L Turbo V8
34
LMGTE
Am 56 Team Project 1 Jörg Bergmeister
Patrick Lindsey
Egidio Perfetti Porsche 911 RSR M 332 +56 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
35
LMGTE
Am 61 Clearwater Racing Matt Griffin
Weng Sun Mok
Keita Sawa Ferrari 488 GTE M 332 +56 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
36
LMGTE
Pro 67 Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK Harry Tincknell
Andy Priaulx
Tony Kanaan Ford GT M 332[N 1] +56 Laps
Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L Turbo V6
37
LMGTE
Pro 97 Aston Martin Racing Alex Lynn
Jonathan Adam
Maxime Martin Aston Martin Vantage AMR M 327 +61 Laps
Aston Martin 4.0 L Turbo V8
38
LMGTE
Am 70 MR Racing Olivier Beretta
Eddie Cheever III
Motoaki Ishikawa Ferrari 488 GTE M 324 +64 Laps
Ferrari F154CB 3.9 L Turbo V8
39
LMGTE
Pro 69 Ford Chip Ganassi Team USA Ryan Briscoe
Richard Westbrook
Scott Dixon Ford GT M 309[N 2] +79 Laps
Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L Turbo V6
40
LMGTE
Am 86 Gulf Racing Michael Wainwright
Ben Barker
Alex Davison Porsche 911 RSR M 283 +105 Laps
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
41
LMP1 5 CEFC TRSM Racing Charlie Robertson
Michael Simpson
Léo Roussel Ginetta G60-LT-P1 M 283[N 3] +105 Laps
Mecachrome V634P1 3.4 L Turbo V6
NC[N 4]
LMP2 44 Eurasia Motorsport Andrea Bertolini
Niclas Jönsson
Tracy Krohn Ligier JS P217 D 334 Not classified
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMP1 11 SMP Racing Mikhail Aleshin
Vitaly Petrov
Jenson Button BR Engineering BR1 M 315 Engine
AER P60B 2.4 L Turbo V6
DNF
LMP2 48 IDEC Sport Paul Lafargue
Paul-Loup Chatin
Memo Rojas Oreca 07 M 312 Gearbox
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMGTE
Am 90 TF Sport Euan Hankey
Charlie Eastwood
Salih Yoluç Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE M 304 Driveshaft
Aston Martin 4.5 L V8
DNF
LMP2 22 United Autosports Phil Hanson
Paul di Resta
Filipe Albuquerque Ligier JS P217 D 288 Crash
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMGTE
Pro 64 Corvette Racing – GM Oliver Gavin
Tommy Milner
Marcel Fässler Chevrolet Corvette C7.R M 259 Overheating
Chevrolet 5.5 L V8
DNF
LMP1 10 DragonSpeed Ben Hanley
Henrik Hedman
Renger van der Zande BR Engineering BR1 M 244 Crash
Gibson GL458 4.5 L V8
DNF
LMP2 25 Algarve Pro Racing Mark Patterson
Ate de Jong
Tacksung Kim Ligier JS P217 D 237 Gearbox
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMGTE
Am 88 Dempsey-Proton Racing Khaled Al Qubaisi
Matteo Cairoli
Giorgio Roda Porsche 911 RSR M 225 Suspension
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
DNF
LMGTE
Pro 82 BMW Team MTEK António Félix da Costa
Alexander Sims
Augusto Farfus BMW M8 GTE M 223 Damage
BMW S63 4.0 L Turbo V8
DNF
LMP2 40 G-Drive Racing James Allen
José Gutiérrez
Enzo Guibbert Oreca 07 D 197 Crash
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMP2 34 Jackie Chan DC Racing Ricky Taylor
Côme Ledogar
David Heinemeier Hansson Ligier JS P217 D 195 Engine
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DNF
LMP1 6 CEFC TRSM Racing Oliver Rowland
Alex Brundle
Oliver Turvey Ginetta G60-LT-P1 M 137 Electrical
Mecachrome V634P1 3.4 L Turbo V6
DNF
LMP1 17 SMP Racing Stéphane Sarrazin
Matevos Isaakyan
Egor Orudzhev BR Engineering BR1 M 123 Crash
AER P60B 2.4 L Turbo V6
DNF
LMGTE
Pro 94 Porsche GT Team Romain Dumas
Timo Bernhard
Sven Müller Porsche 911 RSR M 92 Suspension
Porsche 4.0 L Flat-6
DNF
LMGTE
Am 98 Aston Martin Racing Paul Dalla Lana
Mathias Lauda
Pedro Lamy Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE M 92 Crash
Aston Martin 4.5 L V8
DNF
LMP1 4 ByKolles Racing Team Oliver Webb
Tom Dillmann
Dominik Kraihamer ENSO CLM P1/01 M 65 Collision
Nismo VRX30A 3.0 L Turbo V6
DSQ[N 5]
LMP2 26 G-Drive Racing Roman Rusinov
Andrea Pizzitola
Jean-Éric Vergne Oreca 07 D 369 Disqualified
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
DSQ[N 5]
LMP2 28 TDS Racing François Perrodo
Loïc Duval
Matthieu Vaxivière Oreca 07 D 365[N 6] Disqualified
Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8
Notes
Jump up ^ The No. 67 Ford was penalised 11 laps and 1:23.499 by the stewards following the race because Tony Kanaan did not meet the minimum overall drive time of six hours.[20]
Jump up ^ The No. 69 Ford was penalised 2 laps and 1:42.968 by the stewards following the race because Scott Dixon did not meet the minimum overall drive time of six hours.[20]
Jump up ^ The No. 5 Ginetta was penalised 6 laps and 2:45.613 by the stewards following the race because Léo Roussel did not meet the minimum overall drive time of six hours.[20]
Jump up ^ The No. 44 Eurasia Ligier was not classified as a finisher for failing to complete the final lap of the race.[19]
^ Jump up to: a b The No. 26 G-Drive and No. 28 TDS Orecas, both under the operation of TDS Racing, were disqualified from the race after it was found that the team had illegally modified their refueling equipment in order to fuel both cars quicker than regulations allowed.[21]
Jump up ^ Prior to the disqualification, the No. 28 TDS Oreca was penalised 1 lap and 1:18.188 by the stewards following the race for driver François Perrodo exceeding his maximum drive time of four hours in a six hour period.[20]
Standings after the race[edit]
2018–2019 LMP World Endurance Drivers' Championship[22]
Pos.
+/–
Driver
Points
1 Fernando Alonso
Kazuki Nakajima
Sébastien Buemi 65
2 Kamui Kobayashi
Mike Conway
José María López 45
3 Thomas Laurent
Gustavo Menezes
Mathias Beche 38
4 3 Nicolas Lapierre
André Negrão
Pierre Thiriet 21
5 8 Neel Jani
André Lotterer
Bruno Senna 18
2018–2019 LMP1 World Endurance Championship[23]
Pos.
+/–
Team
Points
1 Toyota Gazoo Racing 65
2 Rebellion Racing 38
3 ByKolles Racing Team 12
4 SMP Racing 10
5 CEFC TRSM Racing 1
6 DragonSpeed 0
Note: Only the top five positions are included for Drivers' Championship standings.
2018–2019 World Endurance GTE Drivers' Championship[24]
Pos.
+/–
Driver
Points
1 1 Michael Christensen
Kévin Estre 56
2 1 Billy Johnson
Olivier Pla
Stefan Mücke 48
3 1 Gianmaria Bruni
Richard Lietz 40
4 Laurens Vanthoor 38
5 Frédéric Makowiecki 28
2018–2019 World Endurance GTE Manufacturers' Championship[25]
Pos.
+/–
Constructor
Points
1 Porsche 96
2 Ford 50
3 Ferrari 45.5
4 1 Aston Martin 30
5 1 BMW 17
Note: Only the top five positions are included for the Drivers' Championship standings.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The FIA World Motor Sport Council approves the dates for the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans | ACO – Automobile Club de l'Ouest". Lemans.org. 2017-06-19. Retrieved 2017-07-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c Klein, Jamie. "G-Drive team loses Le Mans LMP2 win for illegal device in pitstops". Autosport.com. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Richards, Giles (17 June 2018). "Fernando Alonso wins Le Mans 24 Hours to get closer to triple crown". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Davoine, Basile; Watkins, Gary (22 February 2018). "Porsche Curves safety upgrade on Le Mans 24 Hours circuit completed". Autosport.com. Motorsport Network. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018 Le Mans 24 Hours – The last teams invited!". ACO. 2018-02-04. Archived from the original on 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
Jump up ^ Kilshaw, Jake (9 February 2018). "24H Le Mans Entry List Released". Sportscar365. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "List of the Competitors, Drivers and Cars Eligible to Take Part in the Race" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 16 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "FIA WEC 86th Edition des 24 Heures du Mans Qualifying Practice 1 – Final Classification" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "FIA WEC 86th Edition des 24 Heures du Mans Qualifying Practice 2 – Final Classification" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "FIA WEC 86th Edition des 24 Heures du Mans Qualifying Practice 3 – Final Classification" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Decision No. 20" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Decision No. 17" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Decision No. 18" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Decision No. 23" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Lloyd, David (14 May 2018). "Nadal Announced as Le Mans Starter". Sportscar365. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "FIA WEC 86th 24 Heures du Mans Race (1,440') – Provisional Starting Grid" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 15 June 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Benson, Andrew (17 June 2018). "Fernando Alonso wins Le Mans 24 with Toyota". BBC Sport. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Andrew Benson (17 June 2018). "Fernando Alonso wins Le Mans 24 with Toyota". BBC News. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "FIA WEC 86th 24 Heures du Mans Race – Provisional Classification" (PDF). Automobile Club de l'Ouest. 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dagys, John (18 June 2018). "No. 67 Ford Loses Fourth in GTE-Pro Due to Drive Time Infraction". Sportscar365. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Klein, Jamie (June 18, 2018). "G-Drive LMP2 squad stripped of Le Mans victory". Motorsport.com. Motorsport Network. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018 – 2019 LMP World Endurance Drivers Championship" (PDF). Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. 17 June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018–2019 LMP1 World Endurance Championship" (PDF). Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. 17 June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018 – 2019 World Endurance GTE Drivers Championship" (PDF). Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. 17 June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018–2019 World Endurance GTE Manufacturers Championship" (PDF). Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. 17 June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans.
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Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, also called Framework Programmes or abbreviated FP1 to FP7 with "FP8" being named "Horizon 2020", are funding programmes created by the European Union/European Commission to support and foster research in the European Research Area (ERA). The specific objectives and actions vary between funding periods. In FP6 and FP7 focus was still in technological research, in Horizon 2020 the focus is in innovation, delivering economic growth faster and delivering solutions to end users that are often governmental agencies.
Contents
1 Background
2 The framework programmes
3 Funding instruments
3.1 FP6 and FP7
3.2 Horizon 2020
4 Illustrative projects
4.1 IMPETUS
4.2 OpenAIRE
5 Criticism of the programmes
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background[edit]
Conducting European research policies and implementing European research programmes is an obligation under the Amsterdam Treaty, which includes a chapter on research and technological development. The programmes are defined by Commission civil servants that are aided by various official advisory group and lobby groups. E.g. to advise the European Commission on the overall strategy to be followed in carrying out the Information and Communication Technology thematic priority, the Information Society Technologies Advisory Group (ISTAG) was set up.[1]
The framework programmes[edit]
The framework programmes up until Framework Programme 6 (FP6) covered five-year periods, but from Framework Programme 7 (FP7) on, programmes run for seven years. The Framework Programmes, and their budgets in billions of Euros, are presented in the table below.[2] For FP1–FP5, program expenditures were made in European Currency Units; from FP6 onward budgets were in Euros. The values presented below are in Euros.
ID
Framework Programme
period
Budget (billions of €)
FP1 First[3] 1984–1987 3.8
FP2 Second[4] 1987–1991 5.4
FP3 Third[5] 1990–1994 6.6
FP4 Fourth[6] 1994–1998 13.2
FP5 Fifth[7] 1998–2002 15.0
FP6 Sixth[8] 2002–2006 16.3
FP7 Seventh 2007–2013 50.5 over seven years
+ 2.7 for Euratom over five years[9]
FP8 Horizon 2020 (Eighth)[10] 2014–2020 77[11]
Funding instruments[edit]
FP6 and FP7[edit]
Framework Programme 6 and 7 (2002–2013) projects were generally funded through instruments, the most important of which included:
Integrating Project (IP)
Medium- to large-sized collaborative research projects funded in FP6 and FP7. They are composed of a minimum of three partners coming from three different countries from Associated states but can join several tens of partners. The typical duration of such projects is three to five years but there is not a defined upper limit. The budget granted by the Commission can reach several tens of million euros, paid as a fraction of the actual costs spent by the participants.[12]
IPs specifically aim at fostering European competitiveness in basic research and applied science with a focus on "addressing major needs in society" defined by the Priority Themes of the Framework Programme. Like STRePs (see below), IPs ask for a strong participation of small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to ascertain the translation of research results into commercially viable products or services.[13][need quotation to verify]
Network of Excellence (NoE)
Medium-sized research projects co-funded by the European Commission in FP6 and FP7. These projects are "designed to strengthen scientific and technological excellence on a particular research topic through the durable integration of the research capacities of the participants."[14]
NoE projects require the minimum participation of three different EU member-nations, however, projects are usually expected[by whom?] to involve at least six countries.[15] Projects are provided grants for a maximum of seven years. The budget granted by the Commission is €1–6 million per year depending upon the number of researchers involved.[15]
An NoE project should not strictly be considered as a research project, since its aim is not to conduct research, but rather to contribute to the clarification of the concepts in the covered field.[citation needed]
Specific Targeted Research Projects (STReP)
Medium-sized research projects funded by the European Commission in the FP6 and FP7 funding programs. STReP projects involve a minimum of three partners coming from three different countries from Associated states. The typical duration of such projects is two to three years. In FP6, they generally involved between six and 15 partners. The budget granted by the Commission is in average around €2 million.[16]
Note also the FP7 Joint Technology Initiatives (JTI) in partnership with industry.[17]
Horizon 2020[edit]
Horizon 2020 is the eighth framework programme funding research, technological development, and innovation. The programme's name has been modified to "Framework Programme for Research and Innovation". The framework programme is implemented by the European Commission, the executive body of the European Union, either by various internal directorate general (DGs), such as the directorate general for research and innovation (DG RTD) or the directorate general for communications networks, content and Technology, or by executive agencies such as the Research Executive Agency (REA), the Executive Agency for SMEs (EASME), or the ERC Executive Agency (ERCEA). The framework programme's objective is to complete the European Research Area (ERA) by coordinating national research policies and pooling research funding in some areas to avoid duplication. Horizon 2020 itself is seen as a policy instrument to implement other high-level policy initiatives of the European Union, such as Europe 2020 and Innovation Union. The programme runs from 2014–20 and provides an estimated €80 billion of funding,[18][19] an increase of 23 per cent on the previous phase.[20]
Horizon 2020 provides grants to research and innovation projects through open and competitive calls for proposals. Legal entities from any country are eligible to submit project proposals to these calls. Participation from outside the European Union is explicitly encouraged.[21] Participants from European Union member states and countries associated to Horizon 2020 are automatically funded. Associated countries have signed an association agreement for the purposes of this framework programme. To date, 14 countries are associated to Horizon 2020.[22] Switzerland is considered as "partly associated" due to the 2014 referendums held by Switzerland, which free movement of workers between Switzerland and the EU. Swiss organisations continue to be active participants in Horizon 2020, however, their participation is sometimes covered by national funding. Israel is an "associated country" to Horizon 2020. A central point of negotiation was funding to projects beyond the Green Line;.[23] Israel published its views in an Appendix to the official documents. Horizon 2020 supports Open access to research results,[24] in order to create greater efficiency, improve transparency and accelerate innovation.[25]
Horizon 2020 is also implementing the European environmental research and innovation policy, which is aimed at defining and turning into reality a transformative agenda for greening the economy and the society as a whole so as to achieve a truly sustainable development.
The programme consists of three main research areas that are called "pillars": The first pillar, "Excellent Science", focuses on basic science. It has a budget of 24 billion euro. The second pillar is "Industrial Leadership", with a budget of 14 billion euro. It is managed by DG Enterprise and based on Europe 2020 and Innovation Union strategies. The third pillar funds potential solutions to social and economic problems, "Societal challenges" (SC).
The structure follows the previous framework programme (FP7, 2007–13) to the level of the sub-programmes under the pillars. In the industrial pillar the goal is to find ways to modernize European industries that have suffered from a fragmented European market. In societal challenges the goal is implementation of solutions, less on technology development.
Horizon 2020 will be succeeded by Horizon Europe.
Illustrative projects[edit]
IMPETUS[edit]
IMPETUS (Information Management Portal to Enable the inTegration of Unmanned Systems) is addressing the scientific analysis of information management requirements for a safe and efficient integration of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) in very low level airspace. As a result, technologically and commercially feasible service solutions are elaborated and deployed in an experimental testing environment.
The expected growth of future UAS movements in rural as well as urban areas indicates the need for traffic management solutions, ensuring a normal course of trouble free operations of manned as well as unmanned aviation.[26] IMPETUS contributes by investigating potential microservices that serve the airspace user’s needs in all phases of the operation life cycle, from strategical planning over pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight data provision. Since information management is an infrastructural prerequisite of future unmanned traffic systems, the results support the European goal to gain in prosperity by means of the job and business opportunities of an emerging drone service market.[27]
Ensuring a scalable, flexible and cost efficient system, IMPETUS proposes the application of the Function as a Service paradigm and Smart Concepts. Concurrently, data quality and integrity is taken into account to guarantee a safe conduct of all operations. To fulfil these purposes, the project started to characterize data processes and services of vital importance for drone operations. Following the requirements derived from this preliminary studies, a Smart UTM Design is drafted in alignment with the U-Space concept, which describes a framework for a progressive implementation of services to “enable complex drone operations with a high degree of automation to take place in all types of operational environments, including urban areas.”[28] Subsequently, specific microservices will be prototyped and laboratory scale tested in a server-less cloud-based environment.[29]
On behalf of the SESAR Joint Undertaking, IMPETUS is carried out from 2017 – 2019 by a multinational consortium of key stakeholders in unmanned aviation:
Altitude Angel (UK), Boeing Research and Technology Europe (ES), C-Astral (SI), CRIDA (ES), INECO (ES), Jeppesen (DE) and the Technical University of Darmstadt (DE).
OpenAIRE[edit]
A network of Open Access repositories, archives and journals that support Open Access policies. The OpenAIRE Consortium is a Horizon 2020 (FP8) project, aimed to support the implementation of the EC and ERC Open Access policies.
Its successor OpenAIREplus is aimed at linking the aggregated research publications to the accompanying research and project information, datasets and author information.
Open access to scientific peer reviewed publications has evolved from a pilot project with limited scope in FP7 to an underlying principle in the Horizon 2020 funding scheme, obligatory for all H2020 funded projects. The goal is to make as much European funded research output as possible available to all, via the OpenAIRE portal.
—  openaire.eu FAQ[30]
The Zenodo research data repository is a product of OpenAIRE. The OpenAIRE portal is online.[31]
Criticism of the programmes[edit]
The programmes have been criticized on various grounds, such as actually diminishing Europe's industrial competitiveness[32] and failing to deliver fundamental excellence and global economic competitiveness.[33] In 2010, the Austrian Research Promotion Agency launched a petition calling for a simplification of administrative procedures, which attracted over 13,000 signatories.[34] The numerous other criticisms of the petitioners were later distilled into a green paper.[35] In Horizon 2020 there are significant simplifications: e.g. fewer funding rates (increasing the funding rates of the large companies), less reporting, less auditing, shorter time from proposal to project kick-off.
See also[edit]
TOCSIN project
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "ISTAG website". Cordis.lu. 20 October 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Artis, M. J. and F. Nixson, Eds. "The Economics of the European Union: Policy and Analysis" (4th ed.), Oxford University Press 2007
Jump up ^ OJ C208 – 04/08/1983
Jump up ^ OJ L302 – 24/10/1987; 87/516/Euratom, EEC
Jump up ^ OJ L117 – 08/05/1990; 90/221/Euratom, EEC
Jump up ^ OJ L126 – 18/05/1994; No 1110/94/EC
Jump up ^ OJ L26 – 01/02/1999; No 182/1999/EC
Jump up ^ OJ L232 – 29/08/2002; No 1513/2002/EC
Jump up ^ "How is FP 7 structured? from FP7 in Brief". European Commission. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Cordis. "The EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation". Retrieved 19 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Research and innovation funding: making a real difference". European Commission. 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "CORDIS Archive : CORDIS FP6: What is FP6: Instruments: Integrated Projects". Cordis.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Provisions for Implementing Integrated Projects" (PDF). Retrieved 29 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "What is FP6: Instruments: Network of Excellence". European Commission. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Provisions for Implementing Networks of Excellence", cordis.europa.eu. Retrieved 25 June 2009
Jump up ^ "Guide for applicants (Collaborative projects - Small and Medium-scale focused Research Projects - STREP)". European Commission. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
Jump up ^ OECD (2008). "2: Main trends in Science, Technology and Innovation policy". OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2008. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook. OECD Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 9789264049949. Retrieved 2017-09-01. Joint Technology Initiatives (JTI) [...] are initiatives emerging from European technology platforms and are financed partly by FP7 funds and by industry.
Jump up ^ Grove, Jack (2011). "'Triple miracle' sees huge rise in EU funds for frontier research". Times Higher Education. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Amos, Jonathan. "Horizon 2020: UK launch for EU's £67bn research budget". BBC. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Rabesandratana, Tania. "E.U. Leaders Agree on Science Budget". ScienceInsider. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Horizon 2020" (PDF). Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Associated Countries" (PDF). Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ Elis, Niv (2014). "Israel joins 77 billion euro Horizon 2020 R&D program". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Fact sheet: Open Access in Horizon 2020" (PDF). European Commission. 9 December 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publications and Research Data in Horizon 2020" (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Union, Publications Office of the European (2017-04-21). "European drones outlook study : unlocking the value for Europe". doi:10.2829/085259. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Warsaw Declaration: "Drones as a leverage for jobs and new business opportunities"" (PDF). 2016-11-24. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ "U-space : blueprint". SESAR Joint Undertaking. 2017-11-21. doi:10.2829/335092.
Jump up ^ "IMPETUS - Information Management Portal to Enable the Integration of Unmanned Systems". 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Openaire - Faq". Openaire.eu. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ "OpenAIRE - OpenAIRE". Openaire.eu. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ Financial Control and Fraud in the Community. House of Lords Select Committee on the European Communities, 12th Report. London: HMSO (1994).
Jump up ^ H. Matthews, The 7th EU research framework programme. Nanotechnol. Perceptions 1 (2005) 99–105.
Jump up ^ "Cerexhe receives petition for the simplification of administrative procedures for researchers". Retrieved 16 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Green Paper "From Challenges to Opportunities: Towards a Common Strategic Framework for EU Research and Innovation funding"" (PDF). Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG), Vienna. May 2011.
Further reading[edit]
Galsworthy, Michael; McKee, Martin (July 2013). "Europe's 'Horizon 2020' science funding programme: how is it shaping up?". Journal of Health Services Research & Policy. Sage. 18 (3): 182–185. doi:10.1177/1355819613476017.
External links[edit]
EU Research & Innovation web site
Community Research and Development Information Service (CORDIS)
Search Engine of Topics and Projects
Statistics for FP7 (FR)
Horizon 2020 - Participant Portal
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Respiratory tract
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Organs involved in transmission of air to and from the point where gases diffuse into tissue
"Airway" redirects here. For an aerial route taken by airplanes, see Airway (aviation). For other uses, see Airway (disambiguation).
Respiratory tract
Conducting passages
Details
System
respiratory system
Identifiers
FMA
265130
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration. Air is breathed in through the nose or the mouth. In the nasal cavity, a layer of mucous membrane acts as a filter and traps pollutants and other harmful substances found in the air. Next, air moves into the pharynx, a passage that contains the intersection between the esophagus and the larynx. The opening of the larynx has a special flap of cartilage, the epiglottis, that opens to allow air to pass through but closes to prevent food from moving into the airway.
From the larynx, air moves into the trachea and down to the intersection that branches to form the right and left primary (main) bronchi. Each of these bronchi branch into secondary (lobar) bronchi that branch into tertiary (segmental) bronchi that branch into smaller airways called bronchioles that eventually connect with tiny specialized structures called alveoli that function in gas exchange.
The lungs which are located in the thoracic cavity, are protected from physical damage by the rib cage. At the base of the lungs is a sheet of skeletal muscle called the diaphragm. The diaphragm separates the lungs from the stomach and intestines. The diaphragm is also the main muscle of respiration involved in breathing, and is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
The lungs are encased in a serous membrane that folds in on itself to form the pleurae – a two-layered protective barrier. The inner visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs, and the outer parietal pleura is attached to the inner surface of the thoracic cavity. The pleurae enclose a cavity called the pleural cavity that contains pleural fluid. This fluid is used to decrease the amount of friction that lungs experience during breathing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Upper respiratory tract
1.2 Lower respiratory tract
1.3 Microanatomy
2 Function
2.1 Respiration
2.2 Defences against infection
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Infection
3.2 Lung cancer
3.3 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
3.4 Asthma
4 See also
5 References
Structure[edit]
Complete respiratory system
The respiratory tract is divided into the upper airways and lower airways. The upper airways or upper respiratory tract includes the nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, the pharynx, and the portion of the larynx above the vocal folds (cords). The lower airways or lower respiratory tract includes the portion of the larynx below the vocal folds, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs can be included in the lower respiratory tract or as separate entity and include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.[citation needed]
The respiratory tract can also be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone, based on the distinction of transporting gases or exchanging them.
The conducting zone includes structures outside of the lungs – the nose, pharynx, larynx, and trachea, and structures inside the lungs – the bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. The conduction zone conducts air breathed in that is filtered, warmed, and moistened, into the lungs. It represents the 1st through the 16th division of the respiratory tract. The conducting zone is most of the respiratory tract that conducts gases into and out of the lungs, but excludes the respiratory zone that exchanges gases. The conducting zone also functions to offer a low resistance pathway for airflow. It provides a major defense role in its filtering abilities.
The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli, and is the site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange with the blood. The respiratory bronchioles and the alveolar ducts are responsible for 10% of the gas exchange. The alveoli are responsible for the other 90%. The respiratory zone represents the 16th through the 23rd division of the respiratory tract.
From the bronchi, the dividing tubes become progressively smaller with an estimated 20 to 23 divisions before ending at an alveolus[citation needed].
Upper respiratory tract[edit]
Details of upper respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract, can refer to the parts of the respiratory system lying above the sternal angle (outside of the thorax),[1] above the vocal folds, or above the cricoid cartilage.[2][3] The larynx is sometimes included in both the upper and lower airways.[4] The larynx is also called the voice box and has the associated cartilage that produces sound. The tract consists of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx) and sometimes includes the larynx.
Lower respiratory tract[edit]
Trachea
Mainstem bronchus
Lobar bronchus
Segmental bronchus
Bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveolus
The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is derived from the developing foregut and consists of the trachea, bronchi (primary, secondary and tertiary), bronchioles (including terminal and respiratory), and lungs (including alveoli).[5] It also sometimes includes the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract is also called the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree, to describe the branching structure of airways supplying air to the lungs, and includes the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.[6]
trachea
main bronchus (diameter approximately 1 – 1.4 cm in adults)[7]
lobar bronchus (diameter approximately 1 cm)
segmental bronchus (diameter 4.5 to 13 mm)[7]
subsegmental bronchus (diameter 1 to 6 mm)[7]
conducting bronchiole
terminal bronchiole
respiratory bronchiole
alveolar duct
alveolar sac
alveolus
At each division point or generation, one airway branches into two or more smaller airways. The human respiratory tree may consist on average of 23 generations, while the respiratory tree of the mouse has up to 13 generations. Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the bronchi) mainly function to transmit air to the lower airways. Later divisions including the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts and alveoli, are specialized for gas exchange.
The trachea is the largest tube in the respiratory tract and consists of tracheal rings of hyaline cartilage. It branches off into two bronchial tubes, a left and a right main bronchus. The bronchi branch off into smaller sections inside the lungs, called bronchioles. These bronchioles give rise to the air sacs in the lungs called the alveoli.[8]
The lungs are the largest organs in the lower respiratory tract. The lungs are suspended within the pleural cavity of the thorax. The pleurae are two thin membranes, one cell layer thick, which surround the lungs. The inner (visceral pleura) covers the lungs and the outer (parietal pleura) lines the inner surface of the chest wall. This membrane secretes a small amount of fluid, allowing the lungs to move freely within the pleural cavity while expanding and contracting during breathing. The lungs are divided into different lobes. The right lung is larger in size than the left, because of the heart's being situated to the left of the midline. The right lung has three lobes – upper, middle, and lower (or superior, middle and inferior), and the left lung has two – upper and lower (or superior and inferior), plus a small tongue-shaped portion of the upper lobe known as the lingula. Each lobe is further divided up into segments called bronchopulmonary segments. Each lung has a costal surface, which is adjacent to the ribcage; a diaphragmatic surface, which faces downward toward the diaphragm; and a mediastinal surface, which faces toward the center of the chest, and lies against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the two mainstem bronchi branch off from the base of the trachea.
The alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. The mean number of alveoli in a human lung is 480 million.[9] When the diaphragm contracts, a negative pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes in to fill the cavity. When that happens, these sacs fill with air, making the lung expand. The alveoli are rich with capillaries, called alveolor capillaries. Here the red blood cells absorb oxygen from the air and then carry it back in the form of oxyhaemaglobin, to nourish the cells. The red blood cells also carry carbon dioxide (CO2) away from the cells in the form of carboxyhemoglobin and releases it into the alveoli through the alveolor capillaries. When the diaphragm relaxes, a positive pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes out of the alveoli expelling the carbon dioxide.
Microanatomy[edit]
See also: Respiratory epithelium
Respiratory epithelium
The respiratory tract is covered in epithelium, which varies down the tract. There are glands and mucus produced by goblet cells in parts, as well as smooth muscle, elastin or cartilage. Most of the epithelium (from the nose to the bronchi) is covered in ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, commonly called respiratory epithelium.[10] The cilia beat in one direction, moving mucus towards the throat where it is swallowed. Moving down the bronchioles, the cells get more cuboidal in shape but are still ciliated.
Glands are abundant in the upper respiratory tract, but there are fewer lower down and they are absent starting at the bronchioles. The same goes for goblet cells, although there are scattered ones in the first bronchioles.
Cartilage is present until the small bronchi. In the trachea they are C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage, whereas in the bronchi the cartilage takes the form of interspersed plates. Smooth muscle starts in the trachea, where it joins the C-shaped rings of cartilage. It continues down the bronchi and bronchioles, which it completely encircles. Instead of hard cartilage, the bronchi and bronchioles are composed of elastic tissue.

The lungs are made up of thirteen different kinds of cells, eleven types of epithelial cell and two types of mesenchymal cell.[11] The epithelial cells form the lining of the tracheal, and bronchial tubes, while the mesenchymal cells line the lungs.
Differences in cells along the respiratory tract.
Transverse section of tracheal tissue. Note that image is incorrectly labeled "ciliated stratified epithelium" at upper right.
Function[edit]
Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and alveoli are the only part of the lung that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood.
Respiration[edit]
Main article: Breathing
Respiration is the rhythmical process of breathing, in which air is drawn into the alveoli of the lungs via inhalation and subsequently expelled via exhalation. When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs. The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spine, and sternum. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of breathing.
Unlike the trachea and bronchi, the upper airway is a collapsible, compliant tube. As such, it has to be able to withstand suction pressures generated by the rhythmic contraction of the diaphragm that sucks air into the lungs. This is accomplished by the rhythmic contraction of upper airway muscles, such as the genioglossus (tongue) and the hyoid muscles. In addition to rhythmic innervation from the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata, the motor neurons controlling the muscles also receive tonic innervation that sets a baseline level of stiffness and size.
The diaphragm is the primary muscle that allows for lung expansion and contraction. Smaller muscles between the ribs, the external intercostals, assist with this process.
Defences against infection[edit]
The epithelial lining of the upper respiratory tract is interspersed with goblet cells that secrete a protective mucus. This helps to filter waste, which is eventually either swallowed into the highly acidic stomach environment or expelled via spitting. The epithelium lining the respiratory tract is covered in small hairs called cilia. These beat rhythmically out from the lungs, moving secreted mucus foreign particles toward the laryngopharynx upwards and outwards, in a process called the mucociliary escalator. In addition to keeping the lower respiratory tract sterile, they prevent mucus accumulation in the lungs. Macrophages in the alveoli are part of the immune system which engulf and digest any inhaled harmful agents.
Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust.[12] The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucus membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Respiratory disease
The respiratory tract is a common site for infections.
Infection[edit]
Main articles: Upper respiratory tract infection, Lower respiratory tract infection, and Pneumonia
Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.
The respiratory system is very prone to developing infections in the lungs. Infants and older adults are more likely to develop infections in their lungs, because their lungs are not as strong in fighting off these infections. Most of these infections used to be fatal, but with new research and medicine, they are now treatable. With bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed, while viral infections are harder to treat, but still curable.
The common cold/flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory tract. Pneumonia is the most common, and frequent lower respiratory tract infection. This can be either viral, bacterial, or fungal. This infection is very common, because pneumonia can be airborne, and when you inhale this infection in the air, the particles enter the lungs and move into the air sacs. This infection quickly develops in the lower part of the lung, and fills the lung with fluid, and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer[8][dead link]
Bronchitis is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus that is natural in your respiratory tract. Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves.[8][dead link]
Tuberculosis is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood.[8][dead link] This infection is deadly if not treated.
Lung cancer[edit]
Main article: Lung cancer
Some of these cancers have environmental causes such as smoking. When a tobacco product is inhaled, the smoke paralyzes the cilia, causing mucus to enter the lungs. Frequent smoking, over time causes the cilia hairs to die and can no longer filter mucus. Tar from the smoke inhaled enters the lungs, turning the pink-coloured lungs black. The accumulation of this tar could eventually lead to lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[5]
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease[edit]
Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to the lungs is irreversible and eventually fatal. COPD destroys the alveoli, and lung tissue which makes breathing very difficult, causing shortness of breath, hyperventilation, and raised chest. The decreased number of alveoli causes loss of oxygen supply to the lungs, and an increased accumulation of carbon dioxide. There are two types of COPD: primary and secondary. Primary COPD can be found in younger adults. This type of COPD deteriorates the air sacs, and lung mass. Secondary COPD can be found in older adults who smoke or have smoked and have a history of bronchitis. Older terms for COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis.[5]
Asthma[edit]
Main article: Asthma
The bronchi are the main passages to the right and left lungs. These airways carry the oxygen to the bronchioles inside the lungs. Inflammation of the bronchii and bronchioles can cause them to swell up, which could lead to an asthma attack. This results in wheezing, tightness of the chest and severe difficulty in breathing. There are different types of asthma that affect the functions of the bronchial tubes. Allergies can also set off an allergic reaction, causing swelling of the bronchial tubes; as a result, the air passage will swell up, or close up completely.[8][dead link]
See also[edit]
Jet ventilation
Nasopharyngeal airway
Oropharyngeal airway
References[edit]
Jump up ^ I. Edward Alcamo; John Bergdahl (29 July 2003). Anatomy Coloring Workbook. The Princeton Review. pp. 238–. ISBN 978-0-375-76342-7. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Ronald M. Perkin; James D Swift; Dale A Newton (1 September 2007). Pediatric hospital medicine: textbook of inpatient management. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 473–. ISBN 978-0-7817-7032-3. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Jeremy P. T. Ward; Jane Ward; Charles M. Wiener (2006). The respiratory system at a glance. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-1-4051-3448-4. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Sabyasachi Sircar (2008). Principles of medical physiology. Thieme. pp. 309–. ISBN 978-3-13-144061-7. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bronchial Anatomy". Retrieved 5 Mar 2014.
Jump up ^ "Tracheobronchial tree | Radiology Reference Article". Radiopaedia. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Page 81 in Robert M. Kacmarek, Steven Dimas & Craig W. Mack (2013). Essentials of Respiratory Care. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-032327778-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Human Respiratory System". Archived from the original on 2008-10-15. Retrieved 5 Oct 2008.
Jump up ^ Ochs, M; et al. (1 January 2004). "The number of alveoli in the human lung". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 169 (1): 120–4. doi:10.1164/rccm.200308-1107OC. PMID 14512270. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Moore EJ, Feliciano DV, Mattox KL (2004). Trauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. p. 545. ISBN 0-07-137069-2. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Cellular structure, function and organization in the lower respiratory tract". Retrieved 5 Oct 2008.
Jump up ^ Blaivas, Allen J. (29 June 2012). "Anatomy and function of the respiratory system". Penn State Hershey Medical Center. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the lower respiratory tract
Respiratory tree
Trachea
Tracheal rings
Annular ligaments
Carina
Bronchi
Main
left
right
Secondary
eparterial
Tertiary
Lungs
General
Landmarks
Base
Apex
Root
Hilum
Fissures
Horizontal
Oblique
Superior lobe
Lingula of left lung
Middle lobe of right lung
Inferior lobe
BP segment
Bronchiole: Conducting zone (Terminal bronchiole)
Respiratory zone (Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveolus
Blood-air barrier)
Cells
Alveolar cells
Type I
Type II
Club cell
Goblet cell
[show]
v
t
e
Respiratory physiology
Respiration
breath
inhalation
exhalation
respiratory rate
respirometer
pulmonary surfactant
compliance
elastic recoil
hysteresivity
airway resistance
bronchial
hyperresponsiveness
constriction
dilatation
mechanical ventilation
Control
pons
pneumotaxic center
apneustic center
medulla
dorsal respiratory group
ventral respiratory group
chemoreceptors
central
peripheral
pulmonary stretch receptors
Hering–Breuer reflex
Lung volumes
VC
FRC
Vt
dead space
CC
PEF
calculations
respiratory minute volume
FEV1/FVC ratio
Lung function tests
spirometry
body plethysmography
peak flow meter
nitrogen washout
Circulation
pulmonary circulation
hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
pulmonary shunt
Interactions
ventilation (V)
Perfusion (Q)
Ventilation/perfusion ratio
V/Q scan
zones of the lung
gas exchange
pulmonary gas pressures
alveolar gas equation
alveolar–arterial gradient
hemoglobin
oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve (Oxygen saturation
2,3-BPG
Bohr effect
Haldane effect)
carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift)
oxyhemoglobin
respiratory quotient
arterial blood gas
diffusion capacity (DLCO)
Insufficiency
high altitude
oxygen toxicity
hypoxia
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