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Count Dracula
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Count Dracula
Dracula character
Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula in the 1931 film Dracula.
Created by
Bram Stoker
Portrayed by
See below
Information
Nickname(s)
Evil Eye[1]
Ordog
Pokol
Stregoika
Vrolok
Vlkoslag[2]
D.[3]
Nosferatu
Aliases
Dracula
Count De Ville[4]
Mr. De Ville[5]
Species
Vampire
Undead human
Werewolf[6][7]
Gender
Male
Title
Transylvanian Noble[8]
Voivode of Wallachia[9]
Solomonari[10]
Vampire King[11]
Spouse(s)
Possibly Brides of Dracula (unclear)
Nationality
Székely
Count Dracula is the title character of Bram Stoker's 1897 gothic horror novel Dracula. He is considered to be both the prototypical and the archetypal vampire in subsequent works of fiction. He is also depicted in the novel to be the origin of werewolf legends.[12] Some aspects of the character are believed to have been inspired by the 15th-century Wallachian Prince Vlad the Impaler, who was also known as Dracula. Other character aspects have been added or altered in subsequent popular fictional works. The character has subsequently appeared frequently in popular culture, from films to animated media to breakfast cereals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Stoker's creation
1.1 Early life
1.2 Narrative
1.2.1 Short story
1.2.2 Novel
1.3 Characteristics
2 Powers and weaknesses
2.1 Shapeshifting
2.2 Vampirism
2.2.1 Bloodletting
2.2.2 Vampire's Baptism of Blood
2.3 Limitations of his powers
2.4 Weaknesses
2.4.1 Thirst
2.4.2 Religious symbolism
2.4.3 Death-sleep
2.5 Other abilities
3 Character development subsequent to the novel
4 Modern and postmodern analyses of the character
5 Screen portrayals
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Bibliography
8 External links
Stoker's creation[edit]
Bram Stoker's novel takes the form of an epistolary tale, in which Count Dracula's characteristics, powers, abilities and weaknesses are narrated by multiple narrators, from different perspectives.[13]
Count Dracula is an undead, centuries-old vampire, and a Transylvanian nobleman who claims to be a Székely descended from Attila the Hun. He inhabits a decaying castle in the Carpathian Mountains near the Borgo Pass. Unlike the vampires of Eastern European folklore, which are portrayed as repulsive, corpse-like creatures, Dracula wears a veneer of aristocratic charm. In his conversations with Jonathan Harker, he reveals himself as deeply proud of his boyar heritage and nostalgic for the past, which he admits have become only a memory of heroism, honour and valour in modern times.
Early life[edit]
Details of his early life are obscure, but it is mentioned "he was in life a most wonderful man. Soldier, statesman, and alchemist. Which latter was the highest development of the science knowledge of his time. He had a mighty brain, a learning beyond compare, and a heart that knew no fear and no remorse... there was no branch of knowledge of his time that he did not essay."[14] He studied the black arts at the academy of Scholomance in the Carpathian Mountains, overlooking the town of Sibiu (also known as Hermannstadt) and has a deep knowledge of alchemy and magic.[15] Taking up arms, as befitting his rank and status as a voivode, he led troops against the Turks across the Danube. According to his nemesis Abraham Van Helsing, "He must indeed have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey-land. If it be so, then was he no common man: for in that time, and for centuries after, he was spoken of as the cleverest and the most cunning, as well as the bravest of the sons of the land beyond the forest."[16] Dead and buried in a great tomb in the chapel of his castle, Dracula returns from death as a vampire and lives for several centuries in his castle with three terrifyingly beautiful female vampires beside him.[17]
Narrative[edit]
Cover of Dracula's Guest, a collection of short stories authored by Bram Stoker
Short story[edit]
In "Dracula's Guest", the narrative follows an unnamed Englishman traveller as he wanders around Munich before leaving for Transylvania. It is Walpurgis Night and the young Englishman foolishly leaves his hotel, in spite of the coachman's warnings, and wanders through a dense forest alone. Along the way, he feels that he is being watched by a tall and thin stranger (possibly Count Dracula).
The short story climaxes in an old graveyard, where the Englishman encounters a sleeping female vampire called Countess Dolingen in a marble tomb with a large iron stake driven into it. This malevolent and beautiful vampire awakens from her marble bier to conjure a snowstorm before being struck by lightning and returning to her eternal prison. However, the Englishman's troubles are not quite over, as he is dragged away by an unseen force and rendered unconscious. He awakens to find a "gigantic" wolf lying on his chest and licking at his throat; however, the wolf merely keeps him warm and protects him until help arrives. When the Englishman is finally taken back to his hotel, a telegram awaits him from his expectant host Dracula, with a warning about "dangers from snow and wolves and night".
Novel[edit]
As the Dracula novel begins in the late 19th century, Dracula acts on a long-contemplated plan for world domination, and infiltrates London to begin his reign of terror. He summons Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, to provide legal support for a real estate transaction overseen by Harker's employer. Dracula at first charms Harker with his cordiality and historical knowledge, and even rescues him from the clutches of the three female vampires in the castle. In truth, however, Dracula merely wishes to keep Harker alive long enough to complete the legal transaction and to learn as much as possible about England.
Dracula leaves his castle and boards a Russian ship, the Demeter, taking along with him 50 boxes of Transylvanian soil, which he needs in order to regain his strength and rest during daylight. During the voyage to Whitby, a coastal town in northern England, he sustains himself on the ship's crew members. Only one body is later found, that of the captain, who is found tied up to the ship's helm. The captain's log is recovered and tells of strange events that had taken place during the ship's journey. Dracula leaves the ship in the form of a dog.
Soon the Count is menacing Harker's fiancée, Wilhelmina "Mina" Murray, and her friend, Lucy Westenra. There is also a notable link between Dracula and Renfield, a patient in an insane asylum overseen by John Seward, who is compelled to consume insects, spiders, birds, and other creatures—in ascending order of size—in order to absorb their "life force". Renfield acts as a kind of sensor, reacting to Dracula's proximity and supplying clues accordingly. Dracula begins to visit Lucy's bed chamber on a nightly basis, draining her of blood while simultaneously infecting her with the curse of vampirism. Not knowing the cause for Lucy's deterioration, her three suitors - Seward, Arthur Holmwood and Quincey Morris - call upon Seward's mentor, the Dutch doctor Abraham Van Helsing. Van Helsing soon deduces her condition's supernatural origins, but does not speak out. Despite an attempt at keeping the vampire at bay with garlic, Dracula attacks Lucy's house one final time, killing her mother and transforming Lucy herself into one of the undead.
Harker escapes Dracula's castle and returns to England, barely alive and deeply traumatized. On Seward's suggestion, Mina seeks Van Helsing's assistance in assessing Harker's health. She reads his journal and passes it along to Van Helsing. This unfolds the first clue to the identity of Lucy's assailant, which later prompts Mina to collect all of the events of Dracula's appearance in news articles, saved letters, newspaper clippings and the journals of each member of the group. This assists the group in investigating Dracula's movements and later discovering that Renfield's behaviour is directly influenced by Dracula. They then discover that Dracula has purchased a residence just next door to Seward's. The group gathers intelligence to track the location of Dracula for the purpose of destroying him.
Max Schreck as Count Orlok, the first confirmed cinematic representation of Dracula (in Nosferatu, 1922).
After the undead Lucy attacks several children, Van Helsing, Seward, Holmwood and Morris enter her crypt and destroy her to save her soul. Later, Harker joins them and the party work to discover Dracula's intentions. Harker aids the party in tracking down the locations of the boxes to the various residences of Dracula and discovers that Dracula purchased multiple real estate properties 'over the counter' throughout the North, South, East and West sides of London[18] under the alias 'Count De Ville'.[19] Dracula's main plan was to move each of his 50 boxes of earth to his various properties in order to arrange multiple lairs throughout and around the perimeter of London.[20]
The party pries open each of the graves, places wafers of Sacramental bread within each of them, and seals them shut. This deprives the Count of his ability to seek safety in those boxes.[21] Dracula gains entry into Seward's residence by coercing an invitation out of Renfield. As he attempts to enter the room in which Harker and Mina are staying, Renfield tries to stop him; Dracula then mortally wounds him. With his dying breath, Renfield tells Seward and Van Helsing that Dracula is after Mina. Van Helsing and Seward discover Dracula biting Mina then forcing her to drink his blood. The group repel Dracula using crucifixes and sacramental bread, forcing Dracula to flee by turning into a dark vapor. The party continue to hunt Dracula to search for his remaining lairs.[22] Although Dracula's 'baptism' of Mina grants him a telepathic link to her, it backfires when Van Helsing hypnotizes Mina and uses her supernatural link with Dracula to track him as he flees back to Transylvania.
The heroes follow Dracula back to Transylvania, and in a climactic battle with Dracula's gypsy bodyguards, finally destroy him. Despite the popular image of Dracula having a stake driven through his heart to kill him, Mina's narrative describes his decapitation by Harker's kukri while Morris simultaneously pierced his heart with a Bowie knife (Mina Harker's Journal, 6 November, Dracula Chapter 27). His body then turns into dust, but not before Mina sees an expression of peace on his face.
Characteristics[edit]
Although early in the novel Dracula dons a mask of cordiality, he often flies into fits of rage when his plans are frustrated. When the three vampire women who live in his castle attempt to seduce Jonathan Harker, Dracula physically assaults one and ferociously berates them for their insubordination. He then relents and talks to them more kindly, telling them that he does indeed love each of them.
He has an appreciation for ancient architecture, and when purchasing a home he prefers them to be aged, saying "A new home would kill me", and that to make a new home habitable to him would take a century.[23]
Dracula is very proud of his warrior heritage, proclaiming his pride to Harker on how the Székely people are infused with the blood of heroes. He also expresses an interest in the history of the British Empire, speaking admiringly of its people. He has a somewhat primal and predatory worldview; he pities ordinary humans for their revulsion to their darker impulses. He is not without human emotions, however; he often says that he too can love.[24]
Though usually portrayed as having a strong Eastern European accent, the original novel only specifies that his spoken English is excellent, though strangely toned.
His appearance varies in age. He is described early in the novel as thin, with a long white mustache, pointed ears and sharp teeth.[25] It is also noted later in the novel (Chapter 11 subsection "The Escaped Wolf") by a zookeeper who sees him that he has a hooked nose and a pointed beard with a streak of white in it. He is dressed all in black and has hair on his palms. Jonathan Harker described him as an old man, "cruel looking" and giving an effect of "extraordinary pallor".[25] When angered, the Count showed his true bestial nature, his blue eyes flaming red.
I saw... Count Dracula... with red light of triumph in his eyes, and with a smile that Judas in hell might be proud of.
—  Jonathan Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 4
As the novel progresses, Dracula is described as taking on a more and more youthful appearance. After Harker strikes him with a shovel, he is left with a scar on his forehead which he bears throughout the course of the novel.
Dracula also possesses great wealth and having Gypsies in his homeland who are loyal to him as servants and protectors.
Powers and weaknesses[edit]
Count Dracula is portrayed in the novel using many different supernatural abilities, and is believed to have gained his abilities through dealings with the Devil. Chapter 18 of the novel describes many of the abilities, limitations and weaknesses of vampires and Dracula in particular. Dracula has superhuman strength which, according to Van Helsing, is equivalent to that of 20 strong men. He does not cast a shadow or have a reflection from mirrors. He is immune to conventional means of attack; a sailor tries to stab him in the back with a knife, but the blade goes through his body as though it is air.[26] Why Harker's and Morris' physical attacks are able to harm him in other parts of the book is never explained although it is noteworthy that the failed stabbing by the sailor occurred at night and the successful attacks were during daylight hours. The Count can defy gravity to a certain extent and possesses superhuman agility, able to climb vertical surfaces upside down in a reptilian manner. He can travel onto "unhallowed" ground such as the graves of suicides and those of his victims. He has powerful hypnotic, telepathic and illusionary abilities. He also has the ability to "within limitations" vanish and reappear elsewhere at will. If he knows the path, he can come out from anything or into anything regardless of how close it is bound even if it is fused with fire.[27]
He has amassed cunning and wisdom throughout centuries, and he is unable to die by the mere passing of time alone.[27]
He can command animals such as rats, owls, bats, moths, foxes and wolves. However, his control over these animals is limited, as seen when the party first enters his house in London. Although Dracula is able to summon thousands of rats to swarm and attack the group, Holmwood summons his trio of terriers to do battle with the rats. The dogs prove very efficient rat killers, suggesting they are Manchester terriers trained for that purpose. Terrified by the dogs' onslaught, the rats flee and any control which Dracula had over them is gone.[28]
Dracula can also manipulate the weather and, within his range, is able to direct the elements, such as storms, fog and mist.[27]
Shapeshifting[edit]
Dracula can shapeshift at will, able to grow and become small, his featured forms in the novel being that of a bat, a wolf, a large dog and a fog or mist. When the moonlight is shining, he can travel as elemental dust within its rays. He is able to pass through tiny cracks or crevices while retaining his human form or in the form of a vapour; described by Van Helsing as the ability to slip through a hairbreadth space of a tomb door or coffin. This is also an ability used by his victim Lucy as a vampire. When the party breaks into her tomb, they dismantle the secured coffin to find it completely empty; her corpse being no longer located within.[29]
Vampirism[edit]
One of Dracula's most mysterious powers is the ability to turn others into vampires by biting them. According to Van Helsing:
When they become such, there comes with the change the curse of immortality; they cannot die, but must go on age after age adding new victims and multiplying the evils of the world. For all that die from the preying of the Un-dead become themselves Un-dead, and prey on their kind. And so the circle goes on ever widening, like as the ripples from a stone thrown in the water. Friend Arthur, if you had met that kiss which you know of before poor Lucy die, or again, last night when you open your arms to her, you would in time, when you had died, have become nosferatu, as they call it in Eastern Europe, and would for all time make more of those Un-Deads that so have filled us with horror.
—  Dr. Seward's journal, Dracula, Chapter 16
The vampire bite itself does not cause death. It is the method vampires use to drain blood of the victim and to increase their influence over them. This is described by Van Helsing:
The Nosferatu do not die like the bees when they sting once. He is only stronger, and being stronger, have yet more power to work evil.
—  Mina Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 18
Victims who are bitten by a vampire and do not die, are hypnotically influenced by them:
Those children whose blood she suck are not yet so much worse; but if she live on, Un-Dead, more and more lose their blood and by her power over them they come to her.
—  Mina Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 18
Van Helsing later describes the aftermath of a bitten victim when the vampire has been killed:
But if she die in truth, then all cease; the tiny wounds of the throats disappear, and they go back to their plays unknowing of whatever has been.
—  Mina Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 18
As Dracula slowly drains Lucy's blood, she dies from acute blood loss and later transforms into a vampire, despite the efforts of Seward and Van Helsing to provide her with blood transfusions.[30]
He is aided by powers of necromancy and divination of the dead, that all who die by his hand may reanimate and do his bidding.[27]
Bloodletting[edit]
Dracula requires no other sustenance but fresh human blood, which has the effect of rejuvenating him and allowing him to grow younger. His power is drawn from the blood of others, and he cannot survive without it.[27][31] Although drinking blood can rejuvenate his youth and strength, it does not give him the ability to regenerate; months after being struck on the head by a shovel, he still bears a scar from the impact.[32]
Dracula's preferred victims are women.[33] Harker states that he believes Dracula has a state of fasting as well as a state of feeding.[34] Dracula does state to Mina however that exerting his abilities caused a desire to feed.[35]
Vampire's Baptism of Blood[edit]
Count Dracula is depicted as the "King Vampire", and can control other vampires. To punish Mina and the party for their efforts against him, Dracula bites her on at least three occasions. He also forces her to drink his blood; this act curses her with the effects of vampirism and gives him a telepathic link to her thoughts.[36] However, hypnotism was only able to be done before dawn.[37] Van Helsing refers to the act of drinking blood by both the vampire and the victim "the Vampire's Baptism of Blood".[38]
“ you, their best beloved one, are now to me, flesh of my flesh, blood of my blood, kin of my kin, my bountiful wine-press for a while, and shall be later on my companion and my helper. You shall be avenged in turn, for not one of them but shall minister to your needs. But as yet you are to be punished for what you have done. You have aided in thwarting me. Now you shall come to my call. When my brain says ‘Come!’ to you, you shall cross land or sea to do my bidding.[39] ”
The effects changes Mina' physically and mentally over time. A few moments after Dracula attacks her, Van Helsing takes a wafer of sacramental bread and places it on her forehead to bless her; when the bread touches her skin, it burns her and leaves a scar on her forehead. Her teeth start growing longer but do not grow sharper. She begins to lose her appetite, feeling repulsed by normal food,[40] begins to sleep more and more during the day; cannot wake unless at sunset and stops writing in her diary. When Van Helsing later crumbles the same bread in a circle around her, she is unable to cross or leave the circle, discovering a new form of protection.[41]
Dracula's death can release the curse on any living victim of eventual transformation into vampire. However, Van Helsing reveals that were he to successfully escape, his continued existence would ensure that even if he did not victimize Mina further, she would transform into a vampire upon her eventual natural death.
Limitations of his powers[edit]
Dracula is much less powerful in daylight and is only able to shift his form at dawn, noon, and dusk (he can shift his form freely at night or if he is at his grave). The sun is not fatal to him, as sunlight does not burn and destroy him upon contact, though most of his abilities cease.
The sun that rose on our sorrow this morning guards us in its course. Until it sets to-night, that monster must retain whatever form he now has. He is confined within the limitations of his earthly envelope. He cannot melt into thin air nor disappear through cracks or chinks or crannies. If he go through a doorway, he must open the door like a mortal.
—  Johnathan Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 22
His power ceases, as does that all of all evil things, at the coming of the day. Only at certain times can he have limited freedom. If he be not at the place whither he is bound, he can only change himself at noon or exact sunrise or sunset.
—  Mina Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 18
He is also limited in his ability to travel, as he can only cross running water at low or high tide. Due to this, he is unable to fly across a river in the form of a bat or mist or even by himself board a boat or step off a boat onto a dock unless he is physically carried over with assistance. He is also unable to enter a place unless invited to do so by someone of the household, even a visitor; once invited, he can enter and leave the premises at will.[27]
Weaknesses[edit]
Thirst[edit]
Dracula has a bloodlust which he is seemingly unable to control. At the sight of blood he becomes enveloped in a demonic fury which is fueled by the need to feed. Other adaptations call this uncontrollable state 'the thirst'.
Religious symbolism[edit]
There are items which afflict him to the point he has no power and can even calm him from his insatiable appetite for blood. He is repulsed by garlic, as well as sacred items and symbols such as crucifixes, and sacramental bread.
at the instant I saw that the cut had bled a little, and the blood was trickling over my chin. I laid down the razor, turning as I did so half round to look for some sticking plaster. When the Count saw my face, his eyes blazed with a sort of demoniac fury, and he suddenly made a grab at my throat. I drew away and his hand touched the string of beads which held the crucifix. It made an instant change in him, for the fury passed so quickly that I could hardly believe that it was ever there.
—  Jonathan Harker's journal, Dracula, Chapter 2
Placing the branch of a wild rose upon the top of his coffin will render him unable to escape it; a sacred bullet fired into the coffin could kill him so that he remain true-dead.[27]
Mountain Ash is also described as a form of protection from a vampire although the effects are unknown.[42] This was believed to be used as protection against evil spirits and witches during the Victorian era.
Death-sleep[edit]
The state of rest to which vampires are prone during the day is described in the novel as a deathlike sleep in which the vampire sleeps open-eyed, is unable to awaken or move, and also may be unaware of any presence of individuals who may be trespassing. Dracula is portrayed as being active in daylight at least once in order to pursue a victim. Dracula also purchases many properties throughout London 'over the counter' which shows that he does have the ability to have some type of presence in daylight.
“ on a pile of newly dug earth, lay the Count! He was either dead or asleep. I could not say which, for eyes were open and stony, but without the glassiness of death, and the cheeks had the warmth of life through all their pallor. The lips were as red as ever. But there was no sign of movement, no pulse, no breath, no beating of the heart. I bent over him, and tried to find any sign of life, but in vain... I thought he might have the keys on him, but when I went to search I saw the dead eyes, and in them dead though they were, such a look of hate, though unconscious of me or my presence, that I fled from the place, and leaving the Count’s room by the window[43] ”
He requires Transylvanian soil to be nearby to him in a foreign land or to be entombed within his coffin within Transylvania in order to successfully rest; otherwise, he will be unable to recover his strength. This has forced him to transport many boxes of Transylvanian earth to each of his residences in London. It should be noted however that he is most powerful when he is within his Earth-Home, Coffin-Home, Hell-Home, or any place unhallowed.[27][44]
Further, if Dracula or any vampire has had their fill in blood upon feeding, they will be caused to rest in this dead state even longer than usual.[45]
Other abilities[edit]
While universally feared by the local people of Transylvania and even beyond, Dracula commands the loyalty of gypsies and a band of Slovaks who transport his boxes on their way to London and to serve as an armed convoy bringing his coffin back to his castle. The Slovaks and gypsies appear to know his true nature, for they laugh at Harker when he tries to communicate his plight, and betray Harker's attempt to send a letter through them by giving it to the Count.
Dracula seems to be able to hold influence over people with mental disorders, such as Renfield, who is never bitten but who worships Dracula, referring to him over the course of the novel as "Master" and "Lord". Dracula also afflicts Lucy with chronic sleepwalking, putting her into a trance-like state that allows them not only to submit to his will but also seek him and satisfy his need to feed.
Dracula's powers and weaknesses vary greatly in the many adaptations. Previous and subsequent vampires from different legends have had similar vampire characteristics.
Character development subsequent to the novel[edit]
Main article: Dracula in popular culture
Christopher Lee starred as Dracula in numerous British horror films produced by Hammer Films. Shown here is the 1958 film Dracula. It was Lee who fixed the image of the fanged vampire in popular culture.[46][47]
Dracula is one of the most famous characters in popular culture. He has been portrayed by more actors in more visual media adaptations of the novel than any other horror character.[48] Actors who have played him include Max Schreck, Bela Lugosi, John Carradine, Christopher Lee, Francis Lederer, Denholm Elliott, Jack Palance, Louis Jourdan, Frank Langella, Klaus Kinski, Gary Oldman, Leslie Nielsen, George Hamilton, Keith-Lee Castle, Gerard Butler, Duncan Regehr, Richard Roxburgh, Marc Warren, Rutger Hauer, Stephen Billington, Thomas Kretschmann, Dominic Purcell, Luke Evans and Lon Chaney Jr.. In 2003, Count Dracula, as portrayed by Lugosi in the 1931 film, was named as the 33rd greatest movie villain by the AFI.[49]
Gary Oldman as Dracula in Bram Stoker's Dracula.
The character is closely associated with the western cultural archetype of the vampire, and remains a popular Halloween costume.
Count Dracula appears in Mad Monster Party? voiced by Allen Swift. This version is shown to be wearing a monocle. Count Dracula is among the monsters that Baron Boris von Frankenstein invites to the Isle of Evil in order to show off the secret of total destruction and announce his retirement from the Worldwide Organization of Monsters.
In Sesame Street, there is a character called Count von Count who was based on Bela Lugosi's interpretation of Count Dracula and Jack Davis' design for Dracula from Mad Monster Party?.
Count Dracula appears in Mad Mad Mad Monsters (a "prequel of sorts" to Mad Monster Party?) voiced again by Allen Swift. He and his son are invited by Baron Henry von Frankenstein to attend the wedding of Frankenstein's Monster and its mate at the Transylvania Astoria Hotel.
Dracula is the primary antagonist of the Castlevania video game series and the main protagonist of the Lords of Shadow reboot series.
Dracula appears as the lead character of Dracula the Un-dead, a novel by Stoker's great-grand nephew Dacre presented as a sequel to the original.
Count Dracula is the main character of the Hotel Transylvania franchise, voiced by Adam Sandler.
Dracula, going by an inversion of his name, "Alucard," serves as the main character of the anime and manga series Hellsing and Hellsing Ultimate where he serves Integra Hellsing, Abraham's great-granddaughter, as an anti-vampire warrior devoted to the British Crown.
Modern and postmodern analyses of the character[edit]
Portrait of Vlad III Dracula.
Already in 1958, Cecil Kirtly proposed that Count Dracula shared his personal past with the historical Transylvanian-born Voivode Vlad III Dracula of Wallachia, also known as Vlad the Impaler or Vlad Țepeș. Following the publication of In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in 1972, this supposed connection attracted much popular attention. This work argued that Bram Stoker based his Dracula on Vlad the Impaler.[50]
Historically, the name "Dracula" is the given name of Vlad Țepeș' family, a name derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the Order of the Dragon, founded by Sigismund of Luxembourg (king of Hungary and Bohemia, and Holy Roman Emperor) to uphold Christianity and defend the Empire against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad II Dracul, father of Vlad III, was admitted to the order around 1431 because of his bravery in fighting the Turks and was dubbed Dracul (dragon or devil) thus his son became Dracula (son of the dragon). From 1431 onward, Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his coinage bore the dragon symbol.[51]
Stoker came across the name Dracula in his reading on Romanian history, and chose this to replace the name (Count Wampyr) that he had originally intended to use for his villain. However, some Dracula scholars, led by Elizabeth Miller, have questioned the depth of this connection as early as 1998. They argue that Stoker in fact knew little of the historic Vlad III, Vlad the Impaler, and that he used only the name "Dracula" and some miscellaneous scraps of Romanian history.[52] Also, there are no comments about Vlad III in the author's working notes.[53][54][self-published source]
While having a conversation with Jonathan Harker in Chapter 3, Dracula refers to his own background, and these speeches show elements which Stoker directly copied from Wilkinson's book.[citation needed] Stoker mentions the Voivode of the Dracula race who fought against the Turks after the defeat in the Battle of Kosovo, and was later betrayed by his brother, historical facts which unequivocally point to Vlad III, described as "Voïvode Dracula" by Wilkinson:
Who was it but one of my own race who as Voivode crossed the Danube and beat the Turk on his own ground? This was a Dracula indeed! Woe was it that his own unworthy brother, when he had fallen, sold his people to the Turk and brought the shame of slavery on them! Was it not this Dracula, indeed, who inspired that other of his race who in a later age again and again brought his forces over the great river into Turkey-land; who, when he was beaten back, came again, and again, though he had to come alone from the bloody field where his troops were being slaughtered, since he knew that he alone could ultimately triumph! (Chapter 3, pp. 19)
The Count's intended identity is later commented by Professor Van Helsing, referring to a letter from his friend Arminius:
He must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey-land. (Chapter 18, pp. 145)
This indeed encourages the reader to identify the Count with the Voivode Dracula first mentioned by him in Chapter 3, the one betrayed by his brother: Vlad III Dracula, betrayed by his brother Radu the Handsome, who had chosen the side of the Turks. But as noted by the Dutch author Hans Corneel de Roos, in Chapter 25, Van Helsing and Mina drop this rudimentary connection to Vlad III and instead describe the Count's personal past as that of "that other of his race" who lived "in a later age". By smoothly exchanging Vlad III for a nameless double, Stoker avoided that his main character could be unambiguously linked to a historical person traceable in any history book.
Similarly, the novelist did not want to disclose the precise site of the Count's residence, Castle Dracula. As confirmed by Stoker's own handwritten research notes, the novelist had a specific location for the Castle in mind while writing the narrative: an empty mountain top in the Transylvanian Kelemen Alps near the former border with Moldavia.[55] Efforts to promote the Poenari Castle (ca. 200 km away from the novel's place of action near the Borgo Pass) as the "real Castle Dracula" have no basis in Stoker’s writing; Stoker did not know this building. Regarding the Bran Castle near Brașov, Stoker possibly saw an illustration of Castle Bran (Törzburg) in Charles Boner's book on Transylvania.[56] Although Stoker may have been inspired by its romantic appearance, neither Boner, nor Mazuchelli nor Crosse (who also mention Terzburg or Törzburg) associate it with Vlad III; for the site of his fictitious Castle Dracula, Stoker preferred an empty mountain top.
Furthermore, Stoker's detailed notes reveal that the novelist was very well aware of the ethnic and geo-political differences between the "Roumanians" or "Wallachs"/"Wallachians", descendants of the Dacians, and the Székelys or Szeklers, allies of the Magyars or Hungarians, whose interests were opposed to that of the Wallachians. In the novel's original typewritten manuscript, the Count speaks of throwing off the "Austrian yoke", which corresponds to the Szekler political point of view. This expression is crossed out, however, and replaced by "Hungarian yoke" (as appearing in the printed version), which matches the historical perspective of the Wallachians. This has been interpreted by some to mean that Stoker opted for the Wallachian, not the Szekler interpretation, thus lending more consistency to the Romanian identity of his Count: although not identical with Vlad III, the Vampire is portrayed as one of the "Dracula race".[57]
Screen portrayals[edit]
Year
Title
Actor playing Dracula
Notes
1921 Dracula's Death Vanko !Erik Vanko
1922 Nosferatu Schreck !Max Schreck Renamed Count Orlok for legal reasons
1931.1 !1931 Dracula Lugosi !Bela Lugosi
1931.2 !1931 Dracula Villar !Carlos Villar Spanish version using Lugosi's sets and a different cast and crew.
1943 Son of Dracula Chaney !Lon Chaney, Jr.
1944 House of Frankenstein Carradine !John Carradine
1945 House of Dracula Carradine !John Carradine
1948 Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein Lugosi !Bela Lugosi
1953 Drakula İstanbul'da Kaptan !Atıf Kaptan
1958.1 !1958 Dracula Lee !Christopher Lee
1958.2 !1958 return !The Return of Dracula Lederer !Francis Lederer
1966.1 !1966 Dracula: Prince of Darkness Lee !Christopher Lee
1966.2 !1966 Billy the Kid vs Dracula Carradine !John Carradine
1968.1 !1968 Dracula Has Risen from the Grave Lee !Christopher Lee
1968.2 !1968 Dracula Elliott !Denholm Elliott Episode of UK TV series Mystery and Imagination
1969 magic !The Magic Christian Lee !Christopher Lee
1970.1 !1970 Count Dracula Lee !Christopher Lee
1970.2 !1970 Taste the Blood of Dracula Lee !Christopher Lee
1970.3 !1970 One More Time Lee !Christopher Lee
1970.4 !1970 Scars of Dracula Lee !Christopher Lee
1971 Cuadecuc, vampir Lee !Christopher Lee
1972.1 !1972 Blacula Macaulay !Charles Macaulay
1972.2 !1972 Dracula A.D. 1972 Lee !Christopher Lee
1972.3 !1972 Count Dracula's Great Love Naschy !Paul Naschy
1974.1 !1974 Dan Curtis' Dracula Palance !Jack Palance TV movie
1974.2 !1974 Blood for Dracula Kier !Udo Kier
1974.3 !1974 Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires Forbes-Robertson !John Forbes-Robertson
1976 Dracula and Son Lee !Christopher Lee
1977 Count Dracula Jourdan !Louis Jourdan
1979.1 !1979 Nosferatu the Vampyre Kinski !Klaus Kinski Remake of Nosferatu (1922) with the novel's character names restored.
1979.2 !1979 Cliffhangers Nouri !Michael Nouri Episode: "The Curse of Dracula"
1979.3 !1979 Love at First Bite Hamilton !George Hamilton
1979.4 !1979 Dracula Langella !Frank Langella
1987 mons !The Monster Squad Regehr !Duncan Regehr
1988 Waxwork O'Keeffe !Miles O'Keeffe
1992 Bram Stoker's Dracula Oldman !Gary Oldman
1995 Dracula: Dead and Loving It Nielsen !Leslie Nielsen
2000.1 !2000 Dracula 2000 Butler !Gerard Butler
2000.2 !2000 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Martin !Rudolf Martin Episode: "Buffy vs. Dracula"
2001 Dracula, the Musical Hewitt !Tom Hewitt
2004.1 !2004 Van Helsing Roxburgh !Richard Roxburgh
2004.2 !2004 Blade: Trinity Purcell !Dominic Purcell
2004.3 !2004 Dracula 3000 Kirkwood !Langley Kirkwood
2005 bat !The Batman vs. Dracula Stormare !Peter Stormare Animated film
2006 Dracula Warren !Marc Warren Television film
2006-2014 Young Dracula Castle !Keith-Lee Castle TV series
2012.1 !2012 Dracula 3D Kretschmann !Thomas Kretschmann
2012.2 !2012 Hotel Transylvania Sandler !Adam Sandler Animated film
2013 Dracula Meyers !Jonathan Rhys Meyers TV series
2014 Dracula Untold Evans !Luke Evans
2015 Hotel Transylvania 2 Sandler !Adam Sandler Animated film
2016 Penny Dreadful Camargo !Christian Camargo TV series
2016 Welcome To Monster High Sorich !Michael Sorich Animated Film
2017 Monster High: Electrified Sorich !Michael Sorich Animated Film
2017–Present Monster High: The Adventures of the Ghoul Squad Sorich !Michael Sorich Animated TV Series
2017 Monster Family Jason Isaacs Animated Film
2018 Hotel Transylvania 3 Sandler !Adam Sandler Animated film
See also[edit]
Novels portal
Fictional characters portal
Horror fiction portal
Elizabeth Báthory
Carmilla
Clinical vampirism
List of fictional vampires
List of horror film antagonists
List of vampire traits in folklore and fiction
Varney the Vampire
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). pp. 10, 14, 499, 517.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 2, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 9. ‘Ordog’—Satan, ‘Pokol’—hell, ‘stregoica’—witch, ‘vrolok’ and ‘vlkoslak’—both mean the same thing, one being Slovak and the other Servian for something that is either werewolf or vampire.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 23, Dr Seward's Diary. p. 436. ‘Look out for D. He has just now, 12:45, come from Carfax hurriedly and hastened towards the South.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Drracula (PDF). Chapter 20, Johnathon Harker's Journal, LETTER, MITCHELL, SONS & CANDY TO LORD GODALMING, October 1st. p. 391. The purchaser is a foreign nobleman, Count de Ville
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 6, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 500. He had received a letter from Mr. de Ville of London
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). pp. 9, 42.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula's Guest (PDF). p. 11. A wolf--and yet not a wolf!" another put in shudderingly. "No use trying for him without the sacred bullet.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 2, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 35. We Transylvanian nobles love not to think that our bones may lie amongst the common dead.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). pp. 43, 344.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 18, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 344.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 27, DR. VAN HELSING’S MEMORANDUM, 5 November. p. 531. DRACULA This then was the Undead home of the King Vampire, to whom so many more were due.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 3, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 42. ‘We Szekelys have a right to be proud, for in our veins flows the blood of many brave races who fought as the lion fights, for lordship. Here, in the whirlpool of European races, the Ugric tribe bore down from Iceland the fighting spirit which Thor and Wodin gave them, which their Berserkers displayed to such fell intent on the seaboards of Europe, aye, and of Asia and Africa too, till the peoples thought that the werewolves themselves had come.
Jump up ^ Carol N. Senf "Dracula: The Unseen Face in the Mirror" in the Norton Critical Edition of Dracula (1997) by Bram Stoker, edited by Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal: 421-31
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 23. p. 434.
Jump up ^ Dracula Chapter 18 and Chapter 23
Jump up ^ Mina Harker's Journal, 30 September, Dracula, Chapter 18
Jump up ^ Dracula Chapter 27
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 20, Johnathon Harker's Journal. pp. 373, 374.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 20, Johnathon Harker's Journal, Letter, Mitchell, Sons, and Candy to Lord Godalming. p. 329.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 20, Johnathon Harker's Journal. pp. 373, 374.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 18, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 346.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 21, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 404,405,406.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 2, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 35.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 3, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 57. ‘Yes, I too can love. You yourselves can tell it from the past. Is it not so?
^ Jump up to: a b Dracula, Chapter 2
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula. Chapter 7, Log of the Demeter, 3 August. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-00-742008-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Dracula, Chapter 18
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-00-742008-7.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 15, Dr. Stweard's Diary. pp. 281, 282. Taking the edge of the loose flange, he bent it back towards the foot of the coffin, and holding up the candle into the aperture, motioned to me to look. I drew near and looked. The coffin was empty. It was certainly a surprise to me, and gave me a considerable shock
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula. Chapter 10, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 174.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 18, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 341. on the blood of the living. Even more, we have seen amongst us that he can even grow younger, that his vital faculties grow strenuous, and seem as though they refresh themselves when his special pabulum is plenty.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 21, Johnathon Harker's Journal. pp. 411–412. I knew him at once from the description of the others. ...I knew, too, the red scar on his forehead where Jonathan had struck him.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 15, Westminster Gazette. pp. 252–254.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 19, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 358. and when I had seen him he was either in the fasting stage of his existence in his rooms or, when he was bloated with fresh blood,
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 21, Dr. Seward's Diary, 3 October. p. 412. First, a little refreshment to reward my exertions.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 23, Dr. Stweard's Diary. p. 448.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 20, Johnathon Harker's Journal. p. 376. hypnotize before dawn
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). pp. 462, 492, 523.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 21, Dr. Seward's Diary. p. 413.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch. 27, Mina Harker's Journal, 6 November. p. 533. But I could not eat, to even try to do so was repulsive to me, and much as I would have liked to please him, I could not bring myself to the attempt.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 27, Memorandum by Abraham Van Helsing, 4 November. pp. 519–527.
Jump up ^ Dracula, Chapter 3, second page
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 4, Johnathon Harker's ournal. pp. 70, 71.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 18, Doctor Seward's Diary. p. 343. Thus, whereas he can do as he will within his limit, when he have his earth-home, his coffin-home, his hell-home, the place unhallowed, as we saw when he went to the grave of the suicide at Whitby, still at other time he can only change when the time come.
Jump up ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Chapter 22, Johnathon Harker's Journal, October 23. p. 424. The Count may come to Piccadilly earlier than we think.’ ‘Not so!’ said Van Helsing, holding up his hand. ‘But why?’ I asked. ‘Do you forget,’ he said, with actually a smile, ‘that last night he banqueted heavily, and will sleep late?
Jump up ^ J Gordon Melton (2010). "The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead". p. 247. Visible Ink Press
Jump up ^ "Fangs for the memories: The A-Z of vampires" (October 31, 2009). The Independent.
Jump up ^ Guinness World Records Experience
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Greatest Heroes & Villains". AFI. 19 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Dearden, Lizzie (20 May 2014). "Radu Florescu dead: Legacy of the Romanian 'Dracula professor' remembered". The Independent. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Vlad III Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Berni, Simone (2016). "The Romanian Edition (1990)". Dracula by Bram Stoker The Mystery of The Early Editions. Translated by Bigliardi, Stefano. United States: Lulu Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-326-62179-7.
Jump up ^ Cain, Jimmie E. (2006). "Notes — Chapter Four". Bram Stoker and Russophobia: Evidence of the British Fear of Russia in Dracula and The Lady of the Shroud. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. p. 182. ISBN 0-7864-2407-9.
Jump up ^ Miller, Elizabeth (2005). "The Voivode and the Count". A Dracula Handbook. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris. pp. 112–113. ISBN 1-4134-8095-0.
Jump up ^ Hans Corneel de Roos, The Dracula Maps, in: The Ultimate Dracula, Moonlake Editions, Munich, 2012.
Jump up ^ Charles Boner, Transylvania: Its Products and Its People. London: Longmans, 1865. Referred to by Marius Crişan, The Models for Castle Dracula in Stoker’s Sources on Transylvania, Journal of Dracula Studies Nr 10 (2008)
Jump up ^ Hans Corneel de Roos, Stoker's Vampire Trap: Vlad the Impaler and his Nameless Double, Linkoeping University Electronic Press, Linköping Electronic Articles in Computer and Information Science, ISSN 1401-9841, Vol. 15 (2012): no. 2. 2012, p. 7.
Bibliography[edit]
Clive Leatherdale (1985) Dracula: the Novel and the Legend. Desert Island Books.
Bram Stoker (1897) Dracula. Norton Critical Edition (1997) edited by Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal.
Senf, Carol. Dracula: Between Tradition and Modernism (Twayne, 1998).
Senf, Carol A. Bram Stoker. University of Wales Press, 2010.
External links[edit]
Bram Stoker Online Full text, PDF and audio versions of Dracula.
[show]
v
t
e
Bram Stoker's Dracula
Characters
Original novel
Count Dracula
Abraham Van Helsing
Jonathan Harker
Mina Harker
Lucy Westenra
Arthur Holmwood
Dr. John Seward
Quincey Morris
Renfield
Brides
Other works
Adri Nital
Alucard
Count Alucard
Count Orlok
Count von Count
Doctor Sun
Eva
Hamilton Slade
Janus
Postmortem
Turac
Historical
Vlad Călugărul
Vlad the Impaler
Vlad II Dracul
Films
Universal
series
Dracula (1931 English-language)
Drácula (1931 Spanish-language)
Dracula's Daughter (1936)
Son of Dracula (1943)
House of Frankenstein (1944)
House of Dracula (1945)
Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948)
Hammer
series
Dracula (1958)
The Brides of Dracula (1960)
Dracula: Prince of Darkness (1966)
Dracula Has Risen from the Grave (1968)
Taste the Blood of Dracula (1970)
Scars of Dracula (1970)
Dracula A.D. 1972 (1972)
The Satanic Rites of Dracula (1973)
The Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires (1974)
Dracula
2000
Dracula 2000 (2000)
Dracula II: Ascension (2003)
Dracula III: Legacy (2005)
Parodies
Mad Monster Party? (1967)
Batman Fights Dracula (1967)
Blacula (1972)
Mad Mad Mad Monsters (1972)
Blood for Dracula (1974)
Vampira (1974)
Son of Dracula (1974)
Dracula in the Provinces (1975)
Dracula and Son (1976)
Love at First Bite (1979)
The Halloween That Almost Wasn't (1979)
Fracchia contro Dracula (1985)
The Monster Squad (1987)
Scooby-Doo! and the Reluctant Werewolf (1988)
Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995)
Monster Mash (1995)
Monster Mash (2000)
Zora the Vampire (2000)
Hotel Transylvania (2012)
Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015)
Monster Family (2017)
Hotel Transylvania 3 (2018)
Other
Dracula's Death (1921)
Nosferatu (1922)
The Return of the Vampire (1943)
Drakula İstanbul'da (1953)
Blood of Dracula (1957)
The Return of Dracula (1958)
Batman Dracula (1964)
Billy the Kid Versus Dracula (1966)
Dracula (1968)
Blood of Dracula's Castle (1969)
Count Dracula (1970)
Los Monstruos del Terror (1970)
Cuadecuc, vampir (1971)
Vampyros Lesbos (1971)
Dracula vs. Frankenstein (1971)
Bram Stoker's Dracula (1973)
Count Dracula's Great Love (1974)
Count Dracula (1977)
Dracula's Dog (1978)
Doctor Dracula (1978)
Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979)
Dracula (1979)
Nocturna: Granddaughter of Dracula (1979)
Dracula's Widow (1988)
To Die For (1989)
Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat (1989)
Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992)
Nadja (1994)
Shadow of the Vampire (2000)
Dark Prince: The True Story of Dracula (2000)
Dracula: Pages from a Virgin's Diary (2002)
Dracula (2002)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003)
Van Helsing (2004)
Van Helsing: The London Assignment (2004)
Dracula 3000 (2004)
The Vulture's Eye (2004)
Blade: Trinity (2004)
The Batman vs. Dracula (2005)
Bram Stoker's Dracula's Curse (2006)
Dracula (2006)
Bram Stoker's Dracula's Guest (2008)
The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice (2008)
House of the Wolf Man (2009)
Young Dracula (2011)
Dracula Reborn (2012)
Dracula 3D (2012)
Saint Dracula 3D (2012)
Dracula 2012 (2013)
Dracula: The Dark Prince (2013)
Dracula Untold (2014)
Television
Series
Draculas ring (1978)
Cliffhangers (1979)
Drak Pack (1980)
Count Duckula (1988–1993)
Dracula: The Series (1990–1991)
Little Dracula (1991–1999)
Ace Kilroy (2011–2012)
Young Dracula (2006–2014)
characters
episodes
Dracula (2013–2014)
Penny Dreadful (2014–2016)
Episodes
"Treehouse of Horror IV" (1993)
"Treehouse of Horror XXI" (2010)
"Buffy vs. Dracula" (2000)
Other
novels
The Dracula Tape and sequels (1975–2002)
Anno Dracula series (1992–present)
Anno Dracula
The Bloody Red Baron
Dracula Cha Cha Cha
Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories (1914)
The Revenge of Dracula (1978)
Little Dracula (1986)
Dracula the Undead (1997)
The Historian (2005)
The Book of Renfield (2005)
Bloodline (2005)
Young Dracula and Young Monsters (2006)
Fangland (2007)
Dracula the Un-dead (2009)
Radio
Dracula (1938)
Dracula (1975)
Plays
Dracula (1924)
Dracula (1995)
Dracula (1996)
Musicals
Dracula (Czech musical) (1995)
Dracula: A Chamber Musical (1997)
Dracula, the Musical (2004)
Dracula – Entre l'amour et la mort (2006)
Dracula: the Musical (2010)
Dracula – L'amour plus fort que la mort (2011)
Comics
The Tomb of Dracula
Dracula (Marvel Comics)
Dracula (Dell Comics)
Dracula Lives!
Hellsing
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen
Sword of Dracula
Batman & Dracula: Red Rain
Victorian Undead
Wolves at the Gate
X-Men: Apocalypse vs. Dracula
Purgatori
Video
games
The Count (1981)
Ghost Manor (1983)
Castlevania series
1986–present
Dracula
Dracula (1986)
Dracula the Undead (1991)
Dracula Hakushaku (1992)
Bram Stoker's Dracula (1993)
Bram Stoker's Dracula (handheld) (1993)
Dracula Unleashed (1993)
Dracula: Resurrection (2000)
Dracula 2: The Last Sanctuary (2000)
Van Helsing (2004)
Dracula 3: The Path of the Dragon (2008)
Dracula: Origin (2008)
Vampire Season Monster Defense (2012)
Dracula 4: The Shadow of the Dragon (2013)
Dracula 5: The Blood Legacy (2013)
The Incredible Adventures of Van Helsing (2013)
Drac's Night Out (unreleased)
Pinball
Dracula (1979)
Bram Stoker's Dracula (1993)
Monster Bash (1998)
Other games
The Fury of Dracula
Castles
Castle Dracula
Bran Castle
Poenari Castle
Corvin Castle
Albums
Dracula
Dracula 2000
Iubilaeum Anno Dracula 2001
Perfect Selection: Dracula Battle
Transylvania
Van Helsing
Songs
"Love Song for a Vampire"
Audio dramas
Son of the Dragon
Related topics
Dracula in popular culture
Don Dracula
Transylvanian Society of Dracula
Dracula Society
Dracula tourism
Lugosi v. Universal Pictures
"Dracula/The Rose"
[show]
v
t
e
Universal Monsters
Films
Dracula
Dracula (English)/(Spanish) (1931)
Dracula's Daughter (1936)
Son of Dracula (1943)
Remakes
Dracula (1979)
Dracula Untold (2014)
Frankenstein
Frankenstein (1931)
Bride of Frankenstein (1935; character)
Son of Frankenstein (1939)
The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942)
Edgar Allan Poe
Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932)
The Black Cat (1934)
The Raven (1935)
The Black Cat (1941)
The Mystery of Marie Roget (1942)
Mummy
(Imhotep
• Kharis)
The Mummy (1932)
The Mummy's Hand (1940)
The Mummy's Tomb (1942)
The Mummy's Ghost
The Mummy's Curse (1944)
Dark Universe
The Mummy (2017)
The Mummy
The Mummy (1999)
Returns (2001)
Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008)
Invisible Man
The Invisible Man (1933)
Returns
The Invisible Woman (1940)
Invisible Agent (1942)
The Invisible Man's Revenge (1944)
Werewolves (The Wolf Man)
Werewolf of London (1935)
The Wolf Man (1941)
She-Wolf of London (1946)
The Wolfman (2010)
Crossovers
Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943)
House of Frankenstein (1944)
House of Dracula (1945)
Van Helsing (2004)
Abbott and Costello Meet
Frankenstein (1948)
Killer, Boris Karloff (1949)
Invisible Man (1951)
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1953)
Mummy (1955)
Ape Woman
Captive Wild Woman (1943)
Jungle Woman (1944)
The Jungle Captive (1945)
Inner Sanctum
Mysteries
Calling Dr. Death (1943)
Weird Woman
Dead Man's Eyes (1944)
The Frozen Ghost
Strange Confession
Pillow of Death (1945)
Gill-man
Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954)
Revenge of the Creature (1955)
The Creature Walks Among Us (1956)
Other films
The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923)
The Cat and the Canary (1927)
The Man Who Laughs (1928)
The Last Warning
The Last Performance (1929)
The Cat Creeps
La Voluntad del muerto (1930)
The Old Dark House (1932)
Secret of the Blue Room (1933)
The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1935)
The Invisible Ray (1936)
Night Key (1937)
The Phantom Creeps (1939)
Phantom of the Opera
The Phantom of the Opera (1925)
Phantom of the Opera (1943)
Tower of London (1939)
Black Friday (1940)
Man Made Monster
Horror Island (1941)
The Mad Doctor of Market Street
The Strange Case of Doctor Rx
Night Monster (1942)
The Mad Ghoul (1943)
The Climax (1944)
The Spider Woman Strikes Back
The Cat Creeps (1946)
The Creeper
House of Horrors (1946)
The Brute Man (1946)
The Strange Door (1951)
The Black Castle (1952)
It Came from Outer Space (1953)
Tarantula
Cult of the Cobra
This Island Earth (1955)
Curucu, Beast of the Amazon
The Mole People (1956)
The Incredible Shrinking Man
The Deadly Mantis
The Land Unknown
The Monolith Monsters (1957)
The Thing That Couldn't Die
Monster on the Campus (1958)
Curse of the Undead (1959)
The Leech Woman (1960)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 19148704278336932387
LCCN: nb2017002572
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text:
Light-independent reactions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Light-dependent reactions
This article needs attention from an expert in Biology or Molecular and Cell Biology. The specific problem is: The title and scope of this article have issues. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Biology or WikiProject Molecular and Cell Biology may be able to help recruit an expert. (April 2017)
The internal structure of a chloroplast
The light-independent reactions, or dark reactions,[1] of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Coupling to other metabolic pathways
1.1 Steps
1.2 Products
2 Light-dependent regulation
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Coupling to other metabolic pathways [edit]
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P.
Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation
The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley[3] by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds[4] that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
3 CO
2 + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ + 9 ATP → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 3 H
2O + 8 Pi (Pi = inorganic phosphate)
Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C
6H
12O
6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates," namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
Steps[edit]
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO2 molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
Calvin cycle step 1 (black circles represent carbon atoms)
Calvin cycle steps 2 and 3 combined
The enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction.[5] The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture CO
2 or O
2. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The CO
2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces an unstable six-carbon compound called 2-carboxy 3-keto 1,5-biphosphoribotol (or 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate) that immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, or 3-PGA, a 3-carbon compound[6] (also: 3-phosphoglyceric acid, PGA, 3PGA).
The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of 3-PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage). 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPGA, glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and ADP are the products. (However, note that two 3-PGAs are produced for every CO
2 that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per CO
2 fixed.)
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses the reduction of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also called G3P, GP, TP, PGAL, GAP) is produced, and the NADPH itself is oxidized and becomes NADP+. Again, two NADPH are utilized per CO
2 fixed.
Regeneration stage of the Calvin cycle
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO2 molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO2 molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO2 molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
Simplified C3 cycle with structural formulas
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6-phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
Then fixation of another CO
2 generates two more G3P.
F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate (Xu5P).
E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO
2 fixation) are converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme.
Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
Fixation of a third CO
2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO
2, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P.
R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase. Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase.
Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin cycle. This requires the input of one ATP.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO
2 molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
The overall equation of the Calvin cycle (black circles represent carbon atoms)
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O
2 instead of CO
2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +CO
2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO
2, this process leads to loss of CO
2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example.
Products[edit]
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+. (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.[7]
Light-dependent regulation[edit]
Main article: Light-dependent reactions
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin/ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it.[8] Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
References[edit]
Citations
Jump up ^ Silverstein, Alvin (2008). Photosynthesis. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 21. ISBN 9780822567981.
Jump up ^ John C. Cushman (2001). "A Plastic Photosynthetic Adaptation to Arid Environments". Plant Physiology. 127 (4): 1439–1448. doi:10.1104/pp.010818. PMC 1540176  . PMID 11743087.
Jump up ^ Bassham J, Benson A, Calvin M (1950). "The path of carbon in photosynthesis" (PDF). J Biol Chem. 185 (2): 781–7. doi:10.2172/910351. PMID 14774424.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
Jump up ^ Farazdaghi H (2009). "Modeling the Kinetics of Activation and Reaction of RuBisCO from Gas Exchange". Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. 29 (IV): 275–294. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9237-4_12.
Jump up ^ Campbell, and Reece Biology: 8th Edition, page 198. Benjamin Cummings, December 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ Russell, Wolfe et al.Biology: Exploring the Diversity of Life'.Toronto:Nelson College Indigenous,1st ed, Vol. 1, 2010, pg 151
Jump up ^ Besse, I; Buchanan, B (1997). "Thioredoxin-linked animal and plant processes: the new generation". Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 38: 1–11.
Bibliography
Bassham JA (2003). "Mapping the carbon reduction cycle: a personal retrospective". Photosyn. Res. 76 (1-3): 35–52. doi:10.1023/A:1024929725022. PMID 16228564.
Diwan, Joyce J. (2005). "Photosynthetic Dark Reaction". Biochemistry and Biophysics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Portis, Archie; Parry, Martin (2007). "Discoveries in Rubisco (Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase): a historical perspective" (PDF). Photosynthesis Research. 94 (1): 121–143. doi:10.1007/s11120-007-9225-6. PMID 17665149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-12
Further reading[edit]
Rubisco Activase, from the Plant Physiology Online website
Thioredoxins, from the Plant Physiology Online website
External links[edit]
The Biochemistry of the Calvin Cycle at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway from Biochemistry, Fifth Edition by Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymoczko and Lubert Stryer. Published by W. H. Freeman and Company (2002).
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