text:
Seven-digit dialing
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Seven-digit dialing is a telephone dialing procedure customary in the territories of the North American Numbering Plan, for dialing telephone numbers in the local calling area. It is also sometimes known as local format or network format.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Structure
3 Office code protection
4 Limitations
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
Originally, telephone exchanges consisted of manual boards operated by switchboard operators. Numbers were typically four digits or fewer for local calls within an exchange due to practical limitations (if each line had a jack on the switchboard, four digits or 10000 possible numbers filled a 100 x 100 board). As the number of subscribers grew, multiple exchanges served individual neighborhoods of large cities. A city telephone number consisted of an exchange name and four digits, such as "Pennsylvania 5000". A rural telephone number, often party line, was often up to four digits plus a letter or letter and digits to indicate which of the multiple parties on the line was desired.
Various schemes were used to convert these to dialable numbers as dial replaced manual switchboards; many moderately-large cities used a 2L+4N format where "ADelaide 1234" would be dialled as AD-1234 (23-1234, a six-digit local call). A few of the largest cities, such as New York, used seven dial pulls ("PENnsylvania 5000" became PEN-5000 and later PEnnsylvania 6-5000, dialled PE6-5000 or 736-5000).
The initial 86 area codes were assigned in 1947 as routing codes for operator calls; the first cross-country Bell System direct distance dial call was made in 1951. The system was based on fixed-length numbers; a direct-dial long distance call consisted of a three-digit area code and a seven-digit local number. Numbers in 2L+4N cities (such as Montréal and Toronto) were systematically lengthened to seven digits in the 1950's, a few exchanges at a time, so that all local numbers were seven digits when direct distance dialling finally came to town.
Exchange prefixes were added to small-town numbers to extend four or five-digit local numbers to the standardised seven-digit length, matching in length the then-longest local numbers in the largest major US markets.
Structure[edit]
Within the multinational calling area administered by the North American Numbering Plan, telephone numbers are composed of three fixed-length fields: a three-digit numbering plan area (NPA) code (area code), indicating a geographical area, a three-digit (NXX) central office code, and a four-digit (XXXX) station number.
In seven-digit dialing only the central office code and the station number is dialed, indicating that the call destination is within the local area code. This was the standard in most of North America from the 1950s onward. In some small villages with only one local exchange, it may have been permissible to dial only the four-digit station number.
A long distance call within the same area code could often be dialed as 1+7D, without using an area code. The scheme relied on the second digit of an area code being 0-1 and the second digit of a local exchange being 2-9. This dialing plan was broken by the introduction of area code 334 and area code 360 in 1995.
Office code protection[edit]
Traditionally, identical central office codes in adjacent Numbering Plan Areas (NPAs) would be assigned as far apart from each other as possible, so that callers living near an NPA boundary would not confuse numbers in the adjacent NPAs. Central office code protection made it possible in some low density areas to use seven digits to reach areas in another area code, such as Hull from Ottawa before 2006, as every Ottawa-Hull local number originally was reserved in both area code 613 and 819.[1]
Limitations[edit]
Area code overlay plans introduced a requirement in most areas that all calls, even local, must include the area code, resulting in the term 10-digit dialing. Seven-digit calling is still possible in those numbering plan areas of North America not subject to an overlay plan.
Traditionally, calling from one area code to another, specifically for long distance calls, requires the caller to dial the trunk digit "1" before the code and number. More recently, with the increasing number and decreasing geographic size of area codes, it is increasingly possible to call a number in another area code that is not long distance where such a call does require the area code, but not the trunk digit (initial "1").
An individual area code can accommodate about 7.8 million numbers if used efficiently (based on seven digits, restricted so that a local number cannot begin with 0 or 1, N-1-1, or a reserved code like 950, 958, 959 or an exchange prefix duplicating an in-region area code). This may not be enough for New York City (pop 8,405,837 in 2013) if every resident wants their own mobile telephone; multiple area codes will be needed and seven-digit calls between area codes will inevitably break.
There is no legitimate technical need to require that a call within the same area code use more than seven digits, although telephone companies in both the US and Canada have successfully lobbied federal regulators to impose this arbitrary requirement on the assumption that no new subscriber would want a ten-digit local number while existing subscribers in the original area code could still reach other with seven-digit local calls.
In theory, an area code that covers two large but distant cities, such as Windsor, Ontario and London, Ontario in area code 519 (175 km apart), could be overlaid without breaking any seven-digit local calls if exchange prefixes are carefully assigned so that no two numbers with the last seven digits are placed in the same town's local calling area and if long distance calls require 1+area code before the number. In practice, this is never done; in one-town area codes, such as 212 (Manhattan), it is not possible.
If the subscriber controls the dial plan, there is no way to force the use of ten digits within the home area code. Many modern cellular phones automatically prepend the telephone's own area code if the user enters only seven digits, sending a total of ten digits. In many voice-over-IP services, users can configure default handling of seven-digit dialing.
See also[edit]
Linked numbering scheme
List of country calling codes
E.164
References[edit]
Jump up ^ In-state calling (archived) at fairpoint.com
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text:
Cashew
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cashew
Ripe cashew fruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Anacardium
Species: A. occidentale
Binomial name
Anacardium occidentale
L.
The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew seed and the cashew apple.[1] It can grow as high as 14 m (46 ft), but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), has proved more profitable, with earlier maturity and higher yields.
The species is originally native to northeastern Brazil.[1] Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s.[2] Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam, Nigeria, India, and Ivory Coast.[3]
The cashew nut, often simply called a cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on its own, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications including lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and arms production, starting in World War II.[4] The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or distilled into liquor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Habitat and growth
3 Cashew nut and shell
4 Production
5 Nutrition
5.1 Allergy
6 Cashew oil
6.1 Cashew shell oil
7 Cashew apple
7.1 Alcohol
8 Traditional medicine
9 Animal feed
10 See also
11 Further reading
12 References
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
Mameluca woman under a fruiting cashew tree (1641-44)
Its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree caju (Portuguese pronunciation: [kaˈʒu]), which itself is derived from the Tupian word acajú, literally meaning "nut that produces itself".[1] The generic name Anacardium, originally from the Greek, refers to the unusual location of the seed outside the core or heart of the fruit (ana- means "again" or "backward" and -cardium means "heart"). A mid-seventeenth century ethnographic painting by Albert Eckhout, who accompanied Dutch governor-general Johan Maurits, shows a woman under a fruiting cashew tree.
Habitat and growth[edit]
'Anacardium occidentale', from Koehler's 'Medicinal-Plants' (1887)
The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 m (46 ft) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 cm (1.6–8.7 in) long and 2–15 cm (0.79–5.91 in) broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 mm (0.28–0.59 in) long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around 7,500 m2 (81,000 sq ft); it is located in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil.
The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).[1] What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower.[5] Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow and/or red structure about 5–11 cm (2.0–4.3 in) long. It is edible and has a strong "sweet" smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the cashew apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile, making it unsuitable for transport. In Latin America, a fruit drink is made from the cashew apple pulp which has a very refreshing taste and tropical flavor that can be described as having notes of mango, raw green pepper, and just a little hint of grapefruit-like citrus.
Flower of cashew tree
Cashew tree
The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple.[1] Within the true fruit is a single seed, which is often considered a nut, in the culinary sense. The seed is surrounded by a double shell containing an allergenic phenolic resin, anacardic acid, a potent skin irritant chemically related to the better-known allergenic oil urushiol which is also a toxin found in the related poison ivy. Properly roasting cashews destroys the toxin, but it must be done outdoors as the smoke (not unlike that from burning poison ivy) contains urushiol droplets which can cause severe, sometimes life-threatening, reactions by irritating the lungs. People who are allergic to cashew (or poison ivy) urushiols may cross-react to mango or pistachio which are also in the Anacardiaceae family. Some people are allergic to cashews, but cashews are a less frequent allergen than tree nuts or peanuts.[6]
While the cashew plant is native to northeast Brazil, the Portuguese took it to Goa, India, between 1560 and 1565. From there it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.
Cashew nut and shell[edit]
Young cashew seeds
Cashews as a snack
Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.
Cashew nuts are commonly used in Indian cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashew nuts are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo, and is eaten with suman. Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called turrones de casuy, which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashew nut is called kacang mete or kacang mede, while the cashew apple is called jambu monyet (translates in English to monkey rose apple).
In Mozambique, bolo polana is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is popular in South Africa.[7]
In Brazil, the cashew fruit juice is popular. Brazilians prefer the fruit to the nut.[8] In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called dulce de marañón, with marañón as a Spanish name for cashew.
In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the demands for manufacturing cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk.[9]
The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds which may cause contact dermatitis similar in severity to that of poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol.[10] Due to the possible dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers.[11] Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology.[12]
Cashew sprouts (above) are eaten raw, as well as cooked
Production[edit]
Cashew Nut Production (as Kernels) - 2015
Country Production
(tonnes)
India 172,719
Côte d'Ivoire 171,111
Vietnam 113,059
Brazil 33,000
World
738,861
Source: Nuts and Dried Fruits, Global Statistical Review, 2015[13]
In 2015, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 738,861 tonnes, led by India and Côte d'Ivoire each with 23% of the world total (table). Vietnam and Brazil also had significant production of cashew kernels.
In 2014, rapid growth of cashew cultivation in Côte d'Ivoire made this country the top African exporter.[14] Fluctuations in world market prices, poor working conditions, and low pay for local harvesting have caused discontent in the cashew nut industry.[15][16][17]
Cashew nuts are produced in tropical countries because the tree is frost sensitive, adapting to various climatic regions between the latitudes of 25°N and 25°S.[18] The traditional cashew tree is tall (up to 14 m) and takes three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests can begin. More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m tall, and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 metric tons per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies are used to further improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.
Cashew nuts being inspected after harvest
Nutrition[edit]
Cashews, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
553 kcal (2,310 kJ)
Carbohydrates
30.19 g
Starch
0.74 g
Sugars
lactose
5.91 g
0.00 g
Dietary fiber
3.3 g
Fat
43.85 g
Saturated
7.783 g
Monounsaturated
23.797 g
Polyunsaturated
7.845 g
Protein
18.22 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A
0 IU
Thiamine (B1)
(37%)
0.423 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(5%)
0.058 mg
Niacin (B3)
(7%)
1.062 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(17%)
0.86 mg
Vitamin B6
(32%)
0.417 mg
Folate (B9)
(6%)
25 μg
Vitamin B12
(0%)
0 μg
Vitamin C
(1%)
0.5 mg
Vitamin D
(0%)
0 μg
Vitamin E
(6%)
0.90 mg
Vitamin K
(32%)
34.1 μg
Minerals
Calcium
(4%)
37 mg
Copper
(110%)
2.2 mg
Iron
(51%)
6.68 mg
Magnesium
(82%)
292 mg
Manganese
(79%)
1.66 mg
Phosphorus
(85%)
593 mg
Potassium
(14%)
660 mg
Selenium
(28%)
19.9 μg
Sodium
(1%)
12 mg
Zinc
(61%)
5.78 mg
Other constituents
Water
5.20 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
In a 100-gram serving, raw cashews provide 553 Calories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats, 36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber and 11% DV of carbohydrates (table).[19] Cashews are rich sources (> 19% DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79-110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B6 and vitamin K (32-37% DV) (table).[19] Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table).[19] Cashews (100 grams, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta-sitosterol.[19]
Allergy[edit]
For some 5% of people, cashews can lead to complications or allergic reactions[20][21][22] which may be life-threatening.[21] These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins. Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing, particularly in Europe.[20][21]
Cashew oil[edit]
Cashew oil is a dark yellow oil for cooking or salad dressing pressed from cashew nuts (typically broken chunks created during processing). This may be produced from a single cold pressing.[23]
Cashew shell oil[edit]
See also: Urushiol
Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007-24-7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. It is a raw material of multiple uses in developing drugs, antioxidants, fungicides, and biomaterials.[12] It is used in tropical folk medicine and for antitermite treatment of timber.[24] Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.
Cold, solvent-extracted CNSL is mostly composed of anacardic acids (70%),[25] cardol (18%) and cardanol (5%).[12][26]
Heating CNSL decarboxylates the anacardic acids, producing a technical grade of CNSL that is rich in cardanol. Distillation of this material gives distilled, technical CNSL containing 78% cardanol and 8% cardol (cardol has one more hydroxyl group than cardanol).[26] This process also reduces the degree of thermal polymerization of the unsaturated alkyl-phenols present in CNSL.
Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardanol, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials.[25][26]
These substances are skin allergens, like the oils of poison ivy, and present danger during manual cashew processing.[24]
This natural oil phenol has been found to have interesting chemical structural features which enable a range of chemical modifications to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers capitalizing on the chemically versatile construct, containing three different functional groups: the aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These can be split into key groups, used as polyols, which have recently seen a dramatic increase in demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of ridged polyurethanes aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.[12]
CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products.[27] CNSL-based Novolac is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent for epoxy matrices in composite applications providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.
Cashew apple[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Cashew apples for sale
The cashew apple, also called cashew fruit, is the fleshy part of the cashew fruit attached to the cashew nut.[1] The top end of the cashew apple is attached to the stem that comes off the tree. The bottom end of the cashew apple attaches to the cashew nut, which is encased in a shell. In botanical terms, the cashew apple is an accessory fruit that grows on the cashew seed (which is the nut).
The cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, as well as an alcoholic drink. It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries such as India and Brazil. In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.[1]
Cashew nuts are more popular than cashew apples in many parts of the world that do not grow cashews, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is difficult to transport.[28] Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices.[28]
Cashew apples have a sweet but astringent taste traced to the waxy layer on the skin that contains a chemical, urushiol, which can cause minor skin irritation to areas that have had contact with it.[citation needed] In cultures that consume cashew apples, this astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water; alternatively, boiling the fruit in salt water for five minutes or soaking it in gelatin solution also reduces the astringency.[29]
Alcohol[edit]
In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and the juice extracted and kept for fermentation for a few days. Fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or fenny. Feni is about 40–42% alcohol. The single-distilled version is called urrac, which is about 15% alcohol.
In the southern region of Mtwara, Tanzania, the cashew apple (bibo in Swahili) is dried and saved. Later, it is reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor often referred to by the generic name, gongo.
In Mozambique, cashew farmers commonly make a strong liquor from the cashew apple, agua ardente (burning water).
According to one source,[30] an alcohol had been distilled in the early 20th century from the juice of the fruit, and was manufactured in the West Indies.
Traditional medicine[edit]
In traditional Maya medicine, the leaves or bark of cashew trees can be made into a tea to treat diarrhea.[31]
Animal feed[edit]
Discarded cashew nuts unfit for human consumption, alongside the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels, can be used to feed livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.[32]
See also[edit]
Cajuína
Cashew pie
List of culinary nuts
Semecarpus anacardium (the Oriental Anacardium) is a native of India and is closely related to the cashew.
Further reading[edit]
Jostock, Carolyn. "Cashew Industry" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
Olaya, Clara Inés. "Cajú/ Marañon/ Merey/Acaiu/Cashew Nut", in Americas 42, no. 3 (1990), 52–53.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Morton, Julia F (1987). "Cashew apple, Anacardium occidentale L.". Fruits of warm climates, Julia F. Morton. Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2.
Jump up ^ Carolyn Jostock, "Cashew Industry" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
Jump up ^ "Major Food And Agricultural Commodities And Producers – Countries By Commodity". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division. 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Jostock, "Cashew Industry", p. 5.
Jump up ^ Varghese, T.; Pundir, Y. (1964). "Anatomy of the pseudocarp in Anacardium occidentale L.". Proceedings: Plant Sciences. 59 (5): 252–258.
Jump up ^ Rosen, T.; Fordice, D. B. (April 1994). "Cashew Nut Dermatitis". Southern Medical Journal. 87 (4): 543–546. PMID 8153790. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Phillippa Cheifitz (2009). South Africa Eats.
Jump up ^ Jostock, "Cashew Industry" p. 5.
Jump up ^ Osborn M (26 August 2015). "Access to Market Data and Supply Chain Visibility offer Economic Boost to Ghana Cashew Farmers". Consumer Goods Technology. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Rosen T., Fordice, D. B. (1994). "Cashew nut dermatitis". South Med J. 87 (4): 543–46. PMID 8153790. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Why Cashews Aren’t Sold In The Shell". Moment of Science, Indiana Public Media. September 6, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hamad F. B., Mubofu E. B. (2015). "Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives". Int J Mol Sci. 16 (4): 8569–90. PMC 4425097  . PMID 25894225. doi:10.3390/ijms16048569. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Nuts & Dried Fruits Global Statistical Review 2015 / 2016, p22" (PDF). International Nut and Dried Fruit Council. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Bavier, Joe (29 October 2014). "War-scarred Ivory Coast aims to conquer the world of cashews". Reuters. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tanzania riots over cashew nut payments". BBC. 24 April 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Lamble L. (2 November 2013). "Cashew nut workers suffer 'appalling' conditions as global slump dents profits". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Wilson B. (4 May 2015). "'Blood cashews': the toxic truth about your favourite nut". The Telegraph. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cultivating Cashew Nuts". ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, South Africa. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Full Report (All Nutrients): 12087, Nuts, cashew nuts, raw, database version SR 27". Agricultural Research Service – United States Department of Agriculture. 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b McWilliam V., Koplin J., Lodge C., Tang M., Dharmage S., Allen K. (2015). "The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review". Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 15 (9): 555. PMID 26233427. doi:10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c "Cashew Allergies". Informall Database – funded by European Union. 2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Food Allergies – INFOSAN" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2006.
Jump up ^ "Cashew Oil". Smart Kitchen. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Agriculture and the Environment", by Jason W. Clay, p. 268
^ Jump up to: a b Alexander H. Tullo (September 8, 2008). "A Nutty Chemical". Chemical and Engineering News. 86 (36): 26–27. doi:10.1021/cen-v086n033.p026.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Exposure and Use Data for Cashew Nut Shell Liquid" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-12. Retrieved 2012-01-12.
Jump up ^ Ferri, Enrico (22 May 2011). "Bioresins Derived from Cashew Nutshell Oil". MaterialsToday. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Strom, Stephanie (2014-08-08). "Cashew Juice, the Apple of Pepsi's Eye". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
Jump up ^ Azam-Ali and Judge (2004). Small-scale cashew nut processing (PDF). FAO, United Nations.
Jump up ^ Percival, Robert (1803). An Account of the Island of Ceylon: Its History, Geography, Natural History, with the Manners and Customs of its various Inhabitants. London: C. & R. Baldwin.
Jump up ^ Saqui, Aurora Garcia (2016). Ix Hmen U Tzaco Ah Maya: Maya Herbal Medicine. Caye Caulker, Belize: Produccicones de la Hamaca. p. 47. ISBN 9768142863.
Jump up ^ Heuzé V., Tran G., Hassoun P., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/56
External links[edit]
Handbook of Energy Crops – Anacardium occidentale L.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anacardium occidentale.
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text:
Brown-brown
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Brown-brown is a purported form of cocaine mixed with smokeless gunpowder (not "black powder"). Smokeless powder often contains nitroglycerin, a drug prescribed for heart conditions, which might cause vasodilation, permitting the cocaine to move more freely through the body. This, in turn, is believed to allow for a more intense high. The term may also refer to heroin.[1][2]
Brown-brown is reportedly given to child soldiers in West African armed conflicts.[3][4] One former child soldier, Michel Chikwanine, has written a graphic novel with Jessica Dee Humphreys called Child Soldier, about the experience of being captured at the age of 5 by rebel fighters in the Democratic Republic of Congo, including being given brown-brown.[5] "The rebel soldier who had hit me used a long, jagged knife to cut my wrist and rubbed powder into the wound. They called it Brown Brown – a mixture of gunpowder and a drug called cocaine. Right away, I began to feel like my brain was trying to jump out of my head."[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 In media and culture
1.1 Films
1.2 Literature
1.3 Television
1.4 Video games
2 Controversy
3 See also
4 References
In media and culture[edit]
Films[edit]
The fictional character Yuri Orlov (portrayed by Nicolas Cage) uses the drug in Liberia in the film Lord of War (2005).[7]
It is also portrayed being used by Liberian child soldiers during their preparations for a combat/assault mission in the French/Liberian film Johnny Mad Dog (2008).[8]
Several characters in the film Beasts of No Nation (2015) are seen snorting a substance, possibly cocaine, possibly heroin, that is mixed with gunpowder and burned.[9]
Literature[edit]
In the novel Beasts of No Nation (2005) and its 2015 film adaptation, brown-brown is used by many of the child soldiers and the Commandant.
In What is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng (2006), by Dave Eggers, the protagonist makes frequent references to brown-brown, the process by which he and other child soldiers were forced to become addicted to it and other drugs and how it eventually helped them "enjoy" (more precisely, cope with) the horrendous violence they perpetrated.
Ishmael Beah describes using brown-brown, cocaine, and other drugs while he was a child soldier in Sierra Leone, in his memoir A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (2007).
Television[edit]
In 1000 Ways to Die episode 4.5, titled "Killing Them Softly" (2011), Tomo, a Sierra Leonean warlord, dies after snorting brown-brown with diamond dust in it, which cut through the lining of his lungs, breaching arteries and blood vessels.[10][11]
In the Funimation dub for the anime series Crayon Shin-Chan, the character Musae Koyama (aunt of the titular character, Shin Nohara) is renamed Bitzi Nohara and is presented as a photographer who is recovering from a brown-brown addiction after traveling to Africa and becoming romantically involved with a gun runner who trained child soldiers.
Video games[edit]
In the video game Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001), Raiden divulges his experience as a child soldier and references the use of brown-brown.
Controversy[edit]
According to Brendan I. Koerner, the use of cocaine mixed with gunpowder may be less prevalent than reports indicate, as cocaine would be difficult to source during armed conflicts, especially in the African continent. Brown pills that were referred to as cocaine were most likely amphetamine. The first actual documentation of the term "brown-brown" was a 2005 Norwegian NGO report that stated the term refers to heroin.[12]
See also[edit]
Brown (disambiguation)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Alcohol and Drug Consumption in Post War Sierra Leone - An Exploration" (PDF). FAFO. 2005.
Jump up ^ "Utas: The West Side Boys" (PDF). Graduate Institute.
Jump up ^ Beah, Ishmael (January 14, 2007). "The Making, and Unmaking, of a Child Soldier". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved February 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ Beah, Ishmael (2007-01-14). "Ishmael Beah - "A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier"". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-07-23.
Jump up ^ "'Child Soldier' author shares hard truths with young readers". cbc.ca. Retrieved 2015-12-29.
Jump up ^ Chikwanine, Michel & Humphreys, Jessica Dee (2015). Child Soldier: When Boys and Girls are Used in War. Kids Can Press. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Trigger Happy". Sydney Morning Herald. February 17, 2006. Retrieved February 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Liberia's Psychiatric Wasteland For Ex-Child Soldiers". Mail & Guardian Online. January 15, 2009. Retrieved February 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Beasts of No Nation: An African boy is recruited into the world of child soldiers in this harrowing drama from Cary Fukunaga". Rolling Stone.
Jump up ^ 1000 Ways to Die: Killing Them Softly (Blood Diamonds). Spike. March 9, 2011. Retrieved November 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Killing Them Softly". 1000 Ways to Die. IMDb. 2011.
Jump up ^ Koernef, David I. (April 12, 2010). "The Lowdown on Brown-Brown". Microkhan.com.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown-brown&oldid=799679341"
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values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

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/wiki/Black_powder
mw-redirect
Black powder

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/wiki/Heart_disease
mw-redirect
Heart disease

values:
/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo
mw-redirect
Democratic Republic of Congo

values:
/wiki/Blood_vessels
mw-redirect
Blood vessels

values:
/wiki/Crayon_Shin-Chan
mw-redirect
Crayon Shin-Chan

values:
/wiki/Child_soldiers
mw-redirect
Child soldiers

values:
/wiki/Brown_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Brown (disambiguation)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.fafo.no/pub/rapp/496/496.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1816729/
external text

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from November 2013

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from March 2009

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Brown-brown
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

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p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

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values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

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values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

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Language settings
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display: none; font-size: 13px;

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