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Diamond tool
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A close-up of a segment of a diamond saw blade
A diamond tool is a cutting tool with diamond grains fixed on the functional parts of the tool via a bonding material or another method. As diamond is a superhard material, diamond tools have many advantages as compared with tools made with common abrasives such as corundum and silicon carbide.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Advantages
2.1 Advantages of diamond grinding tools
3 Categories
3.1 Categories by manufacturing method
3.2 Categories by use
4 Applications
4.1 Applicable materials
4.2 Applied domains
5 Some examples of diamond tools
5.1 Diamond dressing tools
5.2 PCD cutting tools
5.3 Polycrystalline diamond compacts
5.4 Diamond paste and slurry
5.5 Diamond electroplated tools
5.6 Single point diamond turning tools
5.7 Diamond saw blades
5.8 Diamond tipped grinding cups
5.9 Diamond tipped core bit or holesaw
5.10 PCD tool insert
5.11 PD tool insert
5.12 Polishing pads
5.13 Diamond wire cutting
5.14 Diamond saw chain
6 See also
History[edit]
In Natural History, Pliny wrote "When an adamas is successfully broken it disintegrates into splinters so small as to be scarcely visible. These are much sought after by engravers of gems and are inserted by them into iron tools because they make hollows in the hardest materials without difficulty."[1]
Advantages[edit]
Diamond is one of the hardest natural materials on earth; much harder than corundum and silicon carbide. Diamond also has high strength, good wear resistance, and a low friction coefficient. So when used as an abrasive, it has many obvious advantages over many other common abrasives.
Advantages of diamond grinding tools[edit]
Diamond can be used to make grinding tools, which have following advantages:
High grinding efficiency, Low grinding force: Less heat will be generated by the hole in the grinding process. This can decrease or avoid burns and cracks on the surface of the workpiece, and decrease the equipment's wear and energy consumption.
High wear resistance: Diamond grinding tools' change in dimension is small. This can lead to good grinding quality and high grinding precision.
Long lifespan, Long dressing period: This can greatly increase the work efficiency, and improve the workers' labor environment and decrease the product's labor intensity.
Low comprehensive cost: The processing cost of each workpiece is lower.
Categories[edit]
There are thousands of kinds of diamond tools. They can be categorized by their manufacturing methods and their uses.
Categories by manufacturing method[edit]
According to their manufacturing methods or bond types, diamond tools can be categorized to the following way:
Metal-bonded diamond tools: The tool's bonding material is sintered metal containing diamond grit. The functional parts of the tool are usually diamond segments. These tools include metal-bonded diamond saw blades, diamond grinding cup wheels, diamond core drill bits, etc. For metal-bonded diamond tools, the bond is one of the prime factors when selecting which tool to use for cutting or grinding a specific material, depending on how hard or abrasive the material is. The bond used dictates the rate at which the metallic powders wear down and expose new diamond crystals at the surface, thereby maintaining an abrasive cutting surface. Different bond strengths are achieved by the alloy mix of metallic powders chosen and how much heat and pressure are applied to the sintered segment. The reference material has historically been cobalt, thanks to high diamond retention, ease of processing by hot pressing and adjustable wear rate by admixed bronze[2] or tungstene carbide powders. Due to its high and unstable price and to environmental concerns, alternative systems have been developed based on iron-copper alloys or mixtures, with further metallic and non metallic additions[3].
Resin-bonded diamond tools: The tools' bonding material is mainly resin powder. An example of this kind of tool is the resin-bonded diamond polishing pads used in the construction industry.
Plated diamond tools: These tools are made by fixing the diamonds onto the tool's base via electroplating method or via CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) method. They can usually be made to good processing precision.
Ceramic-bonded diamond tools: The tools' bonding material is usually glass and ceramic powder. This tool usually has the features of good chemical stability, small elastic deformation, but high brittleness, etc.
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD): They are normally made by sintering many micro-size single diamond crystals at high temperature and high pressure. PCD has good fracture toughness and good thermal stability, and is used in making geological drill bits.
Polycrystalline Diamond Composite or Compacts (PDC): They are made by combining some layers of polycrystalline diamonds (PCD) with a layer of cemented carbide liner at high temperature and high pressure. PDC has the advantages of diamond’s high wear resistance with carbide’s good toughness.
High-temperature brazed diamond tools: This tool is made by brazing a single layer of diamonds onto the tool via a solder at a temperature of over 900 °C. using vacuum brazing or atmosphere-protected brazing. This tool has several advantages: the solder can hold the diamonds very firmly, the single layer of diamonds' exposed height can be 70%–80% of their sizes, and the diamonds can be regularly arranged on the tool.
Categories by use[edit]
If categorized by use, there are diamond grinding tools, diamond cutting tools (e.g., diamond coated twist drill bits), diamond drilling tools, diamond sawing tools (e.g., diamond saw blades), diamond drawing dies, etc.
Applications[edit]
Applicable materials[edit]
Diamond tools are suitable to process the following materials:
Carbide alloy
Hard or abrasive non-metallic materials, for example, stone, concrete, asphalt, glass, ceramics, gem stone and semiconductor materials.
Non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, copper and their alloys, and some soft but tough materials such as rubber and resin.
As diamonds can react with Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, V under the high temperatures generated in the grinding processes, normally diamond tools are not suitable to process steels, including common steels and various tough alloy steels, while the other superhard tool, cubic boron nitride (CBN) tool, is suitable to process steels. The tools made with common abrasives (e.g. corundum and silicon carbide) can also do the task.
Applied domains[edit]
Diamond tools are used in the following domains:
Geological or project exploration: Diamond geological drill bits, diamond oil drill bits and diamond thin-wall drill bits are often used. The main application of PCD drilling bits is in the oil and natural gas industries and the mining industry.
Stone processing: Diamond circular saw blades, diamond gang saws, diamond band saws are used to saw marble, granite and other stone blocks. Diamond wire saws are used in stone quarries to exploit raw stone blocks. Shaped diamond tools are used to process stone to a particular shape. Resin-bonded diamond polishing pads are used to polish stone.
Construction: Medium or small sized diamond saw blades, diamond core drill bits and some diamond grinding or polishing tools are often used in repairing roads, remodeling buildings, and processing building materials.
Woodworking: Composite laminate flooring is widely used. It is wearable as stone. PCD circular saw blades, profiling cutter, twist drill bits and other diamond tools are used in its processing.
Auto spare parts processing: PCD and PCBN cutting tools are used to meet the high efficiency and low deviation processing requirements in this domain.
IT and home appliance products processing: High-precision super-thin diamond cutting wheels are used to cut silicon slices. Resin-bonded diamond grinding wheels are used to process ceramics in optical fiber industry.
Engineering ceramics processing: Engineering ceramics are widely used in many industries. They have the properties of high toughness, high hardness, high-temperature resistance. High-toughness and durable diamond grinding wheels are developed to process them.
Carbide tools and other mechanical tools processing: Diamond tools are used to gain high processing precision and efficiency.
Besides what are listed above, there are also other domains where diamond tools are applied, for example, in medicine, Venezuelan scientist Humberto Fernandez Moran invented the diamond knife for use in delicate surgeries in 1955.
Apart from its use as an abrasive due to its high hardness, diamond is also used to make other products for its many other good properties such as high heat-conductivity, low friction coefficient, high chemical stability, high resistivity and high optical performances. These applications include coatings on bearings and CDs, acting as lens and thermistors, making high-voltage switches and sensors, etc.
Some examples of diamond tools[edit]
Diamond dressing tools[edit]
Diamond dressers consist of single-point or multipoint tools brazed to a steel shank, and used for the trueing and dressing of grinding wheels. The tools come in several types, including: grit impregnated, blade type, crown type, and disc type. The advantages of multipoint over single-point tools are:
The whole diamond can be used; in a single-point tool, when the point is blunt the diamond must be reset, and after few resettings the diamond is replaced.
Multipoint tools have higher accuracy, especially in form grinding, where blade types are used. Blades consist of elongated diamonds. The thickness is controlled and blades are available in thicknesses from 0.75 to 1.40 millimeters (0.030 to 0.055 in).
Grit-type tools are of a tough grade, and can be used for bench grinders.
Since small points are used, the diamonds have a cutting edge with natural points, unlike single-point tools, which have brutted points.
The cost of multipoint tools is lower, since smaller, less expensive diamonds are used.
PCD cutting tools[edit]
Further information on synthetic diamond: Polycrystalline diamond
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is formed in a large High Temperature-High Pressure (HT-HP) press, as either a diamond wafer on a backing of carbide, or forming a "vein" of diamond within a carbide wafer or rod.
Most wafers are polished to a mirror finish, then cut with an electrical discharge machining (EDM) tool into smaller, workable segments that are then brazed onto the sawblade, reamer, drill, or other tool. Often they are EDM machined and/or ground an additional time to expose the vein of diamond along the cutting edge. These tools are mostly used for the machining of nonmetallic and nonferrous materials.
The grinding operation is combined with EDM for several reasons. For example, according to Modern Machine Shop,[citation needed] the combination allows a higher material removal rate and is therefore more cost effective. Also, the EDM process slightly affects the surface finish. Grinding is used on the affected area to provide a finer final surface. The Beijing Institute of Electro-Machining[citation needed] attributes a finer shaping and surface geometry to the combination of the two processes into one.
The process itself is accomplished by combining the two elements from each individual process into one grinding wheel. The diamond graphite wheel accomplishes the task of grinding, while the graphite ring around the existing wheel serves as the EDM portion. However, since diamond is not a conductive material, the bonding in the PCD work piece must be ample enough to provide the conductivity necessary for the EDG process to work.
Polycrystalline diamond tools are used extensively in automotive and aerospace industries. They are ideal for speed machining (9000 surface feet per minute or higher) in tough and abrasive aluminum alloys, and high-abrasion processes such as carbon-fiber drilling and ceramics. The diamond cutting edges make them last for extended periods before replacement is needed. High volume processes, tight tolerances, and highly abrasive processes are ideal for diamond tooling.
Polycrystalline diamond compacts[edit]
In the late 1970s, General Electric pioneered the technology of polycrystalline diamond compacts (PDCs) as a replacement for natural diamonds in drill bits.[4] PDCs have been used to cut through crystalline rock surfaces for extended periods of time in lab environments, and these capabilities have now been implemented in harsh environments throughout the world.
As of August 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy claimed that nearly one-third of the total footage drilled worldwide is being drilled with PDC bits, with a claimed savings of nearly $100,000 per PDC bit as compared to roller-core bits.[5]
Diamond paste and slurry[edit]
Diamond pastes are used for polishing materials that require a mirror finish. They are often used in metallurgical specimens, carbide dies, carbide seals, spectacle glass industry, and for polishing diamonds. Diamond paste is mainly used in industrial requirements for polishing and sharpening metal blades and other metal surfaces. The paste is not just to polish the metal blade but sharpen the cutting edge as well.
Diamond electroplated tools[edit]
Diamond powder deposited through electroplating is used to make files (including nail files) and in small grinding applications.
Single point diamond turning tools[edit]
Single point diamond turning (SPDT) utilizes a solid, flawless diamond as the cutting edge. The single crystalline diamond can be natural or synthetic, and is sharpened to the desired dimensions by mechanical grinding and polishing. The cutting edge of most diamond tools is sharp to tens of nanometers, making it very effective for cutting non-ferrous materials with high resolution. SPDT is a very accurate machining process, used to create finished aspherical and irregular optics without the need for further polishing after completion. The most accurate machine tool in the world, the LODTM, formerly at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, had a profile accuracy estimated at 28 nm, while most machines seek a roughness within that deviation.[6]
SPDT is used for optics, for flat surfaces where both surface finish and unusually high dimensional accuracy are required, and when lapping would be uneconomical or impractical.
Diamond saw blades[edit]
For high-speed gas powered cut-off saws, walk-behind saws, handheld grinders, bridge saws, table saws, tile saws, and other types of saws.
Concave blade
For cutting curves in countertops to install sinks or sculpt statues.
Tuck pointers
Thick diamond blades for restoration, involving grinding and replacing mortar.
Crack chasers
Thick V-shaped diamond blades for repairing cracks in concrete.
Diamond tipped grinding cups[edit]
Typically used on hand grinders for grinding concrete or stone.
Diamond tipped core bit or holesaw[edit]
Hollow steel tube with diamond tipped segments for drilling holes through concrete walls in the construction industry, porcelain tiles or granite worktops in the domestic industry, or also used for sample core extractions in the mining industry.
PCD tool insert[edit]
Used in machine tools for machining ceramics and high speed aluminum.
PD tool insert[edit]
Used in turning centers for optics and precision surfaces.
Polishing pads[edit]
Pads with diamond crystals for polishing marble and other fine stone.
Diamond wire cutting[edit]
Wire with diamond crystals for cutting.
Some of the features of Diamond Wire Cutting are:
Non-percussive, fumeless and quiet
Smooth cutting face
Unlimited cutting depth
Horizontal, vertical and angled cutting of circular openings up to 2500mm diameter
Plunge cutting facility which allows blind and rebated openings to be formed
Remote controlled operation for increased safety
Diamond saw chain[edit]
For cutting stone, concrete and brick with a special chainsaw.
See also[edit]
Diamond
Material properties of diamond
Superhard materials
Diamond blade
Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder;. "Natural History". Translated by D.E. Eichholz (vol. 10).
Jump up ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320614938_Free-Sintering_Behaviour_of_Bronze_Powders_for_Diamond_Tools
Jump up ^ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/1743290113Y.0000000058
Jump up ^ Journal of Petroleum Technology. "Legends of Drilling" (PDF). pp. 50–55.
Jump up ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory (August 2000). Diamond-Cutter Drill Bits (PDF) (PDF). United States Department of Energy. p. 2. (DOE/GO 100098-482)
Jump up ^ The World's Most Accurate Lathe, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, April 2001
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Disappearance of Rebecca Coriam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Rebecca Coriam
Born
(1987-03-11)11 March 1987
Chester, England
Disappeared
21 March 2011 (aged 24)
Status
Missing for 7 years, 2 months and 2 days
Nationality
British
Occupation
Cruise ship crew
Parent(s)
Mike and Annmaria Coriam
Rebecca Coriam (born 11 March 1987) is a British crewmember who disappeared from the cruise ship Disney Wonder off the Pacific coast of Mexico on the morning of 22 March 2011. She was last seen in the crew lounge, where a security camera recorded her during a phone conversation that appeared to be causing her some emotional difficulty. Her disappearance was the first such incident in the history of Disney Cruise Line.[1]
The case remains under investigation, and her whereabouts since the phone conversation have not been established. Her parents have been critical of Disney's handling of the investigation, believing the company knows more than it claims to and has been more interested in avoiding unfavourable publicity than cooperating with investigators. In early 2013, they indicated they would sue Disney in an American court;[2] two years later they settled out of court.[3]
The Coriams have been joined by British government officials, who have instituted policies allowing for more comprehensive investigations of such incidents in the future, and advocates for the relatives of many other crew and passengers who have been reported missing from cruise ships over the last decade. There are claims the company has more extensive evidence than it has so far admitted, and have been accused of instigating a cover-up.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Disappearance
3 Investigations
3.1 Guardian article
4 Theories
5 Criticism of investigation
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Life[edit]
Rebecca was born on 11 March 1987 in Countess of Chester Hospital, Chester, England. She lived in Chester with her parents, sister Rachael and two foster brothers.[4] She graduated from Chester Catholic High School. In her youth, she also worked at the Chester Zoo, where other relatives had worked. A memorial bench to her grandparents Kevin and Dolores is on the zoo grounds.[5]
She joined the British Army cadets in her teens and attended Plymouth University at Exeter, where she studied sports science. Later she got a Staff Volunteer position within the cadets and participated in some outdoor events. She took additional studies in youth studies at Liverpool Hope University and then spent four months teaching sports at Camp America in Maine.[5]
In June 2010, she went to London to interview for the Disney Cruise positions along with hundreds of other hopefuls. She was hired and went to the company's theme parks in Florida for training. After four months on cruises to the Bahamas, where the ships are registered, she went back to Britain for two months off. When she returned to work, it was on the Disney Wonder, based in the Port of Los Angeles. She visited all its ports of call on the Mexican Riviera and went through the Panama Canal.[5]
During this period her grandfather died. She returned to Chester for two weeks. It was the last time her family saw her in person.[5]
Disappearance[edit]
Coriam returned to the Wonder and her duties as a youth worker. She maintained contact with her family via Facebook and Skype. Six weeks later, on 21 March 2011, the day the ship pulled out of Los Angeles, she sent what would be her last message to her parents via Facebook, saying she would call the next day.[4][6]
Her mother grew concerned when, following her reply, 12 hours went by without a response.[6] As she and her husband were going to bed that night, 22 March, the phone rang. It was not Rebecca but an official with Disney, saying that the Coriams' daughter was missing.[4]
The Disney Wonder in Puerto Vallarta, early 2011.
At 9 am Pacific Daylight Time that morning on the Wonder, off the coast of Mexico bound for Puerto Vallarta and Cabo San Lucas, Rebecca had missed the start of her shift. She was not in her room or anywhere else on the ship, and did not respond to pages over the ship's public address system. A review of security camera footage found one appearance of her, timestamped 5:45 am[1] An early, unverified account, purportedly from another crew member, claimed she had gone overboard at 3 am, nearly three hours earlier.[7]
In the video, Rebecca is talking on one of the ship's internal phones in a crew area. She appears distraught. A young man walks up to her and appears to ask if everything is all right. Her mouth can clearly be read to be saying "Yeah, fine", after which she hangs up. She then walks away, pushing her hair back and putting her hands in her back pockets, mannerisms her parents say were common for her. The sequence is the last known sighting of her.[1]
Investigations[edit]
The crew searched the ship but found no sign of her. Ships of the U.S. Coast Guard and Mexican Navy[8] searched the international waters[1] through which the Wonder had been sailing during the hours in which Coriam could have gone overboard, if that was what had occurred. They, too, found nothing.[6]
Since the Wonder is registered in the Bahamas, a detective from the Royal Bahamas Police Force (RBPF) flew to the ship to begin a formal investigation once it had returned to Los Angeles, three days after the disappearance. He was reported to have undertaken "several days of onboard investigations".[8]
Mike and Annmaria Coriam, Rebecca's parents, were flown out from England to meet the ship when it returned. They met the Bahamian detective and said he told them he had spent only one day on board investigating before flying back home. The detective also told them that he had interviewed only a few crew members, and none of the passengers. The Coriams claimed Disney kept them in a car with blacked-out windows and brought them on board via a little-used side entrance after all the passengers had disembarked. The Wonder's captain gave his condolences and expressed his theory that Rebecca had been washed overboard by a wave while at the crew pool, a theory the Coriams doubted due to the high walls around it.[9] After that, they were taken to a meeting with Disney executives and the woman Rebecca had been speaking to on the phone.[1]
They were both tired and suffering from jet lag, and therefore did not ask many questions. Mike Coriam believed they would have another chance to do so later, but they never did. Afterwards, they were taken to Rebecca's room and presented with her belongings.[1]
On the day before the first anniversary of her disappearance, her father received an email from a woman who claimed she had seen Rebecca with a dark-haired man on the street in Venice the previous August. The woman said she was "85% sure" it was Rebecca, and seeing the family's website had roused her memory. "It was just an email but it seemed legitimate," said her uncle. "It was very upsetting for everyone to think she could be out there somewhere after all this time." He wondered how she could have got there without her passport, which had been among the belongings her parents had recovered from her quarters.[10][11]
Guardian article[edit]
In October 2011, journalist Jon Ronson took the Wonder along the same route and made discreet inquiries while aboard. With the Coriams' blessing, he wrote about it in The Guardian. Several crew members, none of whom wanted their names used, who had been on the ship at the time of Rebecca's disappearance, spoke to him. They suggested that more was known about her fate than Disney or the Bahamanian police had publicly admitted.[1]
Many were circumspect. "It didn't happen," a bartender told Ronson. "You know that's the answer I have to give." After touring the areas of the ship open to passengers, he decided that Coriam had probably slipped and fallen while jogging on the Deck 4 jogging track. The railings there were low enough for that accident to happen, and she regularly kept herself in shape that way. However, the track was well covered by disguised security cameras.[1]
The Disney Wonder's crew pool, from where many crewmembers claimed Rebecca went overboard
He shared this theory with a deck worker, who told him he was mistaken. Coriam had, according to him, actually gone overboard from the crew pool on Deck 5. "I was on the ship that day." the man said. "Everyone knows". He cited a flip flop found in the area as proof. After the reporter returned, "Melissa", a woman whom the Coriams had told to contact him, told him that the day after the disappearance, flowers were placed on the wall near the pool, apparently by the company.[9] "It really stirred things up," the woman recalled. "Why [we]re they putting them there? Nothing was clear."[1]
When he took a look at the crew pool, visible from the fore of Deck 10, he doubted these claims. Around the railings on the pool is a steel wall high enough to completely block any view (another crewmember had told him it was a popular place to go when not working as their cabins were very small and it was a place crewmembers could be themselves, away from guests). There were conspicuously mounted security cameras as well. Although he allowed that they could have been placed since the incident, Ronson did not see how anyone could have jumped or fallen from there.[1]
But all crewmembers who spoke with him insisted that Coriam had gone overboard from the crew pool. "Disney knows exactly what happened", one said. "Everything here is taped. There's CCTV everywhere. Disney has the tape." Near the end of a voyage, another crewmember who sought him out explained in further detail that even though the walls around the pool are high, the seas were rough at the time and she could have been tossed off the ship, especially if the deck and walls were slippery. He said a friend of his had had to get someone inside in similar conditions, and the offence of being outside on the pool deck in such conditions was serious enough that Disney sent that person home from the cruise.[1]
Theories[edit]
Since Coriam was not found on the ship despite a thorough search, investigators concluded that she went overboard, possibly as a result of a rogue wave. The Coriams and their lawyer say they never received a copy of the final report as they were promised by the Bahamanian police; British detectives who did receive it have refused repeated Freedom of Information Act requests for a copy on the grounds that it contains restricted personal information.[3]
A crew member told Ronson that the call was taped. Several others believed it was with a romantic partner. "She was in a relationship, and there were problems, and it was upsetting her," "Melissa" told Ronson. "It was a very, very intense relationship. It was great and then it was awful ... I can't think of any other reason why she'd have been upset and wandering around by herself at 6 am" However, she says Coriam was on the phone not with the partner but a mutual friend.[1] On the anniversary of Rebecca's disappearance, her parents told the Liverpool Echo that they heard the names of a young woman and older man on the ship mentioned as possibly being involved in a love triangle with her, and called for them to come forward. They also disclosed that they had heard Disney had sent some additional footage to the FBI for enhancement, but could not say what that footage might contain.[9]
They recall her personality as constantly cheerful and upbeat, traits that got her the Disney job in the first place. When her parents visited her quarters after the disappearance, they found passes she had obtained for them and her sister to visit Disneyland Paris, a gift trip she was apparently planning to surprise them with on her next break at home. These plans, as well as her continuing Facebook exchanges with her mother, argue against a suicide theory.[1]
"Melissa", who had last seen Coriam at 11 pm the previous night, told Ronson that she believed that Rebecca went out to the crew pool, one of her favourite places on the ship, to be alone and relax for a while. While there, she might have climbed up and sat on the wall, and then fallen. "Bex was a bit of a risk taker," she said.[1]
However, "Melissa" was dismissive of the suggestion that the slippers allegedly found near the pool, which were included among the belongings returned to Coriam's parents, had been hers. "Mike and Ann showed them to me," she told Ronson. "They were too big. They weren't her style. They were pink and flowery and Hawaiian. I'd never seen her wear them. Why didn't Disney come to me or her girlfriend and say, 'Can you identify these as Bex's?'"[1]
While the Coriams later claimed the flip flops were too small, they were unable to find anyone on the ship who had seen her wearing them and learned that no forensics had been done on them.[9] In 2016, private investigators working for the family said that they had conclusively established that the footwear did not belong to the couple's daughter. Not only were they not in a style she would wear, they noted, the flip-flops had another crewmember's name and cabin number written on them. The Coriams said this led them to strongly doubt Disney's claim that they had been found in the pool area, as well as its theory that Rebecca was swept or fell overboard from there.[12]
It was also noted that in the video of the phone call, Rebecca's clothes appear very large; her friends and fellow crew have speculated that they may have been someone else's.[3]
Labour MP Chris Matheson, who has represented the Chester constituency since the 2015 election, believes Rebecca Coriam was a crime victim, possibly murdered or sexually assaulted. "The more you look into this the more it smells rotten; the more it smells like a crime has taken place", he told the Echo the year of his election. He claims to have a copy of the original police report with "compelling" evidence to that effect.[13] John Anderson, a private investigator who has worked with both the Coriams and Matheson, says records show the seas around the Wonder were normal that night, casting doubt on Disney's "rogue wave" claim. He also says that any wave capable of taking her off the ship would have caused visible damage to it as well.[3]
Baron John Prescott, former Deputy Prime Minister under Tony Blair and now a life peer in the House of Lords, has also taken an interest in the case. He believes Rebecca was thrown overboard rather than falling.[3] He has also called for laws that would allow British authorities to investigate their own citizens' deaths on cruise ships in international waters.[13]
Criticism of investigation[edit]
Ronson reported that at the time his article was published, the Coriams had received no further updates from Disney or the RBPF on the progress of the investigation. "[W]henever we call anyone, all they say is, 'The investigation is ongoing,'" Mike Coriam said. "We've tried emailing, telling them how we feel, how it's getting harder ... But nothing. Just, 'It's ongoing.'" The Bahaman police officer assigned to the case never returned Ronson's calls.[1]
The Coriams have been joined in their criticism of the investigation by British government officials, Rebecca's friends among the crew, and advocates for victims of other incidents on cruise ships and their families. The latter, especially, note that 170 passengers and crew have disappeared from cruise ships since 2000, many without being seriously investigated or widely reported. All critics contend that Disney, like other cruise operators, is more interested in avoiding adverse publicity related to these incidents than anything else.[1]
In November, Stephen Mosley, the MP for the City of Chester, the Coriams' constituency, brought the case up in the House of Commons. "The investigation into Rebecca's disappearance was appalling," he told Mike Penning, the Minister for Shipping.[14]
"[T]he Bahamian authorities made virtually no attempt at investigating Rebecca's disappearance," he continued, saying the RBPF was "internationally recognised as almost toothless[1] ... Very few people know that when they board a cruise ship that they are so poorly protected."[14] Countries such as the Bahamas, often criticized for the lax standards of such "flag of convenience" ship registrations, did not have the investigative capabilities to deal with such incidents.[1]
Penning responded by announcing that the Marine Accident Investigation Branch would investigate all deaths or disappearances of British citizens from vessels anywhere in the world, paralleling similar legislation signed by U.S. President Barack Obama that gives the Federal Bureau of Investigation that authority in the event of the death or disappearance of any American citizen. The Government would also work through the International Maritime Organization to increase international cooperation on such investigations.[14] Penning, too, was critical of Disney, saying the company was "more interested in getting the ship back to sea than in investigating the case of the missing member of their crew".[15]
"In other corporations, police get involved," said Kendall Carver, an Arizona resident who founded the lobbying group International Cruise Victims after his own daughter's 2004 disappearance from the Celebrity Mercury. "On cruise ships they have, quote, security officers, but they work for the cruise lines. They aren't going to do anything when the lines get sued."[1] Miami lawyer Jim Walker, publisher of the blog Cruise Law News, which is highly critical of the industry, concurs. "The Coriam family does not deserve Mickey Mouse games," he commented in Ronson's article.[16] Walker later represented the Coriams in a suit against Disney in American courts; they settled with the company in 2015 for an undisclosed sum and an agreement not to discuss the case publicly.[3]
Carver and Walker[16] both believe Disney has more evidence than it has shown, particularly security footage of the area by the pool, and is covering up knowledge of what happened out of fear of adverse publicity. "If there's a video that shows your daughter going overboard," Carver told Ronson, "that's the end of the story. There's no way someone can go off a ship and it not be recorded."[1] Melissa told Ronson it was implausible that there was no footage since the pool is close to a number of other important offices, such as human resources and the payroll department, where money and sensitive documents were kept. She believed any coverup by Disney may have been as much about protecting themselves from charges of negligence, since the pool is just below the ship's bridge and would thus be the portion of the ship where a fall would most likely be seen by someone in a position to start a rescue.[16] "If it was 6 am and they were doing their job and watching the front, someone must have seen her go over," she told Ronson. "Or if they didn't, they're covering up why they didn't."[1]
Disney told Ronson that they are deferring to the RBPF. "[They have told] us the investigation is still ongoing. They have not shared a timeline with us, either." Their spokesperson refused to comment on specifics about whether a tape of the phone call or additional security-camera video exists. "[W]e wish we knew what happened as much as anyone ... Rebecca's disappearance has been difficult and heartbreaking for everyone."[1]
See also[edit]
Cheshire portal
Disney portal
Nautical portal
Amy Lynn Bradley, disappeared from a cruise ship in the Caribbean in 1998.
George Allen Smith, whose controversial disappearance from a Mediterranean cruise ship in 2005 generated media coverage.
Incidents at Walt Disney World
List of people who disappeared mysteriously
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Ronson, Jon (11 November 2011). "Rebecca Coriam: lost at sea". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Flint, Rachel (7 February 2013). "Family of missing cruise ship worker Rebecca Coriam launch legal battle against Disney". Chester Chronicle. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Johnson, Scott (19 April 2016). "Disney Settled With Family of Missing Cruise Worker". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Knoll, Corina (12 June 2011). "Bereft parents' loss is as deep as the ocean". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Story so far". Find Rebecca. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Flint, Rachel (31 March 2011). "The family of missing Chester cruise ship worker Rebecca Coriam made a desperate plea for information at a press conference last week". Chester Chronicle. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Klein, Ross A. "Cruise and Ferry Passengers and Crew Overboard, 1995 – 2011". cruisejunkie.com. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Skippings, Chrislyn (16 December 2011). "Missing Person: Rebecca Coriam". The Bahamas Weekly. Retrieved 16 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Traynor, Luke (22 March 2012). "Liverpool Echo investigation into Rebecca Coriam cruise disappearance reveals mystery love triangle". Liverpool Echo. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Jones, Laura (21 March 2012). "Was missing woman seen in Venice?". The Leader. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Davies, Alex. "Has missing Rebecca Coriam been seen?". Heart North West and Wales. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
Jump up ^ De Lucia, Carmela; Traynor, Luke (20 March 2016). "The flip flops that suggest Rebecca Coriam wasn't swept overboard Disney ship". Chester Chronicle. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Tacey, Laura (2 November 2015). "Private investigator 'convinced' criminal activity involved in cruise ship disappearance of Rebecca Coriam". Retrieved 25 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Stephen Mosley MP Secures Promises from Minister during Debate on Cruise Ship Safety" (Press release). Stephen Mosley. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original on 15 November 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Shipping minister Mike Penning attacks Disney over missing cruise ship worker Rebecca Coriam". Liverpool Daily Post. 3 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Walker, Jim (14 November 2011). "Mickey Mouse Games: Is Disney Cruise Line Engaged In A Cover-Up On The Disney Wonder?". Cruise Law News. South Miami, FL: Walker & O'Neill. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
External links[edit]
Official Find Rebecca website
International Cruise Victims
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Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence
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Not to be confused with John Trumbull's painting Declaration of Independence.
The signatures on the Declaration of Independence
The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence occurred primarily on August 2, 1776 at the Pennsylvania State House, Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The 56 delegates to the Second Continental Congress represented the 13 former colonies which had declared themselves the "United States of America," and they endorsed the Declaration of Independence which the Congress had approved on July 4, 1776. The Declaration proclaimed that the former Thirteen Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now a sovereign, independent nation and thus no longer a part of the British Empire. The signers’ names are grouped by state, with the exception of President of the Continental Congress John Hancock; the states are arranged geographically from north to south.
The final draft of the Declaration was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, although the date of its signing has long been disputed. Most historians have concluded that it was signed on August 2, 1776, nearly a month after its adoption, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.
Contents
[hide]
1 Date of signing
2 List of signers
3 Signer details
4 Stories and legends
5 References
5.1 Citations
5.2 Sources
Date of signing[edit]
The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, by Armand-Dumaresq (c. 1873) has been hanging in the White House since the late 1980s
The Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, with 12 of the 13 colonies voting in favor and New York abstaining. The date that the Declaration was signed has long been the subject of debate. Within a decade after the event, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams all wrote that the Declaration was signed by Congress the day it was adopted on July 4, 1776.[1] That assertion is seemingly confirmed by the signed copy of the Declaration, which is dated July 4. Additional support for the July 4 date is provided by the Journals of Congress, the official public record of the Continental Congress. The proceedings for 1776 were first published in 1777, and the entry for July 4 states that the Declaration was engrossed and signed on that date (the official copy was handwritten).[2]
In 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.[3] "[N]o person signed it on that day nor for many days after", he later wrote.[4] His claim gained support when the Secret Journals of Congress were published in 1821.[5] The Secret Journals contained two previously unpublished entries about the Declaration.
On July 15, New York's delegates heard that they'd gotten permission from their convention to agree to the declaration.[6] The Secret Journals entry for July 19 reads:
Resolved That the Declaration passed on the 4th be fairly engrossed on parchment with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of America" & that the same when engrossed be signed by every member of Congress.[7]
The entry for August 2 states:
The declaration of Independence being engrossed & compared at the table was signed by the Members.[8]
In 1884, historian Mellen Chamberlain argued that these entries indicated that the famous signed version of the Declaration had been created following the July 19 resolution, and had not been signed by Congress until August 2.[9] Subsequent research has confirmed that many of the signers had not been present in Congress on July 4, and that some delegates may have added their signatures even after August 2.[10] Both Jefferson and Adams never wavered from their belief that the signing ceremony took place on July 4, yet most historians have accepted the argument which David McCullough articulates in his biography of John Adams: "No such scene, with all the delegates present, ever occurred at Philadelphia."[11]
The Syng inkstand was used during the signing of the Declaration
Legal historian Wilfred Ritz concluded in 1986 that about 34 delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and that the others signed on or after August 2.[12] Ritz argued that the engrossed copy of the Declaration was signed by Congress on July 4, as Jefferson, Adams, and Franklin had stated, and that it was implausible that all three men had been mistaken.[13] Ritz believed that McKean's testimony was questionable,[14] and that historians had misinterpreted the July 19 resolution. According to Ritz, this resolution did not call for a new document to be created, but rather for the existing one to be given a new title, which was necessary after New York had joined the other 12 states in declaring independence. Ritz reasoned that the phrase "signed by every member of Congress" in the July 19 resolution meant that delegates who had not signed the Declaration on the 4th were now required to do so.[15]
List of signers[edit]
Fifty-six delegates eventually signed the Declaration of Independence:
President of Congress
1. John Hancock (Massachusetts Bay)
New Hampshire
2. Josiah Bartlett
3. William Whipple
4. Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts Bay
5. Samuel Adams
6. John Adams
7. Robert Treat Paine
8. Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
9. Stephen Hopkins
10. William Ellery
Connecticut
11. Roger Sherman
12. Samuel Huntington
13. William Williams
14. Oliver Wolcott
New York
15. William Floyd
16. Philip Livingston
17. Francis Lewis
18. Lewis Morris
New Jersey
19. Richard Stockton
20. John Witherspoon
21. Francis Hopkinson
22. John Hart
23. Abraham Clark
Pennsylvania
24. Robert Morris
25. Benjamin Rush
26. Benjamin Franklin
27. John Morton
28. George Clymer
29. James Smith
30. George Taylor
31. James Wilson
32. George Ross
Delaware
33. Caesar Rodney
34. George Read
35. Thomas McKean
Maryland
36. Samuel Chase
37. William Paca
38. Thomas Stone
39. Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Virginia
40. George Wythe
41. Richard Henry Lee
42. Thomas Jefferson
43. Benjamin Harrison
44. Thomas Nelson, Jr.
45. Francis Lightfoot Lee
46. Carter Braxton
North Carolina
47. William Hooper
48. Joseph Hewes
49. John Penn
South Carolina
50. Edward Rutledge
51. Thomas Heyward, Jr.
52. Thomas Lynch, Jr.
53. Arthur Middleton
Georgia
54. Button Gwinnett
55. Lyman Hall
56. George Walton
Signer details[edit]
Eight delegates never signed the Declaration, out of the approximately 50 who are thought to have been present in Congress during the voting on independence in early July 1776:[16] John Alsop, George Clinton, John Dickinson, Charles Humphreys, Robert R. Livingston, John Rogers, Thomas Willing, and Henry Wisner.[17] Clinton, Livingston, and Wisner were attending to duties away from Congress when the signing took place. Willing and Humphreys voted against the resolution of independence and were replaced in the Pennsylvania delegation before the August 2 signing. Rogers had voted for the resolution of independence but was no longer a delegate on August 2. Alsop favored reconciliation with Great Britain and so resigned rather than add his name to the document.[18] Dickinson refused to sign, believing the Declaration premature, but he remained in Congress. George Read had voted against the resolution of independence, and Robert Morris had abstained—yet they both signed the Declaration.
The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress.[19] Hancock's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature".[20] Future presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) the oldest.
John Hancock's now-iconic signature on the Declaration is nearly 5 inches (13 cm) long.[21]
Some delegates were away on business when the Declaration was debated, including William Hooper[22] and Samuel Chase, but they were back in Congress to sign on August 2. Other delegates were present when the Declaration was debated but added their names after August 2, including Lewis Morris, Oliver Wolcott, Thomas McKean, and possibly Elbridge Gerry. Richard Henry Lee and George Wythe were in Virginia during July and August, but returned to Congress and signed the Declaration probably in September and October, respectively.[23]
New delegates joining the Congress were also allowed to sign. Eight men signed the Declaration who did not take seats in Congress until after July 4: Matthew Thornton, William Williams, Benjamin Rush, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, George Ross, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton.[24] Matthew Thornton did not take a seat in Congress until November.[25] By the time that he signed it, there wasn't any space for his name next to the other New Hampshire delegates, so he placed his signature at the end of the document.[26]
The first published version of the Declaration was the Dunlap broadside. The only names on that version were Congress President John Hancock and Secretary Charles Thomson, and those names were printed rather than signatures. The public did not learn who had signed the engrossed copy until January 18, 1777, when the Congress ordered that an "authenticated copy" be sent to each of the 13 states, including the names of the signers.[27] This copy is called the Goddard Broadside; it was the first to list all the signers[28] except for Thomas McKean, who may not have signed the Declaration until after the Goddard Broadside was published. Congress Secretary Charles Thomson did not sign the engrossed copy of the Declaration, and his name doesn't appear on the Goddard Broadside, even though it does appear on the Dunlap broadside.
Stories and legends[edit]
Various legends emerged years later concerning the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together", and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." The quotation did not appear in print until more than 50 years after Franklin's death.[29]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", pp. 242–43
Jump up ^ Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", p. 246; Burnett, Continental Congress, p. 192
Jump up ^ Hazelton, Declaration History, pp. 299–302; Burnett, Continental Congress, p. 192
Jump up ^ Hazelton, Declaration History, p. 302
Jump up ^ Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", pp. 243–45
Jump up ^ https://declaration.fas.harvard.edu/blog/signing
Jump up ^ U.S. Continental Congress, Secret Journals vol. 1, p. 46
Jump up ^ U.S. Continental Congress, Secret Journals vol. 1, p. 46
Jump up ^ Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", pp. 245–46
Jump up ^ Hazelton, Declaration History, pp. 208–19; Wills, Inventing America, p. 341
Jump up ^ Strauss, Valerie (July 2, 2014). "What you know about July 4th is wrong". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ritz, "Authentication", p. 194
Jump up ^ Ritz, "Authentication", p. 182
Jump up ^ Ritz, "Authentication", pp. 198–200
Jump up ^ Ritz, "Authentication", pp. 190–200
Jump up ^ Friedenwald (Interpretation and Analysis, p. 143) says that 45 delegates can be confirmed as present on July 4, and that another four might have been.
Jump up ^ Friedenwald (Interpretation, p. 149) gives the number of non-signers as seven, not counting Dickinson, who absented himself for the final votes.
Jump up ^ Hazelton, Declaration History, pp. 525–26
Jump up ^ Hazelton, Declaration History, p. 209
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster online; Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ Malone, Story of the Declaration, p. 90
Jump up ^ Fradin, The Signers, 112.
Jump up ^ Friedenwald, Interpretation, p, 148
Jump up ^ Friedenwald (Interpretation, p. 149) lists seven men; he does not include Charles Carroll of Carrollton, who had been working as an emissary for Congress. He did not become an official member of the Maryland delegation until July 4, and did not take his seat as a delegate until July 18. (Hazelton, Declaration History, pp. 529, 587)
Jump up ^ The U.S. State Department (1911), The Declaration of Independence, 1776, pp. 10, 11.
Jump up ^ Friedenwald, Interpretation, p. 150
Jump up ^ Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", p. 247; Hazelton, Declaration History, p. 284; Friedenwald, Interpretation, p. 137, where the date is misprinted as January 8, but correct on page 150.
Jump up ^ Friedenwald, Interpretation, p. 137
Jump up ^ Malone, Story of the Declaration, p. 91
Sources[edit]
Boyd, Julian P., ed. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1. Princeton University Press, 1950.
Boyd, Julian P. "The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original". Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100, number 4 (October 1976), 438–67.
Burnett, Edward Cody. The Continental Congress. New York: Norton, 1941.
Friedenwald, Herbert. The Declaration of Independence: An Interpretation and an Analysis. New York: Macmillan, 1904. Accessed via the Internet Archive.
Hazelton, John H. The Declaration of Independence: Its History. Originally published 1906. New York: Da Capo Press, 1970. ISBN 0-306-71987-8. 1906 printing available on Google Book Search
Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: Knopf, 1997. ISBN 0-679-45492-6.
Malone, Dumas. The Story of the Declaration of Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. A picture book with text by a leading Jefferson scholar.
Ritz, Wilfred J. "The Authentication of the Engrossed Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776". Law and History Review 4, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 179–204.
United States Continental Congress. Secret journals of the acts and proceedings of Congress, from the first meeting thereof to the dissolution of the Confederation, vol. 1, p. 46. Boston: Thomas B. Wait, 1820.
Warren, Charles. "Fourth of July Myths." The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, vol. 2, no. 3 (July 1945): 238–72.
Wills, Garry. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1978. ISBN 0-385-08976-7.
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New Hampshire
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See also
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[show]
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See also
Virginia Association
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v
t
e
John Hancock
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