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Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
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Current Commonwealth members (dark blue), current suspended members (green), former members (orange), and British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies (light blue)
The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 53 sovereign states. Nearly all of them are former British colonies or dependencies of those colonies.
No one government in the Commonwealth exercises power over the others, as is the case in a political union. Rather, the Commonwealth is an international organisation in which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status, and cooperate within a framework of common values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration issued in 1971.[1] Such common values and goals include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace, which are promoted through multilateral projects and meetings, such as the Commonwealth Games, held once every four years.[2]
The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II, who serves as the Head of the Commonwealth. This position, however, does not imbue her with any political or executive power over any Commonwealth member states; the position is purely symbolic, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is the chief executive of the Commonwealth.[3]
The Commonwealth was first officially formed in 1931 when the Statute of Westminster gave legal recognition to the sovereignty of dominions. Known as the "British Commonwealth", the original members were the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Irish Free State, and Newfoundland, although Australia and New Zealand did not adopt the statute until 1942 and 1947 respectively.[4] In 1949, the London Declaration was signed and marked the birth of the modern Commonwealth and the adoption of its present name.[5] The newest member is Rwanda, which joined on 29 November 2009.[6] The most recent departure was the Maldives, which severed its connection with the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016.
As at April 2017, of the states that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, three are in Europe, twelve in North America and the Caribbean, one in South America, nineteen in Africa, seven in Asia, and eleven in Oceania. There are seven former members, four of which no longer exist as independent entities (but form part of current member states). The members have a combined population of 2.4 billion, almost a third of the world population, of whom 1.21 billion live in India, and 95% live in Asia and Africa combined.[7]
Currently sixteen of the member states are Commonwealth realms, with the Head of the Commonwealth as their head of state. Five others are monarchies with their own individual monarchs (Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, Tonga) and the rest are republics. Republic of Ireland (from 1949), Zimbabwe (2003), and Maldives (2016) are former members of the Commonwealth. South Africa, Pakistan and The Gambia left and later rejoined the Commonwealth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current members
2 Former members
3 Dissolved members
4 Prospective members
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Current members[edit]
All dates below are provided by the Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat members list, and population figures are as of 1 January 2018.[8]
Country
Joined
Continent
Population[9]
Notes[A]
Antigua and Barbuda ! Antigua and Barbuda[D] 1981-11-011 November 1981 Caribbean 94,195
Australia ! Australia[D] 1931-12-1111 December 1931 Australia 24,772,247 Granted nominal independence (Dominion status) on 1 January 1901. Australia was one of the original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931, although the statute was not adopted in Australia until 1942 (with retroactive effect from 1939).[10] The Australia Act 1986 established specifically, only the State Premier could now advise the Queen on appointment or removal of a State Governor. Nonetheless, the Queen could still exercise any of her powers with respect to the State if she was "personally present" in the State.[11]
Bahamas ! Bahamas[D] 1973-07-1010 July 1973 Caribbean 402,576
Bangladesh ! Bangladesh 1972-04-1818 April 1972[12] Asia 165,867,307 Declared independence from Pakistan in 1971.[13]
Barbados ! Barbados[D] 1966-11-3030 November 1966 Caribbean 286,618
Belize ! Belize[D] 1981-09-2121 September 1981 North America 379,636
Botswana ! Botswana 1966-09-3030 September 1966 Africa 2,377,831
Brunei ! Brunei 1984-01-011 January 1984 Asia 439,022
Cameroon ! Cameroon 1995-11-1313 November 1995[14] Africa 24,836,674 Most of the country was the formerly French mandate territory (later UN trust territory) of Cameroun and gained independence from France on 1 January 1960, uniting with the much smaller former British mandate/trust territory of Southern Cameroons on its gaining independence from the United Kingdom on 1 October 1961.
Canada ! Canada[D] 1931-12-1111 December 1931 North America 36,885,861 Granted nominal independence (Dominion status) on 1 July 1867. Canada was the first among the several original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931.[15] Incorporated another original Dominion, Newfoundland, on 31 March 1949.[16] The Canada Act 1982 formally ended the "request and consent" provisions of the Statute of Westminster 1931 in relation to Canada, whereby the British parliament had a general power to pass laws extending to Canada at its own request.
Cyprus ! Cyprus[E] 1961-03-1313 March 1961[17] Eurasia 1,197,667 Gained independence from the United Kingdom on 16 August 1960.
Dominica ! Dominica 1978-11-033 November 1978 Caribbean 72,975
Fiji ! Fiji[B] 1970-10-1010 October 1970 Oceania 909,024 Left in 1987; rejoined in 1997; suspended on 6 June 2000;[18] suspension lifted on 20 December 2001;[19] again suspended on 8 December 2006 because of the 2006 Fijian coup d'état.[20][21] Suspension lifted on 26 September 2014.
The Gambia ! The Gambia 1965-02-1818 February 1965 Africa 2,155,958 Withdrew on 3 October 2013 citing "neo-colonialism".[22][23] Following the election of Adama Barrow as President of Gambia in 2016, it submitted an application to re-join the Commonwealth on 22 January 2018,[24] and rejoined on 8 February 2018.[25]
Ghana ! Ghana 1957-03-066 March 1957 Africa 29,088,849
Grenada ! Grenada[D] 1974-02-077 February 1974 Caribbean 107,894
Guyana ! Guyana 1966-05-2626 May 1966 South America 773,808
India ! India 1947-08-1515 August 1947 Asia 1,353,014,094 Incorporated former French India (Chandannagar from 2 May 1950 and Puducherry, Karaikal, Yanam and Mahé from 1 November 1954), former Portuguese India (Goa, Daman and Diu from 19 December 1961 and Dadra and Nagar Haveli formally from 1961) and Sikkim (from 16 May 1975).
Jamaica ! Jamaica[D] 1962-08-066 August 1962 Caribbean 2,819,888
Kenya ! Kenya 1963-12-1212 December 1963 Africa 49,167,382
Kiribati ! Kiribati 1979-07-1212 July 1979 Oceania 117,636
Lesotho ! Lesotho 1966-10-044 October 1966 Africa 2,199,492
Malawi ! Malawi 1964-07-066 July 1964 Africa 18,558,768
Malaysia ! Malaysia 1957-08-3131 August 1957[26][27] Asia 31,505,208 Joined as the Federation of Malaya in 1957; reformed as Malaysia on 16 September 1963 with its federation with Singapore (which became a separate state on 9 August 1965), North Borneo, and Sarawak.[28]
Malta ! Malta 1964-09-2121 September 1964 Europe 422,212
Mauritius ! Mauritius 1968-03-1212 March 1968 Africa 1,286,240
Mozambique ! Mozambique 1995-11-1313 November 1995[29] Africa 29,977,238 Gained independence from Portugal on 26 June 1975. The first country to be admitted to the Commonwealth without any former colonial or constitutional links with the United Kingdom.[30]
Namibia ! Namibia 1990-03-2121 March 1990 Africa 2,600,857 Gained independence from South Africa.[31] Includes Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands transferred by South Africa at midnight 28 February 1994.
Nauru ! Nauru[B] 1968-11-01†1 November 1968 Oceania 10,387 Gained independence on 31 January 1968 from joint trusteeship of Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom. A special member from 1 November 1968 until 1 May 1999, when it became a full member,[32] before reverting to special status in January 2006.[33] A full member again since June 2011.[34]
New Zealand ! New Zealand[D] 1931-12-1111 December 1931 Oceania 4,609,755 Granted nominal independence (Dominion status) on 26 September 1907. One of the original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931, although the Statute was not adopted in New Zealand until 1947.[35] Removed final links with the British Parliament in 1986.
Nigeria ! Nigeria 1960-10-011 October 1960 Africa 194,615,054 Incorporated the former British mandate/trust territory of Northern Cameroons on 31 May 1961. Suspended in 1995, suspension lifted in 1999.[36]
Pakistan ! Pakistan 1947-08-1414 August 1947[C] Asia 199,031,265 Includes the city of Gwadar, transferred from Muscat and Oman on 8 September 1958. Included Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan) until 1971.[13] Left Commonwealth in 1972, rejoined 1989; suspended in 1999, suspension lifted in 2004; again suspended in 2007,[37] suspension lifted in 2008.[38]
Papua New Guinea ! Papua New Guinea[D] 1975-09-1616 September 1975 Australia 8,034,630 Gained independence from Australia.
Rwanda ! Rwanda 2009-11-2929 November 2009[6] Africa 12,322,920 Gained independence from Belgium on 1 July 1962. The second country (after Mozambique) to be admitted to the Commonwealth without any former colonial or constitutional links with the United Kingdom.[30] Unlike Mozambique, has adopted English as an official language since joining.
Saint Kitts and Nevis ! Saint Kitts and Nevis[B][D] 1983-09-1919 September 1983 Caribbean 56,632
Saint Lucia ! Saint Lucia[D] 1979-02-2222 February 1979 Caribbean 189,000
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ! Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[D] 1979-10-2727 October 1979 Caribbean 109,501 A special member from 27 October 1979 until 1 June 1985.
Samoa ! Samoa[B] 1970-08-2828 August 1970 Oceania 196,954 Gained independence from New Zealand on 1 January 1962. Joined as Western Samoa, subsequently changing its name to Samoa on 4 July 1997.[39]
Seychelles ! Seychelles 1976-06-2929 June 1976 Africa 98,248
Sierra Leone ! Sierra Leone 1961-04-2727 April 1961 Africa 6,818,117
Singapore ! Singapore[B] 1965-10-15†9 August 1966 (effective from 9 August 1965)[40] Asia 5,889,117 Gained independence from the United Kingdom and joined Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963. Became independent on 9 August 1965.[41]
Solomon Islands ! Solomon Islands[D] 1978-07-077 July 1978 Oceania 614,497
South Africa ! South Africa 1931-12-1111 December 1931 Africa 56,007,479 Granted nominal independence (Dominion status) on 31 May 1910. One of the original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931. Left on 31 May 1961; rejoined 1 June 1994.[42]
Sri Lanka ! Sri Lanka 1948-02-044 February 1948 Asia 20,979,811 Joined as the Dominion of Ceylon, subsequently changing its name in 1972. Became a republic in 1972 and severed final ties with Britain.
eSwatsi ! Swaziland 1968-09-066 September 1968 Africa 1,336,933
Tanzania ! Tanzania 1961-12-099 December 1961 Africa 57,790,062 Joined as Tanganyika and later Zanzibar, which subsequently merged to form Tanzania on 26 April 1964.[43]
Tonga ! Tonga 1970-06-044 June 1970 Oceania 107,228
Trinidad and Tobago ! Trinidad and Tobago 1962-08-3131 August 1962 Caribbean 1,376,801
Tuvalu ! Tuvalu[B][D] 1978-10-011 October 1978 Oceania 10,116 A special member from 1 October 1978 until 1 September 2000.[44]
Uganda ! Uganda 1962-10-099 October 1962 Africa 42,288,962
United Kingdom ! United Kingdom 1931-12-1111 December 1931 Europe 65,746,853 The Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Statute of Westminster 1931.
Vanuatu ! Vanuatu[B] 1980-07-3030 July 1980 Oceania 279,953 Gained independence from joint rule of France and United Kingdom.
Zambia ! Zambia 1964-10-2424 October 1964 Africa 17,470,471
^ A. Unless otherwise noted, independence was gained from the United Kingdom on the date (shown in column 2) of joining the Commonwealth.
^ B. Not a member of the Commonwealth Foundation.
^ C. Though Pakistan celebrates 14 August 1947 as its independence day, independence was officially granted at midnight, 15 August 1947. Therefore, its date of joining the Commonwealth would be 15 August 1947.
^ D. Commonwealth realms, recognising Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state since the day of their independence, distinctly from her being the sovereign of the United Kingdom.
^ E. Geopolitically part of Europe, but geographically part of Asia.
Former members[edit]
Country
Joined
Continent
Left
Notes
Ireland ! Ireland 1931-12-1111 December 1931 Europe 1949-04-1818 April 1949 One of the original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931.[16] Withdrew after passing the Republic of Ireland Act in 1948, accepted by the United Kingdom in 1949 Ireland Act 1949[13].
Maldives ! Maldives 1982-07-099 July 1982 Asia 2016-10-1313 October 2016 Gained independence from the United Kingdom on 26 July 1965.[45] A special member from 9 July 1982 until 20 July 1985.[46] Announced on 13 October 2016 that it has withdrawn from the Commonwealth.[47][48]
Zimbabwe ! Zimbabwe 1980-10-011 October 1980 Africa 2003-12-077 December 2003 Suspended on 19 March 2002.[19] Withdrew voluntarily on 7 December 2003.[49]
Dissolved members[edit]
Former country
Joined
Continent
Dissolved
Rejoined as part of
Notes
Malaya ! Malaya 1957-08-3131 August 1957 Asia 1963-07-3131 July 1963[27] Malaysia ! Malaysia Reformed as the Federation of Malaysia with Singapore (became a separate member in 1965), Sabah, and Sarawak.
Newfoundland ! Newfoundland 1931-12-1111 December 1931 North America 1934-02-1631 March 1949 Canada ! Canada One of the original Dominions at the time of the Statute of Westminster 1931. Government suspended on 16 February 1934, merged into Canada on 31 March 1949.[16]
Tanganyika ! Tanganyika 1961-12-099 December 1961 Africa 1964-04-2626 April 1964 Tanzania ! Tanzania The two countries merged to form Tanzania on 26 April 1964.[43]
Zanzibar ! Zanzibar 1963-12-1010 December 1963
Prospective members[edit]
Country
Applied
Continent
Population
Notes
Somaliland ! Somaliland 2009[50] Africa ~3,500,000[F] Somaliland is an unrecognised self-declared sovereign state internationally recognised as part of Somalia. It has applied to join the Commonwealth under observer status.[50] Its borders approximate to those of British Somaliland, which was a protectorate from 1884 to 1960.
South Sudan ! South Sudan 2011[51] Africa 13,670,642 Gained independence from Britain as part of Sudan in 1956. Gained independence from Sudan in 2011.[52]
Sudan ! Sudan 2009[53] Africa 42,425,989 Sudan was a condominium of the United Kingdom and Egypt known as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, but in practice the structure of the Condominium ensured full British control over the Sudan until its independence in 1956. Sudan has expressed an interest in joining the Commonwealth.[54]
Suriname ! Suriname[55] 2012 South America 555,934 English colony of Willoughbyland from 1650 to 1667 and controlled by the British from 1799 to 1816. Subsequently, a Dutch colony. In 2012, Suriname announced plans to join the Commonwealth[56] and the British government has made it a priority to provide guidance to Suriname in applying for Commonwealth membership.[57]
Burundi ! Burundi[58] 2013 Africa 10,524,117
^ F. The population figure is based on 2014 estimates.
Other states which have expressed an interest in joining the Commonwealth over the years or states which may be eligible to join the Commonwealth include Algeria, Bahrain[54], Cambodia, Egypt[54], Eritrea[54], Israel[59], Libya[54], Madagascar, Palestine, United States[54] and Yemen.[60][61]
See also[edit]
Commonwealth realms portal
Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria
List of countries by English-speaking population
List of countries where English is an official language
Prospective members of the Commonwealth of Nations
Representatives of the Commonwealth of Nations
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Wind of Change". Commonwealth of Nations. 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-15.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Commonwealth of Nations.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
British Nationality Act (1981 c 61) Annex B – The territories forming part of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth timeline
"Members". Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
"Commonwealth of Nations". Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
"The Commonwealth". Directgov. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
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Charles's law
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Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is:
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be directly related.[1]
This directly proportional relationship can be written as:
V ∝ T {\displaystyle V\propto T}
or
V T = k , {\displaystyle {\frac {V}{T}}=k,}
where:
V is the volume of the gas,
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in kelvins),
k is a constant.
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:
V 1 T 1 = V 2 T 2 or V 2 V 1 = T 2 T 1 or V 1 T 2 = V 2 T 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{T_{2}}}\qquad {\text{or}}\qquad {\frac {V_{2}}{V_{1}}}={\frac {T_{2}}{T_{1}}}\qquad {\text{or}}\qquad V_{1}T_{2}=V_{2}T_{1}.}
The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery and naming of the law
2 Relation to absolute zero
3 Relation to kinetic theory
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Discovery and naming of the law[edit]
The law was named after scientist Jacques Charles, who formulated the original law in his unpublished work from the 1780s.
In two of a series of four essays presented between 2 and 30 October 1801,[2] John Dalton demonstrated by experiment that all the gases and vapours that he studied expanded by the same amount between two fixed points of temperature. The French natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac confirmed the discovery in a presentation to the French National Institute on 31 Jan 1802,[3] although he credited the discovery to unpublished work from the 1780s by Jacques Charles. The basic principles had already been described by Guillaume Amontons[4] and Francis Hauksbee[5] a century earlier.
Dalton was the first to demonstrate that the law applied generally to all gases, and to the vapours of volatile liquids if the temperature was well above the boiling point. Gay-Lussac concurred.[6] With measurements only at the two thermometric fixed points of water, Gay-Lussac was unable to show that the equation relating volume to temperature was a linear function. On mathematical grounds alone, Gay-Lussac's paper does not permit the assignment of any law stating the linear relation. Both Dalton's and Gay-Lussac's main conclusions can be expressed mathematically as:
V 100 − V 0 = k V 0 {\displaystyle V_{100}-V_{0}=kV_{0}\,}
where V100 is the volume occupied by a given sample of gas at 100 °C; V0 is the volume occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 °C; and k is a constant which is the same for all gases at constant pressure. This equation does not contain the temperature and so has nothing to do with what became known as Charles' Law. Gay-Lussac's value for k (1⁄2.6666), was identical to Dalton's earlier value for vapours and remarkably close to the present-day value of 1⁄2.7315. Gay-Lussac gave credit for this equation to unpublished statements by his fellow Republican citizen J. Charles in 1787. In the absence of a firm record, the gas law relating volume to temperature cannot be named after Charles. Dalton's measurements had much more scope regarding temperature than Gay-Lussac, not only measuring the volume at the fixed points of water, but also at two intermediate points. Unaware of the inaccuracies of mercury thermometers at the time, which were divided into equal portions between the fixed points, Dalton, after concluding in Essay II that in the case of vapours, “any elastic fluid expands nearly in a uniform manner into 1370 or 1380 parts by 180 degrees (Fahrenheit) of heat”, was unable to confirm it for gases.
Relation to absolute zero[edit]
Charles' law appears to imply that the volume of a gas will descend to zero at a certain temperature (−266.66 °C according to Gay-Lussac's figures) or −273.15 °C. Gay-Lussac was clear in his description that the law was not applicable at low temperatures:
but I may mention that this last conclusion cannot be true except so long as the compressed vapours remain entirely in the elastic state; and this requires that their temperature shall be sufficiently elevated to enable them to resist the pressure which tends to make them assume the liquid state.[3]
Gay-Lussac had no experience of liquid air (first prepared in 1877), although he appears to believe (as did Dalton) that the "permanent gases" such as air and hydrogen could be liquified. Gay-Lussac had also worked with the vapours of volatile liquids in demonstrating Charles' law, and was aware that the law does not apply just above the boiling point of the liquid:
I may however remark that when the temperature of the ether is only a little above its boiling point, its condensation is a little more rapid than that of atmospheric air. This fact is related to a phenomenon which is exhibited by a great many bodies when passing from the liquid to the solid state, but which is no longer sensible at temperatures a few degrees above that at which the transition occurs.[3]
The first mention of a temperature at which the volume of a gas might descend to zero was by William Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin) in 1848:[7]
This is what we might anticipate, when we reflect that infinite cold must correspond to a finite number of degrees of the air-thermometer below zero; since if we push the strict principle of graduation, stated above, sufficiently far, we should arrive at a point corresponding to the volume of air being reduced to nothing, which would be marked as −273° of the scale (−100/.366, if .366 be the coefficient of expansion); and therefore −273° of the air-thermometer is a point which cannot be reached at any finite temperature, however low.
However, the "absolute zero" on the Kelvin temperature scale was originally defined in terms of the second law of thermodynamics, which Thomson himself described in 1852.[8] Thomson did not assume that this was equal to the "zero-volume point" of Charles' law, merely that Charles' law provided the minimum temperature which could be attained. The two can be shown to be equivalent by Ludwig Boltzmann's statistical view of entropy (1870).
However, Charles also stated:
The volume of a fixed mass of dry gas increases or decreases by 1⁄273 times the volume at 0 °C for every 1 °C rise or fall in temperature. Thus:
V T = V 0 + ( 1 273 × V 0 ) × T {\displaystyle V_{T}=V_{0}+({\tfrac {1}{273}}\times V_{0})\times T}
V T = V 0 ( 1 + T 273 ) {\displaystyle V_{T}=V_{0}(1+{\tfrac {T}{273}})}
where VT is the volume of gas at temperature T, V0 is the volume at 0 °C.
Relation to kinetic theory[edit]
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure and volume, to the microscopic properties of the molecules which make up the gas, particularly the mass and speed of the molecules. In order to derive Charles' law from kinetic theory, it is necessary to have a microscopic definition of temperature: this can be conveniently taken as the temperature being proportional to the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules, Ek:
T ∝ E k ¯ . {\displaystyle T\propto {\bar {E_{\rm {k}}}}.\,}
Under this definition, the demonstration of Charles' law is almost trivial. The kinetic theory equivalent of the ideal gas law relates PV to the average kinetic energy:
P V = 2 3 N E k ¯ {\displaystyle PV={\frac {2}{3}}N{\bar {E_{\rm {k}}}}\,}
See also[edit]
Boyle's law
Combined gas law
Gay-Lussac's law
Avogadro's law
Ideal gas law
Hand boiler
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fullick, P. (1994), Physics, Heinemann, pp. 141–42, ISBN 0-435-57078-1 .
Jump up ^ J. Dalton (1802), "Essay II. On the force of steam or vapour from water and various other liquids, both in vacuum and in air" and Essay IV. "On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat," Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. 8, pt. 2, pages 550–574 and pages 595–602.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gay-Lussac, J. L. (1802), "Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs" [Researches on the expansion of gases and vapors], Annales de chimie, 43: 137–175 . English translation (extract).
On page 157, Gay-Lussac mentions the unpublished findings of Charles: "Avant d'aller plus loin, je dois prévenir que quoique j'eusse reconnu un grand nombre de fois que les gaz oxigène, azote, hydrogène et acide carbonique, et l'air atmosphérique se dilatent également depuis 0° jusqu'a 80°, le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même propriété dans ces gaz ; mais n'avant jamais publié ses résultats, c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." (Before going further, I should inform [you] that although I had recognized many times that the gases oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide], and atmospheric air also expand from 0° to 80°, citizen Charles had noticed 15 years ago the same property in these gases; but having never published his results, it is by the merest chance that I knew of them.)
Jump up ^ See:
Amontons, G. (presented 1699, published 1732) "Moyens de substituer commodément l'action du feu à la force des hommes et des chevaux pour mouvoir les machines" (Ways to conveniently substitute the action of fire for the force of men and horses in order to power machines), Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences de Paris (presented 1699, published 1732), 112–126; see especially pages 113–117.
Amontons, G. (presented 1702, published 1743) "Discours sur quelques propriétés de l'Air, & le moyen d'en connoître la température dans tous les climats de la Terre" (Discourse on some properties of air and on the means of knowing the temperature in all climates of the Earth), Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences de Paris, 155–174.
Review of Amontons' findings: "Sur une nouvelle proprieté de l'air, et une nouvelle construction de Thermométre" (On a new property of the air and a new construction of thermometer), Histoire de l'Academie royale des sciences, 1–8 (submitted: 1702 ; published: 1743).
Jump up ^
Englishman Francis Hauksbee (1660–1713) independently also discovered Charles' law: Francis Hauksbee (1708) "An account of an experiment touching the different densities of air, from the greatest natural heat to the greatest natural cold in this climate," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 26(315): 93–96.
Jump up ^ Gay-Lussac (1802), from page 166:
"Si l'on divise l'augmentation totale de volume par le nombre de degrés qui l'ont produite ou par 80, on trouvera, en faisant le volume à la température 0 égal à l'unité, que l'augmentation de volume pour chaque degré est de 1 / 223.33 ou bien de 1 / 266.66 pour chaque degré du thermomètre centrigrade."
If one divides the total increase in volume by the number of degrees that produce it or by 80, one will find, by making the volume at the temperature 0 equal to unity (1), that the increase in volume for each degree is 1 / 223.33 or 1 / 266.66 for each degree of the centigrade thermometer.
From page 174:
" … elle nous porte, par conséquent, à conclure que tous les gaz et toutes les vapeurs se dilatent également par les mêmes degrés de chaleur."
… it leads us, consequently, to conclude that all gases and all vapors expand equally [when subjected to] the same degrees of heat.
Jump up ^ Thomson, William (1848), "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's Observations", Philosophical Magazine: 100–6 .
Jump up ^ Thomson, William (1852), "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam", Philosophical Magazine, 4 . Extract.
Further reading[edit]
Krönig, A. (1856), "Grundzüge einer Theorie der Gase", Annalen der Physik, 99: 315–22, Bibcode:1856AnP...175..315K, doi:10.1002/andp.18561751008 . Facsimile at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (pp. 315–22).
Clausius, R. (1857), "Ueber die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen", Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 176: 353–79, Bibcode:1857AnP...176..353C, doi:10.1002/andp.18571760302 . Facsimile at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (pp. 353–79).
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac – Liste de ses communications, archived from the original on October 23, 2005 . (in French)
External links[edit]
The Wikibook School Science has a page on the topic of: Making Charles' law tubes
Charles's law simulation from Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina
Charles's law demonstration by Prof. Robert Burk, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
Charles's law animation from the Leonardo Project (GTEP/CCHS, UK)
Charles’s law Calculator from EngineeringUnits.com, USA, UK)

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Horse to the Water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Horse to the Water" is a song written by George Harrison and his son Dhani. It was originally performed by Jools Holland's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra, featuring Harrison, on the album Small World, Big Band (also known as Jools Holland's Big Band Rhythm & Blues).[1] Recorded on 2 October 2001,[1] the song is Harrison's last performance on a record.[citation needed] Harrison only performed vocals on the track, as he was too weak from battling cancer to play guitar,[citation needed] and he died just over eight weeks later on 29 November. He listed the song's publisher as "R.I.P Music Ltd" instead of his usual music company Harrisongs, which Holland said showed "Harrison's dark sense of humour."[2] (In the liner notes of some versions of the CD, the credit is "Umlaut Corporation.")[1]
Other versions[edit]
Holland played the song in tribute to Harrison at 2002's Concert for George, with Sam Brown on lead vocals. This performance was included into the film, but not into the official CD release of the concert.
In 2010 Norwegian band, ORBO & The Longshots, released their version as a bonus track on their Live 10 album.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Jools Holland & his Rhythm & Blues Orchestra (2001). Jools Holland's Big Band Rhythm & Blues. CD liner notes. p. 2.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Mark. "Harrison's regret for Dhani". Mail Online. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
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National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Jeremiah S. Chechik
Produced by
John Hughes
Tom Jacobson
Written by
John Hughes
Starring
Chevy Chase
Beverly D'Angelo
Randy Quaid
Music by
Angelo Badalamenti
Cinematography
Thomas E. Ackerman
Edited by
Jerry Greenberg
Michael A. Stevenson
Production
company
John Hughes Entertainment
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
December 1, 1989 (1989-12-01)
Running time
97 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$25 million[1]
Box office
$71.3 million
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation is a 1989 American Christmas comedy film directed by Jeremiah S. Chechik.[2] It is the third installment in National Lampoon's Vacation film series, and was written by John Hughes, based on his short story in National Lampoon magazine, "Christmas '59". The film stars Chevy Chase, Beverly D'Angelo and Randy Quaid, with Juliette Lewis and Johnny Galecki as the Griswold children Audrey and Rusty, respectively.[2]
Since its release in 1989, Christmas Vacation has often been labeled as a modern Christmas classic. It is also the only sequel in the Vacation series to have spawned its own direct sequel: a 2003 made-for-TV release entitled National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation 2: Cousin Eddie's Island Adventure.
The film has achieved six home video releases: VHS and Laserdisc in early 1990, a bare bones DVD in 1997, and a "Special Edition" DVD in 2003. A Blu-ray edition was first released in 2006. In 2009, the film was released as an "Ultimate Collector's Edition." At the same time of this release, it was also released on a simple Blu-ray/DVD combo.[3][4][5] A steelbook Blu-ray was released in 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Music
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
With Christmas only a few weeks away, Chicago resident Clark Griswold decides it is time to get a Christmas tree. He gathers his wife Ellen, daughter Audrey, and son Rusty and drives out to the country where he picks out a huge tree. Realizing too late that they didn't bring any tools to cut the tree down, they are forced to uproot it instead, before driving home with the tree strapped to the roof of their car.
Soon after, both Clark's and Ellen's parents arrive to spend Christmas, but their bickering quickly begins to annoy the family. Clark, however, maintains a positive attitude, determined to have a "fun old-fashioned family Christmas." He covers the house's entire exterior with 25,000 twinkle lights, which fail to work at first, as he has accidentally wired them through his garage's light switch. When they finally come on, they temporarily cause a citywide power shortage and create chaos for Clark's snobby neighbors, Todd and Margo. While standing on the front lawn admiring the lights, Clark is shocked to see Ellen's cousin Catherine and her husband Eddie, as they arrive unannounced with their children, Rocky and Ruby Sue, and their Rottweiler dog, Snot. Eddie later admits that they are living in the RV they drove, as he is broke and has been forced to sell his home. Clark offers to buy gifts for Eddie's kids so they can still enjoy Christmas.
Clark begins to wonder why his boss has not given him his yearly bonus, which he desperately needs to replace an advance payment he has made to install a swimming pool. After a disastrous Christmas Eve dinner, he finally receives an envelope from a company messenger, who had overlooked it the day before. Instead of the presumed bonus, the envelope contains a free year's membership for the Jelly of the Month Club. This prompts Clark to snap and go into a tirade about Frank, and out of anger, requests that he be delivered to the house so Clark can insult him to his face.
Eddie takes the request literally, drives to Frank's mansion, and kidnaps him. Clark confronts him about the cancellation of the employees' Christmas bonuses. Meanwhile, Frank's wife, Helen, calls the police, and a SWAT team storms the Griswold house and holds everyone at gunpoint. Frank decides not to press charges and explains the situation to his wife and the authorities, who scold him for his decision to scrap the bonuses, and decides to reinstate them (with Clark getting an add-on of 20% of his salary).
The family head outside, with Rocky and Ruby Sue believing they see Santa Claus in the distance. Clark tells them it's actually the Christmas Star and that he finally realizes what the holiday means to him. Uncle Lewis says the light is coming from the sewage treatment plant; reminding Clark that Eddie had been dumping his sewage into a storm drain. Before Clark can stop him, Uncle Lewis tosses a lit match, triggering an explosion. Aunt Bethany starts singing "The Star-Spangled Banner" and the whole family and the SWAT team join in, gazing at Clark's Santa Claus and reindeer set burning and flying into the distance. The entire family and the SWAT team members then celebrate inside the house, while Clark and Ellen happily share a Christmas kiss.
Cast[edit]
Chevy Chase as Clark W. "Sparky" Griswold, Jr.
Beverly D'Angelo as Ellen Griswold
Juliette Lewis as Audrey Griswold
Johnny Galecki as Rusty "Russ" Griswold
John Randolph as Clark W. Griswold, Sr.
Diane Ladd as Nora Griswold
E. G. Marshall as Art Smith, Ellen's Dad
Doris Roberts as Frances Smith, Ellen's Mom
Randy Quaid as Cousin Eddie
Miriam Flynn as Cousin Catherine
Cody Burger as Rocky, Eddie and Catherine's son
Ellen Hamilton Latzen as Ruby Sue, Eddie and Catherine's daughter
William Hickey as Uncle Lewis
Mae Questel as Aunt Bethany
Sam McMurray as Bill
Nicholas Guest as Todd Chester, a Griswold neighbor
Julia Louis-Dreyfus as Margo Chester, a Griswold neighbor
Brian Doyle-Murray as Frank Shirley
Natalia Nogulich as Helen Shirley
Production[edit]
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation originated from a short story by writer John Hughes called "Christmas '59," which was published in the December 1980 issue of National Lampoon magazine.[6] "The studio came to me and begged for another one, and I only agreed because I had a good story to base it on," said Hughes. "But those movies have become little more than Chevy Chase vehicles."[7] Director Chris Columbus initially was to direct the film, but due to a personality clash between him and Chevy Chase, Columbus left the film and was replaced by Chechik. Hughes eventually gave Columbus the script to Home Alone.[8].
Principal photography began on March 27, 1989 in Summit County, Colorado,[9] with footage shot in Silverthorne, Breckenridge, and Frisco.[10] From there the production moved to Warner Bros. Studio Facilities in Burbank, California, where the set of the Griswold family's house is located.[11]
Music[edit]
The musical score for National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation was composed by Angelo Badalamenti. It is the only installment of the Vacation film series not to include Lindsey Buckingham's "Holiday Road". In its place is a song entitled "Christmas Vacation" that was written for the movie by the husband-wife songwriting team of Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and performed by Mavis Staples of The Staple Singers fame.[12] The song was covered in 2007 by High School Musical star Monique Coleman for the 2007 Christmas album Disney Channel Holiday.[13]
Despite several popular songs being present in the film, no official soundtrack album was released. In 1999, a bootleg copy containing music featured in the film along with select cuts of dialogue dubbed as the "10th Anniversary Limited Edition" began to appear on Internet auction sites with the claim that Warner Bros. and RedDotNet had pressed 20,000 CDs for Six Flags Magic Mountain employees to sell to customers entering the park.[14] However, while the discs were individually numbered out of 20,000, only 7,000 were sold as a part of an on demand production printed at gift shop kiosks within the park.[15] Forums on movie music sites such as SoundtrackCollector later declared the disc to be a bootleg due to its inaccuracies.[16] For instance, the cut "Christmas Vacation Medley" (claiming to be the work of composer Angelo Badalamenti) is really a track called "Christmas at Carnegie Hall" from Home Alone 2: Lost in New York by composer John Williams and does not actually contain any of Badalamenti's Christmas Vacation score.
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The movie debuted at #2 at the box-office while grossing $11,750,203 during the opening weekend, behind Back to the Future Part II.[17] The movie eventually topped the box-office charts in its third week of release and remained #1 the following weekend. It went on to gross a total of $71,319,546 in the United States while showing in movie theaters.[18]
Critical response[edit]
At the time of the film's release, the film received mixed to positive reviews; however, over time, many have cited it as a Christmas classic. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64% of 36 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.2 out of 10. The site's consensus reads, "While Christmas Vacation may not be the most disciplined comedy, it's got enough laughs and good cheer to make for a solid seasonal treat."[19]
Entertainment magazine Variety responded positively to the film stating, "Solid family fare with plenty of yocks, National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation is Chevy Chase and brood doing what they do best. Despite the title, which links it to previous pics in the rambling Vacation series, this third entry is firmly rooted at the Griswold family homestead, where Clark Griswold (Chase) is engaged in a typical over-reaching attempt to give his family a perfect, old-fashioned Christmas."[20] Rita Kempley of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review explaining that "it will prove pater-familiar to fans of the 1983 original and the European Vacation sequel. Only it's a bit more whimsical."[21]
Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a mediocre review explaining that the "third look at the quintessentially middle-American Griswold family, led by Clark and the very patient Ellen is only a weary shadow of the original National Lampoon's Vacation." Maslin went on to say that "the best thing the new film does is to bring back Cousin Eddie, the wily, scene-stealing slob whose disgusting habits are a source of considerable amusement."[22] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two out of four stars saying, "The movie is curious in how close it comes to delivering on its material: Sequence after sequence seems to contain all the necessary material, to be well on the way toward a payoff, and then it somehow doesn't work."[23]
See also[edit]
List of National Lampoon films
List of theatrical Christmas films
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Harmetz, Ajean (December 7, 1989). "It's Fade-Out for the Cheap Film As Hollywood's Budgets Soar". The New York Times. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Yule Love 'Em". Entertainment Weekly. November 29, 2004. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Durrett, Mike. "Top 10 Christmas and New Year's Comedy Movies". About.com. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Leo, Alex (December 16, 2012). "The 10 Funniest Christmas Movies Of All Time". The Huffington Post. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Quin, Eleanor. "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". Turner Classic Movies. Turner Entertainment. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ham, William. "Straight Outta Sherman: An Interview with John Hughes". Lollipop Magazine Online. Archived from the original on August 19, 2000. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Madison, Ira III. "Chris Columbus Directed Home Alone Instead of Christmas Vacation Because He Met Chevy Chase". Vulrure. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". afi.com. American Film Institute. Archived from the original on April 2, 2014. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989) - Locations". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Blake, Lindsay (December 24, 2013). "Scene It Before: The Griswold House from National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". Los Angeles. Emmis Communications. Archived from the original on November 30, 2014. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Willis, John (December 8, 1990). "Screen World: 1990 Film Annual". Screen World. Crown Publishing Group. 41: 121.
Jump up ^ Lace, Beverly (January 30, 2011). The Musical Life of Monique Coleman. p. 5. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Stitzel, Kelly (December 5, 2009). "Soundtrack Saturday: "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation"". Popdose. Archived from the original on December 13, 2009. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation - 10th Anniversary Movie Soundtrack". mapsshops.com. Archived from the original on August 19, 2015. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Christmas Vacation - Soundtrack Details". SoundtrackCollector. Archived from the original on August 19, 2015. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for December 1-3, 1989". Box Office Mojo. IMDB. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Christmas Vacation (1989)". Box Office Mojo. IMDB. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989)". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". Variety. 1989. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kempley, Rita (December 1, 1989). "'National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation' (PG-13)". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (December 1, 1989). "Reviews/Film; On Vacation Once Again". The New York Times. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (December 1, 1989). "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation on IMDb
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation at AllMovie
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation at the TCM Movie Database
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National Lampoon's Vacation
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National Lampoon's Vacation (1983)
National Lampoon's European Vacation (1985)
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989)
Vegas Vacation (1997)
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation 2 (2003)
Vacation (2015)
Miscellaneous
"Holiday Road"
National Lampoon
Hotel Hell Vacation
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1964 High School Yearbook Parody
This Side of Parodies
The Job of Sex
The Very Large Book of Comical Funnies
National Lampoon Art Poster Book
Official National Lampoon Bicentennial Calendar 1976
The Gentleman's Bathroom Companion
The 199th Birthday Book
The Iron On Book
National Lampoon Songbook
The Naked and the Nude
National Lampoon Presents French Comics
The Up Yourself Book
Gentleman's Bathroom Companion 2
The Book of Books
Animal House Book
Sunday Newspaper Parody
Tenth Anniversary Anthology 1970–1980
National Lampoon's Doon
Books about the magazine
Drunk Stoned Brilliant Dead
A Futile and Stupid Gesture
Going Too Far
If You Don't Buy This Book, We'll Kill This Dog!
Mr. Mike: The Life and Work of Michael O'Donoghue
That's Not Funny, That's Sick
Recordings
Radio Dinner
Lemmings
The Missing White House Tapes
Official National Lampoon Stereo Test and Demonstration Record
Gold Turkey
Goodbye Pop 1952–1976
That's Not Funny, That's Sick
Greatest Hits of the National Lampoon
National Lampoon White Album
The Official National Lampoon Car Stereo Test & Demonstration Tape
Sex, Drugs, Rock 'N' Roll & the End of the World
Buy This Box or We'll Shoot This Dog
Films
Animal House
Movie Madness
Class Reunion
Joy of Sex
Loaded Weapon 1
Senior Trip
Repli-Kate
Blackball
Jake's Booty Call
Gold Diggers
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Going the Distance
The Almost Guys
Adam & Eve
Cattle Call
Electric Apricot
Pucked
The Beach Party at the Threshold of Hell
Stoned Age
Totally Baked: A Potumentary
Bag Boy
RoboDoc
One, Two, Many
Endless Bummer
The Legend of Awesomest Maximus
Ratko
Transylmania
Snatched
The Vacation series
Vacation (1983)
European Vacation
Christmas Vacation
Vegas Vacation
Christmas Vacation 2
Vacation (2015)
The Van Wilder series
Van Wilder
The Rise of Taj
Freshman Year
Made-for-TV films
Disco Beaver from Outer Space
Attack of the 5 Ft. 2 In. Women
Favorite Deadly Sins
Dad's Week Off
The Don's Analyst
Men in White
Golf Punks
Thanksgiving Family Reunion
Professor Pepper's School of Good Stuff
Direct to video
Last Resort
Dorm Daze 2
Pledge This!
TV: The Movie
Films about the magazine
Drunk Stoned Brilliant Dead
A Futile and Stupid Gesture
Television
Delta House
National Lampoon's Funny Money
Related links
Deteriorata
Dick Ballantine
The Harvard Lampoon
O.C. and Stiggs
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Jeremiah S. Chechik
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989)
Benny & Joon (1993)
Tall Tale (1995)
Diabolique (1996)
The Avengers (1998)
The Bronx Is Burning (2007)
The Right Kind of Wrong (2013)
[show]
v
t
e
John Hughes
Director
and writer
Sixteen Candles (1984)
The Breakfast Club (1985)
Weird Science (1985)
Ferris Bueller's Day Off (1986)
Planes, Trains and Automobiles (1987)
She's Having a Baby (1988)
Uncle Buck (1989)
Curly Sue (1991)
Writer only
National Lampoon's Class Reunion (1982)
Mr. Mom (1983)
National Lampoon's Vacation (1983)
Nate and Hayes (1983)
National Lampoon's European Vacation (1985)
Pretty in Pink (1986)
Some Kind of Wonderful (1987)
The Great Outdoors (1988)
National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989)
Home Alone (1990)
Career Opportunities (1991)
Dutch (1991)
Beethoven (1992)
Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992)
Dennis the Menace (1993)
Baby's Day Out (1994)
Miracle on 34th Street (1994)
101 Dalmatians (1996)
Flubber (1997)
Home Alone 3 (1997)
Reach the Rock (1998)
Just Visiting (2001)
Maid in Manhattan (2002, story)
Drillbit Taylor (2008, original character)
Related
Don't You Forget About Me (2009 documentary)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Lampoon%27s_Christmas_Vacation&oldid=818124159"
Categories:
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Films set in Chicago
Films shot in Colorado
National Lampoon's Vacation (film series)
Warner Bros. films
Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti
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Films with live action and animation
Screenplays by John Hughes (filmmaker)
Christmas comedy films
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