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United States two-dollar bill
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Two dollars
(United States)
Value
$2.00
Width
156 mm
Height
66.3 mm
Weight
Approx. 1 g
Security features
None
Paper type
75% cotton
25% linen
Years of printing
1862–1966,
1976–present (Federal Reserve Note, current form)
Obverse
Design
Thomas Jefferson
Design date
1928
Reverse
Design
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence
Design date
1976
The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or "Coin" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. $2 bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.
Contents
[hide]
1 Denomination overview
2 Rarity
3 History
3.1 Large size notes
3.2 Small size notes
3.2.1 1928–1966
3.2.2 1976–present
3.3 Series dates
3.3.1 Large size
3.3.2 Small size
4 Visual snapshot
5 Usage
5.1 Incidents
6 Uncut currency sheets
7 References
8 External links
Denomination overview[edit]
The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862.[1] The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two dollar bill was assigned to. In 1966 it was decided to discontinue all two dollar United States Notes from production.[2] The $2 bill initially was not reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued; the Treasury Department cited the $2 bill's low use and unpopularity as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976 production of the two-dollar denomination was resumed and the two-dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since then.[3] It was estimated that if the two-dollar bill replaced approximately half of the one-dollar bills in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($109 million adjusted for inflation)[4] over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.[5]
However, due to their limited use, two-dollar bills are not frequently reissued in a new series like other denominations which are printed according to demand.[6] Though some cash registers accommodate it, its slot is often used for things like checks and rolls of coins. Some bill acceptors found in vending machines, self checkout lanes, and other automated kiosks are configured to accommodate two-dollar bills, even if the fact is not stated on the label.[7] Although they usually are not handed out arbitrarily, two-dollar bills are usually available at banks. Many banks stocking $2 bills will not use them except upon specific request by the customer, and even then, may cause a delay with a trip to the vault.[8]
Rarity[edit]
The seeming rarity of a $2 bill can be attributed to its low printing numbers as a Federal Reserve Note. Hoarding of the series due to lack of public knowledge of the $2 bill has resulted in very few bills seen in circulation. After its initial release, supplies of the Series 1976 $2 bill were allowed to dwindle until August 1996 when a new series dated 1995 began to be printed. This series was only printed for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.[9]
Today, there is a common misconception by the general public that the $2 bill is no longer in production. According to the Treasury, it "receives many letters asking why the $2 bill is no longer in circulation".[10] In response, the Treasury stated: "The $2 bill remains one of our circulating currency denominations... As of April 30, 2007 there were $1,549,052,714 worth of $2 bills in circulation worldwide."
Things such as unusual serial numbers (example: A11111111A), and replacement notes designated by a star in the serial number can raise the collector value. "Collectible" $2 bills have been made and sold by coin dealers and others in recent years merely by adding colors and special graphics to regular issue bills by using computer printers. However, these bills are not authorized by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and are not worth anything more than face value on the collectors' market.[11]
Certain conventions and tourism/convention bureaus capitalize on the rarity of $2 bills in circulation, encouraging convention attendees and tourists to spend $2 bills in order to illustrate to the host communities the economic impact that the conventions and tourism bring. Sometimes known as "SpendTom" campaigns, the $2 bills linger in the community as a constant reminder. Some campaigns encourage people to participate in a hunt for the bills in order to win prizes.[12]
History[edit]
Large size notes[edit]
First $2 bill issued in 1862 as a Legal Tender Note.
Series 1886 $2 Silver Certificate depicting Winfield Scott Hancock
Series 1890 featuring James McPherson. This "Coin Note" was used for government purchases of silver bullion from the mining industry.
(approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)
In March 1862, the first $2 bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Alexander Hamilton; the portrait of Hamilton used was a profile view and is not the same portrait used currently for the $10 bill. The continental congress based on defending the United States, released on June 25, 1776, began to authorize $2 credit, the circulation of 49000 copies. Pass two dollars bill was first used in March 1862. Between 1966 and 1976, two dollar notes were not printed.
By 1869, the $2 United States Note was redesigned with the now familiar portrait of Thomas Jefferson to the left and a vignette of the United States Capitol in the center of the obverse. This note also featured green tinting on the top and left side of the obverse. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This series was again revised in 1874, changes on the obverse included removing the green tinting, adding a red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The 1874 design was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878 and by 1880 the red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and the serial numbers were changed to blue. This note with the red floral design was also issued as Series of 1917 but with red serial numbers by that time.[13]
National Bank Notes were issued in 1875 and feature a woman unfurling a flag and a big 2 (Lazy Duce) on the obverse, the reverse has the king of England smoking tobacco and an eagle with a shield.[14]
The second two-dollar denomination in the silver certificate series printed in 1891. This note features United States Secretary of the Treasury William Windom.
In 1886, the first $2 silver certificate with a portrait of United States Civil War General Winfield Scott Hancock on the left of the obverse was issued. This design went on until 1891 when a new $2 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom in the center of the obverse.[15]
Two-dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were first issued for government purchases of silver bullion in 1890 from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured large wording of TWO in the center and a numeral 2 to the right surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. In 1891 the reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.[16]
In 1896, the "Educational Series" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse of the note was covered in artwork with an allegorical figure of science presenting steam and electricity to commerce and manufacture. The reverse of the note featured portraits of Robert Fulton and Samuel F. B. Morse surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. By 1899, however, The $2 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a small portrait of George Washington surrounded by allegorical figures representing agriculture and mechanics.[17]
Robert Fulton and Samuel Morse depicted on the reverse of the 1896 $2 'Educational Series" Silver Certificate.
The final design of the United States' silver certificate series featuring George Washington, printed in 1899.
The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note–like $2 bill was issued in 1918 as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a border-less portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.[18]
Beginning in the 1950s, production of $2 bills began to decrease. The relative scarcity of the bills lead some to start saving any they found, with the inevitable result that the notes became rarer in circulation. Currently, the circulation of $2 bills accounts for around 1% of the U.S. currency in circulation.
Because they are scarce in circulation, many believe the myth that $2 bills are no longer being produced, but the Bureau of Engraving and Printing Web site lists the $2 bill as one of the US Currency Small Denominations.
Small size notes[edit]
(6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)
1928–1966[edit]
In 1928, when all U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. The obverse featured a cropped version of Thomas Jefferson's portrait that had been on previous $2 bills. The reverse featured Jefferson's home, Monticello. The note's seal and serial numbers were red. The Series of 1928 $2 bill featured the treasury seal superimposed by the United States Note obligation to the left and a large gray TWO to the right.[19]
In 1953 the $2 bill received minor design changes analogous to the $5 United States Note. The treasury seal was made smaller and moved to the right side of the bill; it was superimposed over the gray word TWO. The United States Note obligation now became superimposed over a gray numeral 2. The reverse remained unchanged.[20]
The final change to $2 United States Notes came in 1963 when the motto IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse over the Monticello.[21] And, because dollar bills were soon to no longer be redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse. These $2 bills were officially discontinued in August 1966, although they remain legal tender.
1976–present[edit]
Series 1976 first day of issue $2 bill with a canceled JFK postage stamp.
On April 13, 1976, the Treasury Department reintroduced the $2 bill as a cost-saving measure.[22] Series 1976 $2 bills were redesigned and issued as a Federal Reserve Note. The obverse design remains basically unchanged since 1928 and features the same portrait of Jefferson. A green treasury seal and serial numbers replace the red used on the previous United States Notes. Since the reissue of the bill coincided with the United States Bicentennial, it was decided to use a bicentennial themed design on the reverse. An engraved rendition (not an exact reproduction) of John Trumbull's The Declaration of Independence replaced Monticello on the reverse. First day issues of the new $2 bills could be taken to a post office and stamped with the date "APR 13 1976". In all, 590,720,000 notes from Series 1976 were printed.
Currently, stamped series 1976 $2 bills typically trade for about twice their face value. If the bills were stamped in an exotic place, the value may be slightly higher. However, no first day issued 1976 $2 bills with stamps are especially rare or valuable.
Despite their age, crisp, uncirculated series 1976 $2 bills are not uncommon and are not particularly valuable. These notes were saved and hoarded upon their original issue and are plentiful today. A typical single uncirculated 1976 $2 bill is worth only slightly above face value. If the note is circulated, then it is only worth its $2 face value.
In 1996 and 1997, 153,600,000 bills were printed[23] as Series 1995 for the Federal Reserve District of Atlanta. In 2004, 121,600,000 of the Series 2003 bills were printed for the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank. An issue of Series 2003A $2 bills was printed from July to September 2006 for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks. In all, 220,800,000 notes were printed. [24]
In February 2012, the B.E.P. printed 512,000 Series 2009 $2 Star Notes, in anticipation of more regular runs being printed later in 2012. Series 2009 $2 bills were issued to banks during the summer of 2012.[25][26]
In November 2013, the B.E.P. began printing series 2013 $2 bills for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta; these notes entered circulation in early 2014. A total of 44,800,000 notes were ordered for fiscal year 2014, which ran from October 2013 through September 2014.[27]
Series dates[edit]
Large size[edit]
Series 1880 $2 Legal Tender note showing a large brown treasury seal. The signatures of Blanche Bruce & A. U. Wyman. are present on the obverse near the bottom
Type
Series
Registerα
Treasurerα
Sealα
Notes
Legal Tender Note 1862 Lucius E. Chittenden F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays Also called a "Greenback".
Legal Tender Note 1869 John Allison F.E. Spinner Large Red Nicknamed: "Rainbow Note" from its
red, white, and blue colors.[28]
Legal Tender Note 1874 John Allison F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays
Legal Tender Note 1875 John Allison New & Wyman Small Red w/rays
Legal Tender Note 1878 Allison & Scofield James Gilfillan Small Red w/rays Scofield/Gilfillan combo is scarce
Legal Tender Note 1880 Scofield, Bruce,
Rosecrans, and Tillman Gilfillan, Wyman, Huston,
Nebeker, and Morgan Large Brown/Red
Small Red scalloped
Legal Tender Note 1917 Teehee, Elliott,
and Speelman John Burke & White Small Red scalloped
National Bank Note Original Colby, Jeffries, and Allison F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays Jeffries/Spinner combo is very rare
National Bank Note 1875 Allison & Scofield New, Wyman, and Gilfillan Small Red scalloped Nicknamed: "Lazy Deuce" along with
the original series from the position
of the "2" on the note.[29]
Silver Certificate 1886 William S. Rosecrans Jordan, Hyatt, and Huston Large Brown/Red
Small Red scalloped
Silver Certificate 1891 William S. Rosecrans Benjamin Harrison Large Red
Silver Certificate 1891 Rosecrans & Tillman Nebecker & Morgan Small Red scalloped
Silver Certificate 1896 Tillman & Bruce Morgan & Roberts Small Red w/rays Part of the "Educational Series".
Silver Certificate 1899 Lyons, Vernon, Napier,
Parker, Teehee, Elliott,
and Speelman Roberts, Treat, McClung,
Thompson, Burke, and White Blue
Treasury Note 1890 William S. Rosecrans Huston & Nebecker Large Brown
& Small Red scalloped
Treasury Note 1890 William S. Rosecrans Benjamin Harrison Large Red
Treasury Note 1891 Rosecrans, Tillman, and Bruce Nebecker, Morgan, and Roberts Small Red scalloped
Federal Reserve Bank Note 1918 Teehee & Elliott John Burke Blue Nicknamed: "Battleship note" from
the reverse design.[30]
Small size[edit]
The first small-size $2 Legal Tender Note printed (Smithsonian)
Type
Series
Treasurerα
Secretaryα
Seal
Legal Tender Note 1928, 1928-A to G Tate, Woods, Julian,
Clark Mellon, Mills, Morgenthau,
Vinson, Snyder Red
Legal Tender Note 1953, 1953-A to C Priest, Smith, Granahan Humphrey, Anderson, Dillon Red
Legal Tender Note 1963, 1963-A Kathryn E. Granahan Dillon & Fowler Red
Federal Reserve Note 1976 Francine I. Neff William E. Simon Green
Federal Reserve Note 1995 Mary Ellen Withrow Robert E. Rubin Green
Federal Reserve Note 2003 Rosario Marin John W. Snow Green
Federal Reserve Note 2003-A Anna Escobedo Cabral John W. Snow Green
Federal Reserve Note 2009 Rosa Gumataotao Rios Timothy F. Geithner Green
Federal Reserve Note 2013 Rosa Gumataotao Rios Jack Lew Green
^α These are sourced by The Official Red Book (Whitman).[31]
Visual snapshot[edit]
A chronological display of the American two-dollar bill.
Visual collection of the two-dollar bill throughout the history of the United States.
Usage[edit]
Over 4.3 million $2 bills are entered into the database of the American currency-tracking website Where's George?.[32] Because $2 bills are uncommon in daily use, their use can make a particular group of spenders visible. A documented case of using two-dollar bills to send a message to a community is the case of Geneva Steel and the communities in surrounding Utah County. In 1989, Geneva Steel paid its employee bonuses in $2 bills. When the bills began to appear in different places, people recognized the importance of the company to the local economy.[33]
Use of the two-dollar bill is also being suggested by some gun rights activists to show support for Second Amendment rights, particularly at stores that allow Open Carry or Concealed carry of weapons on their premises.[34][35] Two dollar notes have also seen increased usage in situations where tipping is encouraged, especially in strip clubs. This is due to the idea that tips will increase because of the ease of use of a single, higher-denomination bill as the lowest common note in use.[36]
The use of the two-dollar bill is popular among fans and alumni of Clemson University who often bring notes with them when traveling to university athletic events in other localities as a demonstration of their economic impact in an area. The idea was first popularized in 1977 when Georgia Tech had threatened to no longer play the Tigers in football and has since caught on as a token of fandom when traveling to other locations. Fans will often stamp an orange tiger paw (Clemson's logo) on the note as a sign of its origin.[37]
During the 1930s, the $2 bill was often used at East Coast horse race tracks to make a bet. Because of the German and Jewish influence, the bill was locally known in parts of New Jersey as a "zwei-buck", and the upper right corner "2" was sometimes torn off to increase the luck.
Incidents[edit]
The relative scarcity of the $2 bill in everyday circulation has led to confusion at points of sale, as well as overreaction and prosecution of the individual attempting to tender the bill.
In 2005, a man was jailed for attempting to use legally circulating $2 bills to pay a car stereo installation fee that Best Buy originally agreed to waive in the first place.[38]
In 2016, a 13-year-old girl was detained by police, and prevented from eating lunch that day, for attempting to use a legally circulating $2 bill to pay for chicken nuggets in the school cafeteria.[39]
Uncut currency sheets[edit]
Uncut 32-subject sheet of series 1995 $2 Federal Reserve Notes.
Uncut currency sheets are available from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Some of the recent $2 uncut sheets from Series 1995 and Series 2003 have been collectibles as they come from special non-circulation printings. Most of the Series 1995 $2 uncut sheets had a higher suffix letter in the serial number than regular circulation $2 bills. Uncut $2 sheets from Series 2003 were printed for the Boston (A), New York (B), Atlanta (F), Chicago (G), Minneapolis (I), and Dallas (K) Federal Reserve Districts despite the fact that notes from the Minneapolis district were the only ones released for circulation. Uncut sheets of Series 2003A have also been produced, although in this case circulating currency for all districts has also been made. All two dollar bills beginning with Series 1995 have been printed in the BEP facility in Fort Worth, Texas.[24][40][41]
Uncut sheets of $2 bills are available in various sizes. A 32-subject sheet, which is the original size sheet on which the notes are printed, is available. Other sheet sizes available have been cut from the original 32-subject sheet. These include half (16-note), quarter (8-note), and eighth (4-note) sheets for $2 bills. Uncut sheets are sold for more than their respective face values.[42] Uncut sheets of large size notes (issued before 1928) also exist, but are extremely rare.[43]
Steve Wozniak, a co-founder of Apple Inc., has been using $2 banknotes separated from 4-bill uncut sheets (glued together into pads), to surprise merchants and waiters; also, because of notes' unusual appearance, he has been interviewed by a Secret Service agent.[44][45]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Legal Tender Alexander Hamilton: 1862 $2 Currency". The Kennedy Mint. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Six Kinds of United States Paper Currency". friesian.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "About Paper Money - Small-size Bicentennial $2 notes". Coinworld.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stone, Suzanne J. (March–April 1976). "The $2 Bill Returns" (PDF). The Economic Review. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. 62 (2). Retrieved December 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ "$2.00 still printed?". Ustreas.gov. Archived from the original on July 25, 2010. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ "$2 accepting vending machines". 4mega-vending.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Use The $2". Retrieved October 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Series 2003A $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "FAQs: Denominations of currency". United States Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on August 25, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ bbbconsumeralert (January 27, 2010). "Sometimes a $2 Bill is Just a $2 Bill". Tucson Citizen.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Spend Tom 2010". Visit California. January 1, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 88–90. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 91. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 91–92. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 93–94. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 96–97. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 97. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 98. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 99. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Stone, Suzanne J. (March–April 1976). "The $2 Bill Returns". Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bureau of Engraving and Printing. "Annual Production Figures". Archived from the original on March 4, 2007. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Series 2003A $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Series 2009 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "2012 BEP Production Info via FOIA". WheresGeorge.com. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Series 2013 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "1869 $2 Legal Tender Rainbow Note". usrarecurrency.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kathy Lawrence (May 19, 2011). ""Lazy Deuces" — $2 National Bank Notes". currency.ha.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fred Reed (July 29, 2009). "Battleship Note Projects American Naval Strength". numismaster.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Arthur L. & Ira S. Friedberg (2014). A guide Book of United States Paper Money 4th Edition. Whitman. pp. 56–68.
Jump up ^ http://www.wheresgeorge.com/wrapper.php?page=denom
Jump up ^ Tad Walch (May 17, 2003). "Geneva workers give their $2 worth". Deseret News. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "2A supporters start Buycott to battle the Starbucks Anti-Firearm Boycott". Military Times. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Starbucks "$2 for 2A" Appreciation Day Going Viral". The Truth About Guns. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "$2 bill increasing in use and shedding its 'play-money' image". USA Today. November 7, 2006. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Clemson University Traditions". Retrieved October 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Man arrested, cuffed after using $2 bills". WND.com. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Little Girl Detained By Police After Trying to Buy School Lunch with Real $2 Bill". Reason.com. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Series 1995 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Series 2003 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "BEP to Raise Uncut Currency Sheet Prices". coinnews.net. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Large Size. 1896. Silver Certificates. Bound Presentation Set of the First Educational Uncut Sheets. $1, $2, and $5. Fr-224, 247, and 268. PMG Photo Proof Certificates". stacksbowers.com. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Woz and the Secret Service: "The infamous $2 bill incident"". Woz.org. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ Woz's $2 bill sheets - The Engadget Show on YouTube (2011-02-01)
General
Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money, 17th edition published by Krause Publications
Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 432. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing website
USpapermoney.info
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2 United States dollar banknotes.
The U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing's website
USAToday: "$2 bill increasing in use and shedding its 'play-money' image" 2006-11-06.
The Two Dollar Bill project teaches Americans about the history of the $2 bill"
[show]
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Persistent vegetative state
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Persistent vegetative state
Classification and external resources
Specialty
Neurology
ICD-9-CM
780.03
Patient UK
Persistent vegetative state
MeSH
D018458
[edit on Wikidata]
A persistent vegetative state (PVS) is a disorder of consciousness in which patients with severe brain damage are in a state of partial arousal rather than true awareness. After four weeks in a vegetative state (VS), the patient is classified as in a persistent vegetative state. This diagnosis is classified as a permanent vegetative state some months (3 in the US and 6 in the UK) after a non-traumatic brain injury or one year after a traumatic injury. Nowadays, more doctors and neuroscientists prefer to call the state of consciousness an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome,[1] primarily because of ethical questions about whether a patient can be called "vegetative" or not.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
1.1 Medical definition
1.2 Lack of legal clarity
1.3 Vegetative state
1.4 Persistent vegetative state
2 Signs and symptoms
2.1 Recovery
3 Causes
4 Diagnosis
4.1 Diagnostic experiments
4.2 Misdiagnoses
5 Treatment
5.1 Zolpidem
6 Epidemiology
7 History
8 Society and culture
8.1 Ethics and policy
8.2 Notable cases
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Definition[edit]
There are several definitions that vary by technical versus layman's usage. There are different legal implications in different countries.
Medical definition[edit]
A wakeful unconscious state that lasts longer than a few weeks is referred to as a persistent (or 'continuing') vegetative state.[3]
Lack of legal clarity[edit]
Unlike brain death, permanent vegetative state (PVS) is recognized by statute law as death in very few legal systems. In the US, courts have required petitions before termination of life support that demonstrate that any recovery of cognitive functions above a vegetative state is assessed as impossible by authoritative medical opinion.[4] In England and Wales the legal precedent for withdrawal of clinically assisted nutrition and hydration in cases of patients in a PVS was set in 1993 in the case of Tony Bland, who sustained catastrophic anoxic brain injury in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster.[3] An application to the Court of Protection is still now required before nutrition and hydration can be withdrawn or withheld from PVS (or 'minimally conscious' - MCS) patients.[5]
This legal grey area has led to vocal advocates that those in PVS should be allowed to die. Others are equally determined that, if recovery is at all possible, care should continue. The existence of a small number of diagnosed PVS cases that have eventually resulted in improvement makes defining recovery as "impossible" particularly difficult in a legal sense.[6] This legal and ethical issue raises questions about autonomy, quality of life, appropriate use of resources, the wishes of family members, and professional responsibilities.
Vegetative state[edit]
The vegetative state is a chronic or long-term condition. This condition differs from a coma: a coma is a state that lacks both awareness and wakefulness. Patients in a vegetative state may have awoken from a coma, but still have not regained awareness. In the vegetative state patients can open their eyelids occasionally and demonstrate sleep-wake cycles, but completely lack cognitive function. The vegetative state is also called a "coma vigil". The chances of regaining awareness diminish considerably as the time spent in the vegetative state increases.[7]
Persistent vegetative state[edit]
Persistent vegetative state is the standard usage (except in the UK) for a medical diagnosis, made after numerous neurological and other tests, that due to extensive and irreversible brain damage a patient is highly unlikely ever to achieve higher functions above a vegetative state. This diagnosis does not mean that a doctor has diagnosed improvement as impossible, but does open the possibility, in the US, for a judicial request to end life support.[6] Informal guidelines hold that this diagnosis can be made after four weeks in a vegetative state. US caselaw has shown that successful petitions for termination have been made after a diagnosis of a persistent vegetative state, although in some cases, such as that of Terri Schiavo, such rulings have generated widespread controversy.
In the UK, the term 'persistent vegetative state' is discouraged in favor of two more precisely defined terms that have been strongly recommended by the Royal College of Physicians (RCP). These guidelines recommend using a continuous vegetative state for patients in a vegetative state for more than four weeks. A medical definition of a permanent vegetative state can be made if, after exhaustive testing and a customary 12 months of observation,[8] a medical diagnosis that it is impossible by any informed medical expectations that the mental condition will ever improve.[9] Hence, a "continuous vegetative state" in the UK may remain the diagnosis in cases that would be called "persistent" in the US or elsewhere.
While the actual testing criteria for a diagnosis of "permanent" in the UK are quite similar to the criteria for a diagnosis of "persistent" in the US, the semantic difference imparts in the UK a legal presumption that is commonly used in court applications for ending life support.[8] The UK diagnosis is generally only made after 12 months of observing a static vegetative state. A diagnosis of a persistent vegetative state in the US usually still requires a petitioner to prove in court that recovery is impossible by informed medical opinion, while in the UK the "permanent" diagnosis already gives the petitioner this presumption and may make the legal process less time-consuming.[6]
In common usage, the "permanent" and "persistent" definitions are sometimes conflated and used interchangeably. However, the acronym "PVS" is intended to define a "persistent vegetative state", without necessarily the connotations of permanence, and is used as such throughout this article.
Bryan Jennett, who originally coined the term "persistent vegetative state", has now recommended using the UK division between continuous and permanent in his most recent book The Vegetative State. This is one for purposes of precision, on the grounds that "the 'persistent' component of this term ... may seem to suggest irreversibility".[10]
The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council has suggested "post coma unresponsiveness" as an alternative term for "vegetative state" in general.[11]
Signs and symptoms[edit]
Most PVS patients are unresponsive to external stimuli and their conditions are associated with different levels of consciousness. Some level of consciousness means a person can still respond, in varying degrees, to stimulation. A person in a coma, however, cannot. In addition, PVS patients often open their eyes in response to feeding, which has to be done by others; they are capable of swallowing, whereas patients in a coma subsist with their eyes closed (Emmett, 1989).
PVS patients' eyes might be in a relatively fixed position, or track moving objects, or move in a disconjugate (i.e., completely unsynchronized) manner. They may experience sleep-wake cycles, or be in a state of chronic wakefulness. They may exhibit some behaviors that can be construed as arising from partial consciousness, such as grinding their teeth, swallowing, smiling, shedding tears, grunting, moaning, or screaming without any apparent external stimulus.
Individuals in PVS are seldom on any life-sustaining equipment other than a feeding tube because the brainstem, the center of vegetative functions (such as heart rate and rhythm, respiration, and gastrointestinal activity) is relatively intact (Emmett, 1989).
Recovery[edit]
Many people emerge spontaneously from a vegetative state within a few weeks.[10] The chances of recovery depend on the extent of injury to the brain and the patient's age – younger patients having a better chance of recovery than older patients. A 1994 report found that of those who were in a vegetative state a month after a trauma, 54% had regained consciousness by a year after the trauma, whereas 28% had died and 18% were still in the vegetative state. But for non-traumatic injuries such as strokes, only 14% had recovered consciousness at one year, 47% had died, and 39% were still vegetative. Patients who were vegetative six months after the initial event were much less likely to have recovered consciousness a year after the event than in the case of those who were simply reported vegetative at one month.[12] A New Scientist article from 2000 gives a pair of graphs showing changes of patient status during the first 12 months after head injury and after incidents depriving the brain of oxygen.[13] After a year, the chances that a PVS patient will regain consciousness are very low[14] and most patients who do recover consciousness experience significant disability. The longer a patient is in a PVS, the more severe the resulting disabilities are likely to be. Rehabilitation can contribute to recovery, but many patients never progress to the point of being able to take care of themselves.
There are two dimensions of recovery from a persistent vegetative state: recovery of consciousness and recovery of function. Recovery of consciousness can be verified by reliable evidence of awareness of self and the environment, consistent voluntary behavioral responses to visual and auditory stimuli, and interaction with others. Recovery of function is characterized by communication, the ability to learn and to perform adaptive tasks, mobility, self-care, and participation in recreational or vocational activities. Recovery of consciousness may occur without functional recovery, but functional recovery cannot occur without recovery of consciousness (Ashwal, 1994).
Causes[edit]
There are three main causes of PVS (persistent vegetative state):
Acute traumatic brain injury
Non-traumatic: neurodegenerative disorder or metabolic disorder of the brain
Severe congenital abnormality of the central nervous system
Medical books (such as Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins. (2007). In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms) describe several potential causes of PVS, which are as follows:
Bacterial, viral, or fungal infection, including meningitis
Increased intracranial pressure, such as a tumor or abscess
Vascular pressure which causes intracranial hemorrhaging or stroke
Hypoxic ischemic injury (hypotension, cardiac arrest, arrhythmia, near-drowning)
Toxins such as uremia, ethanol, atropine, opiates, lead, colloidal silver[15]
Trauma: Concussion, contusion
Seizure, both nonconvulsive status epilepticus and postconvulsive state (postictal state)
Electrolyte imbalance, which involves hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypomagnesemia, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, hypercalcemia, and hypocalcemia
Postinfectious: Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)
Endocrine disorders such as adrenal insufficiency and thyroid disorders
Degenerative and metabolic diseases including urea cycle disorders, Reye syndrome, and mitochondrial disease
Systemic infection and sepsis
Hepatic encephalopathy
In addition, these authors claim that doctors sometimes use the mnemonic device AEIOU-TIPS to recall portions of the differential diagnosis: Alcohol ingestion and acidosis, Epilepsy and encephalopathy, Infection, Opiates, Uremia, Trauma, Insulin overdose or inflammatory disorders, Poisoning and psychogenic causes, and Shock.
Diagnosis[edit]
Despite converging agreement about the definition of persistent vegetative state, recent reports have raised concerns about the accuracy of diagnosis in some patients, and the extent to which, in a selection of cases, residual cognitive functions may remain undetected and patients are diagnosed as being in a persistent vegetative state. Objective assessment of residual cognitive function can be extremely difficult as motor responses may be minimal, inconsistent, and difficult to document in many patients, or may be undetectable in others because no cognitive output is possible (Owen et al., 2002). In recent years, a number of studies have demonstrated an important role for functional neuroimaging in the identification of residual cognitive function in persistent vegetative state; this technology is providing new insights into cerebral activity in patients with severe brain damage. Such studies, when successful, may be particularly useful where there is concern about the accuracy of the diagnosis and the possibility that residual cognitive function has remained undetected.
Diagnostic experiments[edit]
Researchers have begun to use functional neuroimaging studies to study implicit cognitive processing in patients with a clinical diagnosis of persistent vegetative state. Activations in response to sensory stimuli with positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and electrophysiological methods can provide information on the presence, degree, and location of any residual brain function. However, use of these techniques in people with severe brain damage is methodologically, clinically, and theoretically complex and needs careful quantitative analysis and interpretation.
For example, PET studies have shown the identification of residual cognitive function in persistent vegetative state. That is, an external stimulation, such as a painful stimulus, still activates "primary" sensory cortices in these patients but these areas are functionally disconnected from "higher order" associative areas needed for awareness. These results show that parts of the cortex are indeed still functioning in "vegetative" patients (Matsuda et al., 2003).
In addition, other PET studies have revealed preserved and consistent responses in predicted regions of auditory cortex in response to intelligible speech stimuli. Moreover, a preliminary fMRI examination revealed partially intact responses to semantically ambiguous stimuli, which are known to tap higher aspects of speech comprehension (Boly, 2004).
Furthermore, several studies have used PET to assess the central processing of noxious somatosensory stimuli in patients in PVS. Noxious somatosensory stimulation activated midbrain, contralateral thalamus, and primary somatosensory cortex in each and every PVS patient, even in the absence of detectable cortical evoked potentials. In conclusion, somatosensory stimulation of PVS patients, at intensities that elicited pain in controls, resulted in increased neuronal activity in primary somatosensory cortex, even if resting brain metabolism was severely impaired. However, this activation of primary cortex seems to be isolated and dissociated from higher-order associative cortices (Laureys et al., 2002).
Also, there is evidence of partially functional cerebral regions in catastrophically injured brains. To study five patients in PVS with different behavioral features, researchers employed PET, MRI and magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses to sensory stimulation. In three of the five patients, co-registered PET/MRI correlate areas of relatively preserved brain metabolism with isolated fragments of behavior. Two patients had suffered anoxic injuries and demonstrated marked decreases in overall cerebral metabolism to 30–40% of normal. Two other patients with non-anoxic, multifocal brain injuries demonstrated several isolated brain regions with higher metabolic rates, that ranged up to 50–80% of normal. Nevertheless, their global metabolic rates remained <50% of normal. MEG recordings from three PVS patients provide clear evidence for the absence, abnormality or reduction of evoked responses. Despite major abnormalities, however, these data also provide evidence for localized residual activity at the cortical level. Each patient partially preserved restricted sensory representations, as evidenced by slow evoked magnetic fields and gamma band activity. In two patients, these activations correlate with isolated behavioral patterns and metabolic activity. Remaining active regions identified in the three PVS patients with behavioral fragments appear to consist of segregated corticothalamic networks that retain connectivity and partial functional integrity. A single patient who suffered severe injury to the tegmental mesencephalon and paramedian thalamus showed widely preserved cortical metabolism, and a global average metabolic rate of 65% of normal. The relatively high preservation of cortical metabolism in this patient defines the first functional correlate of clinical– pathological reports associating permanent unconsciousness with structural damage to these regions. The specific patterns of preserved metabolic activity identified in these patients reflect novel evidence of the modular nature of individual functional networks that underlie conscious brain function. The variations in cerebral metabolism in chronic PVS patients indicate that some cerebral regions can retain partial function in catastrophically injured brains (Schiff et al., 2002).
Misdiagnoses[edit]
Statistical PVS misdiagnosis isn't uncommon. An example study with 40 patients in the United Kingdom reported 43% of their patients classified as PVS were believed so and another 33% had recovered whilst the study was underway.[16] Some PVS cases may actually be a misdiagnosis of patients being in an undiagnosed minimally conscious state.[17] Since the exact diagnostic criteria of the minimally conscious state were only formulated in 2002, there may be chronic patients diagnosed as PVS before the secondary notion of the minimally conscious state became known.
Whether or not there is any conscious awareness with a patient's vegetative state is a prominent issue. Three completely different aspects of this should be distinguished. First, some patients can be conscious simply because they are misdiagnosed (see above). In fact, they are not in vegetative states. Second, sometimes a patient was correctly diagnosed but is then examined during the early stages of recovery. Third, perhaps some day the notion itself of vegetative states will change so to include elements of conscious awareness. Inability to disentangle these three example cases causes confusion. An example of such confusion is the response to a recent experiment using functional magnetic resonance imaging which revealed that a woman diagnosed with PVS was able to activate predictable portions of her brain in response to the tester's requests that she imagine herself playing tennis or moving from room to room in her house. The brain activity in response to these instructions was indistinguishable from those of healthy patients.[18][19][20]
In 2010, Martin Monti and fellow researchers, working at the MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit at the University of Cambridge, reported in an article in the New England Journal of Medicine[21] that some patients in persistent vegetative states responded to verbal instructions by displaying different patterns of brain activity on fMRI scans. Five out of a total of 54 diagnosed patients were apparently able to respond when instructed to think about one of two different physical activities. One of these five was also able to "answer" yes or no questions, again by imagining one of these two activities.[22] It is unclear, however, whether the fact that portions of the patients' brains light up on fMRI could help these patients assume their own medical decision making.[22]
In November 2011, a publication in The Lancet presented bedside EEG apparatus and indicated that its signal could be used to detect awareness in three of 16 patients diagnosed in the vegetative state.[23]
Treatment[edit]
Currently no treatment for vegetative state exists that would satisfy the efficacy criteria of evidence-based medicine. Several methods have been proposed which can roughly be subdivided into four categories: pharmacological methods, surgery, physical therapy, and various stimulation techniques. Pharmacological therapy mainly uses activating substances such as tricyclic antidepressants or methylphenidate. Mixed results have been reported using dopaminergic drugs such as amantadine and bromocriptine and stimulants such as dextroamphetamine.[24] Surgical methods such as deep brain stimulation are used less frequently due to the invasiveness of the procedures. Stimulation techniques include sensory stimulation, sensory regulation, music and musicokinetic therapy, social-tactile interaction, and cortical stimulation.[25]
Zolpidem[edit]
There is limited evidence that the hypnotic drug zolpidem has an effect.[26] The results of the few scientific studies that have been published so far on the effectiveness of zolpidem have been contradictory.[27][28]
Epidemiology[edit]
In the United States, it is estimated that there may be between 15,000 and 40,000 patients who are in a persistent vegetative state, but due to poor nursing home records exact figures are hard to determine.[29]
History[edit]
The syndrome was first described in 1940 by Ernst Kretschmer who called it apallic syndrome.[30] The term persistent vegetative state was coined in 1972 by Scottish spinal surgeon Bryan Jennett and American neurologist Fred Plum to describe a syndrome that seemed to have been made possible by medicine's increased capacities to keep patients' bodies alive.[10][31]
Society and culture[edit]
Ethics and policy[edit]
An ongoing debate exists as to how much care, if any, patients in a persistent vegetative state should receive in health systems plagued by limited resources. In a case before the New Jersey Superior Court, Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital, a community hospital sought a ruling that dialysis and CPR for such a patient constitutes futile care. An American bioethicist, Jacob M. Appel, argued that any money spent treating PVS patients would be better spent on other patients with a higher likelihood of recovery.[32] The patient died naturally prior to a decision in the case, resulting in the court finding the issue moot.
In 2010, British and Belgian researchers reported in an article in the New England Journal of Medicine that some patients in persistent vegetative states actually had enough consciousness to "answer" yes or no questions on fMRI scans.[33] However, it is unclear whether the fact that portions of the patients' brains light up on fMRI will help these patient assume their own medical decision making.[33] Professor Geraint Rees, Director of the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London, responded to the study by observing that, "As a clinician, it would be important to satisfy oneself that the individual that you are communicating with is competent to make those decisions. At the moment it is premature to conclude that the individual able to answer 5 out of 6 yes/no questions is fully conscious like you or I."[33] In contrast, Jacob M. Appel of the Mount Sinai Hospital told the Telegraph that this development could be a welcome step toward clarifying the wishes of such patients. Appel stated: "I see no reason why, if we are truly convinced such patients are communicating, society should not honour their wishes. In fact, as a physician, I think a compelling case can be made that doctors have an ethical obligation to assist such patients by removing treatment. I suspect that, if such individuals are indeed trapped in their bodies, they may be living in great torment and will request to have their care terminated or even active euthanasia."[33]
Notable cases[edit]
Tony Bland
Paul Brophy
Sunny von Bülow
Gustavo Cerati
Prichard Colón
Nancy Cruzan
Gary Dockery
Eluana Englaro
Lia Lee
Elaine Esposito
Haleigh Poutre
Karen Ann Quinlan
Terri Schiavo
Aruna Shanbaug
Ariel Sharon
Vice Vukov
Chayito Valdez
Helga Wanglie
Otto Warmbier
Abdelhak Nouri
See also[edit]
Anencephaly
Brain death
Botulism
Catatonia
Karolina Olsson
Locked-in syndrome
Process Oriented Coma Work, for an approach to working with residual consciousness in patients in comatose and persistent vegetative states
References[edit]
This article contains text from the NINDS public domain pages on TBI. [1] and [2].
Jump up ^ Laureys, Steven; Celesia, Gastone G; Cohadon, Francois; Lavrijsen, Jan; León-Carrión, José; Sannita, Walter G; Sazbon, Leon; Schmutzhard, Erich; von Wild, Klaus R (2010-11-01). "Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome: a new name for the vegetative state or apallic syndrome". BMC Medicine. 8: 68. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-68. ISSN 1741-7015. PMC 2987895  . PMID 21040571.
Jump up ^ Laureys S, Celesia GG, Cohadon F, Lavrijsen J, León-Carrión J, Sannita WG, Sazbon L, Schmutzhard E, von Wild KR, Zeman A, Dolce G (2010). "Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome: a new name for the vegetative state or apallic syndrome". BMC Med. 8: 68. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-68. PMC 2987895  . PMID 21040571.
^ Jump up to: a b Royal College of Physicians 2013 Prolonged Disorders of Consciousness: National Clinical Guidelines, https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/resources/prolonged-disorders-consciousness-national-clinical-guidelines
Jump up ^ Jennett, B (1999). "Should cases of permanent vegetative state still go to court?. Britain should follow other countries and keep the courts for cases of dispute". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 319 (7213): 796–97. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7213.796. PMC 1116645  . PMID 10496803.
Jump up ^ Royal College of Physicians 2013 Prolonged Disorders of Consciousness: National Clinical Guidelines
^ Jump up to: a b c Diagnosing The Permanent Vegetative State by Ronald Cranford, MD
Jump up ^ PVS, The Multi-Society Task Force on (1994-05-26). "Medical Aspects of the Persistent Vegetative State". New England Journal of Medicine. 330 (21): 1499–1508. doi:10.1056/NEJM199405263302107. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 7818633.
^ Jump up to: a b Wade, DT; Johnston, C (1999). "The permanent vegetative state: Practical guidance on diagnosis and management". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 319 (7213): 841–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7213.841. PMC 1116668  . PMID 10496834.
Jump up ^ Guidance on diagnosis and management: Report of a working party of the Royal College of Physicians. Royal College of Physicians: London. 1996.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bryan Jennett. The Vegetative State: Medical facts, ethical and legal dilemmas (PDF). University of Glasgow: Scotland. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
Jump up ^ Post-coma unresponsiveness (Vegetative State): a clinical framework for diagnosis. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC): Canberra. 2003. Archived from the original on 2006-08-20.
Jump up ^ Jennett, B (2002). "Editorial: The vegetative state. The definition, diagnosis, prognosis and pathology of this state are discussed, together with the legal implications". British Medical Journal. 73 (4): 355–357. doi:10.1136/jnnp.73.4.355. PMC 1738081  . Retrieved 2012-06-11.
Jump up ^ Nell Boyce (July 8, 2000). "Is anyone in there?". New Scientist: 36.
Jump up ^ Schapira, Anthony (December 18, 2006). Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience. Mosby. p. 126. ISBN 978-0323033541.
Jump up ^ Mirsattari SM, Hammond RR, Sharpe MD, Leung FY, Young GB (April 2004). "Myoclonic status epilepticus following repeated oral ingestion of colloidal silver". Neurology. 62 (8): 1408–10. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000120671.73335.EC. PMID 15111684.
Jump up ^ K Andrews; L Murphy; R Munday; C Littlewood (1996-07-06). "Misdiagnosis of the vegetative state: retrospective study in a rehabilitation unit". British Medical Journal. 313 (7048): 13–16. doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7048.13. PMC 2351462  . PMID 8664760.
Jump up ^ Giacino JT, et al. (2002). "Unknown title". Neurology. 58 (3): 349–353. doi:10.1212/wnl.58.3.349. PMID 11839831.
Jump up ^ Owen AM, Coleman MR, Boly M, Davis MH, Laureys S, Pickard JD (2006-09-08). "Detecting awareness in the vegetative state". Science. 313 (5792): 1402. doi:10.1126/science.1130197. PMID 16959998.
Jump up ^ "Vegetative patient 'communicates': A patient in a vegetative state can communicate just through using her thoughts, according to research". BBC News. September 7, 2006. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
Jump up ^ Stein R (September 8, 2006). "Vegetative patient's brain active in test: Unprecedented experiment shows response to instructions to imagine playing tennis". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Willful Modulation of Brain Activity in Disorders of Consciousness at nejm.org
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Alleyne and Martin Beckford, Patients in 'vegetative' state can think and communicate,Telegraph (United Kingdom), Feb 4, 2010
Jump up ^ Cruse Damian; et al. (2011). "Bedside detection of awareness in the vegetative state: a cohort study". The Lancet. 378 (9809): 2088–2094. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61224-5. PMID 22078855.
Jump up ^ Dolce, Giuliano; Sazbon, Leon (2002). The post-traumatic vegetative state. ISBN 9781588901163.
Jump up ^ Georgiopoulos M, et al. (2010). "Vegetative state and minimally conscious state: a review of the therapeutic interventions". Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 88 (4): 199–207. doi:10.1159/000314354. PMID 20460949.
Jump up ^ Georgiopoulos, M; Katsakiori, P; Kefalopoulou, Z; Ellul, J; Chroni, E; Constantoyannis, C (2010). "Vegetative state and minimally conscious state: a review of the therapeutic interventions". Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery. 88 (4): 199–207. doi:10.1159/000314354. PMID 20460949. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Snyman, N; London, K; Howman-Giles, R; Gill, D; Gillis, J; Scheinberg, A; et al. (2010). "Zolpidem for persistent vegetative state--a placebo-controlled trial in pediatrics". Neuropediatrics. 41 (5): 223–227. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1269893. PMID 21210338. |first2= missing |last2= in Authors list (help)
Jump up ^ Whyte, J; Myers, R (2009). "Incidence of clinically significant responses to zolpidem among patients with disorders of consciousness: a preliminary placebo controlled trial". Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 88 (5): 410–418. doi:10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181a0e3a0. PMID 19620954.
Jump up ^ Hirsch, Joy (2005-05-02). "Raising consciousness". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. American Society for Clinical Investigation. 115 (5): 1102. doi:10.1172/JCI25320. PMC 1087197  . PMID 15864333.
Jump up ^ Ernst Kretschmer (1940). "Das apallische Syndrom". Neurol. Psychiat. 169: 576–579. doi:10.1007/BF02871384.
Jump up ^ B Jennett; F Plum (1972). "Persistent vegetative state after brain damage: A syndrome in search of a name". The Lancet. 1 (7753): 734–737. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(72)90242-5. PMID 4111204.
Jump up ^ Appel on Betancourt v. Trinitas
^ Jump up to: a b c d Richard Alleyne and Martin Beckford, Patients in 'vegetative' state can think and communicate, Telegraph (United Kingdom), Feb 4, 2010
Further reading[edit]
Sarà, M.; Sacco, S.; Cipolla, F.; Onorati, P.; Scoppetta, C; Albertini, G; Carolei, A (2007). "An unexpected recovery from permanent vegetative state". Brain Injury. 21 (1): 101–103. doi:10.1080/02699050601151761. PMID 17364525.
Canavero S, et al. (2009). "Recovery of consciousness following bifocal extradural cortical stimulation in a permanently vegetative patient". Journal of Neurology. 256 (5): 834–6. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5019-4. PMID 19252808.
Canavero S (editor) (2009). Textbook of therapeutic cortical stimulation. New York: Nova Science. ISBN 9781606925379. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Canavero S, Massa-Micon B, Cauda F, Montanaro E (May 2009). "Bifocal extradural cortical stimulation-induced recovery of consciousness in the permanent post-traumatic vegetative state". J Neurol. 256 (5): 834–6. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5019-4. PMID 19252808.
Connolly, Kate. Car crash victim trapped in a coma for 23 years was conscious, The Guardian, November 23, 2009.
Machado, Calixto, et al. A Cuban Perspective on Management of Persistent Vegetative State. MEDICC Review 2012;14(1):44–48.
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interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Вегетативное состояние – Russian

values: Persistent vegetative state – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: สภาพผักเรื้อรัง – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Вегетативний стан – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: 持續性植物狀態 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Persistent_vegetative_state rootpage-Persistent_vegetative_state skin-vector action-view