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Pine Bluff, Arkansas
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"Pine Bluff" redirects here. For the horse, see Pine Bluff (horse).
Not to be confused with Pinebluff, North Carolina.
City in Arkansas, United States
Pine Bluff
City
City of Pine Bluff
Pine Bluff Commercial Historic District

Seal
Motto(s): "City of Progress"

Location of Pine Bluff in Jefferson County, Arkansas.
Pine Bluff
Location of Pine Bluff in the US
Coordinates: 34°13′N 92°1′W / 34.217°N 92.017°W / 34.217; -92.017Coordinates: 34°13′N 92°1′W / 34.217°N 92.017°W / 34.217; -92.017
Country
United States
State
Arkansas
County
Jefferson
Township
Vaugine
Incorporated
January 8, 1839
(179 years ago) (1839-01-08)
Government
• Type
Mayor–Council
• Mayor
Shirley Washington (D)
• Council
Pine Bluff City Council
Area[1]
• City
45.97 sq mi (119.07 km2)
• Land
43.77 sq mi (113.37 km2)
• Water
2.20 sq mi (5.69 km2)
Elevation
220 ft (67 m)
Population (2010)
• City
49,083
• Estimate (2017)[2]
42,984
• Density
981.95/sq mi (379.14/km2)
• Metro
100,258
Time zone
UTC−6 (CST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC−5 (CDT)
ZIP code(s)
71601, 71602, 71603
Area code(s)
870
FIPS code
05-55310
GNIS feature ID
0078006
Major airport
LIT
Website
www.cityofpinebluff.com
Pine Bluff is the tenth-largest city in the state of Arkansas and the county seat of Jefferson County.[3] It is the principal city of the Pine Bluff Metropolitan Statistical Area and part of the Little Rock-North Little Rock-Pine Bluff Combined Statistical Area. The population of the city was 49,083 in the 2010 Census[4] with 2017 estimates showing a decline to 42,984.[5]
The city is situated in the Southeast section of the Arkansas Delta and straddles the Arkansas Timberlands region to its west.[6] Its topography is flat with wide expanses of farmland, consistent with other places in the Delta Lowlands. Pine Bluff has numerous creeks, streams, and bayous. (Bayou Bartholomew is the longest bayou in the world and is the second most-diverse stream in the United States).[7] Large bodies of water include Lake Pine Bluff, Lake Langhofer (Slack Water Harbor), and the Arkansas River.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Civil War, Reconstruction and beyond (1861–1900)
1.2 1900 through the Great Depression (1900–1941)
1.3 World War II and economic diversification (1941–1960)
1.4 The modern era (1960–present)
2 Geography
2.1 Metropolitan statistical area
2.2 Climate
3 Demographics
4 Economy
5 Government
6 Arts and culture
6.1 Annual cultural events
7 Education
7.1 Colleges and universities
7.2 Public schools
7.3 Private schools
7.4 Public libraries
8 Infrastructure
8.1 Highways
8.2 Water
8.3 Air
8.4 Buses
8.5 Railroad
8.6 Correctional facilities
8.7 Utilities
8.7.1 Water
8.7.2 Wastewater
9 Notable people
10 Sister city
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
History[edit]
The area along the Arkansas River had been inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous peoples of various cultures. They used the river for transportation as did European settlers after them, and for fishing. By the time of encounter with Europeans, the historical Quapaw were the chief people in the area, having migrated from the Ohio River valley centuries before.[citation needed]
The city of Pine Bluff was founded by Europeans on a high bank of the Arkansas River heavily forested with tall pine trees.[8] The high ground furnished settlers a safe haven from annual flooding.[8] Joseph Bonne, a Métis fur trader and trapper of mixed Quapaw and colonial French ancestry, settled on this bluff in 1819.[8]
After the Quapaw signed a treaty with the United States in 1824 relinquishing their title to all the lands which they claimed in Arkansas, many other American settlers began to join Bonne on the bluff. In 1829 Thomas Phillips claimed a half section of land where Pine Bluff is located. Jefferson County was established by the Territorial Legislature on November 2, 1829 and began functioning as a county April 19, 1830.
At the August 13, 1832 county election, the pine bluff settlement was chosen as the county seat. The Quorum Court voted to name the village "Pine Bluff Town" on October 16, 1832.[8] Pine Bluff was incorporated January 8, 1839, by the order of County Judge Taylor. At the time, the village had about 50 residents. Improved transportation aided in the growth of Pine Bluff during the 1840s and 1850s.
With its proximity to the Arkansas River, the small town served as a port for travel and shipping. Steamships provided the primary mode of transport, arriving from downriver ports such as New Orleans. From 1832–1838, Pine Bluff residents would see Native American migrants on the Trail of Tears waterway who were being forcibly removed by the US Army from the American Southeast to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.[9] From 1832–1858, Pine Bluff was also a station on the passage of Seminole and Black Seminoles, who were forcibly removed from Florida to the Territory. They included the legendary Black Seminole leader John Horse, who arrived in the city via the steamboat Swan in 1842.[10][11][12]
Civil War, Reconstruction and beyond (1861–1900)[edit]
Pine Bluff was prospering by the outbreak of the Civil War; most of its wealth was based on the commodity crop of cotton. This was cultivated on large plantations by hundreds and thousands of enslaved Africans throughout the state, but especially in the Delta. The city had one of the largest slave populations in the state by 1860,[13] and Jefferson County, Arkansas was second in cotton production in the state.[14] When Union forces occupied Little Rock, a group of Pine Bluff residents asked commanding Major General Frederick Steele to send Union forces to occupy their town to protect them from bands of Confederate bushwhackers.[15] Union troops under Colonel Powell Clayton arrived September 17, 1863 and stayed until the war was over.[15]
Confederate General J.S. Marmaduke tried to expel the Union Army in the Battle of Pine Bluff October 25, 1863, but was repulsed by a combined effort of soldiers and freedmen (former slaves freed by the Emancipation Proclamation).[16] In the final year of the war, the 1st Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry (Colored) (composed primarily of escaped slaves from Arkansas and Missouri),[17] was the first African-American regiment in the civil war to go into combat. It was dispatched to guard Pine Bluff and was eventually mustered out there.[18]
Because of the Union forces, Pine Bluff attracted many refugees and freedmen after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in early 1863. The Union forces set up a contraband camp there to house the runaway slaves and refugees behind Confederate lines.[19] After the war, freed slaves worked with the American Missionary Association to start schools for the education of blacks, who had been prohibited from learning to read and write by southern laws. Both adults and children eagerly started learning. By September 1872, Professor Joseph C. Corbin opened the Branch Normal School of the Arkansas Industrial University, a historically black college. Founded as Arkansas's first black public college, today it is the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff.
Pine Bluff and the region suffered lasting effects from defeat, the aftermath of war, and the trauma of slavery and exploitation. Recovery was slow at first. Construction of railroads improved access to markets, and with increased production of cotton as more plantations were reactivated, the economy began to recover. The first railroad reached Pine Bluff in December 1873.[citation needed] This same year Pine Bluff's first utility was formed when Pine Bluff Gas Company began furnishing manufactured gas from coke fuel for lighting purposes. The state's economy remained highly dependent on cotton and agriculture, which suffered a decline through the 19th century.
As personal fortunes increased from the 1870s onward, community leaders constructed large Victorian-style homes west of Main Street. Meanwhile, the Reconstruction era of the 1870s brought a stark mix of progress and challenge for African Americans. Most blacks joined the Republican Party, and several were elected in Pine Bluff to county offices and the state legislature for the first time in history. Several black-owned businesses were also opened, including banks, bars, barbershops, and other establishments. But in postwar violence in 1866, an altercation with whites ensued at a refugee camp, and 24 black men, women and children were found hanging from trees in one of the worst mass lynchings in U.S. history.[20]
The rate of lynchings of black males was high across the South during this period of social tensions and white resistance to Reconstruction. Armistad Johnson was lynched in 1889,[21] and John Kelly and Gulbert Harris in 1892 in front of the Jefferson County Courthouse, after a mob of hundreds rapidly escalated to thousands of whites vehemently demanding execution, despite Kelly's pleas of innocence and lack of trial. The angry mob eventually forced over his custody from an Officer adamantly attempting to deliver the suspect to the jail house, then the crowd watched enthusiastically as he was hung and riddled with bullets.[22] That same year the state adopted a poll tax amendment that disenfranchised many African-American and poor white voters. The Election Law of 1891 had already made voting more difficult and also caused voter rolls to decrease. With the Democratic Party consolidating its power in what became a one-party state,[23] the atmosphere was grim toward the end of the 19th century for many African Americans. Democrats imposed legal segregation and other Jim Crow laws.
Bishop Henry McNeal Turner's "Back to Africa" movement attracted numbers of local African-American residents who purchased tickets and/or sought information on emigration (Arkansas had 650 emigrants depart to the colony of Liberia in West Africa; more than from any other state in the United States. The majority of these emigrants came from the black-majority Jefferson, St. Francis, Pulaski, Pope, and Conway counties.[24][25]
According to historian James Leslie, Pine Bluff entered its "Golden Era" in the 1880s.[26] Cotton production and river commerce helped the city draw industries, public institutions and residents to the area, making it by 1890 the state's third-largest city. The first telephone system was placed in service March 31, 1883. Wiley Jones, a freedman who achieved wealth by his own business, built the first mule-drawn, street-car line in October 1886.[27] The first light, power and water plant was completed in 1887; a more dependable light and water system was put in place in 1912. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, economic expansion was also fueled by the growing lumber industry in the region.
1900 through the Great Depression (1900–1941)[edit]
Situated on the Arkansas River, Pine Bluff depended on river traffic and trade. Community leaders were concerned that the main channel would leave the city. The United States Army Corps of Engineers built a levee opposite Pine Bluff to try to keep the river flowing by the city.[citation needed]
During a later flood, the main channel of the river moved away from the city, leaving a small oxbow lake (later expanded into Lake Pine Bluff).[citation needed] River traffic diminished, even as the river was a barrier separating one part of the county from the other. After many years of regional haggling, because the bond issue involved raised taxes, the county built the Free Bridge, which opened in 1914. For the first time, it united the county on a permanent basis.[citation needed]
African Americans in Pine Bluff were damaged by the state's disfranchisement in 1891–1892 and exclusion from the political system. But they continued to work for their rights; they joined activists in Little Rock and Hot Springs in a sustained boycott of streetcars, protesting passage in 1903 of the Segregated Streetcar Act, part of a series of Jim Crow laws passed by the white-dominated legislature. They did not achieve change then.[28]
Development in the city's business district grew rapidly. The Masonic Lodge, built by and for the African-American chapter in the city, was the tallest building in Pine Bluff when completed in 1904.[29] The Hotel Pines, constructed in 1912, had an intricate marble interior and classical design, and was considered one of Arkansas' showcase hotels.[30] The 1,500-seat Saenger Theater, built in 1924, was one of the largest such facilities in the state; it operated the state's largest pipe organ.[31] When Dollarway Road was completed in 1914, it was the longest continuous stretch of concrete road in the United States.[32] The first radio station (WOK) broadcast in Arkansas occurred in Pine Bluff on February 18, 1922.[33]
Two natural disasters had devastating effects on the area's economy. The first was the Great Flood of 1927, a 100-year flood. Due to levee breaks, most of northern and southeastern Jefferson County were flooded. The severe drought of 1930 caused another failure of crops, adding to the problems of economic conditions during the Great Depression. Pine Bluff residents scrambled to survive. In 1930, two of the larger banks failed.
The state's highway construction program in the later 1920s and early 1930s, facilitating trade between Pine Bluff and other communities throughout southeast Arkansas, was critical to Jefferson County, too. After the inauguration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, he launched many government programs to benefit local communities. Through the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and public works funding, Pine Bluff built new schools and a football stadium, and developed Oakland Park as its first major recreation facility. To encourage diversification in agriculture, the county built a stockyard in 1936 to serve as a sales outlet for farmers' livestock.[citation needed]
From 1936–1938, the WPA through the Federal Writers Project initiated a project to collect and publish oral histories of former slaves. Writers were sent throughout the South to interview former slaves, most of whom had been children before the Civil War.[34] When the project was complete, Arkansas residents had contributed more oral slave histories (approximately 780) than any other state, although Arkansas' slave population was less than those of neighboring Deep South states.[34] African-American residents of Pine Bluff/Jefferson County contributed more oral interviews of Arkansas-born slaves than any other city/county in the state.[35] The city served to compile a valuable storehouse of oral slave narrative material.
During the 1933 Mississippi River flood, country singer Johnny Cash evacuated to Pine Bluff.[36]
World War II and economic diversification (1941–1960)[edit]
Desegregated Freedom Train line in 1947
World War II brought profound changes to Pine Bluff and its agriculture, timber and railroad-oriented economy. The Army built Grider Field Airport which housed the Pine Bluff School of Aviation and furnished flight training for air cadets for the Army Air Corps. At one time 275 aircraft were being used to train 758 pilots. Approximately 9,000 pilots had been trained by the time the school closed in October 1944.[37]
The Army broke ground for the Pine Bluff Arsenal on December 2, 1941, on 15,000 acres (61 km2) bought north of the city. The arsenal and Grider Field changed Pine Bluff to a more diversified economy with a mixture of industry and agriculture. The addition of small companies to the industrial base helped the economy remain steady in the late 1940s.[citation needed] Defense spending in association with the Korean War was a stabilizing factor after 1950.
In December 1953, KATV television station, then based in Pine Bluff, transmitted Arkansas' first VHF broadcast (the first UHF broadcast had occurred a few months prior).[citation needed] In 1957, Richard Anderson announced the construction of a kraft paper mill north of the city.[citation needed] International Paper Co. shortly afterward bought a plant site five miles east of Pine Bluff. Residential developments followed for expected workers. The next year young minister Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. addressed students at the commencement program for Arkansas AM&N College (now the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff).[38]
The modern era (1960–present)[edit]
The decade of the 1960s brought heightened activism in the civil rights movement: through boycotts and demonstrations, African Americans demanded an end to segregated public facilities and jobs.[39] Some whites responded with violence, attacking demonstrators, and bombing a black church in Pine Bluff in 1963.[40] Some civil rights demonstrators were shot.[41] Local leaders worked tirelessly, at times enlisting the support of national figures such as Dick Gregory and Stokely Carmichael, to help bring about change over the period.[42][43] Voter registration drives that enabled increased black political participation, selective buying campaigns, student protests, and a desire among white local business leaders to avoid damaging negative media portrayals in the national media led to reforms in public accommodations.
During the 1960s and 1970s, major construction projects in the region included private and public sponsors: Jefferson Hospital (now Jefferson Regional Medical Center), the dams of the McClellan-Kerr Navigation System on the Arkansas River (which was diverted from the city to create Lake Langhofer), a Federal building, the Pine Bluff Convention Center complex including The Royal Arkansas Hotel & Suites, Pine Bluff Regional Park, two industrial parks and several large churches.
The 1980s and 1990s brought a number of significant construction projects. Benny Scallion Park was created, named for the alderman who brought a Japanese garden to the Pine Bluff Civic Center. Sadly, the city has not maintained the garden, but a small plaque remains.[citation needed] In the late 1980s, The Pines, the first large, enclosed shopping center, was constructed on the east side of the city. The mall attracted increased shopping traffic from southeast Arkansas.[citation needed]
Mural in downtown Pine Bluff
The most important construction project of the 1990s was completion of a southern bypass, designated part of Interstate 530. In addition, a highway and bridge across Lock and Dam #4 were completed, providing another link between farm areas in northeastern Jefferson County and the transportation system radiating from Pine Bluff. Through a private matching grant, a multimillion-dollar Arts and Science Center for Southeast Arkansas was completed downtown in 1994.[44]
In 2000, construction was completed on the 43,000-square-foot (4,000 m2) Donald W. Reynolds Community Services Center.[45] Carl Redus became the first African American mayor in the city's history in 2005.[46] The University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff recently opened a $3 million business incubator in downtown Pine Bluff.[47] Also, a new $2 million farmers market pavilion was opened in 2010 on Lake Pine Bluff in downtown Pine Bluff.[48]
On November 6, 2012, Debe Hollingsworth was elected to be the next mayor of Pine Bluff, winning 49% of the vote. Mayor-elect Hollingsworth assumed office January 2, 2013.[49] She has said her administration plans to lead using a five-point plan; combating crime in the city, economic development and job creation, city government reform, improving education, and enhancing the image of Pine Bluff.[50]
Geography[edit]
Bayou Bartholomew
Pine Bluff is on the Arkansas River; the community was named for a bluff along that river. Both Lake Pine Bluff and Lake Langhofer are situated within the city limits, as these are bodies of water which are remnants of the historical Arkansas River channel. (The former is a man-made expansion of a natural oxbow; the latter was created by diking the old channel after a man-made diversion.) Consequently, the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (or the Arkansas Delta) runs well into the city with Bayou Bartholomew picking up the western border as a line of demarcation between the Arkansas Delta and the Arkansas Timberlands.
A series of levees and dams surrounds the area to provide for flood control and protect from channel shift. One of the world's longest individual levees at 380 miles runs from Pine Bluff to Venice, Louisiana.[51]
Metropolitan statistical area[edit]
Main articles: Pine Bluff metropolitan area and Little Rock – North Little Rock – Pine Bluff combined statistical area
Pine Bluff is the largest city in a three-county MSA as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau including Jefferson, Cleveland, and Lincoln counties. The Pine Bluff MSA population in 2000 was 107,341 people. The Pine Bluff MSA population in 2007 dropped to 101,484. Pine Bluff was the fastest-declining Arkansas MSA from 2000–2007. The Pine Bluff area is also a component of the Little Rock-North Little Rock-Pine Bluff Combined Statistical Area which had a population of 902,443 people in the 2014 U.S. census estimate.
Climate[edit]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 46.8 square miles (121 km2), of which 45.6 square miles (118 km2) is land and 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2) (2.65%) is water.
hideClimate data for Pine Bluff
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
51
(11) 56
(13) 65
(18) 75
(24) 82
(28) 89
(32) 92
(33) 91
(33) 85
(29) 76
(24) 64
(18) 54
(12) 73
(23)
Average low °F (°C)
30
(−1) 33
(1) 42
(6) 51
(11) 60
(16) 68
(20) 71
(22) 70
(21) 63
(17) 51
(11) 42
(6) 33
(1) 51
(11)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.8
(97) 4.4
(112) 5.1
(130) 5.0
(127) 5.3
(135) 4.2
(107) 4.0
(102) 3.7
(94) 3.8
(97) 4.1
(104) 4.6
(117) 5.5
(140) 52.4
(1,331)
Source: [52]
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1850 460 —
1860 1,396 203.5%
1870 2,081 49.1%
1880 3,203 53.9%
1890 9,952 210.7%
1900 11,496 15.5%
1910 15,100 31.4%
1920 19,300 27.8%
1930 20,800 7.8%
1940 21,300 2.4%
1950 37,200 74.6%
1960 44,000 18.3%
1970 57,400 30.5%
1980 56,600 −1.4%
1990 57,100 0.9%
2000 55,085 −3.5%
2010 49,083 −10.9%
Est. 2017 42,984 [2] −12.4%
sources:[53][54]
As of the census[55] of 2010, there were 49,083 people, 18,071 households, and 11,594 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,048.8 people per square mile (404.6/km²). There were 20,923 housing units at an average density of 447.1 per square mile (172.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 75.6% Black or African American, 21.8% White, 0.2% Native American, 0.63% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.68% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. 1.5% of the population were Latino of any race.
There were 18,071 households out of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.3% were married couples living together, 27.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.8% were non-families. 31.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the city, the population was spread out with 25.5% under the age of 18, 13.4% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 24.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $30,415, and the median income for a family was $39,993. Males had a median income of $38,333 versus $28,936 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,334. About 24.3% of families and 30.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 45.6% of those under age 18 and 13.7% of those age 65 or over.
Economy[edit]
Agriculture is a mainstay in Pine Bluff. Jefferson County is located in the heart of a rich agricultural area in the Arkansas River Basin.[56] The leading products include cotton, soybeans, cattle, rice, poultry, timber and catfish. Principal industries in the area are engaged in processing cotton; production of cottonseed oil, paper and wood products; the manufacture of wire products; poultry processing; the manufacture of electric transformers; and metal fabrication.
Major area employers include Jefferson Regional Medical Center, Simmons First National Corp., Tyson Foods, Evergreen Packaging, the Pine Bluff Arsenal and the Union Pacific Railroad. It is the large number of paper mills in the area that give Pine Bluff its, at times, distinctive odor, a feature known prominently among Arkansans.[57]
In 2009, Pine Bluff was included on the Forbes list of America's 10 most impoverished cities.[58]
Government[edit]
Jefferson County Courthouse in downtown Pine Bluff
The City of Pine Bluff is governed by the mayor–council government system, with the mayor, city attorney, city clerk and treasurer are all elected at large. The Pine Bluff City Council is the legislative body of the city. This group is constituted of eight members, with two members representing each of the city's four wards.[59] Each council member serves a four-year term, and elections are staggered every two years. Meetings of the city council are held in the Pine Bluff City Council Chambers on the first and third Monday of every month unless otherwise scheduled.[60]
The city also has ten commissions for citizens to serve upon, with approval required by both the mayor and city council. They are: Advertising and Promotion, Aviation, Civic Auditorium Complex, Civil Service, Historic District, Historical Railroad Preservation, Parks and Recreation, Pine Bluff / Jefferson County Port Authority, Planning and Wastewater Utility. The city also has four boards and one commission that fills their own vacancies: Arkansas River Regional Intermodal Facilities Board, Arts and Science Center for Southeast Arkansas Board of Trustees, Cemetery Committee, Library Board and Taylor Field Operations Facilities Board.
As the county seat of Jefferson County, Pine Bluff also hosts all functions of county government at the Jefferson County Courthouse in downtown Pine Bluff.
Arts and culture[edit]
See also: Culture of Arkansas
The Pine Bluff Convention Center is one of the state's largest meeting facilities. The Arts and Science Center features theatrical performances and workshops for children and adults. Pine Bluff did also boast the only Band Museum in the country but it has closed. Other areas of interest include downtown murals depicting the history of Pine Bluff, the Pine Bluff/Jefferson County Historical Museum, Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame and the Arkansas Railroad Museum.
Recreational opportunities in Pine Bluff range from water sports and some of the best bass fishing in the state on the Arkansas River[citation needed], to golf or tennis. As host to 30–35 bass tournaments each year[citation needed], Pine Bluff/Jefferson County Regional Park has earned Pine Bluff the nickname of "Bass Capital of the World". A hunting and fishing exhibit features dioramas of outdoor activities and collections of hunting, fishing and conservation memorabilia in the Governor Mike Huckabee Delta Rivers Nature Center at Regional Park and the Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame at the Pine Bluff Convention Center both of which will draw thousands to the area each year.
Annual cultural events[edit]
UAPB's M4 marching band
Harbor City Gumbo Festival
Smoke on the Water Barbecue Festival
Enchanted Land of Lights and Legends
UAPB Homecoming
Boo on the Bayou Halloween Celebration
King Cotton Classic- Running from 1982 to 1999, the King Cotton Classic was one of the premier high school basketball tournaments in the country. It featured many future NBA players, including Corliss Williamson and Jason Kidd.
Education[edit]
The University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff (UAPB) is the second oldest public educational institution in the state of Arkansas, and the oldest with a black heritage. It maintains one of the nation's few aquaculture research programs and the only one in the state of Arkansas.[61] It also houses the University Museum and Cultural Center dedicated to preserving the history of UAPB and the Arkansas Delta.
The newly accredited Southeast Arkansas College features technical career programs as well as a 2-year college curriculum.
Pine Bluff has a full complement of educational facilities. The Pine Bluff School District includes elementary magnet schools to meet special interests in the fields of mathematics, science, foreign language, communications, and fine and performing arts. Watson Chapel School District, White Hall School District, and Dollarway School District, as well as a number of charter schools and the Ridgeway Christian School also serve the city.
The Main Library of the Pine Bluff/Jefferson County Library System contains an extensive genealogy collection, including the online obituary index of the Pine Bluff Commercial, Arkansas census records, and digital collections, which consists of many county and city records for much of southeast Arkansas. In addition to downtown Pine Bluff's Main Library, PBJCLS branch libraries can also be found in the city's Watson Chapel area, as well as in White Hall, Redfield, and Altheimer.
Colleges and universities[edit]
University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
Southeast Arkansas College
Public schools[edit]
Pine Bluff School District, including Pine Bluff High School
Dollarway School District, including Dollarway High School
Watson Chapel School District, including Watson Chapel High School
White Hall School District includes parts of Pine Bluff; White Hall High School is in neighboring White Hall.
Private schools[edit]
There are two private schools in Pine Bluff, Ridgway Christian School (K3–12th) and Maranatha Baptist Academy K3-12.
The city formerly hosted Catholic schools:
St. Joseph Catholic School – Grades 5–12, opened in 1993,[62] closed in 2013[63]
St. Peter's Catholic School – The first school in Arkansas for black children to be established,[64] was established in 1889 by St. Joseph Church Pastor Monsignor John Michael "J.M." Lucey as the Colored Industrial Institute and in 1897 became St. Peter Academy a.k.a. St. Peter High School. It closed in 1975, and reopened as an elementary school (Grades Preschool through 6) operated by the School Sisters of Notre Dame in 1985. It closed permanently in 2012. It was the last Catholic school established for black students in the State of Arkansas.[65]
St. Raphael School – A majority black school, it closed in 1960[65]
Public libraries[edit]
The Pine Bluff-Jefferson County Library System maintains its main library in the Civic Center in downtown. The city received its first library in 1913.[66] The library system also operates the Watson Chapel Dave Burdick Library in the Watson Chapel neighborhood.[67]
Infrastructure[edit]
Highways[edit]
Interstate 530
US Route 63
US Route 65
US Route 79
U.S. Highway 270
U.S. Highway 425
Highway 15
Highway 54
Highway 81
Highway 190
Highway 365
Pine Bluff is served by a network of five U.S. and five state highways radiating from the city. Interstate 530, formerly part of US 65, connects Little Rock to southeast Pine Bluff. Multiple Interstates can be accessed in approximately 40 minutes from any point in the city.
Water[edit]
Located on the navigable Arkansas River, with a slackwater harbor, Pine Bluff is accessible by water via the Port of Pine Bluff, the anchor of the city's Harbor Industrial District.
Air[edit]
Pilot preparing to dust crops near Pine Bluff
Daily commercial air freight and passenger services, along with scheduled commuter flights, are available at the Clinton National Airport (formerly Little Rock National Airport), Adams Field, (LIT), some 40 minutes driving time from Pine Bluff via Interstate 530 and interstate connectors.
Pine Bluff's municipal airport, Grider Field (PBF), is located four miles southeast of the city.[68] The airport serves as home base for corporate and general aviation aircraft. Charter, air ambulance and cargo airline services are also available.
Buses[edit]
Royal Coach Lines offers local access to intrastate, regional, and charter services.
The city-owned Pine Bluff Transit operates six routes on a 12-hour/day, weekday basis, to various points including government, medical, educational and shopping centers.[69] Two of the buses have professional-quality murals advertising the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff.
Railroad[edit]
Union Station, listed on the NRHP
Current freight rail service to and through Pine Bluff is provided by the Union Pacific Railroad.
Correctional facilities[edit]
In 1972, the City of Pine Bluff and the "Fifty for the Future," a business leader group, donated 80 acres (32 ha) of land to the Arkansas Department of Correction (ADC). This parcel was developed as the Pine Bluff Complex.[70]
Since 1979 it has included the ADC state headquarters;[71][72][73] the administrative Annex East is on Harding Avenue south of city hall.[74] The Ester Unit (formerly the Diagnostic Unit),[75] the Pine Bluff Unit, and the Randall L. Williams Correctional Facility are in the "Pine Bluff Complex," [76][77] as are the headquarters of the Arkansas Correctional School system.[77][78]
The ADC Southeast Arkansas Community Corrections Center is in Pine Bluff.[79]
Utilities[edit]
Water[edit]
Liberty Utilities (formerly United Water), a subsidiary of Algonquin Power & Utilities, a privately held company, treats potable water and operates the water distribution system in Pine Bluff (including Watson Chapel), as well as Hardin, Ladd, and White Hall.[80] This partnership began in 1942 between the City of Pine Bluff and Arkansas Municipal Water Company, which has been acquired and merged to become Liberty Utilities.[81]
Water is pumped from 12 wells that pump from the Sparta Sand Aquifer to three water treatment plants capable of producing 20,000,000 US gallons (76,000,000 L) per day (total). Each plant uses a process of pre-chlorination, aeration, filtration, and chlorine residual. Hydrofluosilic acid and zinc orthophosphate are also added in addition to chlorine. The water is then distributed to approximately serving over 18,000 customers via 388 miles (624 km) of water distribution mains.[82] A Source Water Vulnerability Assessment was conducted by the Arkansas Department of Health in 2013; it concluded that Pine Bluff's water supply is at medium susceptibility to contamination[83]
Wastewater[edit]
The Pine Bluff Wastewater Utility provides operation and maintenance of the city's municipally owned sewage collection and conveyance system. This system includes over 450 miles (720 km) of pipe and 48 lift stations to collect municipal and industrial wastewater and convey it to the Boyd Point Treatment Facility (BPTF). This facility treats and discharges treated effluent in accordance with a permit issued by the Arkansas Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ). The BPTF was most recently renovated in 2010 and is currently permitted to discharge a maximum daily flow of 30,000,000 US gallons (110,000,000 L).[84]
The utility has been awarded by the National Association of Clean Water Agencies for its performance. In an Enforcement Compliance review completed in March 2014, it was noted that zero permit violations had occurred within the past three years.[85]
Notable people[edit]
Larry D. Alexander, visual artist, writer,
Broncho Billy Anderson, actor, honorary Academy Award winner
Camille Bennett, Democratic member of Arkansas House of Representatives; former Pine Bluff resident
John Barfield, Major League Baseball player
Mark Bradley, National Football League player
Clifton R. Breckinridge, U.S. Representative from Arkansas
Big Bill Broonzy, musician, member of Blues Hall of Fame
Charles Brown, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee, blues musician/singer
Jim Ed Brown, country music artist
The Browns, country music trio
Bill Carr, 1932 Olympic double gold medalist
Harvey C. Couch, founder, Arkansas Power & Light
Joe Barry Carroll, basketball player, top pick of 1980 NBA Draft
Monte Coleman, NFL player, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff head coach
Junior Collins, jazz musician
CeDell Davis, blues musician
Janette Davis, singer
Larry Davis, blues musician
Jay Dickey, lawyer and politician
The Buddy Deane Show, national TV program of local radio DJ
Jeff Donaldson, visual artist, founder AfriCobra
Marty Embry, professional basketball player, chef, author
Kenneth B. Ferguson, Democratic member of Arkansas House of Representatives for Jefferson and Lincoln counties since 2015
Stephanie Flowers, African-American Democratic member of Arkansas State Senate since 2011; former member of Arkansas House of Representatives; Pine Bluff lawyer
Vivian Flowers, African-American Democratic member of Arkansas House of Representatives from Pine Bluff since 2015; diversity officer at UAMS Medical Center in Little Rock[86]
Rodney Shelton Foss, possibly first American killed in World War II
Charles Greene, Olympic gold medalist, track & field
Leon Griffith, 1976 Republican gubernatorial nominee; plumber in Pine Bluff
George W. Haley, U.S. ambassador
Isaac Scott Hathaway, visual artist, first African American to create a coin for the U.S. Treasury
George Edmund Haynes, first executive director of National Urban League, first African-American to receive PhD from Columbia
Chester Himes, novelist,
George Howard, Jr., federal judge
Mike Huckabee (born 1955), 44th Governor of Arkansas
Bobby Hutton, founding member of Black Panther Party
Torii Hunter, Major League Baseball player, 5-time All-Star
Don Hutson, member of College and Pro Football Hall of Fame
George G.M. James, author
Joseph Jarman, jazz saxophonist
Charles Johnson, Negro League baseball player
David Johnson, football player
Kenneth Johnson, television producer
E. Fay Jones, architect and designer
Theresa A. Jones, neuroscientist
J. Lomax Jordan, Louisiana State Senator
Camille Keaton, actress
Carl Kidd, player in Canadian and National Football Leagues
Lafayette Lever, NBA player
Henry Jackson Lewis, political cartoonist
Kay Linaker, actress
Dallas Long, Olympic gold medalist
Martell Mallett, player in Canadian and National Football Leagues
Andy Mayberry, member of Arkansas House of Representatives
Carl McVoy, rock 'n' roll pianist/vocalist
Peter McGehee, novelist
Dwight McKissic, Southern Baptist minister
Constance Merritt, poet
Martha Mitchell, second wife of U.S. attorney general John Newton Mitchell
Mary Matilyn Mouser, actress
Bitsy Mullins, jazz trumpeter
Smokie Norful, Grammy Award-winning gospel singer
Freeman Harrison Owens, inventor
Ben Pearson, bowyer
Edward J. Perkins, U.S. ambassador
Elizabeth Rice, actress
Andree Layton Roaf, justice of Arkansas Supreme Court (mother of Wille Roaf)
Willie Roaf, NFL Hall of Famer (son of Andree Layton Roaf)
John Roane (1817–1867), 4th Governor of Arkansas; Brigadier General in provisional Army of Confederate States
Bobby Rush, musician, member of Blues Hall of Fame
Peggy Shannon, actress
William Seawell, brigadier general in U.S. Air Force
Les Spann, jazz musician
Jeremy Sprinkle, tight end for NFL's Washington Redskins
Katherine Stinson, aviator
James L. Stone, Medal of Honor recipient
Francis Cecil Sumner, psychologist
Jerry Taylor, businessman, legislator, Mayor of Pine Bluff
Clark Terry, Grammy Award-winning jazz musician
Sue Bailey Thurman, African-American author, lecturer, and historian
J. Mayo Williams, blues/gospel/jazz producer, member of Blues Hall of Fame
Krista White, winner of America's Next Top Model Cycle 14
Sister city[edit]
Bandō, Ibaraki, Japan– sister city since October 9, 1989 [87]
See also[edit]
Arkansas portal
Hestand Stadium
List of cities and towns in Arkansas
National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, Arkansas
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Biographical and Historical Memoirs of Pulaski, Jefferson, Lonoke, Faulkner, Grant, Saline, Perry, Garland and Hot Spring Counties, Arkansas. Chicago, Nashville and St. Louis: Goodspeed Publishing Co. 1889.
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Jump up ^ Hebda, Dwain (2013-05-16). "The last class graduates from St. Joseph in Pine Bluff". Arkansas Catholic. Retrieved 2017-07-31.
Jump up ^ "Pine Bluff Catholic school to Close". KATV. 2012-05-02. Retrieved 2017-07-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Hargett, Malea (2012-05-12). "State's last black Catholic school to close". Arkansas Catholic. Retrieved 2017-07-31.
Jump up ^ "Pine Bluff Public Library." Pine Bluff-Jefferson County Library System. Retrieved on August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Watson Chapel Public Library." Pine Bluff-Jefferson County Library System. Retrieved on August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "KPBF – Grider Field Airport". AirNav. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
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Jump up ^ "Prison History and Gallery." Arkansas Department of Correction. Retrieved on September 7, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Facilities." Arkansas Department of Correction. Retrieved on June 28, 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Pine Bluff Unit/Randall L. Williams Correctional Facility." Arkansas Department of Correction. Retrieved on June 28, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "School Sites." Arkansas Correctional School. Retrieved on July 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Contact Us." Arkansas Correctional School. Retrieved on July 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Locations." Arkansas Department of Community Corrections. Retrieved on March 5, 2011. "7301 West 13th Street, Pine Bluff, Arkansas 71602"
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Jump up ^ "Water Quality Information" (PDF). United Water Arkansas. June 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Annual Drinking Water Quality Report" (PDF). Liberty Utilities. 2013. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Boyd Point Treatment Facility" (PDF). NPDES Permit AR0033316. Arkansas Department of Environmental Quality. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Enforcement Compliance Review" (PDF). NPDES Permit AR0033316. Arkansas Department of Environmental Quality. March 20, 2014. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
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Further reading[edit]
Pine Bluff and Jefferson County, Arkansas: Descriptive Pamphlet. Jefferson County Exposition and Bureau of Agriculture, Manufactures and Immigration. Feb 22, 1895 – via Graphic Printing Company, Pine Bluff, Ark.
Pine Bluff and Jefferson County, Arkansas: Full Description (World's Fair ed.). Jefferson County Bureau of Agriculture, Manufactures and Immigration. May 1893.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutPine Bluff, Arkansasat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Pine Bluff, Arkansas
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Dollarway SD
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See template
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Landmarks
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Media
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(*) is something associated with Pine Bluff but outside the city limits
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‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
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Arkansas in the American Civil War
1861
United States Arsenal at Little Rock seized
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1862
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1863
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1864
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WorldCat Identities
GND: 4268642-8
NARA: 10040560
VIAF: 261672961
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pine_Bluff,_Arkansas&oldid=860846216"
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Water chlorination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For swimming pool chlorination, see Swimming pool sanitation.
Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine (Cl
2) or hypochlorite to water. This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic. In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Biochemistry
2.1 Principles
2.2 Shock chlorination
3 Drawbacks
4 Alternative methods for water disinfection
4.1 Ozonation
4.2 Chloramination
4.3 Bromination and iodinization
4.4 Home filtration
4.5 UV radiation
4.6 Ionizing radiation
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
In a paper published in 1894, it was formally proposed to add chlorine to water to render it "germ-free". Two other authorities endorsed this proposal and published it in many other papers in 1895.[1] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1897 the town of Maidstone, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine.[2]
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply caused a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England.[3] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stop the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of so-called chloride of lime to the water being treated. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime). The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.[4]
Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purification, early 20th century. From Chlorination of Water by Joseph Race, 1918.
The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey.[5] Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal, and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller.[6] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world.[7]
The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, "It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts."[8]
Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910.[9] This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification. Shortly after Darnall's demonstration, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.
For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). The canvas "bag, water, sterilizing" was a common component of field kitchens, issued one per 100 persons, of a standard 36-gallon capacity that hung from an often-improvised tripod in the field. In use from World War I through the Vietnam War, it has been replaced by reverse osmosis systems that produce potable water by pressure straining local water through microscopic-level filters: the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (1980) and the Tactical Water Purification System (2007) for large-scale production, and the Light Water Purifier unit for smaller-scale needs that includes ultrafiltration technology to produce potable water from any source and uses automated backwash cycles every 15 minutes to simplify cleaning operations.
Chlorine gas was first used on a continuing basis to disinfect the water supply at the Belmont filter plant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by using a machine invented by Charles Frederick Wallace[citation needed] who dubbed it the Chlorinator. It was manufactured by the Wallace & Tiernan company beginning in 1913.[10] By 1941, disinfection of U.S. drinking water by chlorine gas had largely replaced the use of chloride of lime.[11][12]
Chlorination can also be practiced using sodium hypochlorite or various other chemicals.
Biochemistry[edit]
As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease-causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks.[13] The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely.[13]
Chlorine is manufactured from salt by electrolysis or other methods. It is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such.
As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules.[13] Chlorine and hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply.[14]
Principles[edit]
When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ HOCl + HCl
In acidic solution, the major species are Cl
2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively only ClO− (hypochlorite ion) is present. Very small concentrations of ClO2−, ClO3−, ClO4− are also found.[15]
Shock chlorination[edit]
Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water. The hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach (solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water). Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million (PPM) or until the calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM.[citation needed]
Drawbacks[edit]
Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses.[16] Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The World Health Organization has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection".[17]
There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and organoleptic concerns such as taste and odor.
Alternative methods for water disinfection[edit]
Ozonation[edit]
Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. This alternative is more cost effective but energy intensive. It involves ozone being bubbled through the water, breaking down all parasites, bacteria, and all other harmful organic substances. However, this method leaves no residual ozone to control contamination of the water after the process has been completed.[18]
The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an extended period of time. This feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system, effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system, or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating.
Chloramination[edit]
Chloramination is also becoming increasingly common. Disinfection with chloramine produces less undesirable byproducts than chlorine (gas or hypochlorite). Chloramine has a longer half-life in the distribution system, and maintains effective protection against pathogens. Chloramines persist in the distribution because of their lower redox potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by adding ammonia and chlorine into drinking water to form monochloramine and/or dichloramine. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli, both organisms are about equally susceptible to the disinfecting effect of chloramine.[19]
Bromination and iodinization[edit]
Chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.[20]
Home filtration[edit]
Water treated by filtration and home filtration may not need further disinfection; a very high proportion of pathogens are removed by materials in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over 90% of the chlorine available to a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit.[18]
UV radiation[edit]
UV disinfection is gaining popularity. UV treatment leaves minimal residue in the water. In water UV generates ozone in situ and thus has many of the advantages of ozone disinfection. However, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation alone (as well as chlorination alone) will not remove toxins from bacteria, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. from water.
Ionizing radiation[edit]
Like UV, ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams) has been used to sterilize water.
See also[edit]
Drinking water
Safe Drinking Water Act
Sodium hypochlorite
Sterilization (microbiology)
Trichloroisocyanuric acid a.k.a. Symclosene, the chemical in chlorination tablets
Water filter
Water fluoridation
Water industry
Water pollution
Water purification
Water supply network
Water treatment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ F.E. Turneaure; and H.L. Russell (1901). Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 493.
Jump up ^ "Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone". Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 18: 388. October 1897.
Jump up ^ "A miracle for public health?". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ Reece, R.J. (1907). "Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5." In Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905-6. London: Local Government Board.
Jump up ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100-9.
Jump up ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir." Proceedings AWWA. pp. 110-34.
Jump up ^ Hazen, Allen. (1916). Clean Water and How to Get It. New York: Wiley. p. 102.
Jump up ^ V. B. Nesfield (1902). "A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting Potability". Public Health: 601–3.
Jump up ^ Darnall CR (November 1911). "The purification of water by anhydrous chlorine". Am J Public Health. 1 (11): 783–97. doi:10.2105/ajph.1.11.783. PMC 2218881  . PMID 19599675.
Jump up ^ http://library.rit.edu/findingaids/Inventories/WallaceAndTiernanCompanyRecords.pdf
Jump up ^ Hodges, L. (1977). Environmental Pollution (2nd ed.). New York: Rinehart and Winston. p. 189.
Jump up ^ Baker, Moses N. (1981). The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century. 2nd Edition. Vol. 1. Denver: American Water Works Association. p. 341-342.
^ Jump up to: a b c Calderon, R. L. (2000). "The Epidemiology of Chemical Contaminants of Drinking Water". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 38 (1 Suppl): S13–S20. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00133-7. PMID 10717366.
Jump up ^ Kleijnen, R.G. (December 16, 2011). The Chlorine Dilemma (PDF). Eindhoven University of Technology. Retrieved January 18, 2014. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Shunji Nakagawara, Takeshi Goto, Masayuki Nara, Youichi Ozaqa, Kunimoto Hotta and Yoji Arata (1998). "Spectroscopic Characterization and the pH Dependence of Bactericidal Activity of the Aqueous Chlorine Solution". Analytical Sciences. 14 (4): 691–698. doi:10.2116/analsci.14.691. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Public Health Statement: Bromoform & Dibromochloromethane". ATSDR. 2011. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (PDF). Volume 1, Recommendations (third edition incorporating the first and second addenda ed.). World Health Organization. 2008. p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Neumann, H. (1981). "Bacteriological safety of hot tap water in developing countries." Public Health Rep.84:812-814.
Jump up ^ Baker KH, Hegarty JP, Redmond B, Reed NA, Herson DS (2002). "Effect of Oxidizing Disinfectants (Chlorine, Monochloramine, and Ozone) on Helicobacter pylori" (PDF). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 68 (2): 981–984. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.2.981-984.2002. PMC 126689  . PMID 11823249.
Jump up ^ Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1 March 1966). "Comparison of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine as Disinfectants for Swimming Pool Water". Applied Microbiology. 14 (2): 276–279. PMC 546668  . PMID 4959984.
External links[edit]
City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Water Works
Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water (US EPA)
National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine
Chlorinated Drinking Water (IARC Monograph)
NTP Study Report TR-392: Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water (US NIH)
American Chemistry Council's Chlorine Chemistry Division
Disinfection Practices
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