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Border states (American Civil War)
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Historical military map of the border and southern states by Phelps & Watson, 1866
Map of the division of the states during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states, including those admitted during the war; light blue represents border states; red represents Confederate states. Unshaded areas were not states before or during the Civil War.
In the context of the American Civil War (1861–65), the border states were slave states that did not declare a secession from the Union and did not join the Confederacy. To their north they bordered free states of the Union and to their south they bordered Confederate slave states. Of the 34 U.S. states in 1861, nineteen were free states and fifteen were slave states. Two slave states never declared a secession or adopted an ordinance: Delaware and Maryland. Four others did not declare secession until after the Battle of Fort Sumter and were briefly considered to be border states: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia—after this, they were less frequently called “border states”. Also included as a border state during the war is West Virginia, which was formed from 50 counties of Virginia and became a new state in the Union in 1863.[1][2]
In the border states there was widespread concern with military coercion of the Confederacy[citation needed]. Many, if not a majority, were definitely opposed to it.[clarification needed] When Abraham Lincoln called for troops to march south to recapture Fort Sumter and other national possessions, southern Unionists were dismayed. Secessionists in Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia were successful in getting those states to declare their secession from the U.S. and to join the Confederate States of America.[3]
In Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862–63 after Virginia Unionists from the northwestern counties of the state then occupied by the Union Army, had set up a loyalist "restored" state government of Virginia. Lincoln recognized this government and allowed them to divide the state. Kentucky and Missouri had adopted secession ordinances by their pro-Confederate governments (see Confederate government of Kentucky and Confederate government of Missouri), but they never fully were under official Confederate control, though at various points Confederate armies did enter those states and controlled certain parts of them. Though every slave state except South Carolina contributed white battalions to both the Union and Confederate armies (South Carolina Unionists fought in units from other Union states),[4] the split was most severe in these border states. Sometimes men from the same family fought on opposite sides. About 170,000 border state men (including African Americans) fought in the Union Army and 86,000 in the Confederate Army.[5]
Besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region saw large-scale guerrilla warfare and numerous violent raids, feuds, and assassinations.[6] Violence was especially severe in eastern Kentucky and western Missouri. The single bloodiest episode was the 1863 Lawrence Massacre in Kansas, in which at least 150 civilian men and boys were killed. It was launched in retaliation for an earlier, smaller raid into Missouri by Union men from Kansas.[7][8]
With geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war. They are considered still to delineate the cultural border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the border states because they never seceded from the Union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment after passage of amendments abolishing slavery and granting citizenship and the right to vote to freedmen. After 1880 most of these jurisdictions were dominated by white Democrats, who passed laws to impose the Jim Crow system of legal segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks. However, in contrast to the Confederate States, where almost all blacks were disenfranchised during the first half to two-thirds of the twentieth century, for varying reasons blacks remained enfranchised in the border states despite movements for disfranchisement during the 1900s.[9]
Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states. Of the states that were exempted from the proclamation, Maryland (1864),[10] Missouri (1865),[11][12] Tennessee (1865),[12] and West Virginia (1865)[13] abolished slavery before the war ended. However, Delaware [14] and Kentucky did not abolish slavery until December 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified.[15]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 The five border states
2.1 Delaware
2.2 Maryland
2.3 Kentucky
2.4 Missouri
2.4.1 Guerrilla warfare
2.5 West Virginia
3 Other border areas
3.1 Tennessee
3.2 Indian Territory
3.3 Kansas
3.4 New Mexico/Arizona Territory
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Background[edit]
In the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton, especially in cities that were rapidly industrializing, such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, more than half of the African Americans in Delaware were free, as were a high proportion in Maryland.[16]
Some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders for transport to the markets of the Deep South, where the demand was still high for field hands on cotton plantations.[17] In contrast to the near-unanimity of voters in the seven cotton states in the lower South, which held the highest number of slaves, the border slave states were bitterly divided about secession and were not eager to leave the Union. Border Unionists hoped that a compromise would be reached, and they assumed that Lincoln would not send troops to attack the South. Border secessionists paid less attention to the slavery issue in 1861, since their states' economies were based more on trade with the North than on cotton. Their main concern in 1861 was federal coercion; some residents viewed Lincoln's call to arms as a repudiation of the American traditions of states' rights, democracy, liberty, and a republican form of government. Secessionists insisted that Washington had usurped illegitimate powers in defiance of the Constitution, and thereby had lost its legitimacy.[3] After Lincoln issued a call for troops, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina promptly seceded and joined the Confederacy. A secession movement began in western Virginia, where most farmers were yeomen and not slaveholders, to break away and remain in the Union.[18]
Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, which had many areas with much stronger cultural and economic ties to the South than the North, were deeply divided;[19] Kentucky tried to maintain neutrality. Union military forces were used to guarantee that these states remained in the Union. The western counties of Virginia rejected secession, set up a loyal government of Virginia (with representation in the U.S. Congress), and created the new state of West Virginia (although it included many counties which had voted for secession).[18]
The five border states[edit]
Each of these five states shared a border with the free states and were aligned with the Union. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederacy.
Delaware[edit]
Main article: History of Delaware
By 1860 Delaware was integrated into the Northern economy, and slavery was rare except in the southern districts of the state; less than 2 percent of the population was enslaved.[20][21] Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession overwhelmingly; the House of Representatives was unanimous. There was quiet sympathy for the Confederacy by some state leaders, but it was tempered by distance; Delaware was bordered by Union territory. Historian John Munroe concluded that the average citizen of Delaware opposed secession and was "strongly Unionist" but hoped for a peaceful solution even if it meant Confederate independence.[22]
Maryland[edit]
Main article: Maryland in the American Civil War
Union troops had to go through Maryland to reach the national capital at Washington, D.C. Had Maryland also joined the Confederacy, Washington would have been surrounded. There was popular support for the Confederacy in Baltimore, Southern Maryland, and the Eastern Shore, the latter two areas with numerous slaveholders and slaves. Baltimore was strongly tied to the cotton trade and related businesses of the South. The Maryland Legislature rejected secession in the spring of 1861, though it refused to reopen rail links with the North. It requested that Union troops be removed from Maryland.[23] The state legislature did not want to secede, but it also did not want to aid in killing southern neighbors in order to force them back into the Union.[23] Maryland's wish for neutrality within the Union was a major obstacle given Lincoln's desire to force the South back into the Union militarily.
To protect the national capital, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus and imprisoned without charges or trials one sitting U.S. congressman as well the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of Baltimore.[24] Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly).[23][25] They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies.
During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery, thus emancipating all remaining slaves in the state.
Kentucky[edit]
Main article: Kentucky in the American Civil War
Kentucky was strategic to Union victory in the Civil War. Lincoln once said,
I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland].[26]
Lincoln reportedly also declared, "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky."[27]
Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin proposed that slave states such as Kentucky should conform to the US Constitution, and remain in the Union. When Lincoln requested 1,000,000 men to serve in the Union army, however, Magoffin, a Southern sympathizer, countered that Kentucky would "furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states."[citation needed]
The Kentucky legislature did not vote on any bill to secede, but passed two resolutions of neutrality, issuing a neutrality proclamation May 20, 1861, asking both sides to keep out. In elections on June 20 and August 5, 1861, Unionists won enough additional seats in the legislature to overcome any veto by the governor. After the elections, the strongest supporters of neutrality were the Southern sympathizers. While both sides had already been openly enlisting troops from the state, after the elections the Union army established recruitment camps within Kentucky.
Neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. In response, the Kentucky legislature passed a resolution on September 7 directing the governor to demand the evacuation of the Confederate forces from Kentucky soil. Magoffin vetoed the proclamation, but the legislature overrode his veto, and Magoffin issued the proclamation. The legislature decided to back General Ulysses S. Grant and his Union troops stationed in Paducah, Kentucky, on the grounds that the Confederacy voided the original pledge by entering Kentucky first. The General Assembly soon ordered the Union flag be raised over the state capitol in Frankfort, declaring its allegiance with the Union.
Southern sympathizers were outraged at the legislature's decisions, citing that Polk's troops in Kentucky were only en route to counter Grant's forces. Later legislative resolutions passed by Unionists—such as inviting Union General Robert Anderson to enroll volunteers to expel the Confederate forces, requesting the governor to call out the militia, and appointing Union General Thomas L. Crittenden in command of Kentucky forces—incensed the Southerners. (Magoffin vetoed the resolutions but was overridden each time.) In 1862, the legislature passed an act to disenfranchise citizens who enlisted in the Confederate States Army. Thus Kentucky's neutral status evolved into backing the Union. Most of those who originally sought neutrality turned to the Union cause.
During the war, a faction known as the Russellville Convention formed a Confederate government of Kentucky, which was recognized by the Confederate States of America as a member state. Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag.[28]
When Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston occupied Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861, the pro-Confederates in western and central Kentucky moved to establish a Confederate state government in that area. The Russellville Convention met in Logan County on November 18, 1861. One hundred and sixteen delegates from sixty-eight counties elected to depose the current government, and create a provisional government loyal to Kentucky's new unofficial Confederate Governor George W. Johnson. On December 10, 1861, Kentucky became the 13th state admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky, along with Missouri, was a state with representatives in both Congresses, and with regiments in both Union and Confederate armies.
Magoffin, still functioning as official governor in Frankfort, would not recognize the Kentucky Confederates, nor their attempts to establish a government in his state. He continued to declare Kentucky's official status in the war as a neutral state—even though the legislature backed the Union. Fed up with the party divisions within the population and legislature, Magoffin announced a special session of the legislature, and resigned his office in 1862.
Bowling Green was occupied by the Confederates until February 1862, when General Grant moved from Missouri, through Kentucky, along the Tennessee line. Confederate Governor Johnson fled Bowling Green with the Confederate state records, headed south, and joined Confederate forces in Tennessee. After Johnson was killed fighting in the Battle of Shiloh, Richard Hawes was named Confederate governor of Kentucky. Shortly afterwards, the Provisional Confederate States Congress was adjourned on February 17, 1862, on the eve of inauguration of a permanent Congress. However, as Union occupation henceforth dominated the state, the Kentucky Confederate government, as of 1863, existed only on paper. Its representation in the permanent Confederate Congress was minimal. It was dissolved when the Civil War ended in the spring of 1865.
Missouri[edit]
Main article: Missouri in the American Civil War
After the secession of Southern states began, the newly elected governor of Missouri Claiborne F. Jackson called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union, but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States.
Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp, and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair).
These events resulted in greater Confederate support within the state among some factions. The already pro-Southern Missouri State Legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair, Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital.
Jackson, Price, and the pro-Confederate portions of the state legislature were forced to flee the state capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861, in the face of Lyon's rapid advance against the state government. In the absence of most of the now exiled state government, the Missouri Constitutional Convention reconvened in late July. On July 30, the convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a new provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as governor. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized the legitimacy of Gamble’s government, which provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state, and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.[29]
Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCulloch. After a string of victories in Cole Camp, Carthage, Wilson's Creek, Dry Wood Creek, Liberty and going up as far north as Lexington (located in the Missouri River Valley region of western Missouri), the secessionist forces retreated to southwestern Missouri, as they were under pressure from Union reinforcements. On October 30, 1861, in the town of Neosho, Jackson called the supporting parts of the exiled state legislature into session, where they enacted a secession ordinance. It was recognized by the Confederate Congress, and Missouri was admitted into the Confederacy on November 28.
The exiled state government was forced to withdraw into Arkansas. For the rest of the war, it consisted of several wagon loads of civilian politicians attached to various Confederate armies. In 1865, it vanished.
Missouri abolished slavery during the war in January 1865.
Guerrilla warfare[edit]
Regular Confederate troops staged several large-scale raids into Missouri, but most of the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted of guerrilla warfare. The guerrillas were primarily Southern partisans, including William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson, and many personal feuds were played out in the violence.[30] Small-unit tactics pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers were used in occupied portions of the Confederacy during the Civil War.[31]
The James' brothers outlawry after the war has been seen as a continuation of guerrilla warfare. Stiles (2002) argues that Jesse James was an intensely political, postwar neo-Confederate terrorist, rather than a social bandit or a plain bank robber with a hair-trigger temper.[32]
The Union response was to suppress the guerrillas.[31]:81–96 It achieved that in western Missouri, as Brigadier General Thomas Ewing issued General Order No. 11 on 25 August 1863 in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas. The order forced the total evacuation of four counties that fall within the area of modern-day Kansas City, Missouri. These had been centers of local support for the guerrillas. Lincoln approved Ewing's plan beforehand. About 20,000 civilians (chiefly women, children and old men) had to leave their homes. Many never returned, and the counties were economically devastated for years.
According to Glatthaar (2001), Union forces established "free-fire zones". Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants, who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases.[33] To gain recruits, and to threaten St. Louis, Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September/October 1864. Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas, but was nearly trapped, escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport. The battle, which took place in the modern-day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City, is identified as the "Gettysburg of the West"; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri's borders. The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness.[34] Quantrill's Raiders, after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863, killing 150 civilians, broke up in confusion. Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed.
West Virginia[edit]
Main article: West Virginia in the American Civil War
The serious divisions between the western and eastern sections of Virginia had been simmering for decades, related to class and social differences. The western areas were growing and were based on subsistence farms by yeomen; its residents held few slaves. The planters of the eastern section were wealthy slaveholders who dominated state government.[35] By December 1860 secession was being publicly debated throughout Virginia. Leading eastern spokesmen called for secession, while westerners warned they would not be legislated into treason. A statewide convention first met on February 13; after the attack on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms, it voted for secession on April 17, 1861. The decision was dependent on ratification by a statewide referendum. Western leaders held mass rallies and prepared to separate, so that this area could remain in the Union. Unionists met at the Wheeling Convention with four hundred delegates from twenty-seven counties. The statewide vote in favor of secession was 132,201 to 37,451. An estimated vote on Virginia's ordinance of secession for the 50 counties that became West Virginia is 34,677 to 19,121 against secession, with 24 of the 50 counties favoring secession and 26 favoring the Union.[36]
The Second Wheeling Convention opened on June 11 with more than 100 delegates from 32 western counties; they represented nearly one-third of Virginia's total voting population.[37] It announced that state offices were vacant and chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia (not West Virginia) on June 20. Pierpont headed the Restored Government of Virginia, which granted permission for the formation of a new state on August 20, 1861. The new West Virginia state constitution was passed by the Unionist counties in the spring of 1862, and this was approved by the restored Virginia government in May 1862. The statehood bill for West Virginia was passed by the United States Congress in December and signed by President Lincoln on December 31, 1862.[38]
The ultimate decision about West Virginia was made by the armies in the field. The Confederates were defeated, the Union was triumphant, so West Virginia was born. In late spring 1861 Union troops from Ohio moved into western Virginia with the primary strategic goal of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. General George B. McClellan destroyed Confederate defenses in western Virginia. Raids and recruitment by the Confederacy took place throughout the war.[39] Current estimates of soldiers from West Virginia are 20,000-22,000 men each to the Union and the Confederacy.[40]
The unique conditions attendant to the creation of the state led the Federal government to sometimes regard West Virginia as differing from the other border states in the post-war and Reconstruction Era. The terms of surrender granted to the Confederate army at Appomattox applied to the soldiers of the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia only. Returning Confederate soldiers from the other border states were required to obtain special permits from the War Department.[41] Similarly, the Southern Claims Commission was originally designed to apply only to the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia, though claims from other states were sometimes honored.
Other border areas[edit]
Tennessee[edit]
Main article: Tennessee in the American Civil War
Though Tennessee had officially seceded and West Tennessee and Middle Tennessee had voted overwhelmingly in favor of joining the Confederacy, East Tennessee in contrast was strongly pro-Union and had mostly voted against secession. The state even went as far as sending delegates for the East Tennessee Convention attempting to secede from the Confederacy and join the Union however the Confederate legislature of Tennessee rejected the convention and blocked it's secession attempt. Jefferson Davis arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union and held them without trial.[42] Tennessee came under control of Union forces in 1862 and was occupied to the end of the war. For this reason, it was omitted from the Emancipation Proclamation. After the war, Tennessee was the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to the US Congress.
Indian Territory[edit]
Main article: Indian Territory in the American Civil War
In the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most Indian tribes owned black slaves, and they sided with the Confederacy. It had promised them an Indian state if victorious in the war. But some tribes and bands sided with the Union. A bloody civil war resulted in the territory, with severe hardships for all residents.[43][44]
Kansas[edit]
Main article: Kansas in the American Civil War
After years of small-scale civil war, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state under the "Wyandotte Constitution" on January 29, 1861. Most people gave strong support to the Union cause. However, guerrilla warfare and raids from pro-slavery forces, many spilling over from Missouri, occurred during the Civil War.[45] Although only one battle of official forces occurred in Kansas, there were 29 Confederate raids into the state during the war and numerous deaths caused by the guerrillas.[46] Lawrence came under attack on August 21, 1863, by guerrillas led by William Clarke Quantrill. He was retaliating for "Jayhawker" raids against pro-Confederate settlements in Missouri.[6][47][48] His forces left more than 150 people dead in Lawrence.
New Mexico/Arizona Territory[edit]
Main article: New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War
At the time the Civil War broke out, the present-day states of New Mexico and Arizona had not yet existed there were various proposals however to create a new territory within the southern half of the New Mexico Territory prior to the war. The southern half of the territory was pro-Confederate while the northern half was pro-Union the former half was also a target of Confederate Texan forces under Charles L. Pyron and Henry Hopkins Sibley who attempted to establish control over this half with plans to attack the Union states of California and Colorado Territory (both of whom also had Southern symphatizers) as well as the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, Fort Laramie, Nevada Territory followed by an invasion of the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Lower California. Ultimately the defeat at the Battle of Glorieta Pass prevented these plans from fruition and Sibley's Confederates fled back to east Texas.
See also[edit]
Constitutional Union Party (United States)
Deep South
History of slavery in Kentucky
History of slavery in Maryland
History of slavery in Missouri
Missouri Constitutional Convention (1861–63)
Missouri secession
Old South
Slave and free states
Southern Unionist
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (Knopf, 1997) p 22.
Jump up ^ In 1861, “From February into the late spring, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas were considered border states,” says David Stephen Heidler et al., eds. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War (2002) p. 252.
^ Jump up to: a b Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis pp. 101-101 ISBN 1469617013
Jump up ^ Current, Richard Nelson (1992). Lincoln's Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy. p. 5.
Jump up ^ James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1982), pp 156–62.
^ Jump up to: a b Daniel E. Sutherland, A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War; pp. 251-276 ISBN 1469606887
Jump up ^ Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri in the American Civil War. (1989) ISBN 0-19-506471-2, p. 25
Jump up ^ "The Lawrence Massacre by a Band of Missouri Ruffians Under Quantrell". J. S. Broughton. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Jump up ^ Ranney, Joseph A.; In the Wake of Slavery: Civil War, Civil Rights, and the Reconstruction of Southern Law; p. 141 ISBN 0275989720
Jump up ^ "Archives of Maryland Historical List: Constitutional Convention, 1864". November 1, 1864.
Jump up ^ "Missouri abolishes slavery". January 11, 1865.
^ Jump up to: a b "TENNESSEE STATE CONVENTION: Slavery Declared Forever Abolished; Emancipation Rejoicings in St. Louis". NY Times. January 14, 1865.
Jump up ^ "On this day: 1865-FEB-03". Archived from the original on 2014-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Slavery in Delaware".
Jump up ^ Lowell Hayes Harrison & James C. Klotter (1997). A new history of Kentucky. p. 180. In 1866, Kentucky refused to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. It did ratify it in 1976.
Jump up ^ In nine of the ten chief southern cities, the proportion of slaves steadily declined before the war. The exception was Richmond, Virginia. Midori Takagi, “Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction”: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782–1865 (University Press of Virginia, 1999) p 78.
Jump up ^ Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861 (1950) pages 149–55
^ Jump up to: a b Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861 (1950), pp. 119–47
Jump up ^ Brugger, J. Robert (1996). Maryland, A Middle Temperament. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0801854652.
Jump up ^ Kolchin, Peter. American Slavery: 1619-1877. Hill & Wang, 1993
Jump up ^ "Slavery, the Civil War, and Reconstruction". Britannica.com. 2014-01-22. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ John A. Munroe (2006). History of Delaware. U. of Delaware Press. pp. 132–34.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Fort McHenry, Lincoln Suspension of Habeas Corpus", Baltimore Sun, 27 November 2001
Jump up ^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011) p. 71
Jump up ^ Roy P. Basler; Marion Dolores Pratt; Lloyd A. Dunlap, assistant, eds. (2001). "Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 4". University of Michigan Digital Library Production Services. p. 533. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Kentucky, p.43.
Jump up ^ Irby, Jr., Richard E. "A Concise History of the Flags of the Confederate States of America and the Sovereign State of Georgia". About North Georgia. Golden Ink. Retrieved 2006-11-29.
Jump up ^ Parrish, William E.; Turbulent Partnership: Missouri and the Union, 1861–1865, p. 198. University of Missouri Press, 1963
Jump up ^ Larry Wood, "The Other Anderson: Bloody Bill's Brother Jim," Missouri Historical Review, January 2003, Vol. 97 Issue 2, pp 93-108
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War, p. 83 ISBN 0195064712
Jump up ^ T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (2002)
Jump up ^ Joseph T. Glatthaar, The American Civil War: The War in the West, 1863–1865 (2001) p. 27–28
Jump up ^ Parrish, History of Missouri, pp. 111–15
Jump up ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia, the Mountain State (1958) ch. 16-21
Jump up ^ Curry, Richard O., A House Divided, A Study of Statehood Politics and the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh, 1964, pp. 142-147
Jump up ^ Ambler, The History of West Virginia, p. 318
Jump up ^ Curry "A Reappraisal of Statehood Politics in West Virginia" p. 407
Jump up ^ Richard O. Curry, A House Divided (1964)
Jump up ^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC (2011), p. 28
Jump up ^ "General Orders No. 57, Brevet Major General Emory". Wvculture.org. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ Mark Neely, Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties (1993), pp. 10–11
Jump up ^ Annie Heloise Abel, "The Indians in the Civil War", American Historical Review Vol. 15, No. 2 (Jan. 1910), pp. 281-296 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ John Spencer and Adam Hook, The American Civil War in Indian Territory (2006)
Jump up ^ Gary L. Cheatham, "'Slavery All the Time or Not At All': The Wyandotte Constitution Debate, 1859–1861," Kansas History 21 (Autumn 1998): 168–187 online
Jump up ^ Gary L. Cheatham, "'Desperate Characters': The Development and Impact of the Confederate Guerrillas In Kansas," Kansas History, September 1991, Vol. 14 Issue 3, pp 144-161
Jump up ^ Albert Castel, "The Jayhawkers and Copperheads of Kansas", Civil War History, September 1959, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp 283-293
Jump up ^ Donald Gilmore, "Revenge in Kansas, 1863", History Today, March 1993, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp 47-53
Further reading[edit]
This article's further reading may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Encyclopedia of Kentucky. New York City, New York: Somerset Publishers. 1987. ISBN 0-403-09981-1.
Ambler, Charles H. "The Cleavage between Eastern and Western Virginia". The American Historical Review Vol. 15, No. 4, (July 1910) pp. 762–780 in JSTOR
Ash. Steven V. Middle Tennessee Transformed, 1860–1870. Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
Baker, Jean H. The Politics of Continuity: Maryland Political Parties from 1858 to 1870 Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
Brownlee, Richard S. Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West, 1861–1865 (1958).
Coulter, E. Merton. The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky University of North Carolina Press, 1926.
Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989).
Curry, Richard O. "A Reappraisal of Statehood Politics in West Virginia". The Journal of Southern History Vol. 28, No. 4. (November, 1962) pp. 403–421. in JSTOR
Fellman, Michael. Inside War. The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War (1989).
Fields, Barbara. Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century (1987).
Gilmore, Donald L. Civil War on the Missouri-Kansas Border (2005)
Hancock Harold. Delaware during the Civil War. Historical Society of Delaware, 1961.
Harris, William C. Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 416 pages
Harrison, Lowell. The Civil War in Kentucky University Press of Kentucky, 1975.
Josephy, Alvin M. Jr., The Civil War in the American West. 1991.
Kerby, Robert L. Kirby Smith's Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863–1865 Columbia University Press, 1972.
Maslowski Peter. Treason Must Be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862–65 1978.
Monaghan, Jay. Civil War on the Western Border, 1854–1865 (1955)
Nevins, Allan. The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862. (1959).
Parrish, William E. Turbulent Partnership: Missouri and the Union, 1861–1865 University of Missouri Press, 1963.
Patton, James W. Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860–1867 University of North Carolina Press, 1934.
Rampp, Lary C., and Donald L. Rampp. The Civil War in the Indian Territory. Austin: Presidial Press, 1975.
Sheeler, J. Reuben. "Secession and The Unionist Revolt," Journal of Negro History, Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1944), pp. 175–185 in JSTOR, covers east Tennessee
Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2009) 456 pp
External links[edit]
Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Border States
Thomas, William G., III. “The Border South”. Southern Spaces, April 16, 2004.
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Westminster system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The British Houses of Parliament are situated within the Palace of Westminster, in London
The Westminster system is a parliamentary system of government modelled after that which developed in the United Kingdom. This term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the seat of the British parliament. The system is a series of procedures for operating a legislature. It is used, or was once used, in the national legislatures and subnational legislatures of most former British Empire colonies upon gaining responsible government,[1][2] beginning with the first of the Canadian provinces in 1848 and the six Australian colonies between 1855 and 1890.[3][4][5] However, some former colonies have since adopted either the presidential system (Nigeria for example) or a hybrid system (like South Africa) as their form of government.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Operation
3 Role of the head of state
4 Cabinet government
5 Bicameral and unicameral parliaments
6 Washminster system of Australia
7 Criticisms
8 Ceremonies
9 Current countries
10 Former countries
11 See also
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Characteristics[edit]
A Westminster system of government may include some of the following features:[6]
A sovereign or head of state who functions as the nominal or legal and constitutional holder of executive power, and holds numerous reserve powers, but whose daily duties mainly consist of performing ceremonial functions. Examples include Queen Elizabeth II, the governors-general in Commonwealth realms, or the presidents of many countries, and state or provincial governors in federal systems. Exceptions to this are Ireland and Israel, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the latter possesses no reserve powers whatsoever.
A head of government (or head of the executive), known as the prime minister (PM), premier, or first minister. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected Members of Parliament must support the person appointed.[7] If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the same political party, then the parliamentary leader of that party typically is appointed.[7] An exception to this was Israel, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in 1996, 1999 and 2001.
An executive branch led by the head of government usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior members of the executive in a cabinet adhering to the principle of cabinet collective responsibility; such members execute executive authority on behalf of the nominal or theoretical executive authority.
An independent, non-partisan civil service which advises on, and implements, decisions of those ministers. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes and continuity of employment when governments change.[8]
A parliamentary opposition (in a multi-party system) with an official Leader of the Opposition.
A legislature, often bicameral, with at least one elected house – although unicameral systems also exist; legislative members are usually elected by district in first-past-the-post elections (as opposed to country-wide proportional representation). Exceptions to this include New Zealand, which changed in 1993 to use mixed-member proportional representation; Israel, which has always used country wide proportional representation; and Australia, which uses preferential voting.
A lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by "withholding (or blocking) Supply" (rejecting a budget), passing a motion of no confidence, or defeating a confidence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated or forced into a general election independently.
A parliament which can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time.
Parliamentary privilege, which allows the legislature to discuss any issue it deems relevant, without fear of consequences stemming from defamatory statements or records thereof
Minutes of meetings, often known as Hansard, including an ability for the legislature to strike discussion from these minutes
The ability of courts to address silence or ambiguity in the parliament's statutory law through the development of common law. Another parallel system of legal principles also exists known as equity. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK amongst others which mix common law with other legal systems.
Most of the procedures of the Westminster system originated with the conventions, practices, and precedents of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which form a part of what is known as the Constitution of the United Kingdom. Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries that use the Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part, in a written constitution.
However, uncodified conventions, practices, and precedents continue to play a significant role in most countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure: for example, some older constitutions using the Westminster system do not mention the existence of the cabinet or the prime minister, because these offices were taken for granted by the authors of these constitutions. Sometimes these conventions, reserve powers, and other influences collide in times of crisis and in such times the weaknesses of the unwritten aspects of the Westminster system, as well as the strengths of the Westminster system's flexibility, are put to the test. As an illustrative example, in the Australian constitutional crises of 1975 the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam on his own reserve-power authority and replaced him with opposition leader Malcolm Fraser.
Operation[edit]
The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster System is quite complex. In essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority may be exercised in their name.
The head of government, usually called the prime minister or premier, will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must in any case be able to ensure the existence of no absolute majority against the government. If the parliament passes a resolution of no confidence, or refuses to pass an important bill such as the budget, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary dissolution so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate.
Executive authority within a Westminster System is essentially exercised by the Cabinet, along with more junior ministers, although the head of government usually has the dominant role within the ministry. In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the President is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the Prime Minister of India and the Council of Ministers. In Israel, however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet, and the President of Israel is de jure and de facto a ceremonial figurehead.
As an example, the Prime Minister and Cabinet (as the de facto executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the British Prime Minister wished to dissolve parliament in order for a general election to take place, the Prime Minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the sovereign in order to attain such a wish. This power (along with others such as appointing ministers in the government, appointing diplomats, declaring war, and signing treaties, for example) is known as the Royal Prerogative, which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the advice of the Prime Minister. Since the British sovereign is a constitutional monarch, he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing reserve powers in times of crisis.
This custom also occurs in other Westminster Systems in the world, in consequence from the influence of British colonial rule. In Commonwealth realms such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the Prime Minister is obligated to seek permission from the Governor-General when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British practice. An analogous scenario also exists in Commonwealth republics, such as India or Trinidad and Tobago, where there is a President, though not in Israel or Japan, where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and presidential (in Israel) or imperial (in Japan) approval is not required.
The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the Prime Minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the Prime Minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the President, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The reserve powers of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy.
Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the British sovereign held and directly exercised all executive authority. George I of Great Britain (reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a Prime Minister and a cabinet of the ministers,[citation needed] largely because he was also the monarch of Hanover in Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, arrangement continued to exercise executive authority on the sovereign's behalf. Such a concept was reinforced in The English Constitution (1876) by Walter Bagehot, who emphasised the "dignified" and "efficient" aspects of government. In this sense Bagehot was stating that the sovereign should be a focal point for the nation, while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions.
Role of the head of state[edit]
The head of state or his or her representative (such as a governor-general) formally appoints as the head of government whomever commands the confidence of the elected chamber of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as kissing hands. Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to the wishes of the head of government.
A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant reserve powers. Examples of the use of such powers include the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 and the Canadian King-Byng Affair in 1926. The Lascelles Principles were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers.
Cabinet government[edit]
Main article: Cabinet collective responsibility
In the book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient "Cabinet Government".[9] Although there have been many works since emphasising different aspects of the "Efficient", no one has seriously questioned Bagehot's premise that the divide exists in the Westminster system, though Israel and Japan operates without the "Dignified" part of government.
Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy, a policy termed cabinet collective responsibility. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a Cabinet reshuffle is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system.
The Official Opposition and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own Shadow Cabinet made up of Shadow Ministers.
Bicameral and unicameral parliaments[edit]
Parliament House, Canberra, Australia
The Sansad Bhavan (संसद भवन) (Parliament House) building in New Delhi, India
Knesset Building, Jerusalem
National Diet, Tokyo, Japan
Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban, Dhaka, Bangladesh
The Parliament building in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. Nearly all Westminster-based parliaments have a lower house with powers based on those of the House of Commons (under various names), comprising local, elected representatives of the people (with the only exception being elected entirely by Nationwide PR). Most also have a smaller upper house, which is made up of members chosen by various methods:
Termless appointees, either lifetime or retiring, from successive Prime Ministers (such as the Canadian Senate)
Appointees of the premier and the opposition leader (such as the Jamaican Senate)
Direct election (such as the Australian Senate)
Election by electoral colleges or sub-national legislatures (such as the Indian Rajya Sabha)
Hereditary nobility (such as the British House of Lords until the House of Lords Act 1999)
Any Combination of the above (such as the Malaysian National Assembly)
In the UK, the lower house is the de facto legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power.
Some Westminster-derived parliaments are unicameral for two reasons:
The Parliament of New Zealand, Parliament of Queensland, and the parliaments of Canadian provinces have abolished their upper houses.[10]
The Parliament of Malta, the Papua New Guinea Parliament, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, and the Israeli Parliament never had upper houses.
Hong Kong, a former British crown colony and currently a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, has a unicameral Legislative Council. While the Legislative Councils in British Australasian and North American colonies were unelected upper houses and some of them had since abolished themselves, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong has remained the sole chamber and had in 1995 evolved into a fully elected house, yet only part of the seats are returned by universal suffrage. Responsible government was never granted during British colonial rule, and the Governor remained the head of government until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, when the role was replaced by the Chief Executive. Secretaries had remained to be chosen by the Chief Executive not from the Legislative Council, and their appointments need not be approved by the Legislative Council. Although essentially more presidential than parliamentary, the Legislative Council had inherited many elements of the Westminster system, including parliamentary powers, privileges and immunity, and the right to conduct inquiries, amongst others. Minutes are known as Hansards, and the theme colour of the meeting chamber is red as in other upper houses. Government secretaries and other officials are seated on the right hand side of the President in the chamber. The Chief Executive may dissolve the Legislative Council under certain conditions, and is obliged to resign, e.g., when a re-elected Legislative Council passes again a bill that he or she had refused to sign promulgate.
Washminster system of Australia[edit]
The Australian Senate
Australia is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the United States Constitution as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the Senate, which must be willing to pass all its legislation. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern. The Senate maintains the ability similar to that held by the British House of Lords, prior to the enactment of the Parliament Act 1911, to block supply against the government of the day. A government that is unable to obtain supply can be dismissed by the Governor-General: however, this is generally considered a last resort and is a highly controversial decision to take, given the conflict between the traditional concept of confidence as derived from the lower house and the ability of the Senate to block supply. Many political scientists have held that the Australian system of government was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the United States systems of government, especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the U.S. Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation".[11] The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the parliaments of most Australian states.
Criticisms[edit]
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Cabinet members do not have much independence to actively disagree with government policy, even for productive reasons. A cabinet member may be forced to resign simply for opposing one aspect of a government's agenda, even though they agreed with the majority of other proposals. Westminster cabinets also have a tendency to be very large. As the cabinet is the chief organ of power and influence in the government, members of parliament may actively lobby for a position in cabinet once their party is elected to power. The Prime Minister, who is also party leader, will have an active interest in promoting as many of these members from their own party as possible.
Westminster governments usually do not have a very strong tradition of separation of powers, in practice (apart from the separation between the executive/legislature and the judiciary). Though the head of state, be it governor-general, monarch, or president, will have nominal powers to "check" those of the prime minister, in practice these individuals are usually regarded as little more than figureheads who are expected not to actively intervene in day-to-day politics. Prime ministers under any Westminster system have ample freedom to appoint a large variety of individuals, such as judges, cabinet ministers, and other senior bureaucrats.
Nevertheless, prime ministers can usually do only as much as public opinion and the balance of party membership of parliament will let them do. In practice, government in multi-party consociational systems, such as Belgium or the Netherlands, is always made up of coalitions, and prime ministers must keep the coalition partners happy in order to retain their support on votes of confidence. By contrast, in countries with a strong two-party system, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, coalitions rarely occur except when a third party wins an unusually large number of parliamentary seats, or in times of national crisis, when all parties may be represented in the government in order to promote national unity.
The threat posed by non-confidence votes is often used to justify extremely well-disciplined legislative parties in Westminster systems. In order to ensure the government always has the confidence of the majority of the house, the political culture of Westminster nations often makes it highly unusual for a legislator to vote against their party. Critics argue this in turn undermines the freedom and importance of Members of Parliament (MPs) in day-to-day legislating, making the cabinet the only organ of government where individual legislators can aspire to influence the decisions of the government.
Most senior policy will be made at the cabinet level, regardless of what individual MPs may or may not decide in committee, thus reducing the strength of committees. Their greatest power is often the ability to force a government to reveal certain pieces of information.
Ceremonies[edit]
The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. The chairs are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which was held in a church choir. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. Of course, sometimes a majority government is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber. It is often rumoured that the distance between the lines is that of the length of two swords although no documentary evidence exists to support this and, in fact, weapons have never been allowed in the Palace of Westminster at any time.
At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the Speaker of the House. The speaker usually wears a black robe, and in many countries, a wig. Robed parliamentary clerks often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well.
Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual Speech from the Throne (or equivalent) in which the Head of State gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy State Opening of Parliament ceremonies that often involve the presentation of a large ceremonial mace.
Current countries[edit]
Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2017, include the following:
Country
Parliament
System of Govt.
Notes
Antigua and Barbuda Parliament:
Senate
House of Representatives Monarchy
Australia Parliament:
Senate
House of Representatives Monarchy
The Bahamas Parliament:
Senate
House of Assembly Monarchy
Bermuda Parliament:
Senate of Bermuda
House of Assembly Monarchy
Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad Republic
Barbados Parliament:
Senate
House of Assembly Monarchy
Belize National Assembly:
Senate
House of Assembly Monarchy
Canada Parliament of Canada:
Senate
House of Commons Monarchy
Dominica House of Assembly Republic
Grenada Parliament:
Senate
House of Representatives Monarchy
India Parliament:
Rajya Sabha
Lok Sabha Republic
Ireland Oireachtas:
Seanad Éireann
Dáil Éireann Republic
Israel Knesset Republic Disintermediated Westminster system: Powers which would have been exercised by the President of Israel are divided between the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and the speaker of the legislature.
Japan National Diet:
House of Councillors
House of Representatives Monarchy Disintermediated Westminster system: many non-reserve powers which would have been exercised by the Emperor of Japan on the advice of the Cabinet in an unmodified system are exercised directly by the Prime Minister, and Imperial reserve powers do not exist.
Jamaica Parliament:
Senate
House of Representatives Monarchy
Kuwait National Assembly Monarchy
Malaysia Parliament:
Dewan Negara
Dewan Rakyat Ambiguous The Yang-di-Pertuan Agong shares characteristics of heads of state in both monarchies and republics.
Malta Parliament Republic
Mauritius National Assembly Republic
Nauru Parliament Republic
Nepal Parliament Republic[12]
New Zealand Parliament Monarchy
Pakistan Parliament:
Senate
National Assembly Republic
Papua New Guinea Parliament Monarchy
Saint Kitts and Nevis National Assembly Monarchy
Saint Lucia Parliament:
Senate
House of Assembly Monarchy
Singapore Parliament Republic
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines House of Assembly Monarchy
Solomon Islands Parliament of the Solomon Islands Monarchy
Trinidad and Tobago Parliament:
Senate
House of Representatives Republic
Tuvalu Parliament Monarchy
United Kingdom Parliament:
House of Lords
House of Commons Monarchy
Vanuatu Parliament Republic
Former countries[edit]
The Westminster system was adopted by a number of countries which subsequently evolved or reformed their system of government departing from the original model. In some cases, certain aspects of the Westminster system were retained or codified in their constitutions. For instance South Africa and Botswana, unlike Commonwealth realms or parliamentary republics such as India, have a combined head of state and head of government but the President remains responsible to the lower house of parliament; it elects the President at the beginning of a new Parliament, or when there is a vacancy in the office, or when the sitting President is defeated on a vote of confidence. If the Parliament cannot elect a new President within a short period of time (a week to a month) the lower house is dissolved and new elections are called.
The Union of South Africa between 1910 and 1961, and the Republic of South Africa between 1961 and 1984. The 1983 constitution abolished the Westminster system in South Africa.
Newfoundland gave up self-government in 1934 and reverted to direct rule from London. Use of the Westminster system resumed in 1949 when Newfoundland became a province of Canada.
Rhodesia between 1965 and 1979, and Zimbabwe between 1980 and 1987. The 1987 constitution abolished the Westminster system.
Nigeria following the end of British colonial rule in 1960, which resulted in the appointment of a Governor-General and then a President, Nnamdi Azikiwe. The system ended with the military coup of 1966.
Ceylon between 1948 and 1972, and Sri Lanka from 1972 until 1978 when the constitution was remodelled into an Executive presidential system.
Burma following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état.
Ghana between 1957 and 1960.
Tanganyika between 1961 and 1962.
Sierra Leone between 1961 and 1971.
Uganda between 1962 and 1963.
Kenya between 1963 and 1964.
Malawi between 1964 and 1966.
The Gambia between 1965 and 1970.
Guyana between 1966 and 1980.
Fiji between 1970 and 1987.
Japan between 1890 and 1947, under the Meiji Constitution the Diet of Japan was a bicameral legislature modelled after both the German Reichstag and the Westminster system.[13] Influence from the Westminster system remained in Japan's Postwar Constitution.[14][15][16]
See also[edit]
Bill of Rights 1689
English Civil War
Glorious Revolution
History of Parliamentarism
Magna Carta
Parliamentary system
Parliament in the Making
Parliament of England
Petition of Right
Presidential system
References[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ Julian Go (2007). "A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945-2000". In Arjomand, Saïd Amir. Constitutionalism and political reconstruction. Brill. pp. 92–94. ISBN 9004151745.
Jump up ^ "How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World". University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Seidle, F. Leslie; Docherty, David C. (2003). Reforming parliamentary democracy. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780773525085.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008). The Historical Foundations of World Order. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 571. ISBN 9047423933.
Jump up ^ Fieldhouse, David; Madden, Frederick (1990). Settler self-government, 1840-1900 : the development of representative and responsible government (1. publ. ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. p. xxi. ISBN 9780313273261.
Jump up ^ "The Westminster System - Public Service Commission". www.psc.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.oba.org/En/ccl_en/newsletter_en/v13n1.aspx#Article_3
Jump up ^ Reinvigorating The Westminster Tradition
Jump up ^ "The English Constitution" see Bibliography.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 2: The development of the Westminster system". www.aph.gov.au. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Elaine. "The 'Washminster' Mutation," in Responsible Government in Australia, eds. P. Weller and D. Jaensch, Drummond, Richmond, 1980
Jump up ^ http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf
Jump up ^ Hein, Patrick (2009). How the Japanese became foreign to themselves : the impact of globalization on the private and public spheres in Japan. Berlin: Lit. p. 72. ISBN 364310085X.
Jump up ^ Moore, Ray A.; Robinson, Donald L. (2004). Partners for democracy : crafting the new Japanese state under MacArthur. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 0195171764.
Jump up ^ Hook, edited by Glenn D. (2005). Contested governance in Japan : sites and issues. London: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 55. ISBN 0415364981. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Special Issue Constitutional Law in Japan and the United Kingdom". King's Law Journal. 2 (2). 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Rhodes, R. A.W.; Wanna, John; Weller, Patrick (2009). Comparing Westminster. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0191609811.
Galligan, Brian; Brenton, Scott, eds. (2015). Constitutional Conventions in Westminster Systems. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107100240.
The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot, 1876. ISBN 0-521-46535-4. ISBN 0-521-46942-2.
British Cabinet Government, Simon James, Pub Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-17977-7.
Prime Minister & Cabinet Government, Neil MacNaughton, 1999. ISBN 0-340-74759-5.
Westminster Legacies: Democracy and Responsible Government in Asia and the Pacific, Haig Patapan, John Wanna, Patrick Weller, 2005. ISBN 0-868-40848-4.
External links[edit]
How the Westminster parliamentary system was exported around the world University of Cambridge.
Module on Parliamentary Democracy Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.
The Twilight of Westminster? Electoral Reform & its Consequences, Pippa Norris, 2000.
Westminster in the Caribbean: History, Legacies, Challenges University College London.
What is the Westminster System? Parliament of Victoria video.
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