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Garage door opener
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A residential garage door opener. The motor is in the box on the upper-right.
A garage door opener is a motorized device that opens and closes garage doors. Most are controlled by switches on the garage wall, as well as by remote controls carried by the owner.
Contents
1 The electric opener
2 Types
3 Remote control
4 Cloning garage door opener remotes
5 Additional features
6 Safety
7 References
8 External links
The electric opener[edit]
The electric overhead garage door opener was invented by C.G. Johnson in 1926 in Hartford City, Indiana.[1] Electric Garage Door openers did not become popular until Era Meter Company of Chicago offered one after World War II where the overhead garage door could be opened via a key pad located on a post at the end of the driveway or a switch inside the garage.[2]
As in an elevator, the electric motor does not provide most of the power to move a heavy garage door. Instead, most of door's weight is offset by the counterbalance springs attached to the door. (Even manually operated garage doors have counterbalances; otherwise they would be too heavy for a person to open or close them.) In a typical design, torsion springs apply torque to a shaft, and that shaft applies a force to the garage door via steel counterbalance cables. The electric opener provides only a small amount of force to control how far the door opens and closes. In most cases, the garage door opener also holds the door closed in place of a lock.
The typical electric garage door opener consists of a power unit that contains the electric motor. The power unit attaches to a track. A trolley connected to an arm that attaches to the top of the garage door slides back and forth on the track, thus opening and closing the garage door. The trolley is pulled along the track by a chain, belt, or screw that turns when the motor is operated. A quick-release mechanism is attached to the trolley to allow the garage door to be disconnected from the opener for manual operation during a power failure or in case of emergency. Limit switches on the power unit control the distance the garage door opens and closes once the motor receives a signal from the remote control or wall push button to operate the door.[3]
The entire assembly hangs above the garage door. The power unit hangs from the ceiling and is located towards the rear of the garage. The end of the track on the opposite end of the power unit attaches to a header bracket that is attached to the header wall above the garage door. The power head is usually supported by punched angle iron.
Recently another type of opener, known as the jackshaft opener, has become more popular. This style of opener was used frequently on commercial doors but in recent years has been adapted for residential use. This style of opener consists of a motor that attaches to the side of the torsion rod and moves the door up and down by simply spinning the rod. These openers need a few extra components to function safely for residential use. These include a cable tension monitor, to detect when a cable is broken, and a separate locking mechanism to lock the door when it is fully closed. These have the advantage that they free up ceiling space that an ordinary opener and rail would occupy. These also have the disadvantage that the door must have a torsion rod to attach the motor to.
Types[edit]
There are five types of garage door openers:
Chain drive openers have a chain (similar to a bicycle's) that connects the trolley to the motor.
Belt drive openers use a rubber belt in place of a chain.
Screw drive openers have a long screw inside the track. The trolley connects to this screw.
Direct drive openers have the motor installed inside the trolley and use a gear wheel to guide the trolley along a fixed chain.
Jackshaft openers mount on the wall at either end of the torsion bar.
Remote control[edit]
The first wireless garage door openers were invented and developed by two US inventors at the same time, one in Illinois and the other in Washington state. They were unknown to each other.[4]
The first garage door opener remote controls were simple and consisted of a simple transmitter (the remote) and receiver which controlled the opener mechanism. The transmitter would transmit on a designated frequency; the receiver would listen for the radio signal, then open or close the garage, depending on the door position. The basic concept of this can be traced back to World War II. This type of system was used to detonate remote bombs. While novel at the time, the technology ran its course when garage door openers became popular. While the garage door remote control transmitter is low power and has limited range, its signal can be received by other, nearby, garage door openers. When two neighbors had garage door openers, then opening one garage door might open the neighbor’s garage door as well.
The second stage of the wireless garage door opener system solved the opening-the-neighbor's-garage-door problem. The remote controls on these systems transmitted a digital code, and the receiver in the garage responded only to that code. The codes were typically set by eight to twelve DIP switches on the receiver and transmitter, so they allowed for 28 = 256 to 212 = 4,096 different codes. As long as neighbors used different codes, they would not open each other's garage doors. The intent of these systems was to avoid interference with nearby garage doors; the systems were not designed with security in mind. Intruders were able to defeat the security of these systems and gain entry to the garage and the house. The number of codes was small enough that even an unsophisticated intruder with a compatible remote control transmitter could just start transmitting all possible codes until he found one that opened the door. More sophisticated intruders could acquire a black box master key that automatically transmitted every possible code in a short time. An even more sophisticated method is known as a replay attack. The attacker would use a code grabber, which has a receiver that captures the remote's digital code and can retransmit that digital code at a later time. The attacker with a code grabber would wait nearby for the homeowner to use his remote, capture the code, and then replay the code to open the door when the homeowner was gone. Multicode openers became unpopular in areas where security was important, but due to their ease of programming, such openers are often used to operate such things as the gates in gated apartment complexes.
An intermediate stage of the garage door opener market eliminated the DIP switches and used remotes preprogrammed to one out of roughly 3.5 billion unique codes. The receiver would maintain a security list of remotes to which it would respond; the user could easily add the unique remote's code to the list by pressing a button on the garage door opener while activating the remote control. The large number of codes made the brute force try-all-possible-digital-codes attacks infeasible, but the systems were still vulnerable to code grabbers. For user convenience, these systems were also backward compatible with the older DIP switch remote codes, but adding an old technology remote to the security list made the garage door opener vulnerable to a brute force attack to find the DIP switch code. The larger code space approach was an improvement over the fixed DIP switch codes, but was still vulnerable to the replay attack.
The third stage of garage door opener technology uses a frequency spectrum range between 300-400 MHz and rolling code (code hopping) technology to defeat code grabbers. In addition to transmitting a unique identifier for the remote control, a sequence number and an encrypted message are also sent. Although an intruder could still capture the code used to open a garage door, the sequence number immediately expires, so retransmitting the code later would not open the garage door. The encryption makes it extremely difficult for an intruder to forge a message with the next sequence number that would open the door. Some rolling code systems are more involved than others. Because there is a high probability that someone will push the remote's button while not in range and thus advance the sequence number, the receiver does not insist the sequence number increase by exactly one; it will accept a sequence number that falls within a narrow window or two successive sequence numbers in a much wider window. Rolling code technology is also used on car remote controls and with some internet protocols for secure sites.
The fourth stage of garage door opener systems is similar to third stage, but it is limited to the 315 MHz frequency. The 315 MHz frequency range avoids interference from the Land Mobile Radio System (LMRS) used by the U.S. military.
The following standards are used by units manufactured by Chamberlain (including LiftMaster and Craftsman):
Dates
System
Color of programming button and LED on unit
Color of LED on remote*
1984–1993 8-12 Dip Switch on 300-400 MHz white, gray, or yellow button with red LED red
1993–1997 Billion Code on 390 MHz green button with green or red LED green
1997–2005 Security+ (rolling code) on 390 MHz orange or red button with amber LED amber or none
2005–present Security+ (rolling code) on 315 MHz purple button with amber LED none
2011–present Security+ 2.0 (rolling code) on 310, 315, and 390 MHz yellow button with amber LED and yellow antenna wires red or blue
* Does not apply to keyless entry keypads or universal remotes.
Recent Chamberlain garage door openers that have Security+ 2.0 features also use a special serial protocol on wired connections rather than a simple switch closure.[5]
The following standards are used by units manufactured by Overhead Door Corporation and its subsidiary The Genie Company :
Dates
System
1985–1995 9–12 DIP Switch on 360, 380, or 390 MHz[6][7]
1995–2005 Intellicode/CodeDodger (rolling code) on 390 MHz
2005–present Intellicode/CodeDodger (rolling code) on 315 MHz
2011–present Intellicode 2/CodeDodger 2 (rolling code) on 315 and 390 MHz
Note: There are no standard color codes for the learn button or LED on units manufactured by Overhead Door or Genie. All accessories made for later versions of Genie Intellicode and Overhead Door CodeDodger are backward compatible with previous generations of Intellicode and CodeDodger.
Cloning garage door opener remotes[edit]
A typical photo of both the outer case and inner circuit of a garage door opener remote control.
Many garage door opener remote controls use fixed-code encoding which use DIP switches or soldering to do the address pins coding process, and they usually use pt2262/pt2272 or compatible ICs. For these fixed-code garage door opener remotes, one can easily clone the existing remote using a self-learning remote control duplicator (copy remote) which can make a copy of the remote using face-to-face copying.
Additional features[edit]
Additional features that have been added over the years have included:
Automatic courtesy lights that turn on when the door opens (or via motion sensors) and automatically turn off after a preset delay
A remote lockout feature, which turns off the radio receiver while one is on vacation or away for an extended time.
The availability of accessories has increased, including such features as wireless keypads, key chain remotes, and solenoid-operated deadbolts to lock the door itself.
More sophisticated features are also available, such as an integrated carbon monoxide sensor to open the door in case of the garage being flooded with exhaust fumes. Other systems allow door activation over the Internet to allow home owners to open their garage door from their office for deliveries.
Another recent innovation in the garage door opener is a fingerprint-based wireless keypad. This unit attaches to the outside of the garage door on the jamb and allows users to open and close their doors with the press of a finger, rather than creating a personal identification number (PIN). This is especially helpful for families with children who may forget a code and are latchkey kids.
Safety[edit]
The garage door is generally the largest moving object in a home. An improperly adjusted garage door opener can exert strong and deadly forces and might not reverse the garage door in an emergency. The manufacturer's instructions provide guidance to the user on the proper adjustment and maintenance of the opener.
Garage door openers manufactured and installed in the United States since 1982 are required to provide a quick-release mechanism on the trolley that allows for the garage door to be disconnected from the garage door opener in the event of entrapment. [8] Garage door openers manufactured since 1982 are also required to reverse the garage door if it strikes a solid object.[9][10]
In the United States, the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 1990 required that automatic residential garage door operators manufactured on or after 1 January 1991 conform to the entrapment protection requirements of the 1988 version of ANSI/UL standard 325.[11] A requirement for redundant entrapment-prevention devices was added in 1993; such a system can use an electric eye, a door edge sensor, or any other device that provides equivalent protection by reversing the travel of the closing door if an object is detected in its path. [12][13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert J Girod (2014). "Garage Door Openers - High-tech Burglary". Advanced Criminal Investigations and Intelligence Operations: Tradecraft Methods, Practices, Tactics, and Techniques. Taylor and Francis. p. 90. ISBN 9781482230741.
Jump up ^ "Aids To Modern Living - Garage Doors". Popular Science: 137. January 1946.
Jump up ^ "Garage Door Systems, Springs and Openers". Bob Villa. Archived from the original on 24 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Widely Separated Inventors Invent Garage Door Openers By Radio Impulses". Popular Science: 32. February 1931.
Jump up ^ "Will my older accessories work with the new line of Security+ 2.0 garage door openers?". chamberlaingroup1.custhelp.com. Retrieved 2017-06-23.
Jump up ^ Willmes, Dave. "My Overhead Door Opener Doesn't Work with this Universal Remote". www.overheaddooronline.com. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "FCC ID BSH8YN106546 by Overhead Door Corporation". FCCID.io. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Falling Garage Doors — A Crushing Concern". Garage Door Child Safety.
Jump up ^ "Non Reversing Garage Door Openers a Hazard" (PDF). U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
Jump up ^ "Garage Door System Safety Guidelines". Door & Access Systems Manufacturers Association International. Archived from the original on 2008-12-23.
Jump up ^ Garage Door Operators • CPSC
Jump up ^ [https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/pdfs/blk_pdf_523.pdf Non-Reversing Automatic Garage Door Openers Are a Hazard • CPSC]
Jump up ^ 16CFR1211
External links[edit]
Official FCC notification on garage opener frequencies (PDF)
Garage Door Opener Safety Tips (Washington Post)
Safety Commission Rules For Automatic Garage Door Openers - U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. CPSC, 1992
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garage_door_opener&oldid=854514636"
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English muffin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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English muffin
A split English muffin
Alternative names
Breakfast muffin
Type
Bread
Course
Bread
Place of origin
United States, United Kingdom
Main ingredients
wheat flour, shortening, milk, sugar, yeast
Cookbook: English muffin
Media: English muffin
English muffins are a small, round, flat yeast-leavened bread which is commonly sliced horizontally, toasted, and buttered.[1] Toasted English muffins, which are often used in the United States as a breakfast food, may be served with sweet toppings (e.g., jam, or honey) or savoury toppings (e.g., eggs, sausage rounds, bacon, or cheese). English muffins are also used as the bread in a variety of breakfast sandwiches, and are an essential ingredient in Eggs Benedict and most of its variations.
In the United States and U.S.-influenced territories, they are called English muffins to distinguish them from U.S. muffins, which are larger and sweeter miniature baked quick breads. They are very similar to bolo do caco in Portuguese cuisine.
Contents
1 Origin
2 By country
2.1 United States
2.2 United Kingdom
2.3 Germany
3 See also
4 References
Origin[edit]
The word muffin is thought to be Low German muffen meaning "little cakes".[2] In the past, muffins were sold door to door by hawkers in England as a snack bread before most houses were provided with ovens in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, giving rise to the traditional song "The Muffin Man."
By country[edit]
Wholemeal English muffins from a Tesco in Abingdon, England.
United States[edit]
Muffin House, Manhattan
References to English muffins appear in U.S. newspapers starting in 1859,[3][4][5] and detailed descriptions of them and recipes were published as early as 1870.[6][7]
Samuel Bath Thomas emigrated from Plymouth, England, to New York City in 1874.[8] By 1880 he had opened his own bakery at 163 Ninth Avenue. He invented what he called "toaster crumpets", selling them from the bakery to hotels and grocery stores. They were soft and spongy after baking like Victorian-era English crumpets, but thinner. They were also pre-cut, which was later called "fork-split", so as to be able to be pulled apart, giving a rougher toasting surface than would be obtained by slicing. Later they were baked in ovens.[9] They became popular as an alternative to toast; Thomas opened a second bakery around the corner from the first at 337 West 20th Street in a building that remains known as "The Muffin House".[10]
The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the origin of the term English Muffin as 1902.[8] In a trademark filing in 1926, it was stated that the Thomas' name of the product was first used in 1894.[8]
Thomas' is a brand of English muffins and bagels in North America, founded by Samuel Bath Thomas. Today the company is owned by Bimbo Bakeries USA, which also owns the Entenmann's, Boboli, Stroehmann, and Arnold bakeries.
Foster's sourdough English muffins were a popular brand English muffin originally from San Francisco. They were a signature menu item at Foster's restaurants from the 1940s to the 1970s, and continued to be produced as a packaged brand until 2008.
English muffins can be purchased in a wide range of varieties, including whole wheat, multigrain, cinnamon raisin, cranberry, and apple cinnamon.
United Kingdom[edit]
English muffins are sold in all British supermarkets and many bakeries and are referred to as simply muffins. U.S.-style muffins may be referred to as American muffins[citation needed] for clarity or branding purposes, but most people have no problems distinguishing one from the other and use the same word for both.
Germany[edit]
English muffins are also available in most major supermarkets across Germany under the name Toastbrötchen which translates as "toast bun".
See also[edit]
Food portal
Crumpet
List of breads
List of British breads
McMuffin
Muffin – small-sized quickbreads, in American English
Scone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ David, Elizabeth (1977). English Bread and Yeast Cookery. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0713910267. Contains a discussion on the origins and use of the English muffin.
Jump up ^ "muffin". Retrieved 29 December 2016 – via The Free Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Thomas' Dining Saloon". The Buffalo Daily Republic. September 22, 1859. p. 2. Retrieved February 25, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Wanted: An English Muffin and Crumpet Baker". New York Daily Herald. September 17, 1862. p. 2. Retrieved February 25, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Call at Steam Bakery". The Philadelphia Inquirer. May 30, 1863. p. 5. Retrieved February 25, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Fancy Bread". The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. November 4, 1870. p. 1. Retrieved February 25, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "English Muffins". The Weekly Star. March 29, 1876. p. 6. Retrieved February 25, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Who invented the English Muffin?". Retrieved 17 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Wolferman's: A Different Style Of English Muffin".
Jump up ^ Muffin House -Daytonian
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United States foreign aid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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United States foreign aid is aid given by the United States government to other governments. The term generally does not include either money from private charitable organizations based in the United States, personal giving, or remittances. It is sometimes divided into two broad categories: military aid and economic assistance.[1] The Congressional Research Service divides it into five categories: bilateral development aid, economic assistance, humanitarian aid, multilateral economic contributions, and military aid.[2]
Foreign aid recipients include developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. The government channels about half of its economic assistance through a specialized agency, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Government-sponsored foreign aid began a systematic fashion after World War II, with the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951-61.
Foreign aid is generally unpopular with the general public, with a 2017 poll finding 57% favor a cut and 6% who want increased aid.[3] On the other hand, foreign aid has bipartisan support in congress,[4] and most Americans overestimate foreign aid as a share of the total federal budget. In the past, less than 1% of the national budget went to foreign assistance.[5][6] As of fiscal year 2017, foreign aid between the US state department and USAID totaled $50.1 billion, or just over 1% of the budget.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 World War I
2.2 World War II
2.3 Cold War
3 USAID
3.1 2000s
4 Public Opinion
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
8 Further reading
Overview[edit]
In fiscal year 2014, the U.S. government allocated the following amounts for aid:
Total economic and military assistance: $43.10 billion
Total military assistance: $10.57 billion
Total economic assistance: $32.53 billion
of which USAID Implemented: $17.82 billion[8]
Top 25 Recipient Countries of U.S. Foreign Aid FY 2013 Reported in $US millions, Obligations [9]
Country
Economic and Military Assistance FY 2013, $US millions
Aid received per person recipient FY2013, $US
Economic Assistance FY 2013, $US millions
Military Assistance FY2013, $US millions
Afghanistan 4533.51 148 2653.93 1879.58
Israel 2961.04 367 17.81 2943.23
Egypt 1566.24 19 330.6 1235.6
Jordan 1211.83 188 879.64 332.19
West Bank/Gaza 1007.73 370
Ethiopia 686.53 7 685.19 1.34
South Sudan 618.74 55 598.79 19.96
Malawi 571.18 35 570.91 0.27
Uganda 541.93 14 538.3 3.62
South Africa 526.19 10 523.86 2.32
Nigeria 518.84 3 509.41 9.43
Russia 465.16 3 445.07 20.08
Iraq 444.81 13 382.7 62.11
Tanzania 430.66 9 427.82 2.84
Mexico 419.94 3 348.72 71.21
Congo (Kinshasa) 379.24 6 366.73 12.52
Haiti 378.77 37 377.04 1.73
Lebanon 376.41 84 286.03 90.38
Somalia 367.18 35 188 179.18
Zambia 310.8 22 310.26 0.54
Sudan (former)* 290.05 8 290.05
Notes:
Sudan (former) refers to the geographic area of Sudan, based on the area that was Sudan before the creation of South Sudan
Except special considerations to countries such as Israel and Egypt, the direction of US foreign aid flow reflects the government efforts in’ alleviating poverty, promoting democracy and encouraging economic openness of the recipient countries.
History[edit]
World War I[edit]
During World War One, the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB), which sent food to the hungry in that war-torn country, received $387 million from the U.S. government (as well as $314 million from the British and French governments and about $200 million from non-governmental sources). These government monies were given in the form of loans, but a considerable portion of those loans were forgiven.[10]
After the war, the American Relief Administration, directed by Herbert Hoover who had also been prominent in the CRB, continued food distribution to war-devastated European countries. It also distributed food and combated typhus in Russia during 1921-23. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20 million for the ARA under the Russian Famine Relief Act of 1921.
World War II[edit]
Levels of United States aid increased greatly during World War Two, mainly on account of the Lend-lease program. United States government aid remained high in the decade after the war because of contributions to European reconstruction, and competition for influence versus the Communist powers in the first years of the Cold War. By 1960, the annual aid amount had receded to about half of what it was in the early post-war years, and, in inflation-adjusted terms, it has remained at that level—with some fluctuations—until the present.[11]
The Lend-lease program, which began in 1941 (before the U.S. entrance in the war) was an arrangement whereby the United States sent large amounts of war materials and other supplies to nations whose defense was considered vital to the defense of the United States. It began with the passage by Congress of the Lend-lease act (PL 77-11) on 11 March 1941.[12] Initially, the main recipient was Great Britain; the Soviet Union began receiving supplies (paid for in gold) in June 1941 outside of Lend-lease, and was included in the Lend-lease agreement in November 1941. By the end of the war, most of the Allied countries had been declared eligible for Lend-lease aid, although not all received it. By the time the program was ended by President Truman in August 1945, more than $50 billion worth of supplies had been disbursed, of which the Commonwealth countries received $31 billion and the Soviet Union $11 billion. Although formally the material was loaned, in the end only partial repayment was demanded.
A second wartime aid program, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), was founded in November 1943, by 44 Allied governments, for the purpose of assisting and resettling displaced victims of the war.[13] Its initial focus was on assisting people in areas the Allies had captured from the Axis powers: distributing food, clothing and other essentials, and helping with medical care and sanitation. Later it also assisted in the resumption of agriculture and industry. Each of the 44 signatories was supposed to contribute one percent of its national income.[14] The chief beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, the Ukrainian SSR and Yugoslavia. UNRRA returned about 7 million displaced people to their countries of origin and provided refugee camps for about one million who were unwilling to be repatriated. UNRRA ceased operations in Europe in mid-1947;[15] some of its activities in Asia continued under other auspices until early 1949. In the end 52 countries had contributed as donors. Contributions from governments and private organizations during the four years of the program totaled over $3.8 billion; more than half of that was from the United States.
Cold War[edit]
After the war, the United States began giving large amounts of aid to Greece and Turkey under the Truman doctrine. Both countries were experiencing civil strife between communist and anti-communist factions, and the President and his advisors feared that their efforts to keep European countries from adopting communism might be about to suffer a serious setback. In December 1946, the Prime Minister of Greece visited Washington and requested additional United States aid. Truman promulgated his containment doctrine in early 1947, a major component of which was to be aid to the world's poor countries in order to blunt the appeals of radicalism to their hungry peoples and to bolster their anti-communist political elements. In May 1947 the U.S. government granted Greece $300 million in military and economic aid. Turkey received $100 million and the battleship Missouri and the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt were deployed there. The U.S. government gave Greece $362 million in 1949, and U.S. aid to Greece generally remained over $100 million annually until 1998.[16] The aid was at times controversial, since it supported authoritarian governments in Greece from the 1940s to early 1960s, as well as the 1967–1974 military junta. Aid to Turkey was $117 million in 1949, $259 million in 1952, and remained in the hundreds of millions annually until 1998.[17]
The most well-known, and largest, United States aid program in the immediate post-war years was the European Recovery Program (ERP). More often known as the Marshall Plan, it was the creation of George Kennan, William Clayton, and others at the U.S. State Department under Secretary of State George Marshall. Publicly suggested by Marshall in June 1947, and put into action about a year later, the Plan was essentially an extension of the Greece–Turkey aid strategy to the rest of Europe. The U.S. administration considered the stability of the existing governments in Western Europe vital to its own interests. On 3 April 1948, President Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act, establishing the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program, and actual disbursements got underway. The focus was on promoting production, stabilizing currencies, and promoting international trade. To be eligible for the aid, a country had to sign an agreement with the United States government committing itself to the Act's purposes. The Communist countries were formally invited to participate in the Plan although Secretary Marshall thought it unlikely that they would accept and they did in fact decline the aid. Also in 1948, the United States and the recipient countries created the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC – it became the OECD in 1961) to coordinate the use of the aid. A large portion of the money given was used to purchase goods from the United States, and the ships used to transport the goods had to be of U.S. nationality. Until after the Korean War, military aid was not part of the plan.[18] The Marshall Plan ended in December 1951 and its functions were transferred to the Mutual Security Administration.[19] The United States government gave out about $12.5 billion under the Plan during its three-and-a-half year existence. The countries receiving the most were Great Britain ($3.3 billion), France ($2.3 billion) and West Germany ($1.4 billion).[20]
Under title IV of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948, South Korea and the Guomindang regime in China were given aid in a similar manner to the Marshall Plan. Japan was also given aid.
USAID[edit]
Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on September 4, 1961, reorganizing U.S. foreign assistance programs and separating military and non-military aid. The Act mandated the creation of an agency to administer economic assistance programs, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which was established by President Kennedy two months later. USAID became the first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long-term economic and social development.
2000s[edit]
U.S. Foreign Aid by Implementing Agency FY2009-FY2013, Reported in $US millions, Obligations [21]
Implementing Agency 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
2014
African Development Foundation 35.32 30.86 33.91 29.64 27.84 31.78
Department of Agriculture 244.23 545.52 329.56 369.45 334.82 248.86
Department of Commerce 9.26 9.87 6.23 15.65 18.33 9.11
Department of Defense 14,527.79 15,274.05 18,821.63 17,666.48 8,250.63 10552.90
Department of Energy 749.51 1,036.85 1,426.41 691.14 972.90 670.21
Department of Health and Human Services 2,713.37 2,717.16 2,258.21 2,281.97 3,079.29 2695.37
Department of Homeland Security 8.04 6.08 4.09 5.15 0.00 2.67
Department of Justice 43.60 36.46 20.86 18.72 14.06 13.85
Department of Labor 53.78 73.47 52.75 12.16 30.55 17.00
Department of State 6,674.46 6,477.13 6,023.83 6,089.06 5,390.79 6824.22
Department of the Air Force 4.90 6.43 18.51 0.00 0.06 3.62
Department of the Army 935.81 774.72 420.50 137.53 37.02 15.18
Department of the Interior 1,087.52 225.67 328.07 225.00 216.95 292.18
Department of the Navy 26.57 0.26 17.84 6.81 4.67
Department of the Treasury 1,637.74 2,245.32 2,033.89 2,834.18 2,673.16 2838.22
Department of Transportation 2.17 3.84 2.87 7.61 3.95 .27
Environmental Protection Agency 24.67 40.59 22.19 50.62 21.92 20.44
Federal Trade Commission 0.61 0.73 0.33 0.21 0.00
Inter-American Foundation 24.96 25.84 22.96 25.44 26.20 27.79
Millennium Challenge Corporation 1,016.78 873.67 581.00 413.02 1,115.55 567.34
Open World Leadership Center 15.50 12.82 0.00 0.00 0.00
Peace Corps 350.67 389.61 419.09 401.34 386.75 405.60
Trade and Development Agency 42.78 49.88 41.17 44.14 40.64 44.34
U.S. Agency for International Development 16,191.31 17,344.78 15,644.51 18,232.36 17,461.78 17822.82
President Obama announced to the UN Millennium Development Goals summit in September 2010 that the United States was changing its policy towards foreign aid. The President said the country would focus more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid. Infrastructure set up for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief would be used to build capacity in local health care systems to improve maternal and child health, and also fight tropical diseases. The new policy would increase the profile and participation of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which would coordinate more directly with the National Security Council and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.[22] Some observers criticized the link with national security and foreign policy as unhelpful for the impoverished, and others lamented the attempted streamlining as only adding more bureaucracy.[22] Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting government-funded foreign aid much more than conservatives do,[23] who tend to prefer to provide foreign aid privately.
Public Opinion[edit]
Interviews with 1,012 adult Americans were conducted by telephone by Opinion Research Corporation in January 2011: Published by CNN, the response was that 81% felt that reducing aid to foreign countries was a good way to reduce the federal budget deficit, while 18% thought aid was more important than reducing deficit.[24] Thomas Pogge, Director of the Global Justice Program and Leitner Professor of Philosophy and International Affairs at Yale University, has predicted that public opinion will not change even while the hardships suffered by poor people are rising, partly as a result of the Global Financial Crisis.[25] Some claim the U.S. is helping corrupt governments with the aid.
Worldwide opinion of the United States improves with contributions to developing countries.[26]
See also[edit]
United States military aid
United States Foreign Military Financing
Feed the Future Initiative
Foreign policy of the United States
Criticism of U.S. foreign policy
Foreign Assistance Act
USAID
Compact of Free Association
Millennium Challenge Corporation
Development Assistance Database
General:
List of governments by development aid
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Max Bearak, Lazaro Gamio (18 Oct 2016). "The U.S. foreign aid budget, visualized". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 Aug 2017.
Jump up ^ Congressional Research Service. Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (2005) 38 pp online
Jump up ^ "Most See U.S. Foreign Aid As A Bad Deal for America". Rasmussen. 20 Mar 2017. Retrieved 9 Sep 2017.
Jump up ^ Liz Schrayer (3 Sep 2016). "The Surprise Bipartisan Success Story of Congress: American Aid". Retrieved 9 Aug 2017.
Jump up ^ George M. Guess, The Politics of United States Foreign Aid (2013)
Jump up ^ "Rethinking US Development Policy Foreign Assistance and the US Budget". March 19, 2016. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Adam Edelman (28 Feb 2017). "Trump wants to slash federal costs, boost military spending". New York Daily News. Retrieved 9 Sep 2017.
Jump up ^ "Foreign Aid Explorer website". Foreign Aid Explorer. USAID. July 27, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Foreign Aid Explorer website". Foreign Aid Explorer. USAID. July 27, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Annotated CRB documents, retrieved September 2009. The U.S. aid commenced after April 1917; Britain had been contributing since 1914. The amounts contributed by the governments are from the table near the beginning of the web page. 200 million is calculated as 22 percent (100 - 78 percent) of the 900 million distributed by the committee (mentioned in the discussion preceding the table).
Jump up ^ This paragraph refers to inflation-adjusted ("constant-dollar") levels. Generally, the other data in this section is in historical dollars. USAID, Greenbook, interactive version, "Program Reports"; then selecting "Custom Report" allows you to get data going back to 1946. Retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ United States government (ourdocuments.gov), Lend-Lease Act (1941), essay about the Act, and transcript of the Act. Retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ Although the UNRRA was called a "United Nations" agency, it was established prior to the founding of the United Nations. The explanation for this is that the term 'United Nations' was used at the time to refer to the Allies of World War II, having been originally coined for that purpose by Roosevelt in 1942.
Jump up ^ Assisting the victims of war: 'nations will learn to work together only by actually working together.' (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration). U.N. Publications, 1994.
Jump up ^ United Nations, Assisting the victims of war &helip;, op cit., says the UNRRA decided on 16 August 1947 to liquidate itself, "a process completed in 1948;" Infoplease (Columbia Encyclopedia), "United Nations Relief and Rehabilitatin Administration", says UNRRA discontinued its operations in Europe on 30 June 1947.
Jump up ^ These amounts are in historical (not inflation-adjusted) dollars. USAID, Greenbook Historical query, select Country Reports >> Greece, Custom Report >> the data you want, and the year (Ctrl+A selects all years). Retrieved September 2009. Also, Time Magazine, "Greece: The Poly-Papadopoulos", 03 April 1972; retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ Historical dollars: USAID, Greenbook, assistance to Turkey, 1946 - 2007. Retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ This and the information about U.S. goods and ships is from u-s-history.com "Marshall Plan", retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk, "Marshall Plan", retrieved September 2009.
Jump up ^ Other sources on the Marshall Plan used here include infoplease.com "Marshall Plan", and The Marshall Foundation, "The Marshall Plan".
Jump up ^ "Foreign Aid Explorer website". Foreign Aid Explorer. USAID. July 27, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b [1], Bristol 2010.
Jump up ^ Peter Hays Gries, The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs (Stanford, 2014), pp. 108-112.
Jump up ^ "Cnn Research Poll" (PDF). CNN. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Pogge, Thomas (2014). "Are We Violating the Human Rights of the World’s Poor?" (PDF). Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal. 17 (1): 31. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Goldsmith, Benjamin E.; Horiuchi, Yusaku; Wood, Terence. "Doing well by doing good: foreign aid improves opinions of the U.S.". Washington Post. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
External links[edit]
Foreign Aid Explorer
U.S. Foreign Assistance dashboard
Brief Chronology and Highlights of the History of U.S. Foreign Assistance Activities
Criticism of U.S. Foreign Aid from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Rethinking U.S. Aid from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Further reading[edit]
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: formatting and linking Please help improve this section if you can. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Foreign Aid Explorer
U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants: Obligations and Loan Authorizations, July 1, 1945–September 30, 2013
ForeignAssistance.gov
Non-USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Publications of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The OECD offers large amounts of data on line. Complete access is by subscription, but useful amounts are made available free. The DAC does not include private aid in its main category, "Official Development Assistance (ODA)", but reports some of it under other headings.
AidData provides free access to a searchable database of foreign aid activities by donor, recipient, sector, and other criteria. Using the AidData database, it is possible to search for U.S. foreign aid activities financed between 1973 and 2008, and download them as a CSV file.
Congressional Research Service. Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (2011) 37 pp online
Guess, George M. The Politics of United States Foreign Aid (2013)
Lancaster, Carol. Foreign aid: Diplomacy, development, domestic politics (University of Chicago Press, 2008)
Morgner, Aurelius. "The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?," Review of Politics (1967) 29#1 pp. 65–75 in JSTOR
Bristol, Nellie. 2010. "US Foreign Aid Restructuring: is it "a very big deal?" From World Report. Accessed 4/19/2010.
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