text:
Deed of trust (real estate)
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In real estate in the United States, a deed of trust or trust deed is a deed wherein legal title in real property is transferred to a trustee, which holds it as security for a loan (debt) between a borrower and lender. The equitable title remains with the borrower. The borrower is referred to as the trustor, while the lender is referred to as the beneficiary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Power of sale and trustee's sale
3 Terminology
4 See also
5 References
Overview[edit]
Transactions involving deeds of trust are normally structured, at least in theory, so that the lender/beneficiary gives the borrower/trustor the money to buy the property; the borrower/trustor tenders the money to the seller; the seller executes a grant deed giving the property to the borrower/trustor; and the borrower/trustor immediately executes a deed of trust giving the property to the trustee to be held in trust for the lender/beneficiary. In reality, an escrow holder is always used so that the transaction does not close until the escrow holder has the funds, grant deed, and deed of trust in their possession. This ensures the transaction can be easily rescinded if one party is unable to complete its part of the deal.
Deeds of trust differ from mortgages in that deeds of trust always involve at least three parties, where the third party holds the legal title, while in the context of mortgages, the mortgagor gives legal title directly to the mortgagee.[1] In either case, equitable title remains with the borrower. Both mortgages and deeds of trust are essentially security instruments in the form of conveyances; that is, they appear to provide on their face for absolute conveyances of legal title, but it is implicitly understood that the borrower is retaining equitable title and the conveyance is intended to merely create a security interest. This confusing situation is a legacy of the archaic (and now-obsolete) common law requirement of livery of seisin, under which English common law courts had refused to enforce shifting fees or springing freehold interests (that is, a gage for years that was supposed to automatically expand to fee simple title if the underlying debt was not repaid).[2]
A deed of trust is normally recorded with the recorder or county clerk for the county where the property is located as evidence of and security for the debt. The act of recording provides constructive notice to the world that the property has been encumbered.[3] When the debt is fully paid, the beneficiary is required by law to promptly direct the trustee to transfer the property back to the trustor by reconveyance, thus releasing the security for the debt.[4]
Deeds of trust are the most common instrument used in the financing of real estate purchases in Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, the District of Columbia, Idaho, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia, whereas most other states use mortgages. Besides purchases, deeds of trust can also be used for loans made for other kinds of purposes where real estate is merely offered as collateral, and are also used to secure performance of contracts other than loans.
Power of sale and trustee's sale[edit]
A deed of trust has a crucial advantage over a mortgage from the lender's point of view. If the borrower defaults on the loan, the trustee has the power to foreclose on the property on behalf of the beneficiary. In most U.S. states, a deed of trust (but not a mortgage) can contain a special "power of sale" clause that permits the trustee to exercise these powers. Here is the standard conveyance clause from a Freddie Mac "uniform instrument":
“ Borrower irrevocably grants and conveys to Trustee, in trust, with power of sale, the following described property...[5] ”
In the states that enforce "power of sale" clauses, the courts have uniformly held that by executing a deed of trust with a "power of sale" clause, the owner has authorized the trustee to conduct a nonjudicial foreclosure in the event of default.[6] That is, unlike a mortgage, the lender need not sue the borrower in a state court; instead, the lender/beneficiary merely directs the trustee to mail (or serve, publish, or record) certain notices required by law, culminating in a "trustee's sale" at which the trustee auctions the property to the highest bidder. The borrower's equitable title normally terminates automatically by operation of law (under applicable statutes or case law) at the trustee's sale. The trustee then issues a deed conveying the legal and equitable title to the property in fee simple to the highest bidder. In turn, the successful bidder records the deed and becomes the owner of record. Thus, the advantage of deeds of trust is that the lender can recover the value of the collateral for the loan much more quickly, and without the expense and uncertainty of suing the borrower, which is why lenders overwhelmingly prefer such deeds to mortgages.
While true mortgages (limited to judicial foreclosure) remain available in every state that enforces "power of sale" clauses, they are quite rare. Any prospective borrower who specifically asks for a true mortgage from a commercial lender in such a state necessarily brings his or her creditworthiness into question (since if they were confident in their own ability to repay the loan, they would not need to make such a request), and any rational lender willing to extend credit to less creditworthy borrowers will insist on harsher terms, including the use of a deed of trust with a "power of sale" clause.
The time periods for the "trustee's sale" or "power of sale" foreclosure process vary dramatically between jurisdictions. Some states have very short timelines. For example, in Virginia, it can be as short as two weeks. In California, a nonjudicial foreclosure takes a minimum of approximately 112 days from start to finish. The process starts only when the lender or trustee records a "notice of default" no matter how long the loan payments have been unpaid. For certain home loans made between 2003 and 2007, because of current economic conditions, California law was amended to add a temporary additional 60 days to the process.
Terminology[edit]
Historically, some of these documents were titled "deeds of trust" and others were titled "trust deeds," and U.S. case law prior to about 1990 tends to reflect both usages. Due to the rise of real estate securitization in the 1990s and the shift from "lend to hold" to "lend to securitize," the majority of residential real estate transactions are now completed with uniform security instruments which are consistently described as "deeds of trust" so as to avoid confusion with true trusts or true deeds (i.e., true conveyances rather than security interests in the form of conveyances). Thus, the more precise term of art "deed of trust" has become predominant in the case law since then.
Though a mortgage is technically an entirely different legal instrument (as noted above), deeds of trust are frequently called mortgages in the real estate loan business due to the functional similarity between deeds of trust and mortgages.
Although a deed of trust usually states that the borrower is making an "irrevocable" transfer to the trustee, it is common in many jurisdictions for borrowers to obtain second and third mortgages or trust deeds that make similar transfers to additional trustees (that is, of a property they already conveyed to the trustee on their first deed of trust). As with mortgages, deeds of trust are subject to the rule "first in time, first in right," meaning that the beneficiary of the first recorded deed of trust may foreclose and wipe out all junior deeds of trust recorded later in time. If this happens, the junior debt still exists, but may become unsecured. If the debtor has sufficient senior secured claims upon his assets, lacks equity, or is otherwise insolvent, the junior liens may be wiped out completely in bankruptcy.
See also[edit]
Trust deed investment company
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dupee v. Rose, 10 Utah 305, 37 Pac. 567 (1894). This case mentions the difference between three-party deeds of trust and two-party mortgages.
Jump up ^ In re Michigan Avenue National Bank, 2 B.R. 171, 174-80 (Bankr. N.D. Ill. 1980). This opinion by bankruptcy judge Richard L. Merrick explains the evolution of the common law of security interests in real property.
Jump up ^ Pacific Trust Co. TTEE v. Fidelity Federal Sav. & Loan Ass'n, 184 Cal. App. 3d 817, 229 Cal. Rptr. 269 (1986).
Jump up ^ Bartold v. Glendale Federal Bank, 81 Cal. App. 4th 816, 97 Cal. Rptr. 2d 226 (2000).
Jump up ^ Examples are available at Freddie Mac Single-Family Uniform Instruments.
Jump up ^ Apao v. Bank of New York], 324 F.3d 1091 (9th Cir. 2003); Bryant v. Jefferson Federal Sav. & Loan Ass'n, 509 F.2d 511 (D.C. Cir. 1974).
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Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army
COAS
Flag of the Chief of Army Staff
Incumbent
General Qamar Javed Bajwa
since 29 November 2016
Ministry of Defence
Army Secretariat-I at MoD[1]
Abbreviation
COAS
Member of
Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee
Reports to
Prime Minister of Pakistan
Minister of Defence
Seat
General Headquarters (GHQ)
Rawalpindi Cantonment, Punjab, Pakistan
Nominator
Prime Minister of Pakistan
Appointer
President of Pakistan
Term length
3 years
Renewable only once
Precursor
Army Commander-in-Chief
Formation
March 3, 1972; 45 years ago (1972-03-03)
First holder
General Tikka Khan
Succession
On basis of seniority, subjected to the decision of the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Unofficial names
Army chief
Deputy
Chief of General Staff
Vice-Chief of Army Staff
Salary
According to Pakistan Military officer's Pay Grade(apex Scale)
Website
Official website
The Chief of Army Staff (Urdu: سربراہ پاک فوج) (reporting name: COAS), is a military appointment and statutory office held by the four-star rank army general in the Pakistan Army, who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan and final confirmation by the President of Pakistan.[2]
The Chief of Army Staff is a senior most appointment in the Pakistani military who is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee in a separate capacity, usually consulting with the Chairman joint chiefs to act as a military adviser to the Prime Minister and its civilian government in the line of defending the land borders of the country.Four Army Chiefs: Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and Pervez Musharraf, became president by forcefully removing the democratic governments by military coup. :40[3][4] The Chief of Army Staff exercise its responsibility of command and control of the operational, combatant, logistics, and training commands within the army, in contrast to the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army.[4] Due to its statue, the Chief of Army Staff have been instrumental in enforcing martial laws against the civilian government due to the meltdown of a civil-military relations in the past decades.:168[5][6]
The appointment, in principle, is constitutionally subjected to be for three years but extension may be granted from the approval and recommendations of the Prime Minister by the President.[7] The Chief of Army Staff is based in the Army GHQ, and the current Chief of Army Staff is General Qamar Javed Bajwa, serving in this capacity since 29 November 2016[8][9][10]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 List of Chiefs of Army Staff
2.1 Vice Chief of Army Staff
3 List of army vice chiefs
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Main articles: Commander-in-Chief, India; Chief of the Army Staff (India); and Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army
Prior to creation of Pakistan from the partition of India on 14 August of 1947, the senior military general officer commanding of the Pakistan Army were the ad-hoc appointments made by the Army Board of the British Army.[11]
The appointment was known as Commander-in-Chief who directly reported to the Governor-General who was also under British monarchs.:105[12] The first commander-in-chiefs of the army were senior officers of the British Army who commanded the amalgamated army of British and Pakistani army officers from 1947 until 1951.:105[12]
In 1969, the title of the army command was changed from "Commander-in-Chief" to "Chief of Staff" with President Yahya Khan acting as Commander-in-Chief and General A.H. Khan as Chief of Staff.:contents[13] On 20 March 1972, the post was renamed as "Chief of Army Staff" (COAS) with Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan elevated to four star rank to be appointed as army's first chief of army staff.:62[14]
The term of the superannuation was then constrained to three years in the office as opposed to four years and was made a permanent member of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.:62[14] Since 1972, there has been 10 four-star rank army generals to be appointed as chief of army staff by statue.[15] The Prime Minister approved the nomination and appointment of the Chief of Army Staff, with President confirming the Prime Minister's appointed choosing and nomination.[16]
The army leadership is based in the Army GHQ whose functions are supervised by the Chief of Army Staff, assisted by the civilians from the Army Secretariat of the Ministry of Defence (MoD).[1] The Chief of Army Staff exercise its responsibility of complete operational, training and logistics commands.:131[5]
There are several principle staff officers (PSO) that assists in running the operations of the Army GHQ:
Engineer-in-Chief (Eng-in-C)
Chief of General Staff
Chief of Logistics Staff
Inspector-General of Training and Evaluation (IGT&E)
Inspector-General Communications and IT (IGC&IT)
Inspector-General Arms (IG Arms)
Military Secretary (Mil Secy)
Adjutant-General
Quartermaster General (QMG)
Master General of Ordnance (MGO)
Judge Advocate General Corps
List of Chiefs of Army Staff[edit]
Order
Name
Rank
portrait
Appointment Date
Retirement
Unit of Commission
Decorations
1. Tikka Khan General 3 March 1972 1 March 1976 2 Fd Regt Arty HJ, HQA, SPk
2. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq General 1 March 1976 17 August 1988 13 Lancers
3. Mirza Aslam Beg General 17 August 1988 16 August 1991 16 Baloch NI(M), SBt
4. Asif Nawaz General 16 August 1991 8 January 1993 5 Punjab NI(M), SBt
5. Abdul Waheed Kakar General 11 January 1993 12 January 1996 5 FF NI(M), SBt
6. Jehangir Karamat General 12 January 1996 6 October 1998 13 Lancers NI(M), TBt
7. Pervez Musharraf General 6 October 1998 28 November 2007 16 (SP) Medium Regt Arty NI(M), TBt
8. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani General 29 November 2007 29 November 2013 5 Baloch NI(M), HI(C)
9. Raheel Sharif General 29 November 2013 29 November 2016 6 FF NI(M)
10. Qamar Javed Bajwa General
29 November 2016 current 16 Baloch NI(M), HI(M)
Vice Chief of Army Staff[edit]
See also: Chief of General Staff (Pakistan)
The Vice Chief of Army Staff (VCOAS), is the post that is principle deputy and second-in-command (S-in-C) of the Pakistan Army, reporting under the Chief of Army Staff. The position was created in the existence of army chief is simultaneously the President of Pakistan, having taking over by imposing the martial law against the elected civilian government.:contents[17] The post is now nonexistence and no longer in commission with the army— the Chief of General Staff now serves as the second-in-command in the army leadership.[18]
The function and scope of the vice army chief was to "exercise and perform all the powers and functions vested in the chief of army staff under the law. rules, regulations, orders, and instructions for the time being in the force.":contents[17]
The vice army chiefs are considered to be the principle commander of the army but not altogether, as the vice army chief has to report to the army chief, specifically in taking decisions regarding the promotions.:contents[17] The post of the vice army chief is a senior position and its officer is a four-star rank army general.
List of army vice chiefs[edit]
All persons mentioned below have served as the Vice Chief of the Army Staff with distinction of General Abdul Hamid Khan who acted as the 'Chief of Staff of the Army' (COS) under General Yahya Khan who was the President of Pakistan and also the holder of the title 'C-in-C of the Army'.
Order
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Unit of Commission
Decorations
± Abdul Hamid Khan General 25 March 1969 20 December 1971 10th Baloch HQA, SPk
1 Sawar Khan General 13 April 1980 23 March 1984 1st (SP) Med Regt Arty (FF) NI(M)
2 Khalid Mahmud Arif General 22 March 1984 29 March 1987 11th Cavalry (FF) NI(M), S Bt
3 Mirza Aslam Beg General 29 March 1987 17 August 1988 16th Baloch NI(M), S Bt
4 Yusaf Khan General 8 October 2001 6 October 2004 Guides Cavalry NI(M)
5 Ahsan Saleem Hayat General 7 October 2004 7 October 2007 33rd Cavalry NI(M)
6 Ashfaq Parvez Kayani General 8 October 2007 28 November 2007 5th Baloch NI(M), HI
See also[edit]
Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee
Chief of Air Staff (Pakistan)
Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)
Chief of General Staff (Pakistan)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b MoD, Ministry of Defence. "Organogram of MoD" (PDF). http://mod.gov.pk/. Ministry of Defence Press. Retrieved 22 July 2017. External link in |website= (help)
Jump up ^ "Lt Gen Raheel appointed as new COAS, Lt Gen Rashad as CJCSC". The News. 27 November 2013. Archived from the original on 1 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Cheema, Pervaiz Iqbal (2002). "Defence Administration". The Armed Forces of Pakistan (google books) (1st ed.). New York, U.S.: NYU Press. p. 225. ISBN 9780814716335. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Shabbir, Usman (2003). "Command and Structure control of the Pakistan Army". pakdef.org. PakDef Military Consortium. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Inc, IBP (2009). Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook - Strategic Information and Developments. Lulu.com. p. 230. ISBN 9781438737225. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Pakistan army chief takes command". news.yahoo.com. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Will retire on November 29, Kayani confirms". The Express Tribune. 6 October 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "General Bajwa takes charge as Pakistan's 16th army chief". DAWN. 29 Nov 2016. Retrieved 29 Nov 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gen Bajwa assumes command as Pakistan's 16th army chief". The Express Tribune. 29 Nov 2016. Retrieved 29 Nov 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pakistan: Army and Paramilitary Forces". www.factba.se. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Jr, Lenze (2016). Civil–Military Relations in the Islamic World. Lexington Books. ISBN 9781498518741. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Bajwa, Kuldip Singh (2003). "Kashmir Valley Saved". Jammu and Kashmir war, 1947-1948 : political and military perspective (google books) (1st ed.). New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. p. 350. ISBN 9788124109236. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Cloughley, Brian (2016). A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781631440397. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh (2008). "Military and Politics". The Military Factor in Pakistan (googlebooks) (1st ed.). London, UK: Lancer Publishers. p. 550. ISBN 9780981537894. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Army Chief's". www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Zahra-Malik, Drazen Jorgic and Mehreen (26 November 2016). "Pakistan PM Sharif names General Bajwa as new army chief". Reuters UK. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cloughley, Brian (2016). A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections. New York [u.s[: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781631440397. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "General’s first gambit". The Indian Express. 16 December 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
External links[edit]
Official Pakistan Army website
Inter-Services Public Relations
PAF s' Chief of the Air Staffs
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Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Philadelphia Inquirer reported the capture of a "man-eating" shark off the Jersey Shore after the attacks.
The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 were a series of shark attacks along the coast of New Jersey, in the United States, between July 1 and 12, 1916, in which four people were killed and one injured. Since 1916, scholars have debated which shark species was responsible and the number of animals involved, with the great white shark and the bull shark most frequently cited. The incidents occurred during a deadly summer heat wave and polio epidemic in the United States that drove thousands of people to the seaside resorts of the Jersey Shore.
Personal and national reaction to the fatalities involved a wave of panic that led to shark hunts aimed at eradicating the population of "man-eating" sharks and protecting the economies of New Jersey's seaside communities. Resort towns enclosed their public beaches with steel nets to protect swimmers. Scientific knowledge about sharks before 1916 was based on conjecture and speculation. The attacks forced ichthyologists to reassess common beliefs about the abilities of sharks and the nature of shark attacks.
The Jersey Shore attacks immediately entered into American popular culture, where sharks became caricatures in editorial cartoons representing danger. The attacks became the subject of documentaries for the History Channel, National Geographic Channel, and Discovery Channel, which aired 12 Days of Terror (2004) and the Shark Week episode Blood in the Water (2009).
Contents
1 Incidents and victims
2 Reaction
3 Identifying the "Jersey man-eater"
4 Revising science
5 Cultural impact
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Incidents and victims[edit]
Map of the Jersey Shore attacks
Between July 1 and 12, 1916, five people were attacked along the coast of New Jersey by sharks; only one of the victims survived. The first major attack occurred on Saturday, July 1 at Beach Haven, a resort town established on Long Beach Island off the southern coast of New Jersey. Charles Epting Vansant, 25, of Philadelphia was on vacation at the Engleside Hotel with his family. Before dinner, Vansant decided to take a quick swim in the Atlantic with a Chesapeake Bay Retriever that was playing on the beach. Shortly after entering the water, Vansant began shouting. Bathers believed he was calling to the dog, but a shark was actually biting Vansant's legs. He was rescued by lifeguard Alexander Ott and bystander Sheridan Taylor, who claimed the shark followed him to shore as they pulled the bleeding Vansant from the water. Vansant's left thigh was stripped of its flesh; he bled to death on the manager's desk of the Engleside Hotel at 6:45 p.m.[1]
Despite the Vansant incident, beaches along the Jersey Shore remained open. Sightings of large sharks swarming off the coast of New Jersey were reported by sea captains entering the ports of Newark and New York City but were dismissed. The second major attack occurred 45 miles (72 km) north of Beach Haven at the resort town of Spring Lake, New Jersey. The victim was Charles Bruder, 27, a Swiss bell captain at the Essex & Sussex Hotel. Bruder was killed on Thursday, July 6, 1916, while swimming 130 yards (120 m) from shore. A shark bit him in the abdomen and severed his legs; Bruder's blood turned the water red. After hearing screams, a woman notified two lifeguards that a canoe with a red hull had capsized and was floating just at the water's surface. Lifeguards Chris Anderson and George White rowed to Bruder in a lifeboat and realized he had been bitten by a shark. They pulled him from the water, but he bled to death on the way to shore. According to The New York Times, "women [were] panic-stricken [and fainted] as [Bruder's] mutilated body ... [was] brought ashore." Guests and workers at the Essex & Sussex and neighboring hotels raised money for Bruder's mother in Switzerland.[2][3]
The next two major attacks took place in Matawan Creek near the town of Keyport on Wednesday, July 12. Located 30 miles (48 km) north of Spring Lake and inland of Raritan Bay, Matawan resembled a Midwestern town rather than an Atlantic beach resort.[4] Matawan's location made it an unlikely site for shark-human interaction. When Thomas Cottrell, a sea captain and Matawan resident, spotted an 8 ft (2.40m) long shark in the creek, the town dismissed him.[5] Around 2:00 p.m. local boys, including epileptic Lester Stilwell, 11, were playing in the creek at an area called the Wyckoff dock when they saw what appeared to be an "old black weather-beaten board or a weathered log."[6] A dorsal fin appeared in the water and the boys realized it was a shark. Before Stilwell could climb from the creek, the shark pulled him underwater.[7]
The boys ran to town for help, and several men, including local businessman Watson Stanley Fisher, 24, came to investigate. Fisher and others dived into the creek to find Stilwell, believing him to have suffered a seizure. After locating the boy's body and attempting to return to shore, Fisher was also bitten by the shark in front of the townspeople, losing Stilwell in the process.[8] His right thigh was severely injured and he bled to death at Monmouth Memorial Hospital in Long Branch at 5:30 p.m.[9] Stilwell's body was recovered 150 feet (46 m) upstream from the Wyckoff dock on July 14.[10]
The fifth and final victim, Joseph Dunn, 14, of New York City was attacked a half-mile from the Wyckoff dock nearly 30 minutes after the fatal attacks on Stilwell and Fisher. The shark bit his left leg, but Dunn was rescued by his brother and friend after a vicious tug-of-war battle with the shark. Joseph Dunn was taken to Saint Peter's University Hospital in New Brunswick; he recovered from the bite and was released on September 15, 1916.[11]
Reaction[edit]
As the national media descended on Beach Haven, Spring Lake, and Matawan, the Jersey Shore attacks started a shark panic.[12] According to Capuzzo, this panic was "unrivaled in American history," "sweeping along the coasts of New York and New Jersey and spreading by telephone and wireless, letter and postcard."[13] At first, after the Beach Haven incident, scientists and the press reluctantly blamed the death of Charles Vansant on a shark.[14] The New York Times reported that Vansant "was badly bitten in the surf ... by a fish, presumably a shark."[15] Still, State Fish Commissioner of Pennsylvania and former director of the Philadelphia Aquarium James M. Meehan asserted in the Philadelphia Public Ledger that the shark was preying on the dog, but bit Vansant by mistake.[16] He specifically de-emphasized the threat sharks posed to humans:
Despite the death of Charles Vansant and the report that two sharks having been caught in that vicinity recently, I do not believe there is any reason why people should hesitate to go in swimming at the beaches for fear of man-eaters. The information in regard to the sharks is indefinite and I hardly believe that Vansant was bitten by a man-eater. Vansant was in the surf playing with a dog and it may be that a small shark had drifted in at high water, and was marooned by the tide. Being unable to move quickly and without food, he had come in to bite the dog and snapped at the man in passing.[17]
The media's response to the second attack was more sensational. Major American newspapers such as the Boston Herald, Chicago Sun-Times, The Philadelphia Inquirer, The Washington Post and San Francisco Chronicle placed the story on the front page. The New York Times' headline read, "Shark Kills Bather Off Jersey Beach".[3] The growing panic had cost New Jersey resort owners an estimated $250,000 ($5,600,000 in 2017) in lost tourism, and bathing had declined 75 percent in some areas.[18] A press conference was convened on July 8, 1916, at the American Museum of Natural History with scientists Frederic Augustus Lucas, John Treadwell Nichols, and Robert Cushman Murphy as panelists. To calm the growing panic, the three men stressed that a third run in with a shark was unlikely, although they were admittedly surprised that sharks bit anyone at all. Nevertheless, Nichols—the only ichthyologist in the trio—warned swimmers to stay close to shore and to take advantage of the netted bathing areas installed at public beaches after the first attack.[19]
Philadelphia Inquirer coverage of the attacks at Matawan with portraits of Stanley Fisher (bottom right) and Lester Stilwell
Shark sightings increased along the Mid-Atlantic Coast following the attacks. On July 8, armed motorboats patrolling the beach at Spring Creek chased an animal they thought to be a shark, and Asbury Park's Asbury Avenue Beach was closed after lifeguard Benjamin Everingham claimed to have beaten off a 12-foot (4 m) long shark with an oar. Sharks were spotted near Bayonne, New Jersey; Rocky Point, New York; Bridgeport, Connecticut; Jacksonville, Florida; and Mobile, Alabama, and a columnist from Field & Stream captured a sandbar shark in the surf at Beach Haven.[20][21] Actress Gertrude Hoffmann was swimming at the Coney Island beach shortly after the Matawan fatalities when she claimed to have encountered a shark. The New York Times noted that Hoffman "had the presence of mind to remember that she had read in the Times that a bather can scare away a shark by splashing, and she beat up the water furiously." Hoffman was certain she was going to be devoured by the "Jersey man-eater", but later admitted she was "not sure ... whether she had her trouble for nothing or had barely escaped death."[22][23]
Local New Jersey governments made efforts to protect bathers and the economy from man-eating sharks.[24] The Fourth Avenue Beach at Asbury Park was enclosed with a steel-wire-mesh fence and patrolled by armed motorboats; it remained the only beach open following the Everingham incident. After the fatal attacks of Stilwell, Fisher, and Dunn, residents of Matawan lined Matawan Creek with nets and detonated dynamite in an attempt to catch and kill the shark. Matawan mayor Arris B. Henderson ordered the Matawan Journal to print wanted posters offering a $100 reward ($2,200 in 2017 dollars) to anyone killing a shark in the creek. Despite the town's efforts, no sharks were captured or killed in Matawan Creek.[25] The "Matawan Journal" reported the shark account incident in the front page of its July 13, 1916 issue[26] with another article about the capture of a shark in Keyport a neighboring town in the issue of July 20, 1916.[27]
Resort communities along the Jersey Shore petitioned the federal government to aid local efforts to protect beaches and hunt sharks. The House of Representatives appropriated $5,000 ($110,000 in 2017 dollars) for eradicating the New Jersey shark threat, and President Woodrow Wilson scheduled a meeting with his Cabinet to discuss the fatal attacks. Treasury secretary William Gibbs McAdoo suggested that the Coast Guard be mobilized to patrol the Jersey Shore and protect bathers.[28] Shark hunts ensued across the coasts of New Jersey and New York; as the Atlanta Constitution reported on July 14, "Armed shark hunters in motor boats patrolled the New York and New Jersey coasts today while others lined the beaches in a concerted effort to exterminate the man-eaters ..."[29] New Jersey governor James Fairman Fielder and local municipalities offered bounties to individuals hunting sharks.[30] Hundreds of sharks were captured on the East Coast as a result of the attacks. The East Coast shark hunt is described as "the largest scale animal hunt in history."[31]
Identifying the "Jersey man-eater"[edit]
After the second incident, scientists and the public presented theories to explain which species of shark was responsible for the Jersey Shore attacks or whether multiple sharks were involved. Lucas and Nichols proposed that a northward-swimming rogue shark was responsible. They believed it would eventually arrive along New York's coast: "Unless the shark came through the Harbor and went through the north through Hell Gate and Long Island Sound, it was presumed it would swim along the South Shore of Long Island and the first deep water inlet it reaches will be the Jamaica Bay."[32]
German American Michael Schleisser and the great white shark caught in Raritan Bay purported to be the "Jersey man-eater" as seen in the Bronx Home News
Witnesses of the Beach Haven fatality estimated that the shark was 9 feet (3 m) long. A sea captain who saw the event believed it was a Spanish shark driven from the Caribbean Sea decades earlier by bombings during the Spanish–American War.[33] Several fishermen claimed to have caught the "Jersey man-eater" in the days following the attacks. A blue shark was captured on July 14 near Long Branch, and four days later the same Thomas Cottrell who had seen the shark in Matawan Creek claimed to have captured a sandbar shark with a gillnet near the mouth of the creek.[34]
On July 14, Harlem taxidermist and Barnum and Bailey lion tamer Michael Schleisser caught a 7.5 foot (2.3 m), 325 pound (147 kg) shark while fishing in Raritan Bay only a few miles from the mouth of Matawan Creek. The shark nearly sank the boat before Schleisser killed it with a broken oar. When he opened the shark's belly, he removed a "suspicious fleshy material and bones" that took up "about two-thirds of a milk crate" and "together weighed fifteen pounds."[35] Scientists identified the shark as a young great white and the ingested remains as human.[36] Schleisser mounted the shark and placed it on display in the window of a Manhattan shop on Broadway but it was later lost. The only surviving photograph appeared in the Bronx Home News.[37]
No further attacks were reported along the Jersey Shore in the summer of 1916 after the capture of Schleisser's shark. Murphy and Lucas declared the great white to be the "Jersey man-eater".[38] Skeptical individuals, however, offered alternative hypotheses. In a letter to The New York Times, Barrett P. Smith of Sound Beach, New York wrote:
Having read with much interest the account of the fatality off Spring Lake, N.J., I should like to offer a suggestion somewhat at variance with the shark theory. In my opinion it is most unlikely that a shark was responsible, and I believe it much more likely that the attack was made by a sea turtle. I have spent much time at sea and along shore, and have several times seen turtles large enough to inflict just such wounds. These creatures are of a vicious disposition, and when annoyed are extremely dangerous to approach, and it is my idea that Bruder may have disturbed one while it was asleep on or close to the surface.[39]
Another letter to The New York Times blamed the shark infestation on the maneuvers of German U-boats near America's East Coast. The anonymous writer claimed, "These sharks may have devoured human bodies in the waters of the German war zone and followed liners to this coast, or even followed the Deutschland herself, expecting the usual toll of drowning men, women, and children." The writer concluded, "This would account for their boldness and their craving for human flesh."[40]
Decades later, there is no consensus among researchers over Murphy and Lucas's investigation and findings. Richard G. Fernicola published two studies of the event, and notes that "there are many theories behind the New Jersey attacks," and all are inconclusive.[41] Researchers such as Thomas Helm, Harold W. McCormick, Thomas B. Allen, William Young, Jean Campbell Butler, and Michael Capuzzo generally agree with Murphy and Lucas.[42] However, the National Geographic Society reported in 2002 that "some experts are suggesting that the great white may not in fact be responsible for many of the attacks pinned on the species. These people say the real culprit behind many of the reported incidents—including the famous 1916 shark attacks in New Jersey that may have served as inspiration for Jaws—may be the lesser known bull shark."[43]
Biologists George A. Llano and Richard Ellis suggest that a bull shark could have been responsible for the fatal Jersey Shore attacks. Bull sharks swim from the ocean into freshwater rivers and streams and have attacked people around the world. In his book Sharks: Attacks on Man (1975), Llano writes,
One of the most surprising aspects of the Matawan Creek attacks was the distance from the open sea. Elsewhere in the book are accounts of well-documented shark-human interactions at Ahwaz, Iran, which is 90 miles (140 km) upriver from the sea. It may also be of interest to note that sharks live in Lake Nicaragua, a fresh-water body, and in 1944 there was a bounty offered for dead freshwater sharks, as they had "killed and severely injured lake bathers recently."[44]
Ellis points out that the great white "is an oceanic species, and Schleisser's shark was caught in the ocean. To find it swimming in a tidal creek is, to say the least, unusual, and may even be impossible. The bull shark, however, is infamous for its freshwater meanderings, as well as for its pugnacious and aggressive nature." He admits that "the bull shark is not a common species in New Jersey waters, but it does occur more frequently than the white."[45]
In an interview with Michael Capuzzo, ichthyologist George H. Burgess surmises, "The species involved has always been doubtful and likely will continue to generate spirited debate." Burgess, however, does not discount the great white:
The bull draws a lot of votes because the location, Matawan Creek, suggests brackish or fresh waters, a habitat that bulls frequent and whites avoid. However, our examination of the site reveals that the size of the "creek," its depth, and salinity regime were closer to a marine embayment and that a smallish white clearly could have wandered into the area. Since an appropriate sized white shark with human remains in its stomach was captured nearby shortly after the attacks (and no further incidents occurred), it seems likely that this was the shark involved in at least the Matawan fatalities. The temporal and geographical sequence of the incidents also suggests that earlier attacks may have involved the same shark.[46]
The casualties of the 1916 attacks are listed in the International Shark Attack File—of which Burgess is director—as victims of a great white.[47]
The increased presence of humans in the water proved a factor in the attacks: "As the worldwide human population continues to rise year after year, so does ... interest in aquatic recreation. The number of shark attacks in any given year or region is highly influenced by the number of people entering the water."[48] However, the likelihood that one shark was involved is contested. Scientists such as Victor M. Coppleson and Jean Butler, relying on evidence presented by Lucas and Murphy in 1916, assert that a single shark was responsible.[49] On the other hand, Richard Fernicola notes that 1916 was a "shark year" as fishermen and captains were reporting hundreds of sharks swimming in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States.[50] Ellis remarks that "to try to make the facts as we know them conform to the 'rogue shark' theory is stretching sensationalism and credibility beyond reasonable limits." He admits, "The evidence is long gone, and we will never really know if it was one shark or several, one species or another, that was responsible."[51]
In 2011, further study was conducted in the Smithsonian Channel's The Real Story: Jaws. The documentary takes a closer look at the series of events from different perspectives. It was demonstrated in the Matawan Creek attacks, for example, that the full moon of the lunar cycle, which would have coincided with the attacks, would have raised the salinity in the water by more than double just a few hours before high tide. This would have shown support for the theory that a great white could have been responsible. Other evidence such as Joseph Dunn's injury suggested that the type of bite was more likely made by a bull shark as opposed to a great white, leading some to believe more than one shark was likely involved in the five incidents.[52]
Revising science[edit]
Before 1916, American scholars doubted that sharks would fatally wound a living person in the temperate waters of the northeastern United States without provocation. One skeptical scientist wrote, "There is a great difference between being attacked by a shark and being bitten by one." He believed that sharks tangled in fishing nets or feeding on carrion might accidentally bite a nearby human.[53] In 1891, millionaire banker and adventurer Hermann Oelrichs offered a $500 reward in the New York Sun "for an authenticated case of a man having been attacked by a shark in [the] temperate waters" north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.[54] He wanted proof that "in temperate waters even one man, woman, or child, while alive, was ever attacked by a shark."[55] The reward went unclaimed and scientists remained convinced that the upper eastern coast of the United States was inhabited by harmless sharks.[56][57]
Leading scientists of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City debated the threat posed by sharks before and after the 1916 Jersey Shore attacks.
Academics were skeptical that a shark could produce fatal wounds on human victims. Ichthyologist Henry Weed Fowler and curator Henry Skinner of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia asserted that a shark's jaws did not have the power to sever a human leg in a single bite.[58] Frederic Lucas, director of the American Museum of Natural History, questioned whether a shark even as large as 30 feet (9 m) could snap a human bone. He told The Philadelphia Inquirer in early 1916 that "it is beyond the power even of the largest Carcharodon to sever the leg of an adult man." Lucas summed up his argument by pointing to Oelrichs's unclaimed reward and that the chances of being bitten by a shark were "infinitely less than that of being struck by lightning and that there is practically no danger of an attack from a shark about our coasts."[59]
The Jersey Shore attacks compelled scientists in the United States to revise their assumptions that sharks were timid and powerless. In July 1916, ichthyologist and editor for the National Geographic Society Hugh McCormick Smith published an article in the Newark Star-Eagle describing some shark species as "harmless as doves and others the incarnation of ferocity." He continued, "One of the most prodigious, and perhaps the most formidable of sharks is the man-eater, Carcharodon carcharias [great white]. It roams through all temperate and tropical seas, and everywhere is an object of dread. Its maximum length is forty feet and its teeth are three inches (76 mm) long."[60]
By the end of July 1916, John Nichols and Robert Murphy were taking the great white more seriously. In Scientific American, Murphy wrote that the "white shark is perhaps the rarest of all noteworthy sharks ... their habits are little known, but they are said to feed to some extent on big sea turtles ... Judging from its physical make-up, it would not hesitate to attack a man in open water." He concluded that "because it is evident that even a relatively small white shark, weighing two or three hundred pounds, might readily snap the largest human bones by a jerk of its body, after it has bitten through the flesh."[61]
Robert Murphy and John Nichols wrote in October 1916:
There is something peculiarly sinister in the shark's make-up. The sight of his dark, lean [dorsal] fin lazily cutting zig-zags in the surface of some quiet, sparkling summer sea, and then slipping out of sight not to appear again, suggests an evil spirit. His leering, chinless face, his great mouth with its rows of knife-like teeth, which he knows too well to use on the fisherman's gear; the relentless fury with which, when his last hour has come, he thrashes on deck and snaps at his enemies; his toughness, his brutal, nerveless vitality and insensibility to physical injury, fail to elicit the admiration one feels for the dashing, brilliant, destructive, gastronomic bluefish, tunny, or salmon.[62]
After the Matawan attacks, Frederic Lucas admitted on the front page of The New York Times that he had underestimated sharks. The paper reported that "the foremost authority on sharks in this country has doubted that any shark ever attacked a human being, and has published his doubts, but the recent cases have changed his view."[23] Nichols later documented the occurrence of the great white shark in his biological survey Fishes of the Vicinity of New York City (1918), "Carcharodon carcharias (Linn.) White Shark. "Man-eater." Accidental in summer. June to July 14, 1916."[63]
Cultural impact[edit]
Cartoon from the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin featuring Uncle Sam and a U-boat caricatured as a shark.
Cartoon commenting on a Victorian era bathing suit and its ability to frighten sharks
While sharks had been seen as harmless, the pendulum of public opinion quickly swung to the other extreme, and sharks quickly came to be viewed not only as eating machines, but also as fearless, ruthless killers.
After the first fatality, newspaper cartoonists began using sharks as caricatures for political figures, German U-boats, Victorian morality and fashion, polio, and the deadly heat wave threatening the Northeast. Fernicola notes, "Since 1916 was among the years that Americans were trying to break away from the rigidity and conservatism of the Victorian period, one comic depicted a risqué polka-dot bathing suit and advertised it as the secret weapon to keep sharks away from our swimmers." Another cartoon depicted "an exasperated individual at the end of a dock that displays a 'Danger: No Swimming' sign and mentions the three most emphasized 'danger' topics of the day: 'Infantile Paralysis (polio), Epidemic Heat Wave, and Sharks in the Ocean'." The cartoon is entitled "What's a Family Man to Do?"[64] With America's growing distrust of Germany in 1916, cartoonists depicted U-boats with the mouth and fins of a shark assaulting Uncle Sam while he wades in the water.[65]
In 1974, writer Peter Benchley published Jaws, a novel about a rogue great white shark that terrorizes the fictional coastal community of Amity Island. Chief of police Martin Brody, biologist Matt Hooper, and fisherman Quint hunt the shark after it kills four people. The novel was adapted as the film Jaws by Steven Spielberg in 1975. Spielberg's film makes reference to the events of 1916: Brody (Roy Scheider) and Hooper (Richard Dreyfuss) urge Amity's Mayor Vaughn (Murray Hamilton) to close the beaches on the Fourth of July after the deaths of two swimmers and a fisherman. Hooper explains to the mayor, "Look, the situation is that apparently a great white shark has staked a claim in the waters off Amity Island. And he's going to continue to feed here as long as there is food in the water." Brody adds, "And there's no limit to what he's gonna do! I mean we've already had three incidents, two people killed inside of a week. And it's gonna happen again, it happened before! The Jersey beach! ... 1916! Five people chewed up on the surf!"[66] Richard Ellis, Richard Fernicola, and Michael Capuzzo suggest that the 1916 Jersey Shore attacks, Coppleson's rogue shark theory, and the exploits of New York fisherman Frank Mundus inspired Benchley.[67] While Benchley states Mundus was an inspiration for Quint, he has denied the book was inspired by attacks off New Jersey in 1916.[68] The attacks are also briefly referred to in Benchley's novel White Shark (1994).[69]
The 1916 fatal attacks are the subject of three studies: Richard G. Fernicola's In Search of the "Jersey Man-Eater" (1987) and Twelve Days of Terror (2001) and Michael Capuzzo's Close to Shore (2001). Capuzzo offers an in-depth dramatization of the incident, and Fernicola examines the scientific, medical, and social aspects of the attacks.[70][71] Fernicola's research is the basis of an episode of the History Channel's documentary series In Search of History titled "Shark Attack 1916" (2001) and the Discovery Channel's docudrama 12 Days of Terror (2004).[72][73] Fernicola also wrote and directed a 90-minute documentary called Tracking the Jersey Man-Eater. It was produced by the George Marine Library in 1991; however, it was never widely released.[74]
The attacks at Matawan are the subject of the National Geographic Channel documentary Attacks of the Mystery Shark (2002), which examines the possibility that a bull shark was responsible for killing Stanley Fisher and Lester Stilwell;[43] Discovery Channel's Blood in the Water (2009); Shore Thing (2009) (directed by Lovari and James Hill); and Smithsonian Channel's The Real Story: Jaws (2011).[52]
See also[edit]
List of fatal, unprovoked shark attacks in the United States
Summer of the Shark
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 1–9; Capuzzo, Close to Shore, pp. 88–103; Thomas B. Allen, Shadows in the Sea: The Sharks, Skates, and Rays, (1963; Guilford, Conn.: The Lyons Press, 1996), pp. 3–4, ISBN 1-55821-518-2.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 13–21, 29; Capuzzo, Close to Shore, pp. 136–146; Allen, Shadows in the Sea, pp. 4–6.
^ Jump up to: a b "Shark Kills Bather Off Jersey Beach. Bites Off Both Legs of a Youth Swimming Beyond Spring Lake Life Lines. Guards Find Him Dying. Women Are Panic-Stricken as Mutilated Body of Hotel Employee Is Brought Ashore" (PDF). The New York Times. July 7, 1916. Retrieved 2007-08-21. Hundreds of men and women and many children were on the beach this afternoon when a swimmer, far out beyond the outer life lines, raised a cry for help. George White and Chris Anderson, life guards, who had been watching the swimmer closely because of his distance from shore, launched a lifeboat and started for him while the crowd on the beach watched in suspense and fear.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 33–34.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 45.
Jump up ^ Capo, Fran (2004). "When the Shark Bites". It happened in New Jersey. Guilford, Conn.: Twodot. p. 97. ISBN 0-7627-2358-0.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 45–50.
Jump up ^ Capuzzo, Close to Shore, pp. 238–240.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 45–56.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 83–84; Capuzzo, Close to Shore, pp. 205–248; Allen, Shadows in the Sea, pp. 8–12
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 56–57, 158, 176; Allen, Shadows in the Sea, p. 12, lists Dunn as 14, not 12; The New York Times reported his age at 12 ("Shark Kills 2 Bathers, Maims 1, Near New York," July 13, 1916, p. 1); see also Joseph Dunn's census and hospital records for his age at the time of the incidents; last accessed September 1, 2007.
Jump up ^ McCall, Matt; 02, National Geographic PUBLISHED July. "2 Weeks, 4 Deaths, and the Beginning of America's Fear of Sharks". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-07-28.
Jump up ^ Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 269.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 9.
Jump up ^ "Dies After Attack By Fish," The New York Times, July 3, 1916, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 7–11.
Jump up ^ "Bathers Need Have No Fear of Sharks: Lousy Fish Expert Declares One That Killed Swimmer May Have Sought To Attack Dog," Philadelphia Public Ledger, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 9–10.
Jump up ^ Allen, Shadows in the Sea, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 22–23.
Jump up ^ "Motor Boats Hunt Man-Eating Sharks Off Jersey Coast," Atlanta Constitution, July 14, 1916, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 26–27.
Jump up ^ Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 267–269.
^ Jump up to: a b "Many See Sharks, But All Get Away. Matawan's Population, With Weapons And Dynamite, Seek Man-Eater That Killed Two. Science Admits Its Error. No Longer Doubted That Big Fish Attack Men. New Theories As To Why Coast Is Now Infested" (PDF). The New York Times. July 14, 1916. Retrieved 2007-08-21. Matawan Creek, the little stream in which two swimmers were killed by a shark and another severely bitten on Wednesday, was alive with sharks yesterday, according to the scores of men who went out to hunt them with rifles, shotguns, boat hooks, harpoons, pikes, and dynamite.
Jump up ^ "Shark Guards Out At Beach Resorts; Wire Nets Set Against Supposed Man-Eater That Killed Spring Lake Bather," The New York Times, July 8, 1916, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 67.
Jump up ^ http://173.12.11.248/DATA/1900-24/1916/1916-07-13.pdf[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ http://173.12.11.248/DATA/1900-24/1916/1916-07-20.pdf[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 67–70.
Jump up ^ "Motor Boats Hunt Man-Eating Sharks Off Jersey Coast," Atlanta Constitution, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 72.
Jump up ^ Nichols in the New York American, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 151.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 7–8.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 144–145.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 151–156.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 163.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 163–164.
Jump up ^ Capuzzo, Close to Shore, pp. 296–297; Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 179.
Jump up ^ Barrett P. Smith, "Perhaps It Was a Turtle," The New York Times, July 14, 1916, p. 10.
Jump up ^ A. M. E., "Sharks and Submarines," The New York Times, July 15, 1916, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 184.
Jump up ^ Thomas Helm, Shark!: Unpredictable Killer of the Sea (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1962), OCLC 1521199; Harold W. McCormick, Thomas B. Allen, and William Young, Shadows in the Sea: The Sharks, Skates, and Rays (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1963), OCLC 965044; Jean Campbell Butler, Danger, Shark! (Boston: Little, Brown, 1964), OCLC 1392203; for a summary of these researchers' findings, see Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 179–180.
^ Jump up to: a b Brian Handwerk, "Great Whites May Be Taking the Rap for Bull Shark Attacks," August 2, 2002, National Geographic News; last accessed July 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ George A. Llano, Sharks: Attacks on Man (New York: Tempo Books, 1975), pp. 57–58, ISBN 0-448-12217-0.
Jump up ^ Richard Ellis, The Book of Sharks (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), p. 186, ISBN 0-15-613552-3.
Jump up ^ George H. Burgess, interview with Michael Capuzzo, n.d., available at Random House.com; last accessed July 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ See the graphic map, "1916–2006 United States (incl. Hawaii) Confirmed Unprovoked Attacks by White Sharks", International Shark Attack File; last accessed July 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ George Burgess, "The Relative Risk of Shark Attacks to Humans: More People Mean More Attacks," International Shark Attack File; last accessed July 31, 2007.
Jump up ^ Victor M. Coppleson, Shark Attack (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1959) OCLC 1547643, and Butler, Danger, Shark!, both cited in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 248.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. 229–231.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Book of Sharks, p. 187.
^ Jump up to: a b The Real Story: Jaws (Smithsonian Channel, 2011); last accessed May 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ Frederic Lucas, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. xxix.
Jump up ^ Hermann Oelrichs, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. xxv.
Jump up ^ Oelrichs, quoted in Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, xxv.
Jump up ^ Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, pp. xxvi–xxviii.
Jump up ^ Frederic Lucas, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. xxx.
Jump up ^ Hugh M. Smith, "Great Shark May Have Swallowed Jonah: Scientist Shows Biblical 'Great Fish' Has Counterpart in Present-Day Monster," Newark Star-Eagle, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 160.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Scientific American, July 1916, quoted in Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, 171.
Jump up ^ Murphy and Nichols, Brooklyn Museum Science Bulletin, quoted in Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 285.
Jump up ^ John T. Nichols, Fishes of the Vicinity of New York City, (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1918), p. 101. See full text at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 27.
Jump up ^ Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Jaws, dir. Steven Spielberg (Universal Pictures, 1975).
Jump up ^ Ellis, Book of Sharks, p. 209; Fernicola, Twelve Days of Terror, p. 180; Capuzzo, Close to Shore, p. 297.
Jump up ^ "Corrections". The New York Times. 2001-09-08. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ Peter Benchley, White Shark (New York: St. Martin's, 1994), p. 51, ISBN 0-312-95573-1.
Jump up ^ Adam Dunn, "Review: A biting history on the roots of 'Jaws'," review of Close to Shore, CNN.com Archived 2007-10-16 at the Wayback Machine.; last accessed July 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lane Hartill, "My, what nice teeth you have," The Christian Science Monitor, June 21, 2001, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Shark Attack 1916, dir. David Ackroyd, In Search of ... (A&E Television, 2001).
Jump up ^ 12 Days of Terror, dir. Jack Sholder (Discovery Fox Television, 2004).
Jump up ^ Tracking the Jersey Man-Eater, dir. Richard G. Fernicola (George Marine Library, 1991).
75. Shore Thing, IMDB - https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1290114
Further reading[edit]
Capuzzo, Michael. "Close to Shore: A True Story of Terror in an Age of Innocence". New York. Broadway Books, 2001. ISBN 978-0-7679-0413-1.
Fernicola, Richard G. In Search of the "Jersey Man-Eater": An Exhaustive Investigation of the Infamous Shark Attacks that Plagued the New Jersey Shore during the Summer of 1916. Deal, N.J.: George Marine Library, 1986. OCLC 16678080
Fleming, Thomas J. New Jersey: A History. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984. ISBN 0-393-30180-X.
Genovese, Peter. The Jersey Shore Uncovered: A Revealing Season on the Beach. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8135-3315-5.
Henderson, Helen. Matawan and Aberdeen: Of Town and Field. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-7385-2403-4.
May, Nathaniel. Shark: Stories of Life and Death from the World's Most Dangerous Waters. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2002. ISBN 1-56025-397-5.
Nichols, John T. Fishes of the vicinity of New York city, by John Treadwell Nichols, with an introduction by William K. Gregory. New York, Printed at the Museum, 1918. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/1951.
Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. Vacationing on the Jersey Shore: The Past and Present, with a Guide to the Beach Resorts. Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8117-2970-2.
External links[edit]
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Banded iron formation
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Banded iron formation
Sedimentary rock
Banded iron formation, Karijini National Park, Western Australia
Composition
Primary
iron oxides, shales and cherts
Secondary
Other
2.1 billion year old rock showing banded iron formation
Banded iron formations (also known as banded ironstone formations or BIFs) are distinctive units of sedimentary rock that are almost always of Precambrian age.
A typical banded iron formation consists of repeated, thin layers (a few millimeters to a few centimeters in thickness) of silver to black iron oxides, either magnetite (Fe3O4) or hematite (Fe2O3), alternating with bands of iron-poor shales and cherts, often red in color, of similar thickness, and containing microbands (sub-millimeter) of iron oxides.[1]
Some of the oldest known rock formations, formed over 3,700 million years ago, include banded iron layers.[2] Banded iron beds are an important commercial source of iron ore, such as the Pilbara region of Western Australia and the Animikie Group in Minnesota.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Snowball Earth
3 Sudbury Basin impact
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Origins[edit]
Close-up of banded iron formation specimen from Upper Michigan.
The formations are abundant around the time of the great oxygenation event,[3] 2,400 million years ago (mya or Ma), and become less common after 1,800 mya[4] with evidence pointing to intermittent low levels of free atmospheric oxygen.[5] 750 million years ago new banded iron formations formed that are associated with Snowball Earth[6].
An ashtray carved out of a soft form of banded ironstone from the 3.5 billion year old Barbeton Supergroup in South Africa. The red layers were laid down during the daylight hours when Archaean photosynthesizing cyanobacteria produced oxygen that immediately reacted with dissolved iron compounds in the water, to form insoluble iron oxide (rust). The white layers are sediments that settled during the night when there was no oxygen in the water.[7]
The conventional hypothesis is that the banded iron layers were formed in sea water as the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The oxygen then combined with dissolved iron in Earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the ocean floor, which may have been anoxic mud (forming shale and chert). Each band is similar to a varve, to the extent that the banding is assumed to result from cyclic variations in available oxygen. It is unclear whether these banded ironstone formations were seasonal, followed some feedback oscillation in the ocean's complex system or followed some other cycle.[8] It is assumed that initially the Earth started with vast amounts of iron and nickel dissolved in the world's acidic seas. As photosynthetic organisms generated oxygen, the available iron in the Earth's oceans precipitated out as iron oxides. At a suspected tipping point where the oceans became permanently oxygenated, small variations in oxygen production produced periods of free oxygen in the surface waters, alternating with periods of iron oxide deposition.
Snowball Earth[edit]
Water flowing over iron-rich beds in Rio Tinto, Spain
Until 1992[9] it was assumed that the rare, later (younger) banded iron deposits represented unusual conditions where oxygen was depleted locally. Iron-rich waters would then form in isolation and subsequently come into contact with oxygenated water. The Snowball Earth hypothesis provided an alternative explanation for these younger deposits. In a Snowball Earth state the continents, and possibly seas at low latitudes, were subject to a severe ice age circa 750 to 580 million years ago (mya) that nearly or totally depleted free oxygen. Dissolved iron then accumulated in the oxygen-poor oceans (possibly from seafloor hydrothermal vents). Following the thawing of the Earth, the seas became oxygenated once more causing the precipitation of the iron.
An alternative mechanism for banded iron formations in the Snowball Earth era suggests the iron was deposited from metal-rich brines in the vicinity of hydrothermally active rift zones.[10] Alternatively, some geochemists suggest that banded iron formations could form by direct oxidation of iron by microbial anoxygenic phototrophs.[11]
Sudbury Basin impact[edit]
Banded iron formations in Northern Minnesota were found directly underneath a thick layer of ejecta from the Sudbury Basin impact. At the time of formation Earth had a single supercontinent called Columbia with substantial continental shelves. An asteroid (estimated at 10 km across) slammed into waters about 1,000 m deep some 1.85 billion years ago. Computer models suggest that the tsunami would have been at least 1,000 metres high at the centre, and 100 metres high about 3,000 kilometres away. Those immense waves and large underwater landslides triggered by the impact stirred the ocean, bringing oxygenated waters from the surface down to the ocean floor.[4]
Sediments deposited on the seafloor before the impact, including banded iron formations, contained little if any oxidized iron (Fe(III)), but were high in reduced iron (Fe(II)). This Fe(III) to Fe(II) ratio suggests that most parts of the ocean were relatively devoid of oxygen. Marine sediments deposited after the impact included substantial amounts of Fe(III) but very little Fe(II). This suggests that sizeable amounts of dissolved oxygen were available to form sediments rich in Fe(III). Following the impact dissolved iron was mixed into the deepest parts of the ocean. This would have choked off most of the supply of Fe(II) to shallower waters where banded iron formations typically accumulated.
The geological record suggests that environmental changes were happening in oceans worldwide even before the Sudbury impact. The role of the Sudbury Basin impact in temporarily shutting down banded iron formation accumulation is not fully understood.
See also[edit]
Iron-rich sedimentary rocks
Taconite
Iron Range
Stromatolite
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Katsuta, N.; Shimizu, I.; Helmstaedt, H.; Takano, M.; Kawakami, S.; Kumazawa, M. (1 June 2012). "Major element distribution in Archean banded iron formation (BIF): influence of metamorphic differentiation". Journal of Metamorphic Geology. 30 (5): 457–472. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2012.00975.
Jump up ^ Minik T. Rosing, et al., Earliest part of Earth's stratigraphic record: A reappraisal of the >3.7 Ga Isua (Greenland) supracrustal sequence, Geology, 1996, v. 24 no. 1 p. 43-46
Jump up ^ Cloud, P. (1973). "Paleoecological Significance of the Banded Iron-Formation". Economic Geology. 68 (7): 1135–1143. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.68.7.1135.
^ Jump up to: a b Slack, J. F.; Cannon, W. F. (2009). "Extraterrestrial demise of banded iron formations 1.85 billion years ago". Geology. 37 (11): 1011. Bibcode:2009Geo....37.1011S. doi:10.1130/G30259A.1.
Jump up ^ Lyons, T. W.; Reinhard, C. T. (2009). "Early Earth: Oxygen for heavy-metal fans". Nature. 461 (7261): 179–181. Bibcode:2009Natur.461..179L. doi:10.1038/461179a. PMID 19741692.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, P. F.; Kaufman, A. J.; Halverson, G. P.; Schrag, D. P. (1998). "A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth" (PDF). Science. 281 (5381): 1342–1346. Bibcode:1998Sci...281.1342H. doi:10.1126/science.281.5381.1342. PMID 9721097.
Jump up ^ Margulis, L., Sagan, D. (1995). ‘’What is Life?’’. p. 81-83. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.
Jump up ^ Good discussions for the layman are in Cesare Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed. 1994:303-05.
Jump up ^ Kirschvink, Joseph (1992). "Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth", in J. W. Schopf; C. Klein: The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Eyles, N.; Januszczak, N. (2004). "’Zipper-rift’: A tectonic model for Neoproterozoic glaciations during the breakup of Rodinia after 750 Ma". Earth-Science Reviews 65 (1-2): 1-73 Archived 28 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on 2008-02-04.
Jump up ^ Andreas Kappler et al.: Deposition of banded iron formations by anoxygenic phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria. Geology, November 2005, v. 33, no. 11, p. 865–868. (pdf, 250 Kb) (doi:10.1130/G21658.1 Abstract)
References[edit]
Jelte P. Harnmeijer, 2003, Banded Iron-Formation: A Continuing Enigma of Geology, University of Washington Doc format
Klein, Cornelis, 2005, Some Precambrian banded iron-formations (BIFs) from around the world: Their age, geologic setting, mineralogy, metamorphism, geochemistry, and origins, American Mineralogist; October 2005; v. 90; no. 10; p. 1473–1499; doi:10.2138/am.2005.1871 http://ammin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/short/90/10/1473 abstract.
Andreas Kappler, et al., 2005, Deposition of banded iron formations by anoxygenic phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria, Geology; November 2005; v. 33; no. 11; p. 865–868; doi:10.1130/G21658.1 http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~claudia/papers/kappleretal_GEO2005.pdf
Bekker, A., Slack, J.F., Planavsky, N., Krapež, B., Hofmann, A., Konhauser, K.O., and Rouxel, O.J., 2010, Iron formation: The sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes, Economic Geology, v. 105, 467-508. PDF
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Banded iron formations
"Jaspilite". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Flickr.com: Banded Iron Formation photo gallery
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Banded iron formation.
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