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Second Great Awakening
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Great Awakening
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The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800 and, after 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1850s. The Second Great Awakening reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the super-natural. It rejected the skeptical rationalism and deism of the Enlightenment.
The revivals enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements designed to remedy the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ.[1]
Historians named the Second Great Awakening in the context of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s and of the Third Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early 1900s. These revivals were part of a much larger Romantic religious movement that was sweeping across Europe at the time, mainly throughout England, Scotland, and Germany.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Spread of revivals
1.1 Background
1.2 Theology
1.3 Burned-over district
1.4 West and Tidewater South
1.5 West
1.6 Church membership soars
2 Subgroups
2.1 Adventism
2.2 Holiness movement
2.3 Restoration Movement
3 Culture and society
4 Slaves and free Africans
5 Women
6 Prominent figures
7 Political implications
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Historiography
Spread of revivals[edit]
Background[edit]
Like the First Great Awakening a half century earlier, the Second reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the super-natural.[3] It rejected the skepticism, deism, and rationalism left over from the Enlightenment.[4] At about the same time, similar movements flourished in Europe. Pietism was sweeping German countries.[5] Evangelicalism was waxing strong in England.[6]
The Second Great Awakening occurred in several episodes and over different denominations; however, the revivals were very similar.[4] As the most effective form of evangelizing during this period, revival meetings cut across geographical boundaries,[7] and the movement quickly spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Ohio. Each denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the frontier. The Methodists had an efficient organization that depended on itinerant ministers, known as circuit riders, who sought out people in remote frontier locations. The circuit riders came from among the common people, which helped them establish rapport with the frontier families they hoped to convert.
Theology[edit]
Main article: Postmillennialism
Postmillennialism theology dominated American Protestantism in the first half of the 19th century. Postmillennialists believed that Christ will return to earth after the "millennium", which could entail either a literal 1,000 years or a figurative "long period" of peace and happiness. Christians thus had a duty to purify society in preparation for that return. This duty extended beyond American borders to include Christian Restorationism. George Fredrickson argues that Postmillennial theology "was an impetus to the promotion of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out."[8] During the Second Great Awakening of the 1830s, some diviners expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. By the 1840s, however, the great day had receded to the distant future, and postmillennialism became a more passive religious dimension of the wider middle-class pursuit of reform and progress.[8]
Burned-over district[edit]
Main article: Burned-over district
In the early nineteenth century, western New York State was called the "burned-over district" because of the highly publicized revivals that crisscrossed the region.[9][10] Charles Finney, a leading revivalist active in the area, coined the term.[11] Linda K. Pritchard uses statistical data to show that compared to the rest of New York State, the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and the country as a whole, the religiosity of the Burned-over District was typical rather than exceptional.[12]
West and Tidewater South[edit]
On the American Frontier, evangelical denominations sent missionary preachers and exhorters out to the people in the backcountry, which supported the growth of membership among Methodists and Baptists. Revivalists' techniques were based on the camp meeting, with its Scottish Presbyterian roots. Most of the Scots-Irish immigrants before the American Revolutionary War settled in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and down the spine of the Appalachian Mountains.[13]
These denominations were based on an interpretation of man's spiritual equality before God, which led them to recruit members and preachers from a wide range of classes and all races. Baptists and Methodist revivals were successful in some parts of the Tidewater in the South, where an increasing number of common planters, plain folk, and slaves were converted.
West[edit]
Main article: Revival of 1800
In the newly settled frontier regions, the revival was implemented through camp meetings. These often provided the first encounter for some settlers with organized religion, and they were important as social venues. The camp meeting was a religious service of several days' length with preachers. Settlers in thinly populated areas gathered at the camp meeting for fellowship as well as worship. The sheer exhilaration of participating in a religious revival with crowds of hundreds and perhaps thousands of people inspired the dancing, shouting, and singing associated with these events. The revivals followed an arc of great emotional power, with an emphasis of the individual's sins and need to turn to Christ, restored by a sense of personal salvation. Upon their return home, most converts joined or created small local churches, which grew rapidly.[14] The Second Great Awakening marked a religious transition in society in America. Many Americans from the Calvinist sect emphasized man's inability to save themselves and that their only way to be saved was from grace from God.[15]
The Revival of 1800 in Logan County, Kentucky, began as a traditional Presbyterian sacramental occasion. The first informal camp meeting began there in June, when people began camping on the grounds of the Red River Meeting House. Subsequent meetings followed at the nearby Gasper River and Muddy River congregations, all three under the ministry of James McGready. One year later, an even larger sacrament occasion was held at Cane Ridge, Kentucky under Barton Stone, attracting perhaps as many as 20,000 people. Numerous Presbyterian, Baptist and Methodist ministers participated in the services. Thanks to such leaders as Barton W. Stone (1772–1844) and Alexander Campbell (1788–1866), the camp meeting revival became a major mode of church expansion for the Methodists and Baptists.[16]
The Cumberland Presbyterian Church emerged in Kentucky. Cane Ridge was also instrumental in fostering what became known as the Restoration Movement. This was made up of non-denominational churches committed to what they saw as the original, fundamental Christianity of the New Testament. They were committed to individuals' achieving a personal relationship with Christ. Churches with roots in this movement include the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada[17]
Church membership soars[edit]
1839 Methodist camp meeting
The Methodist circuit riders and local Baptist preachers made enormous gains; to a lesser extent the Presbyterians gained members, particularly with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in sparsely settled areas. As a result, the numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists. Among the new denominations that grew from the religious ferment of the Second Great Awakening are the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada.[17][18] The converts during the Second Great Awakening were predominantly female. A 1932 source estimated at least three female converts to every two male converts between 1798 and 1826. Young people (those under 25) also converted in greater numbers, and were the first to convert.[19]
Subgroups[edit]
Adventism[edit]
The Advent Movement emerged in the 1830s and 1840s in North America, and was preached by ministers such as William Miller, whose followers became known as Millerites. The name refers to belief in the soon Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) and resulted in several major religious denominations, including Seventh-day Adventists and Advent Christians.[20]
Holiness movement[edit]
Main article: Holiness movement
Though its roots are in the First Great Awakening and earlier, a re-emphasis on Wesleyan teachings on sanctification emerged during the Second Great Awakening, leading to a distinction between Mainline Methodism and Holiness churches.
Restoration Movement[edit]
Main article: Restoration Movement
See also: Restorationism
The idea of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the American Revolution.[21]:89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity without an elaborate hierarchy contributed to the development of many groups during the Second Great Awakening, including the Mormons, Baptists and Shakers.[21]:89 Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period:[21]:90–94
To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in the United States seemed pristine, edenic and undefiled – "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original Christianity" – and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new setting.[21]:90
A primitive faith based on the Bible alone promised a way to sidestep the competing claims of the many denominations available and for congregations to find assurance of being right without the security of an established national church.[21]:93
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening.[22]:368 While the leaders of one of the two primary groups making up this movement, Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell, resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the revivals contributed to the development of the other major branch, led by Barton W. Stone.[22]:368 The Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[22]:368
Culture and society[edit]
Efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. Converts were taught that to achieve salvation they needed not just to repent personal sin but also work for the moral perfection of society, which meant eradicating sin in all its forms. Thus, evangelical converts were leading figures in a variety of 19th century reform movements.[23]
Congregationalists set up missionary societies to evangelize the western territory of the northern tier. Members of these groups acted as apostles for the faith, and also as educators and exponents of northeastern urban culture. The Second Great Awakening served as an "organizing process" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the western frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church-related colleges.[22]:368 Publication and education societies promoted Christian education; most notable among them was the American Bible Society, founded in 1816. Women made up a large part of these voluntary societies.[24] The Female Missionary Society and the Maternal Association, both active in Utica, NY, were highly organized and financially sophisticated women's organizations responsible for many of the evangelical converts of the New York frontier.[25]
There were also societies that broadened their focus from traditional religious concerns to larger societal ones. These organizations were primarily sponsored by affluent women. They did not stem entirely from the Second Great Awakening, but the revivalist doctrine and the expectation that one's conversion would lead to personal action accelerated the role of women's social benevolence work.[26] Social activism influenced abolition groups and supporters of the Temperance movement. They began efforts to reform prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally ill. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were highly moralistic in their endeavors.
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Baptists and Methodists in the South preached to slaveholders and slaves alike. Conversions and congregations started with the First Great Awakening, resulting in Baptist and Methodist preachers being authorized among slaves and free African Americans more than a decade before 1800. "Black Harry" Hosier, an illiterate freedman who drove Francis Asbury on his circuits, proved to be able to memorize large passages of the Bible verbatim and became a cross-over success, as popular among white audiences as the black ones Asbury had originally intended for him to minister.[27] His sermon at Thomas Chapel in Chapeltown, Delaware, in 1784 was the first to be delivered by a black preacher directly to a white congregation.[28]
Despite being called the "greatest orator in America" by Benjamin Rush[29] and one of the best in the world by Bishop Thomas Coke,[28] Hosier was repeatedly passed over for ordination and permitted no vote during his attendance at the Christmas Conference that formally established American Methodism. Richard Allen, the other black attendee, was ordained by the Methodists in 1799, but his congregation of free African Americans in Philadelphia left the church there because of its discrimination. They founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in Philadelphia. After first submitting to oversight by the established Methodist bishops, several AME congregations finally left to form the first independent African-American denomination in the United States in 1816. Soon after, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion) was founded as another denomination in New York City.
Early Baptist congregations were formed by slaves and free African Americans in South Carolina and Virginia. Especially in the Baptist Church, African Americans were welcomed as members and as preachers. By the early 19th century, independent African American congregations numbered in the several hundred in some cities of the South, such as Charleston, South Carolina, and Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia.[30] With the growth in congregations and churches, Baptist associations formed in Virginia, for instance, as well as Kentucky and other states.
The revival also inspired slaves to demand freedom. In 1800, out of African American revival meetings in Virginia, a plan for slave rebellion was devised by Gabriel Prosser, although the rebellion was discovered and crushed before it started.[31] Despite white attempts to control independent African American congregations, especially after the Nat Turner Uprising of 1831, a number of African American congregations managed to maintain their separation as independent congregations in Baptist associations. State legislatures passed laws requiring them always to have a white man present at their worship meetings.[30]
Women[edit]
Women, who made up the majority of converts during the Awakening, played a crucial role in its development and focus. It is not clear why women converted in larger numbers than men. Various scholarly theories attribute the discrepancy to a reaction to the perceived sinfulness of youthful frivolity, an inherent greater sense of religiosity in women, a communal reaction to economic insecurity, or an assertion of the self in the face of patriarchal rule. Husbands, especially in the South, sometimes disapproved of their wives' conversion, forcing women to choose between submission to God or their spouses. Church membership and religious activity gave women peer support and place for meaningful activity outside the home, providing many women with communal identity and shared experiences.[32]
Despite the predominance of women in the movement, they were not formally indoctrinated or given leading ministerial positions. However, women took other public roles; for example, relaying testimonials about their conversion experience, or assisting sinners (both male and female) through the conversion process. Leaders such as Charles Finney saw women's public prayer as a crucial aspect in preparing a community for revival and improving their efficacy in conversion.[33] Women also took crucial roles in the conversion and religious upbringing of children. During the period of revival, mothers were seen as the moral and spiritual foundation of the family, and were thus tasked with instructing children in matters of religion and ethics.[34]
The greatest change in women's roles stemmed from participation in newly formalized missionary and reform societies. Women's prayer groups were an early and socially acceptable form of women's organization. Through their positions in these organizations, women gained influence outside of the private sphere.[35][36]
Changing demographics of gender also affected religious doctrine. In an effort to give sermons that would resonate with the congregation, ministers stressed Christ's humility and forgiveness, in what the historian Barbara Welter calls a "feminization" of Christianity.[37]
Prominent figures[edit]
Richard Allen, founder, African Methodist Episcopal Church
Francis Asbury, Methodist, circuit rider and founder of American Methodism
Henry Ward Beecher, Presbyterian
Lyman Beecher, Presbyterian, his father
Antoinette Brown Blackwell, Congregationalist & later Unitarian, the first ordained female minister in the United States
Alexander Campbell, Presbyterian, and early leader of the Restoration Movement
Thomas Campbell Presbyterian, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Peter Cartwright, Methodist
Lorenzo Dow, Methodist
Timothy Dwight IV, Congregationalist
Charles Finney, Presbyterian & anti-Calvinist
"Black Harry" Hosier, Methodist, the first African American to preach to a white congregation
Ann Lee, Shakers
Jarena Lee, Methodist, a female AME circuit rider
Robert Matthews, cult following as Matthias the Prophet
William Miller, Millerism, forerunner of Adventism
Asahel Nettleton, Reformed
Benjamin Randall, Free Will Baptist
Joseph Smith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Barton Stone, Presbyterian non-Calvinist, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Nathaniel William Taylor, heterodox Calvinist
Ellen G. White, Seventh-day Adventist Church
Political implications[edit]
Revivals and perfectionist hopes of improving individuals and society continued to increase from 1840 to 1865 across all major denominations, especially in urban areas. Evangelists often directly addressed issues such as slavery, greed, and poverty, laying the groundwork for later reform movements.[1] The influence of the Awakening continued in the form of more secular movements.[38] In the midst of shifts in theology and church polity, American Christians began progressive movements to reform society during this period. Known commonly as antebellum reform, this phenomenon included reforms in against the consumption of alcohol, for women's rights and abolition of slavery, and a multitude of other issues faced by society.[39]
The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening was echoed by the new political enthusiasm of the Second Party System.[40] More active participation in politics by more segments of the population brought religious and moral issues into the political sphere. The spirit of evangelical humanitarian reforms was carried on in the antebellum Whig party.[41]
Historians stress the understanding common among participants of reform as being a part of God's plan. As a result, local churches saw their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom they could bring salvation, and through changes in the law and the creation of institutions. Interest in transforming the world was applied to mainstream political action, as temperance activists, antislavery advocates, and proponents of other variations of reform sought to implement their beliefs into national politics. While Protestant religion had previously played an important role on the American political scene, the Second Great Awakening strengthened the role it would play.[1]
See also[edit]
Seventh-day Adventist Church portal
Latter Day Saints portal
LDS Church portal
Advent Christian Church
Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
Ethnocultural politics in the United States
Holiness movement
Restoration Movement
Seventh-day Adventist Church
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Heyrman, Christine Leigh. "The First Great Awakening". Divining America, TeacherServe. National Humanities Center.
Jump up ^ Henry B. Clark (1982). Freedom of Religion in America: Historical Roots, Philosophical Concepts, Contemporary Problems. Transaction Publishers. p. 16.
^ Jump up to: a b Nancy Cott, "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England," Feminist Studies, (1975), 3#1 p. 15. JSTOR 3518952. doi:10.2307/3518952.
Jump up ^ Hans Schwarz (2005). Theology in a Global Context: The Last Two Hundred Years. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Frederick Cyril Gill, The romantic movement and Methodism: a study of English romanticism and the evangelical revival (1937).
Jump up ^ Susan Hill Lindley, You Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996): 59
^ Jump up to: a b Fredrickson, George M. (1998). "The Coming of the Lord: The Northern Protestant Clergy and the Civil War Crisis". In Miller, Randall M.; Stout, Harry S.; Wilson, Charles Reagan. Religion and the American Civil War. Oxford University Press. pp. 110–30. ISBN 9780198028345.
Jump up ^ Whitney R. Cross, The Burned-over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New, 1800–1850 (1951)
Jump up ^ Judith Wellman, Grassroots Reform in the Burned-over District of Upstate New York: Religion, Abolitionism, and Democracy (2000) excerpt and text search
Jump up ^ Geordan Hammond; William Gibson (March 1, 2012). Wesley and Methodist Studies. Clements. p. 32.
Jump up ^ Linda K. Pritchard, "The burned-over district reconsidered: A portent of evolving religious pluralism in the United States." Social Science History (1984): 243–265. JSTOR 1170853. doi:10.2307/1170853.
Jump up ^ On Scottish influences see Long (2002) and Elizabeth Semancik, "Backcountry Religious Ways" at [1]
Jump up ^ Dickson D. Bruce, Jr., And They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845, (1974)
Jump up ^ ushistory.org, Religious Transformation and the Second Great Awakening, U.S. History Online Textbook, http://www.ushistory.org/us/22c.asp Monday, October 27, 2014 (2014)
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^ Jump up to: a b Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
Jump up ^ Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)
Jump up ^ Nancy Cott, "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England," Feminist Studies, (1975), 3#1 pp. 15–16. JSTOR 3518952. doi:10.2307/3518952.
Jump up ^ Gary Land, Adventism in America: A History (1998)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ, Abilene Christian University Press, 1988, ISBN 0-89112-006-8
^ Jump up to: a b c d Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Great Awakenings
Jump up ^ Elizabeth J.Clapp, and Julie Roy Jeffrey, ed., Women, Dissent and Anti-slavery in Britain and America, 1790–1865, (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011): 13–14
Jump up ^ Barbara Welter, "The Feminization of American Religion: 1800–1860," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, edited by Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner. New York: Octagon Books, 1976, 139
Jump up ^ Mary Ryan, "A Woman's Awakening: Evangelical Religion and the Families of Utica, New York, 1800 to 1840," American Quarterly 30, no. 5 (Winter 1978): 616–19
Jump up ^ Susan Hill Lindley, You Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America, 1st paperback ed, (Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996): 65
Jump up ^ Morgan, Philip. Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry, p. 655. UNC Press (Chapel Hill), 1998. Accessed 17 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Jessie C. Black Firsts: 4,000 Ground-Breaking and Pioneering Historical Events (3rd ed.), pp. 1820–1821. "Methodists: 1781". Visible Ink Press (Canton), 2013. Accessed 17 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Webb, Stephen H. "Introducing Black Harry Hoosier: The History Behind Indiana's Namesake". Indiana Magazine of History, Vol. XCVIII (March 2002). Trustees of Indiana University. Accessed 17 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The 'Invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 137, accessed 27 Dec 2008
Jump up ^ Alan Brinkley, The Unfinished Nation, p 168
Jump up ^ Susan Hill Lindley, You Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America, 1st paperback ed, (Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996): 59–61.
Jump up ^ Susan Hill Lindley, You Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America, 1st paperback ed, (Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996): 61–62.
Jump up ^ Mary Ryan, "A Woman's Awakening: Evangelical Religion and the Families of Utica, New York, 1800 to 1840," American Quarterly 30, no. 5 (Winter 1978): 614
Jump up ^ Mary Ryan, "A Woman's Awakening: Evangelical Religion and the Families of Utica, New York, 1800 to 1840," American Quarterly 30, no. 5 (Winter 1978): 619.
Jump up ^ Susan Hill Lindley, You Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America, 1st paperback ed, (Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996): 62–63.
Jump up ^ Barbara Welter, "The Feminization of American Religion: 1800–1860," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, edited by Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner. New York: Octagon Books, 1976, 141
Jump up ^ Barbara Leslie Epstein, The Politics of Domesticity. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1981.
Jump up ^ Alice Felt Tyler, Freedom's Ferment: Phases of American Social History from the Colonial Period to the Outbreak of the Civil War (1944).
Jump up ^ Stephen Meardon, "From Religious Revivals to Tariff Rancor: Preaching Free Trade and Protection during the Second American Party System," History of Political Economy, Winter 2008 Supplement, Vol. 40, p. 265-298
Jump up ^ Daniel Walker Howe, "The Evangelical Movement and Political Culture in the North During the Second Party System", The Journal of American History 77, no. 4 (March 1991), p. 1218 and 1237.
Further reading[edit]
Abzug, Robert H. Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (1994) (ISBN 0-195-04568-8)
Ahlstrom, Sydney. A Religious History of the American People (1972) (ISBN 0-385-11164-9)
Billington, Ray A. The Protestant Crusade. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.
Birdsall, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening and the New England Social Order", Church History 39 (1970): 345–364. JSTOR 3163469.
Bratt, James D. "Religious Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America", Journal of the Early Republic (2004) 24(1): 65–106. ISSN 0275-1275. JSTOR 4141423.
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground; a Study on the American Camp Meeting. Garland Publishing, Inc., (1992).
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too, the Camp Meeting Family Tree. Hazleton: Holiness Archives, (1997).
Bruce, Dickson D., Jr. And They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845 (1974)
Butler, Jon. Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. 1990.
Carwardine, Richard J. Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America. Yale University Press, 1993.
Carwardine, Richard J. "The Second Great Awakening in the Urban Centers: An Examination of Methodism and the 'New Measures'", Journal of American History 59 (1972): 327–340. JSTOR 1890193. doi:10.2307/1890193.
Cott, Nancy F. "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England," Feminist Studies, (1975), 3#1 pp. 15–29. JSTOR 3518952. doi:10.2307/3518952
Cross, Whitney, R. The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850, (1950).
Foster, Charles I. An Errand of Mercy: The Evangelical United Front, 1790–1837, (University of North Carolina Press, 1960)
Hambrick-Stowe, Charles. Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism. (1996).
Hankins, Barry. The Second Great Awakening and the Transcendentalists. Greenwood, 2004.
Hatch, Nathan O. The Democratization of American Christianity (1989).
Heyrman, Christine Leigh. Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt (1997).
Johnson, Charles A. "The Frontier Camp Meeting: Contemporary and Historical Appraisals, 1805–1840", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1950) 37#1 pp. 91–110. JSTOR 1888756. doi:10.2307/1888756.
Kyle, I. Francis, III. An Uncommon Christian: James Brainerd Taylor, Forgotten Evangelist in America's Second Great Awakening (2008). See Uncommon Christian Ministries
Long, Kimberly Bracken. "The Communion Sermons of James Mcgready: Sacramental Theology and Scots-Irish Piety on the Kentucky Frontier", Journal of Presbyterian History, 2002 80(1): 3–16. ISSN 0022-3883. JSTOR 23336302.
Loveland Anne C. Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800–1860, (1980)
McLoughlin William G. Modern Revivalism, 1959.
McLoughlin William G. Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977, 1978.
Marsden, George M. The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience: A Case Study of Thought and Theology in Nineteenth-Century America (1970).
Meyer, Neil. "Falling for the Lord: Shame, Revivalism, and the Origins of the Second Great Awakening." Early American Studies 9.1 (2011): 142–166. JSTOR 23546634.
Posey, Walter Brownlow. The Baptist Church in the Lower Mississippi Valley, 1776–1845 (1957)
Posey, Walter Brownlow. Frontier Mission: A History of Religion West of the Southern Appalachians to 1861 (1966)
Raboteau, Albert. Slave Religion: The "invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, (1979)
Roth, Randolph A. The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850, (1987)
Smith, Timothy L. Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957)
Historiography[edit]
Conforti, Joseph. "The Invention of the Great Awakening, 1795–1842". Early American Literature (1991): 99–118. JSTOR 25056853.
Griffin, Clifford S. "Religious Benevolence as Social Control, 1815–1860", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, (1957) 44#3 pp. 423–444. JSTOR 1887019. doi:10.2307/1887019.
Mathews, Donald G. "The Second Great Awakening as an organizing process, 1780–1830: An hypothesis". American Quarterly (1969): 23–43. JSTOR 2710771. doi:10.2307/2710771.
Shiels, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening in Connecticut: Critique of the Traditional Interpretation", Church History 49 (1980): 401–415. JSTOR 3164815.
Varel, David A. "The Historiography of the Second Great Awakening and the Problem of Historical Causation, 1945–2005". Madison Historical Review (2014) 8#4 online
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Gemma Whelan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gemma Whelan
Whelan at Antwerp Convention 2014
Born
Gemma Elizabeth Whelan
(1981-04-23) 23 April 1981 (age 37)
Leeds, England
Nationality
British
Occupation
Actor, comedian
Years active
2005–present
Height
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)[1]
Gemma Elizabeth Whelan (born 23 April 1981) is an English actor and comedian, known for playing Yara Greyjoy in the HBO fantasy-drama series Game of Thrones.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Career
3 Filmography
3.1 Film
3.2 Television
3.3 Stage
3.4 Video games
4 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
Personal life[edit]
In addition to being an actor and comedian, Whelan is also a professional dancer specialising in the tap and jazz dance styles. She is a member of the dance troupe the Beaux Belles, based in London.[3] She is also trained in musical theatre and has a mezzo-soprano singing voice. Whelan can speak conversational Spanish.[4] She lives in London. In July 2017, she announced she is expecting her first child with husband Gerry.[5]
Career[edit]
Gemma Whelan at EOTR 2013 in Tollard Royal, United Kingdom
As a comedian, Whelan won the Funny Women Variety Award for stand-up comedy in 2010.[6] She often performs stand-up in character as Chastity Butterworth and in 2014 she recorded a pilot chat show for BBC Radio 4 called The Chastity Butterworth Show.
On screen, she has played supporting roles in several films and TV shows, including in the 2010 films Gulliver's Travels and The Wolfman.[7][1] She has had roles in comedies including Upstart Crow, Uncle and The Agency.
In August 2011, she was cast as Yara Greyjoy in the HBO fantasy-drama television series Game of Thrones, and appeared as a recurring cast member from the second season onward.[8]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2006 Madness of the Dance Sister Grace Short film
2007 Frites Marie-Anne Short film
2008 Shortbread and Tea Mildred
2009 Ding Dong Dr. Pretty Short film
2010 The Wolfman Gwen's Maid
Gulliver's Travels Lilliputian Rose
2016 Prevenge Len
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2006 The Enforcers Holly
2009 10 Minute Tales Pretty Nurse 1 episode
2010 The Persuasionists Josephine 2 episodes
2011 Threesome Wendy 1 episode
Living Doll Moaning Mona
For the Win Various Pilot
2012 Ruddy Hell! It's Harry & Paul Daughter 1 episode
Cardinal Burns Claire
2012–2014
2016–present Game of Thrones Yara Greyjoy Recurring, 14 episodes
2013 The Day They Came to Suck Out Our Brains! Unknown Miniseries, 1 episode
Nick Helm's Heavy Entertainment Various
Claudia O'Doherty Comedy Blaps Sarah Miniseries, 3 episodes
2014 Live at the Electric Chastity Butterworth Series 3, 3 episodes
Siblings Ruth
Badults Juliet Series 2, 1 episode: "Neighbours"
Mapp and Lucia Quaint Irene Coles
2014–present Almost Royal Narrator
2015 Uncle Veronica Series 2, 2 episodes
Not Safe for Work Davina 1 episode
Murder in Successville Nurse Adele Series 1, 1 episode
2016–present Upstart Crow Kate 8 episodes
2016–2017 Hetty Feather Ida Battersea
2016–present Horrible Histories[9] Various
2016 Morgana Robinson's The Agency Kat Cassidy 4 episodes
2017 Decline and Fall Diane Fagan 2 episodes
The Moorside Karen Matthews Two-part drama
The Crown Patricia Campbell Series 2 Episode 5
Queers Bobby Series 1 Episode 7
The End of the F***ing World Eunice
Eat Your Heart with Nick Helm Herself Series 1 Episode 5
Stage[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 Newsrevue Various Edinburgh Festival
2006 Shakespeare for Breakfast Petruchio C Venues
Celebrity Love Panto Island Various Canal Cafe Theatre
2008 Red Death Lates Unknown Gideon Reeling
Improvathon Bunny Valentine The Sticking Place
2009 Infinite Variety Various Whoopee Productions New Players Theatre
2010 Stephen & the Sexy Partridge Chanel Trafalgar Studios
2013 One Man, Two Guvnors Rachel Crabbe Royal National Theatre
Dark Vanilla Jungle Andrea Supporting Wall & Pleasance Theatre
Chastity Butterworth & the Spanish Hamster Chastity Butterworth Pajama Men Productions
2014 Dark Vanilla Jungle Andrea Supporting Wall
2015 Radiant Vermin Jill and others
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2015 Final Fantasy XIV: Heavensward Igeyorhm Voice
2017 Mass Effect: Andromeda Zevin Raeka Voice
TBA Squadron 42 TBA Voice, motion capture
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
Ref.
2010 Funny Women Awards Best Variety Herself Won
2016 Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated
2017 WFTV Awards The MAC Best Performance Herself Won [10]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Spotlight: Gemma Whelan". Retrieved 18 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Spotlight on ... Gemma Whelan". londonisfunny.com. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Beaux Belles". Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gemma Whelan female voiceover artist". Retrieved 18 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Aftab, Kaleem (6 July 2017). "Game of Thrones season 7's Gemma Whelan interview: 'I don't mind playing a little part in a big series, but to become a main character is great'". The Independent. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Funny Women Award Winners". Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Gemma Whelan". PBJ and JBJ Management. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones' Gemma Whelan on Yara's Sexuality and Freezing on Set". vulture.com. 6 July 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "HorribleHistories TV on Twitter". Retrieved 2 December 2016.
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External links[edit]
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List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1983
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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These are the Billboard Hot 100 number one hits of 1983. The longest running number-one single of 1983 is "Every Breath You Take" by The Police at eight weeks.
Key
The yellow background indicates the #1 song on Billboard's 1983 Year-End Chart of Pop Singles.
Issue Date
Song
Artist(s)
Reference
January 1 "Maneater" Hall & Oates [1]
January 8 [2]
January 15 "Down Under" Men at Work [3]
January 22 [4]
January 29 [5]
February 5 "Africa" Toto [6]
February 12 "Down Under" Men at Work [7]
February 19 "Baby, Come to Me" Patti Austin and James Ingram [8]
February 26 [9]
March 5 "Billie Jean" Michael Jackson [10]
March 12 [11]
March 19 [12]
March 26 [13]
April 2 [14]
April 9 [15]
April 16 [16]
April 23 "Come On Eileen" Dexys Midnight Runners [17]
April 30 "Beat It" Michael Jackson [18]
May 7 [19]
May 14 [20]
May 21 "Let's Dance" David Bowie [21]
May 28 "Flashdance... What a Feeling" Irene Cara [22]
June 4 [23]
June 11 [24]
June 18 [25]
June 25 [26]
July 2 [27]
July 9 "Every Breath You Take" The Police [28]
July 16 [29]
July 23 [30]
July 30 [31]
August 6 [32]
August 13 [33]
August 20 [34]
August 27 [35]
September 3 "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" Eurythmics [36]
September 10 "Maniac" Michael Sembello [37]
September 17 [38]
September 24 "Tell Her About It" Billy Joel [39]
October 1 "Total Eclipse of the Heart" Bonnie Tyler [40]
October 8 [41]
October 15 [42]
October 22 [43]
October 29 "Islands in the Stream" Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton [44]
November 5 [45]
November 12 "All Night Long (All Night)" Lionel Richie [46]
November 19 [47]
November 26 [48]
December 3 [49]
December 10 "Say Say Say" Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson [50]
December 17 [51]
December 24 [52]
December 31 [53]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs - Billboard Hot 100 Chart".
Sources[edit]
Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition (ISBN 0-8230-7677-6)
Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, 12 Edition (ISBN 0-89820-180-2)
Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Eighties (ISBN 0-89820-079-2)
Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard's online archive services and print editions of the magazine.
See also[edit]
1983 in music
List of Cash Box Top 100 number-one singles of 1983
List of number-one hits (United States)
List of number-one R&B singles of 1983 (U.S.)
hide
v
t
e
Lists of Billboard number-one singles
1940–1959
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960–1979
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980–1999
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000–present
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
By decade
1940s
1950–1958
1958–1969
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
See also
Top-ten singles
Hot 100 Year-end
List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number-one_singles_of_1983&oldid=850692779"
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1983 record charts
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