text:
Shroud of Turin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 17 April 2018.
Jump to: navigation, search
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Shroud of Turin
The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face, positive left, digitally processed image right
Material
Linen
Size
4.4 by 1.1 metres (14 ft 5 in × 3 ft 7 in)
Present location
Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist, Turin, Italy
Full-length image of the Turin Shroud before the 2002 restoration.
The Shroud of Turin or Turin Shroud (Italian: Sindone di Torino, Sacra Sindone [ˈsaːkra ˈsindone] or Santa Sindone) is a length of linen cloth bearing the negative image of a man who is alleged to be Jesus of Nazareth. The cloth itself is believed by some to be the burial shroud he was wrapped in when he was buried after crucifixion. The shroud is kept in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist in Turin, northern Italy. The Catholic Church has neither formally endorsed nor rejected the shroud, but in 1958 Pope Pius XII approved of the image in association with the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus.[1] Pope John Paul II called the Shroud "a mirror of the Gospel".[2][3]
The origins of the shroud and its images are the subject of intense debate among theologians, historians and other researchers. Diverse arguments have been made in scientific and popular publications claiming to prove that the cloth is the authentic burial shroud of Jesus, based on disciplines ranging from chemistry to biology and medical forensics to optical image analysis. In 1988, three radiocarbon dating tests dated a corner piece of the shroud from the Middle Ages,[4] between the years 1260 and 1390. Some shroud researchers have challenged the dating, arguing the results were skewed by the introduction of material from the Middle Ages to the portion of the shroud used for radiocarbon dating.[sources 1] However, all of the hypotheses used to challenge the radiocarbon dating have been scientifically refuted.[sources 2]
The image on the shroud is much clearer in black-and-white negative than in its natural sepia color, and this negative image was first observed in 1898 on the reverse photographic plate of amateur photographer Secondo Pia, who was allowed to photograph it while it was being exhibited. A variety of methods have been proposed for the formation of the image, but the actual method used has not yet been conclusively identified. Despite numerous investigations and tests, the status of the Shroud of Turin remains murky, and the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain puzzling.[20] The shroud continues to be both intensely studied and controversial.[21][22][23][24]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
3 Conservation
4 Religious views
4.1 John Calvin
4.2 Devotions
4.3 Miraculous image
4.4 Vatican position
5 Scientific analysis
5.1 Early studies
5.2 Material chemical analysis
5.2.1 Radiocarbon dating
5.2.2 Vibrational spectroscopy
5.2.3 Tests for pigments
5.3 Material historical analysis
5.3.1 Historical fabrics
5.3.2 Dirt particles
5.4 Biological and medical forensics
5.4.1 Blood stains
5.4.2 Flowers and pollen
5.4.3 Anatomical forensics
5.5 Image and text analysis
5.5.1 Image analysis
5.5.2 Text of death certificate
5.6 Hypotheses on image origin
5.6.1 Painting and pigmentation
5.6.1.1 Painting
5.6.1.2 Acid pigmentation
5.6.2 Medieval photography
5.6.3 Dust-transfer technique
5.6.4 Bas-relief
5.6.5 Maillard reaction
5.6.6 Energy source
5.6.6.1 Corona discharge
5.6.6.2 Ultraviolet radiation
5.6.6.3 Burial ointments
5.6.7 Minimal Facts approach
6 See also
7 Reference notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Description[edit]
Secondo Pia's 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image. It is used as part of the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus. Image from Musée de l'Élysée, Lausanne.
The shroud is rectangular, measuring approximately 4.4 by 1.1 metres (14 ft 5 in × 3 ft 7 in). The cloth is woven in a three-to-one herringbone twill composed of flax fibrils. Its most distinctive characteristic is the faint, brownish image of a front and back view of a naked man with his hands folded across his groin. The two views are aligned along the midplane of the body and point in opposite directions. The front and back views of the head nearly meet at the middle of the cloth.[25]
The image of the "Man of the Shroud" has a beard, moustache, and shoulder-length hair parted in the middle. He is muscular and tall (various experts have measured him as from 1.70 to 1.88 m or 5 ft 7 in to 6 ft 2 in).[26] Reddish-brown stains are found on the cloth, showing various wounds that, according to proponents, correlate with the yellowish image, the pathophysiology of crucifixion, and the Biblical description of the death of Jesus.[27]
In May 1898 Italian photographer Secondo Pia was allowed to photograph the shroud. He took the first photograph of the shroud on 28 May 1898. In 1931 when another photographer, Giuseppe Enrie, photographed the shroud and obtained results similar to Pia's.[28] In 1978, ultraviolet photographs were taken of the shroud.[29][30]
The shroud was damaged in a fire in 1532 in the chapel in Chambery, France. There are some burn holes and scorched areas down both sides of the linen, caused by contact with molten silver during the fire that burned through it in places while it was folded.[31] Fourteen large triangular patches and eight smaller ones were sewn onto the cloth by Poor Clare nuns to repair the damage.
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Shroud of Turin
The historical records for the shroud can be separated into two time periods: before 1390 and from 1390 to the present. Prior to 1390 there are some similar images such as the Pray Codex. However, what is claimed by some to be the image of a shroud on the Pray Codex has crosses on one side, an interlocking step pyramid pattern on the other, and no image of Jesus. Critics point out that it may not be a shroud at all, but rather a rectangular tombstone, as seen on other sacred images.[32] The text of the codex also fails to mention a miraculous image on the codex shroud.
It is often mentioned that the first certain historical record dates from 1353 or 1357.[21][33] However the presence of the Turin Shroud in Lirey, France, is only undoubtedly attested in 1390 when Bishop Pierre d'Arcis wrote a memorandum to Antipope Clement VII, stating that the shroud was a forgery and that the artist had confessed.[7][34] Historical records seem to indicate that a shroud bearing an image of a crucified man existed in the small town of Lirey around the years 1353 to 1357 in the possession of a French Knight, Geoffroi de Charny, who died at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356.[21] However the correspondence of this shroud in Lirey with the shroud in Turin, and its origin has been debated by scholars and lay authors, with statements of forgery attributed to artists born a century apart. Some contend that the Lirey shroud was the work of a confessed forger and murderer.[35]
There are no definite historical records concerning the particular shroud currently at Turin Cathedral prior to the 14th century. A burial cloth, which some historians maintain was the Shroud, was owned by the Byzantine emperors but disappeared during the Sack of Constantinople in 1204.[7] Although there are numerous reports of Jesus' burial shroud, or an image of his head, of unknown origin, being venerated in various locations before the 14th century, there is no historical evidence that these refer to the shroud currently at Turin Cathedral.[36]
The pilgrim medallion of Lirey (before 1453),[37] drawing by Arthur Forgeais, 1865.
The history of the shroud from the 15th century is well recorded. In 1453 Margaret de Charny deeded the Shroud to the House of Savoy. In 1578 the shroud was transferred to Turin. Since the 17th century the shroud has been displayed (e.g. in the chapel built for that purpose by Guarino Guarini[38]) and in the 19th century it was first photographed during a public exhibition.
In 1532, the shroud suffered damage from a fire in a chapel of Chambéry, capital of the Savoy region, where it was stored. A drop of molten silver from the reliquary produced a symmetrically placed mark through the layers of the folded cloth. Poor Clare Nuns attempted to repair this damage with patches. In 1578 Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy ordered the cloth to be brought from Chambéry to Turin and it has remained at Turin ever since.[39]
Repairs were made to the shroud in 1694 by Sebastian Valfrè to improve the repairs of the Poor Clare nuns.[40] Further repairs were made in 1868 by Clotilde of Savoy. The shroud remained the property of the House of Savoy until 1983, when it was given to the Holy See.
A fire, possibly caused by arson, threatened the shroud on 11 April 1997.[41] In 2002, the Holy See had the shroud restored. The cloth backing and thirty patches were removed, making it possible to photograph and scan the reverse side of the cloth, which had been hidden from view. A faint part-image of the body was found on the back of the shroud in 2004.
The Shroud was placed back on public display (the 18th time in its history) in Turin from 10 April to 23 May 2010; and according to Church officials, more than 2 million visitors came to see it.[42]
On Holy Saturday (30 March) 2013, images of the shroud were streamed on various websites as well as on television for the first time in 40 years.[43][44] Roberto Gottardo of the diocese of Turin stated that for the first time ever they had released high definition images of the shroud that can be used on tablet computers and can be magnified to show details not visible to the naked eye.[43] As this rare exposition took place, Pope Francis issued a carefully worded statement which urged the faithful to contemplate the shroud with awe but, like his predecessors, he "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity".[45][46]
The shroud was again placed on display in the cathedral in Turin from 19 April 2015 until 24 June 2015. There was no charge to view it, but an appointment was required.[47]
Conservation[edit]
Main article: Conservation of the Shroud of Turin
The Shroud has undergone several restorations and several steps have been taken to preserve it to avoid further damage and contamination. The shroud is kept under the laminated bulletproof glass of the airtight case.[48] The temperature- and humidity-controlled case is filled with argon (99.5%) and oxygen (0.5%) to prevent chemical changes. The Shroud itself is kept on an aluminum support sliding on runners and stored flat within the case.[48]
Religious views[edit]
A poster advertising the 1898 exhibition of the shroud in Turin. Secondo Pia's photograph was taken a few weeks too late to be included in the poster. The image on the poster includes a painted face, not obtained from Pia's photograph.
Religious beliefs about the burial cloths of Jesus have existed for centuries. The Gospels of Matthew[27:59–60], Mark[15:46] and Luke[23:53] state that Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus in a piece of linen cloth and placed it in a new tomb. The Gospel of John[19:38–40] refers to strips of linen used by Joseph of Arimathea and states that Apostle Peter found multiple pieces of burial cloth after the tomb was found open, strips of linen cloth for the body and a separate cloth for the head.[20:6–7] The Gospel of the Hebrews, a 2nd-century manuscript, states that Jesus gave the linen cloth to the servant of the priest.
Although pieces said to be of burial cloths of Jesus are held by at least four churches in France and three in Italy, none has gathered as much religious following as the Shroud of Turin.[49] The religious beliefs and practices associated with the shroud predate historical and scientific discussions and have continued in the 21st century, although the Catholic Church has never passed judgment on its authenticity.[50] An example is the Holy Face Medal bearing the image from the shroud, worn by some Catholics.[51] Indeed, the Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including Baptists, Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox, Pentecostals, and Presbyterians.[52]
John Calvin[edit]
In 1543 John Calvin, in his Treatise on Relics, wrote of the shroud, which was then at Nice (it was moved to Turin in 1578), "How is it possible that those sacred historians, who carefully related all the miracles that took place at Christ's death, should have omitted to mention one so remarkable as the likeness of the body of our Lord remaining on its wrapping sheet?" In an interpretation of the Gospel of John[20:6–7] Calvin concluded that strips of linen were used to cover the body (excluding the head) and a separate cloth to cover the head.[53] He then stated that "either St. John is a liar," or else anyone who promotes such a shroud is "convicted of falsehood and deceit".[53]
Devotions[edit]
Although the shroud image is currently associated with Catholic devotions to the Holy Face of Jesus, the devotions themselves predate Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph. Such devotions had been started in 1844 by the Carmelite nun Marie of St Peter (based on "pre-crucifixion" images associated with the Veil of Veronica) and promoted by Leo Dupont, also called the Apostle of the Holy Face. In 1851 Dupont formed the "Archconfraternity of the Holy Face" in Tours, France, well before Secondo Pia took the photograph of the shroud.[54]
Miraculous image[edit]
Further information: Acheiropoieta, Veil of Veronica, Manoppello Image, and Image of Edessa
17th-century Russian icon of the Mandylion by Simon Ushakov
The religious concept of the miraculous acheiropoieton has a long history in Christianity, going back to at least the 6th century. Among the most prominent portable early acheiropoieta are the Image of Camuliana and the Mandylion or Image of Edessa, both painted icons of Christ held in the Byzantine Empire and now generally regarded as lost or destroyed, as is the Hodegetria image of the Virgin.[55] Other early images in Italy, all heavily and unfortunately restored, that have been revered as acheiropoieta now have relatively little following, as attention has focused on the Shroud.
Proponents for the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin argue that empirical analysis and scientific methods are insufficient for understanding the methods used for image formation on the shroud, believing that the image was miraculously produced at the moment of Resurrection.[56][57] Some proponents have argued that the image on the shroud can be explained with scientific evidence that supports the Gospel narrative. John Jackson (a member of STURP) proposed that the image was formed by radiation methods beyond the understanding of current science, in particular via the "collapsing cloth" onto a body that was radiating energy at the moment of resurrection.[58] However, STURP member Alan Adler has stated that Jackson's theory is not generally accepted as scientific, given that it runs counter to the laws of physics.[58] In 1989 physicist Thomas Phillips speculated that the Shroud image was formed by neutron radiation due to a miraculous bodily resurrection.[59]
Vatican position[edit]
Antipope Clement VII refrained from expressing his opinion on the shroud; however, subsequent popes from Julius II on took its authenticity for granted.[60]
The Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano covered the story of Secondo Pia's photograph of 28 May 1898 in its edition of 15 June 1898, but it did so with no comment and thereafter Church officials generally refrained from officially commenting on the photograph for almost half a century.
The first official association between the image on the Shroud and the Catholic Church was made in 1940 based on the formal request by Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli to the curia in Milan to obtain authorization to produce a medal with the image. The authorization was granted and the first medal with the image was offered to Pope Pius XII who approved the medal. The image was then used on what became known as the Holy Face Medal worn by many Catholics, initially as a means of protection during World War II. In 1958 Pope Pius XII approved of the image in association with the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus, and declared its feast to be celebrated every year the day before Ash Wednesday.[61][62] Following the approval by Pope Pius XII, Catholic devotions to the Holy Face of Jesus have been almost exclusively associated with the image on the shroud.
In 1983 the Shroud was given to the Holy See by the House of Savoy.[63] However, as with all relics of this kind, the Roman Catholic Church made no pronouncements on its authenticity. As with other approved Catholic devotions, the matter has been left to the personal decision of the faithful, as long as the Church does not issue a future notification to the contrary. In the Church's view, whether the cloth is authentic or not has no bearing whatsoever on the validity of what Jesus taught or on the saving power of his death and resurrection.[64]
Pope John Paul II stated in 1998 that:[65] "Since it is not a matter of faith, the Church has no specific competence to pronounce on these questions. She entrusts to scientists the task of continuing to investigate, so that satisfactory answers may be found to the questions connected with this Sheet".[66] Pope John Paul II showed himself to be deeply moved by the image of the Shroud and arranged for public showings in 1998 and 2000. In his address at the Turin Cathedral on Sunday 24 May 1998 (the occasion of the 100th year of Secondo Pia's 28 May 1898 photograph), he said: "The Shroud is an image of God's love as well as of human sin [...] The imprint left by the tortured body of the Crucified One, which attests to the tremendous human capacity for causing pain and death to one's fellow man, stands as an icon of the suffering of the innocent in every age."[67]
In 2000, Cardinal Ratzinger, later to become Pope Benedict XVI, wrote that the Shroud of Turin is "a truly mysterious image, which no human artistry was capable of producing. In some inexplicable way, it appeared imprinted upon cloth and claimed to show the true face of Christ, the crucified and risen Lord."[68] In June 2008, three years after he assumed the papacy, Pope Benedict announced that the Shroud would be publicly displayed in the spring of 2010, and stated that he would like to go to Turin to see it along with other pilgrims.[69] During his visit in Turin on Sunday 2 May 2010, Benedict described the Shroud of Turin as an "extraordinary Icon", the "Icon of Holy Saturday [...] corresponding in every way to what the Gospels tell us of Jesus", "an Icon written in blood, the blood of a man who was scourged, crowned with thorns, crucified and whose right side was pierced".[70] The pope said also that in the Turin Shroud "we see, as in a mirror, our suffering in the suffering of Christ".[71] On 30 May 2010, Benedict XVI beatified Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli who coined the Holy Face Medal, based on Secondo Pia's photograph of the Shroud.[72]
On 30 March 2013, as part of the Easter celebrations, there was an extraordinary exposition of the shroud in the Cathedral of Turin. Pope Francis recorded a video message for the occasion, in which he described the image on the shroud as "this Icon of a man", and stated that "the Man of the Shroud invites us to contemplate Jesus of Nazareth."[45][46] In his carefully worded statement Pope Francis urged the faithful to contemplate the shroud with awe, but "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity."[46]
During his weekly general audience on 5 November 2014, Pope Francis announced he would go on a pilgrimage to Turin on 21 June 2015, to pray before, venerate the Holy Shroud and honor St. John Bosco on the bicentenary of his birth.[73][74][75]
Scientific analysis[edit]
Station biologique de Roscoff in Brittany, France where the first scientific analysis of the photographs of the shroud was performed by Yves Delage in 1902.[76]
Sindonology (from the Greek σινδών—sindon, the word used in the Gospel of Mark[15:46] to describe the type of the burial cloth of Jesus) is the formal study of the Shroud. The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first use of this word in 1964: "The investigation..assumed the stature of a separate discipline and was given a name, sindonology," but also identifies the use of "sindonological" in 1950 and "sindonologist" in 1953.[77]
Secondo Pia's 1898 photographs of the shroud allowed the scientific community to begin to study it. A variety of scientific theories regarding the shroud have since been proposed, based on disciplines ranging from chemistry to biology and medical forensics to optical image analysis. The scientific approaches to the study of the Shroud fall into three groups: material analysis (both chemical and historical), biology and medical forensics and image analysis.
Early studies[edit]
The initial steps towards the scientific study of the shroud were taken soon after the first set of black and white photographs became available early in the 20th century. In 1902 Yves Delage, a French professor of comparative anatomy, published the first study on the subject.[76] Delage declared the image anatomically flawless and argued that the features of rigor mortis, wounds, and blood flows were evidence that the image was formed by direct or indirect contact with a corpse. William Meacham mentions several other medical studies between 1936 and 1981 that agree with Delage.[21] However, these were all indirect studies without access to the shroud itself.
The first direct examination of the shroud by a scientific team was undertaken in 1969–1973 in order to advise on preservation of the shroud and determine specific testing methods. This led to the appointment of an 11-member Turin Commission to advise on the preservation of the relic and on specific testing. Five of the commission members were scientists, and preliminary studies of samples of the fabric were conducted in 1973.[21]
In 1976 physicist John P. Jackson, thermodynamicist Eric Jumper and photographer William Mottern used image analysis technologies developed in aerospace science for analyzing the images of the Shroud. In 1977 these three scientists and over thirty others formed the Shroud of Turin Research Project. In 1978 this group, often called STURP, was given direct access to the Shroud.
Also in 1978, independently from the STURP research, prof. Giovanni Tamburelli obtained at CSELT a 3D-elaboration from the Shroud with higher resolution than Jumper and Mottern. A second result of Tamburelli was the electronic removal from the image of the "blood" that apparently covers the face.[78]
Material chemical analysis[edit]
Phase contrast microscopic view of image-bearing fiber from the Shroud of Turin. The carbohydrate layer is visible along top edge. The lower-right edge shows that coating is missing. The coating can be scraped off or removed with adhesive or diimide.[citation needed]
Radiocarbon dating[edit]
Main article: Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin
After years of discussion, the Holy See permitted radiocarbon dating on portions of a swatch taken from a corner of the shroud. Independent tests in 1988 at the University of Oxford, the University of Arizona, and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology concluded with 95% confidence that the shroud material dated to 1260–1390 AD.[79] This 13th to 14th century dating is much too recent for the shroud to have been associated with Jesus of Nazareth. The dating does on the other hand match the first appearance of the shroud in church history.[80][81] This dating is also slightly more recent than that estimated by art historian W.S.A. Dale, who postulated on artistic grounds that the shroud is an 11th-century icon made for use in worship services.[82]
Some proponents for the authenticity of the shroud have attempted to discount the radiocarbon dating result by claiming that the sample may represent a medieval "invisible" repair fragment rather than the image-bearing cloth.[7][8][15][16][83][84][85][86][87] It has been suggested, for example, that burnt residue,[11][88] or other types of residues,[13][89] might have skewed the radiocarbon date toward the present. These various challenges have all been refuted by experts based on scientific analysis of shroud evidence.[11][13][14][15][16][17][90]
According to professor Christopher Ramsey of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in 2011: "There are various hypotheses as to why the dates might not be correct, but none of them stack up."[19]
A regression analysis by Riani et al. concluded that “for whatever reasons, the structure of the TS is more complicated than that of the three fabrics with which it was compared”.[6]
Vibrational spectroscopy[edit]
In 2013, Giulio Fanti performed new dating studies on fragments obtained from the shroud. He performed three different tests including ATR-FTIR and Raman spectroscopy (absorption of light of different colors). The date range from these tests date the shroud between 300 BC and 400 AD.[91][92][93] These studies have been publicly disregarded by Cesare Nosiglia, archbishop of Turin and custodian of the shroud. Cardinal Nosiglia stated that "as it is not possible to be certain that the analysed material was taken from the fabric of the shroud no serious value can be recognized to the results of such experiments".[94][95][96]
Some criticism has been made of Fanti's methodologies. For instance, Italian scientist Gian Rinaldi questioned the reliability of Fanti's methods by pointing out difficulties on determining a proper date based on the novelty of the employed methods, as well as the fibre samples that were utilized in Fanti's experiments.[97] Fanti has since replied to Rinaldi's accusations, and insists that the falsifications are invalid.[98]
Tests for pigments[edit]
In the 1970s a special eleven-member Turin Commission conducted several tests. Conventional and electron microscopic examination of the Shroud at that time revealed an absence of heterogeneous coloring material or pigment.[21] In 1979, Walter McCrone, upon analyzing the samples he was given by STURP, concluded that the image is actually made up of billions of submicrometre pigment particles. The only fibrils that had been made available for testing of the stains were those that remained affixed to custom-designed adhesive tape applied to thirty-two different sections of the image.[99]
Mark Anderson, who was working for McCrone, analyzed the Shroud samples.[100] In his book Ray Rogers states that Anderson, who was McCrone's Raman microscopy expert, concluded that the samples acted as organic material when he subjected them to the laser.[101]:61
John Heller and Alan Adler examined the same samples and agreed with McCrone's result that the cloth contains iron oxide. However, they concluded, the exceptional purity of the chemical and comparisons with other ancient textiles showed that, while retting flax absorbs iron selectively, the iron itself was not the source of the image on the shroud.[102]
Material historical analysis[edit]
Historical fabrics[edit]
A Roman loom, c. 2nd century AD
In 2000, fragments of a burial shroud from the 1st century were discovered in a tomb near Jerusalem, believed to have belonged to a Jewish high priest or member of the aristocracy. The shroud was composed of a simple two-way weave, unlike the complex herringbone twill of the Turin Shroud. Based on this discovery, the researchers stated that the Turin Shroud did not originate from Jesus-era Jerusalem.[103][104][105]
According to textile expert Mechthild Flury-Lemberg of Hamburg, a seam in the cloth corresponds to a fabric found at the fortress of Masada near the Dead Sea, which dated to the 1st century. The weaving pattern, 3:1 twill, is consistent with first-century Syrian design, according to the appraisal of Gilbert Raes of the Ghent Institute of Textile Technology in Belgium. Flury-Lemberg stated: "The linen cloth of the Shroud of Turin does not display any weaving or sewing techniques which would speak against its origin as a high-quality product of the textile workers of the first century."[106]
In 1999, Mark Guscin investigated the relationship between the shroud and the Sudarium of Oviedo, believed to be the cloth that covered the head of Jesus in the Gospel of John[20:6–7] and thereafter retrieved when Jesus' tomb was found to be empty. The Sudarium is reported to have type AB blood stains. Guscin concluded that the two cloths covered the same head at two distinct, but close moments of time. Avinoam Danin (see below) concurred with this analysis, adding that the pollen grains in the Sudarium match those of the shroud.[107] Skeptics criticize the polarized image overlay technique of Guscin and suggest that pollen from Jerusalem could have followed any number of paths to find its way to the sudarium.[108]
In 2002, Aldo Guerreschi and Michele Salcito argued that many of these marks on the fabric of the shroud stem from a much earlier time because the symmetries correspond more to the folding that would have been necessary to store the cloth in a clay jar (like cloth samples at Qumran) than to that necessary to store it in the reliquary that housed it in 1532.[109]
Dirt particles[edit]
A piece of travertine.
Joseph Kohlbeck from the Hercules Aerospace Company in Utah and Richard Levi-Setti of the Enrico Fermi Institute examined some dirt particles from the Shroud surface. The dirt was found to be travertine aragonite limestone.[110] Using a high-resolution microprobe, Levi-Setti and Kohlbeck compared the spectra of samples taken from the Shroud with samples of limestone from ancient Jerusalem tombs. The chemical signatures of the Shroud samples and the tomb limestone were found identical except for minute fragments of cellulose linen fiber that could not be separated from the Shroud samples.[citation needed]
Biological and medical forensics[edit]
Blood stains[edit]
There are several reddish stains on the shroud suggesting blood, but it is uncertain whether these stains were produced at the same time as the image, or afterwards.[111] McCrone (see painting hypothesis) identified these as containing iron oxide, theorizing that its presence was likely due to simple pigment materials used in medieval times.[112] Other researchers, including Alan Adler, identified the reddish stains as blood and interpreted the iron oxide as a natural residue of hemoglobin.
Heller and Adler further studied the dark red stains and identified hemoglobin, as well as the presence of porphyrin, bilirubin, albumin, and protein.[102] Working independently, forensic pathologist Pier Luigi Baima Bollone concurred with Heller and Adler's findings and identified the blood as the AB blood group.[113] Subsequently, STURP sent flecks from the shroud to the laboratory devoted to the study of ancient blood at the State University of New York (SUNY), Binghamton. Dr. Andrew Merriwether at SUNY stated that it is almost certain that the flecks are blood, but that no definitive statements can be made about its nature or provenance, i.e., whether it is male or from the Near East. He also stated that no blood typing could be confirmed, as the DNA was badly fragmented.[114]
Joe Nickell argues that results similar to Heller and Adler's could be obtained from tempera paint.[115] Skeptics also cite other forensic blood tests whose results dispute the authenticity of the Shroud, and point to the possibility that the blood could belong to a person handling the shroud, and that the apparent blood flows on the shroud are unrealistically neat.[108][116][117]
According to a 2017 Italian atomic resolution study, it is likely that the blood on the shroud is that of someone who met with a strong polytrauma, possibly a torture victim. This research suggests that ancient pigments would likely have aggregated, due to their larger size.[118]
Flowers and pollen[edit]
Chrysanthemum coronarium, now called Glebionis coronaria
In 1997 Avinoam Danin, a botanist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, reported that he had identified Chrysanthemum coronarium (now called Glebionis coronaria), Cistus creticus and Zygophyllum whose pressed image on the shroud was first noticed by Alan Whanger in 1985 on the photographs of the shroud taken in 1931. He reported that the outlines of the flowering plants would point to March or April and the environs of Jerusalem.[119][120] In a separate report in 1978 Danin and Uri Baruch reported on the pollen grains on the cloth samples, stating that they were appropriate to the spring in Israel.[121] Max Frei, a Swiss police criminologist who initially obtained pollen from the shroud during the STURP investigation stated that of the 58 different types of pollens found, 45 were from the Jerusalem area, while six were from the eastern Middle East, with one pollen species growing exclusively in Istanbul, and two found in Edessa, Turkey.[122] Mark Antonacci argues that the pollen evidence and flower images are inherently interwoven and strengthen each other.[123] However it was subsequently determined that Baruch's work was "scientifically unsafe", and Danin thereafter disowned the publication of this work.[124]
Prof. Danin stated in 2011, that: "In 2001 we brought most of the slides to Prof. Dr. Thomas Litt who is an expert palynologist and has very sophisticated microscopic equipment. Prof. Litt concluded that none of the pollen grains he saw could be named at a species level. Hence, all the conclusions drawn from previous palynological investigations of Dr. Frei’s material should be suspended until a new collection of pollen grains can be carried out and the grains thus obtained can be studied with modern equipment and by an expert of pollen of this area." [125]
Skeptics have argued that the flower images are too faint for Danin's determination to be definite, that an independent review of the pollen strands showed that one strand out of the 26 provided contained significantly more pollen than the others, perhaps pointing to deliberate contamination.[126] Skeptics also argue that Max Frei had previously been duped in his examination of the Hitler Diaries and that he may have also been duped in this case, or may have introduced the pollens himself.[127] J. Beaulieau has stated that Frei was a self-taught amateur palynologist, was not properly trained, and that his sample was too small.[128]
In 2008 Avinoam Danin reported analysis based on the ultraviolet photographs of Miller and Pellicori[29][30] taken in 1978. Danin reported five new species of flower, which also bloom in March and April and stated that a comparison of the 1931 black and white photographs and the 1978 ultraviolet images indicate that the flower images are genuine and not the artifact of a specific method of photography.[129]
A study published in 2011 by Lorusso and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or anything else on either image, they noted that the faint images identified by the Whangers were "only visible by incrementing the photographic contrast", and they concluded that these signs may be linked to protuberances in the yarn, and possibly also to the alteration and influence of the texture of the Enrie photographic negative during its development in 1931.[130]
In 2015, Italian researchers Barcaccia et al published a new study in Scientific Reports. They examined the human and non-human DNA found when the shroud and its backing cloth were vacuumed in 1977 and 1988. They found traces of 19 different plant taxa, including plants native to Mediterranean countries, Central Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Asia (China) and the Americas. Of the human mtDNA, sequences were found belonging to haplogroups that are typical of various ethnicities and geographic regions, including Europe, North and East Africa, the Middle East and India. A few non-plant and non-human sequences were also detected, including various birds and one ascribable to a marine worm common in the Northern Pacific Ocean, next to Canada.[5] After sequencing some DNA of pollen and dust found on the shroud, they confirmed that many people from many different places came in contact with the shroud. According to the scientists, "such diversity does not exclude a Medieval origin in Europe but it would be also compatible with the historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during its presumed journey from the Near East. Furthermore, the results raise the possibility of an Indian manufacture of the linen cloth."[5]
In 2017, a new examination claimed that "the most abundant pollen on the relic may be attribruted to the genus Helichrysum". According to the author, palynologist Marzia Boi, it "confirms and authenticates the theory that the corpse kept in the Shroud received a funeral and burial with all the honour and respect that would have been customary in the Hebrew tradition".[131] [132]
Anatomical forensics[edit]
Full length negatives of the shroud.
A number of studies on the anatomical consistency of the image on the shroud and the nature of the wounds on it have been performed, following the initial study by Yves Delage in 1902.[76] While Delage declared the image anatomically flawless, others have presented arguments to support both authenticity and forgery.
In 1950 Pierre Barbet wrote a long study called A Doctor at Calvary which was later published as a book.[133] Barbet stated that his experience as a battlefield surgeon during World War I led him to conclude that the image on the shroud was authentic, anatomically correct and consistent with crucifixion.[134]
In 1997 doctor and forensic pathologist Robert Bucklin constructed a scenario of how a systematic autopsy on the man of the shroud would have been conducted. He noted the series of traumatic injuries which extend from the shoulder areas to the lower portion of the back, which he considered consistent with whipping; and marks on the right shoulder blade which he concluded were signs of carrying a heavy object. Bucklin concluded that the image was of a real person, subject to crucifixion.[135]
For over a decade, Frederick Zugibe performed a number of studies using himself and volunteers suspended from a cross, and presented his conclusions in a book in 1998.[136] Zugibe considered the shroud image and its proportions as authentic, but disagreed with Barbet and Bucklin on various details such as blood flow. Zugibe concluded that the image on the shroud is of the body of a man, but that the body had been washed.[137]
In 2001, Pierluigi Baima Bollone, a professor of forensic medicine in Turin, stated that the forensic examination of the wounds and bloodstains on the Shroud indicate that the image was that of the dead body of a man who was whipped, wounded around the head by a pointed instrument and nailed at the extremities before dying.[138]
In 2010 Giulio Fanti, professor of mechanical measurements, wrote that "apart from the hands afterward placed on the pubic area, the front and back images are compatible with the Shroud being used to wrap the body of a man 175 ± 2 cm (5 ft 9 in ± 1 in) tall, which, due to cadaveric rigidity, remained in the same position it would have assumed during crucifixion".[139]
Artist Isabel Piczek stated in 1995 that while a general research opinion sees a flatly reclining body on the Shroud, the professional figurative artist can see substantial differences from a flatly reclining position. She stated that the professional arts cannot find discrepancies and distortions in the anatomy of the "Shroud Man".[140]
Nickell, in 1983, and Gregory S. Paul in 2010, separately state that the proportions of the image are not realistic. Paul stated that the face and proportions of the shroud image are impossible, that the figure cannot represent that of an actual person and that the posture was inconsistent. They argued that the forehead on the shroud is too small; and that the arms are too long and of different lengths and that the distance from the eyebrows to the top of the head is non-representative. They concluded that the features can be explained if the shroud is a work of a Gothic artist.[141][142]
A 2013 study analysed the wounds seemingly evident on the image in the shroud and compared them favorably to the wounds which the gospels state were inflicted on Jesus.[143]
Image and text analysis[edit]
Image analysis[edit]
Both digital image processing and analog techniques have been applied to the shroud images.
In 1976 Pete Schumacher, John Jackson and Eric Jumper analysed a photograph of the shroud image using a VP8 Image Analyzer, which was developed for NASA to create brightness maps of the moon. A brightness map (isometric display) interprets differences of brightness within an image as differences of elevation – brighter patches are seen as being closer to the camera, and darker patches further away. Our minds interpret these gradients as a "pseudo-three-dimensional image".[144][145][full citation needed] They found that, unlike any photograph they had analyzed, the shroud image has the property of decoding into a 3-dimensional image, when the darker parts of the image are interpreted to be those features of the man that were closest to the shroud and the lighter areas of the image those features that were farthest. The researchers could not replicate the effect when they attempted to transfer similar images using techniques of block print, engravings, a hot statue, and bas-relief.[146]
However optical physicist and former STURP member John Dee German has since noted that it is not difficult to make a photograph which has 3D qualities. If the object being photographed is lighted from the front, and a non-reflective "fog" of some sort exists between the camera and the object, then less light will reach and reflect back from the portions of the object that are farther from the lens, thus creating a contrast which is dependent on distance.[147]
Researchers Jackson, Jumper, and Stephenson report detecting the impressions of coins placed on both eyes after a digital study in 1978.[148] They claimed to have seen a two-lepton coin on the right eyelid dating from 29–30,[149] and a one-lepton coin on the left eyebrow minted in 29.[150] The existence of the coin images is rejected by most scientists.[151] A study published in 2011 by Lorusso and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or anything else on either image, they noted that the faint images identified by the Whangers were "only visible by incrementing the photographic contrast", and they concluded that these signs may be linked to protuberances in the yarn, and possibly also to the alteration and influence of the texture of the Enrie photographic negative during its development in 1931.[130]
In 2004, in an article in Journal of Optics A, Fanti and Maggiolo reported finding a faint second face on the backside of the cloth, after the 2002 restoration.[152]
The front image of the Turin Shroud, 1.95 m long, is not directly compatible with the back image, 2.02 m long.[139]
Text of death certificate[edit]
A late 19th-century photograph of the Chapel of the Shroud
In 1979 Greek and Latin letters were reported as written near the face. These were further studied by André Marion, professor at the École supérieure d'optique and his student Anne Laure Courage, in 1997. Subsequently, after performing computerized analysis and microdensitometer studies, they reported finding additional inscriptions, among them INNECEM (a shortened form of Latin "in necem ibis"—"you will go to death"), NNAZAPE(N)NUS (Nazarene), IHSOY (Jesus) and IC (Iesus Chrestus). The uncertain letters IBE(R?) have been conjectured as "Tiberius".[153] Linguist Mark Guscin disputed the reports of Marion and Courage. He stated that the inscriptions made little grammatical or historical sense and that they did not appear on the slides that Marion and Courage indicated.[154]
In 2009, Barbara Frale, a paleographer in the Vatican Secret Archives, who had published two books on the Shroud of Turin reported further analysis of the text.[155] In her books Frale had stated that the shroud had been kept by the Templars after 1204.[156] In 2009 Frale stated that it is possible to read on the image the burial certificate of Jesus the Nazarene, or Jesus of Nazareth, imprinted in fragments of Greek, Hebrew and Latin writing.[157][158]
Frale stated the text on the Shroud reads: "In the year 16 of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius Jesus the Nazarene, taken down in the early evening after having been condemned to death by a Roman judge because he was found guilty by a Hebrew authority, is hereby sent for burial with the obligation of being consigned to his family only after one full year."[157][159] Since Tiberius became emperor after the death of Octavian Augustus in AD 14, the 16th year of his reign would be within the span of the years AD 30 to 31.[157][158] Frale's methodology has been criticized, partly based on the objection that the writings are too faint to see.[7][160][161] Dr Antonio Lombatti, an Italian historian, rejected the idea that the authorities would have bothered to tag the body of a crucified man. He stated that "It's all the result of imagination and computer software."[162]
A study by Lorusso et al. subjected two photographs of the shroud to digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any signs, symbols or writing on either image, and noted that these signs may be linked to protuberances in the yarn, as well possibly as to the alteration and influence of the texture of the Enrie photographic negative during its development in 1931.[130]
Hypotheses on image origin[edit]
Many hypotheses have been formulated and tested to explain the image on the Shroud. According to pro-authenticity authors Baldacchini and Fanti, "the body image of the Turin Shroud has not yet been explained by traditional science; so a great interest in a possible mechanism of image formation still exists", a conclusion also supported by Philip Ball.[163][164][165]
Painting and pigmentation[edit]
Painting[edit]
The technique used for producing the image is, according to Walter McCrone, described in a book about medieval painting published in 1847 by Charles Lock Eastlake (Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great Schools and Masters). Eastlake describes in the chapter "Practice of Painting Generally During the XIVth Century" a special technique of painting on linen using tempera paint, which produces images with unusual transparent features—which McCrone compares to the image on the shroud.[166]
Pro-authenticity journals have declared this hypothesis to be unsound, stating that X-ray fluorescence examination, as well as infrared thermography, did not reveal any pigment.[167][168][169] It was also found that 25 different solvents, among them water, do not reduce or sponge out the image.[170] The Shroud Center of Colorado argues that paint pigments came from painted copies that were overlaid by artists during the Middle Ages in order to validate them as accurate copies of the Shroud.[171] The non-paint origin has been further examined by Fourier transform of the image: common paintings show a directionality that is absent from the Turin Shroud.[172] However, analyzing fragments of the shroud brought to the US, McCrone and others observed the presence of pigments, of types commonly used in medieval paints, on the shroud.[173]
Bishop D'Arcis's letter to Pope Clement VII, the earliest unambiguous reference to the shroud, states that the forger who confessed to making it had done so by painting.[174]
Acid pigmentation[edit]
In 2009, Luigi Garlaschelli, professor of organic chemistry at the University of Pavia, announced that he had made a full size reproduction of the Shroud of Turin using only medieval technologies. Garlaschelli placed a linen sheet over a volunteer and then rubbed it with an acidic pigment. The shroud was then aged in an oven before being washed to remove the pigment. He then added blood stains, scorches and water stains to replicate the original.[175] But according to Giulio Fanti, professor of mechanical and thermic measurements at the University of Padua, "the technique itself seems unable to produce an image having the most critical Turin Shroud image characteristics".[176][177]
Garlaschelli's reproduction was featured in a 2010 National Geographic documentary. The technique used by Garlaschelli included the bas relief approach (described below) but only for the image of the face. The resultant image was visibly similar to the Turin Shroud, though lacking the uniformity and detail of the original.[178]
Medieval photography[edit]
According to the art historian Nicholas Allen, the image on the shroud was formed by a photographic technique in the 13th century.[179] Allen maintains that techniques already available before the 14th century—e.g., as described in the Book of Optics, which was at just that time translated from Arabic to Latin—were sufficient to produce primitive photographs, and that people familiar with these techniques would have been able to produce an image as found on the shroud. To demonstrate this, he successfully produced photographic images similar to the shroud using only techniques and materials available at the time the shroud was supposedly made. He described his results in his PhD thesis,[180] in papers published in several science journals,[181][182] and in a book.[183] Silver bromide is believed by some to have been used for making the Shroud of Turin as it is widely used in photographic films.[184]
Dust-transfer technique[edit]
Scientists Emily Craig and Randall Bresee have attempted to recreate the likenesses of the shroud through the dust-transfer technique, which could have been done by medieval arts. They first did a carbon-dust drawing of a Jesus-like face (using collagen dust) on a newsprint made from wood pulp (which is similar to 13th- and 14th-century paper). They next placed the drawing on a table and covered it with a piece of linen. They then pressed the linen against the newsprint by firmly rubbing with the flat side of a wooden spoon. By doing this they managed to create a reddish-brown image with a lifelike positive likeness of a person, a three-dimensional image and no sign of brush strokes.[185] However, according to Fanti and Moroni, this does not reproduce many special features of the Shroud at microscopic level.[186]
Bas-relief[edit]
Another hypothesis suggests that the Shroud may have been formed using a bas-relief sculpture. Researcher Jacques di Costanzo, noting that the Shroud image seems to have a three-dimensional quality, suggested that perhaps the image was formed using a three-dimensional object, such as a sculpture. While wrapping a cloth around a life-sized statue would result in a distorted image, placing a cloth over a bas-relief would result in an image like the one seen on the shroud. To demonstrate the plausibility of his hypothesis, Costanzo constructed a bas-relief of a Jesus-like face and draped wet linen over the bas-relief. After the linen dried, he dabbed it with a mixture of ferric oxide and gelatine. The result was an image similar to that of the Shroud. The imprinted image turned out to be wash-resistant, impervious to temperatures of 250 °C (482 °F) and was undamaged by exposure to a range of harsh chemicals, including bisulphite which, without the gelatine, would normally have degraded ferric oxide to the compound ferrous oxide.[187] Similar results have been obtained by Nickell.
Instead of painting, it has been suggested that the bas-relief could also be heated and used to scorch an image onto the cloth. However researcher Thibault Heimburger performed some experiments with the scorching of linen, and found that a scorch mark is only produced by direct contact with the hot object – thus producing an all-or-nothing discoloration with no graduation of color as is found in the shroud.[188]
According to Fanti and Moroni, after comparing the histograms of 256 different grey levels, it was found that the image obtained with a bas-relief has grey values included between 60 and 256 levels, but it is much contrasted with wide areas of white saturation (levels included between 245 and 256) and lacks of intermediate grey levels (levels included between 160 and 200). The face image on the Shroud instead has grey tonalities that vary in the same values field (between 60 and 256), but the white saturation is much less marked and the histogram is practically flat in correspondence of the intermediate grey levels (levels included between 160 and 200).[186]
Maillard reaction[edit]
The Maillard reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid and a reducing sugar. The cellulose fibers of the shroud are coated with a thin carbohydrate layer of starch fractions, various sugars, and other impurities. In a paper entitled "The Shroud of Turin: an amino-carbonyl reaction may explain the image formation,"[189] Raymond Rogers and Anna Arnoldi propose that amines from a recently deceased human body may have undergone Maillard reactions with this carbohydrate layer within a reasonable period of time, before liquid decomposition products stained or damaged the cloth. The gases produced by a dead body are extremely reactive chemically and within a few hours, in an environment such as a tomb, a body starts to produce heavier amines in its tissues such as putrescine and cadaverine. However the potential source for amines required for the reaction is a decomposing body,[101]:100 and no signs of decomposition have been found on the Shroud.[190] Rogers also notes that their tests revealed that there were no proteins or bodily fluids on the image areas.[101]:38 Also, the image resolution and the uniform coloration of the linen resolution seem to be incompatible with a mechanism involving diffusion.[191]
Alan A. Mills argued that the image was formed by the chemical reaction auto-oxidation. He noted that the image corresponds to what would have been produced by a volatile chemical if the intensity of the color change were inversely proportional to the distance from the body of a loosely draped cloth.[192]
Energy source[edit]
Since 1930[193] several researchers (J. Jackson, G. Fanti, T. Trenn, T. Phillips, J.-B. Rinaudo and others) endorsed the flash-like irradiation hypothesis. It was suggested that the relatively high definition of the image details can be obtained through the energy source (specifically, protonic) acting from inside.[194] The Russian researcher Alexander Belyakov proposed an intense, but short flashlight source, which lasted some hundredths of a second.[195] Some other authors suggest the X-radiation[196] or a burst of directional ultraviolet radiation may have played a role in the formation of the Shroud image.[163][197] From the image characteristics, several researchers have theorized that the radiant source was prevalently vertical. These theories do not include the scientific discussion of a method by which the energy could have been produced.[170]
Corona discharge[edit]
During restoration in 2002, the back of the cloth was photographed and scanned for the first time. Giulio Fanti, a scientist at the University of Padua, wrote an article on this subject with colleagues in 2005 that envisages electrostatic corona discharge as the probable mechanism to produce the images of the body in the Shroud.[198] Congruent with that mechanism, they also describe an image on the reverse side of the fabric, much fainter than that on the front view of the body, consisting primarily of the face and perhaps hands. As with the front picture, it is entirely superficial, with coloration limited to the carbohydrate layer. The images correspond to, and are in registration with, those on the other side of the cloth. No image is detectable in the reverse side of the dorsal view of the body.
Raymond Rogers criticized the theory, saying: "It is clear that a corona discharge (plasma) in air will cause easily observable changes in a linen sample. No such effects can be observed in image fibers from the Shroud of Turin. Corona discharges and/or plasmas made no contribution to image formation."[101]:83
In December 2011, Fanti published a critical compendium of the major hypotheses regarding the formation of the body image on the shroud. He stated that "none of them can completely explain the mysterious image". Fanti then considered corona discharge as the most probable hypothesis regarding the formation of the body image.[199] He stated that it would be impossible to reproduce all the characteristics of the image in a laboratory because the energy source required would be too high.[164][191] Fanti has restated the radiation theories in a 2013 book.[200]
Ultraviolet radiation[edit]
In December 2011 scientists at Italy's National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Development ENEA deduced from the STURP results that the color of the Shroud image is the result of an accelerated aging process of the linen, similar to the yellowing of the paper of ancient books. They demonstrated that the photochemical reactions caused by exposing linen to ultraviolet light could reproduce the main characteristics of the Shroud image, such as the shallowness of the coloration and the gradient of the color, which are not reproducible by other means. When subsequently illuminated with a UV lamp, the irradiated linen fabrics behaved like the linen of the Shroud. They also determined that UV radiation changes the crystalline structure of cellulose in a similar manner as aging and long-duration background radiation.[201][202]
Paolo Di Lazzaro, the lead researcher, indicated in an e-mail interview that '….it appears unlikely a forger may have done this image with technologies available in the Middle Ages or earlier', but their study does not mean the Shroud image was created by the flash of a miraculous resurrection, contrary to how the story was presented in the media, especially on the Web.[203] Professional skeptic Joe Nickell states that the latest findings are nothing new despite being "dressed up in high-tech tests", and that they don't prove much of anything.[203]
Burial ointments[edit]
In November 2011, F. Curciarello et al. published a paper that analyzed the abrupt changes in the yellowed fibril density values on the Shroud image. They concluded that the rapid changes in the body image intensity are not anomalies in the manufacturing process of the linen but that they can be explained with the presence of aromas or burial ointments.[204] However, their work leaves the existence of an energy source for the image an open question.[204]
Minimal Facts approach[edit]
A 2013 study published in a theological journal followed a "Minimal Facts approach" to determine which hypothesis relating to the image formation process "is the most likely". The study concluded "that the probability of the Shroud of Turin being the real shroud of Jesus of Nazareth is very high".[205]
Replica of the Shroud of Turin, found in the Real Santuario del Cristo de La Laguna in Tenerife (Spain).
See also[edit]
Acheiropoieta
Altar cloth
Depiction of Jesus
Manoppello Image
Relics associated with Jesus
Sudarium of Oviedo
Veil of Veronica
Oshiguma for an example of face-printing as an art-form.
Religion portal
Christianity portal
Catholicism portal
Italy portal
Reference notes[edit]
Jump up ^ [5][6][7][8][9][10]
Jump up ^ [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Joan Carroll Cruz, Saintly Men of Modern Times, Our Sunday Visitor, 2003, ISBN 1-931709-77-7, p. 200.
Jump up ^ "Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin - National Catholic Reporter". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Pastoral Visit of His Holiness John Paul II to Vercelli and Turin, Italy, 23–24 May 1998 [1]
Jump up ^ Taylor, R.E. and Bar-Yosef, Ofer. Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective. Left Coast Press, 2014, p. 165
^ Jump up to: a b c Barcaccia, Gianni; Galla, Giulio; Achilli, Alessandro; Olivieri, Anna; Torroni, Antonio (5 October 2015). "Uncovering the sources of DNA found on the Turin Shroud". Scientific Reports. 5: 14484. doi:10.1038/srep14484. PMC 4593049  . PMID 26434580.
^ Jump up to: a b Riani, M.; et al. (2013). "Regression analysis with partially labelled regressors: carbon dating of the shroud of Turin". Statistics and Computing. 23 (4): 551–561. doi:10.1007/s11222-012-9329-5. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Poulle, Emmanuel (December 2009). "Les sources de l'histoire du linceul de Turin. Revue critique". Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique. 104 (3–4): 747–782. doi:10.1484/J.RHE.3.215.
^ Jump up to: a b Rogers, Raymond N. (20 January 2005). "Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of turin" (PDF). Thermochimica Acta. 425 (1–2): 189–194. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2004.09.029. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Marino, Joe (2000). "Evidence for the Skewing of the C-14 Dating of the Shroud of Turin Due to Repairs" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Benford, Sue (2002). "Textile Evidence Supports Skewed Radiocarbon Date of Shroud of Turin" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c "Debate of Roger Sparks and William Meacham on alt.turin-shroud". Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective, By R.E. Taylor, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Routledge 2016; pg 167-168
^ Jump up to: a b c Jackson, John P. (5 May 2008). "A New Radiocarbon Hypothesis" (PDF). Turin Shroud Center of Colorado. Retrieved 18 February 2014 – via Shroud.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Invisible Mending of the Shroud, the Theory and the Reality" (PDF). Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gove, H. E. (1990). "Dating the Turin Shroud: An Assessment". Radiocarbon. 32 (1): 87–92.
^ Jump up to: a b c R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull, Investigating a Dated piece of the Shroud of Turin, Radiocarbon, 52, 2010, pp. 1521–1527.
^ Jump up to: a b Schafersman, Steven D. (14 March 2005). "A Skeptical Response to Studies on the Radiocarbon Sample from the Shroud of Turin by Raymond N. Rogers". llanoestacado.org. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Christopher Ramsey, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, March 2008, http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/shroud.html
^ Jump up to: a b Chivers, Tom (20 December 2011). "The Turin Shroud is fake. Get over it". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Ball, P. (2008). "Material witness: Shrouded in mystery". Nature Materials. 7 (5): 349. doi:10.1038/nmat2170. PMID 18432204.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Meacham, William (1983). "The Authentication of the Turin Shroud, An Issue in Archeological Epistemology". Current Anthropology. 24 (3): 283. doi:10.1086/202996. JSTOR 2742663. Retrieved 24 March 2010 – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ According to LLoyd A. Currie, it is "widely accepted" that "the Shroud of Turin is the single most studied artifact in human history". Currie, Lloyd A. (2004). "The Remarkable Metrological History of Radiocarbon Dating" (PDF). Journal of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 109: 200.
Jump up ^ Habermas, G. R. (2011). "Shroud of Turin". In Kurian, G. T. The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 2161.
Jump up ^ "Is It a Fake? DNA Testing Deepens Mystery of Shroud of Turin". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
Jump up ^ Adler, Alan D. (2002). The orphaned manuscript: a gathering of publications on the Shroud of Turin. p. 103. ISBN 88-7402-003-1.
Jump up ^ "How Tall is the Man on the Shroud?". ShroudOfTurnForJournalists.com. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Heller, John H. (1983). Report on the Shroud of Turin. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-33967-7.
Jump up ^ Scott, John Beldon (2003). Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin. University of Chicago Press. p. 302. ISBN 0-226-74316-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, V. D.; Pellicori, S. F. (July 1981). "Ultraviolet fluorescence photography of the Shroud of Turin". Journal of Biological Photography. 49 (3): 71–85. PMID 7024245.
^ Jump up to: a b Pellicori, S. F. (1980). "Spectral properties of the Shroud of Turin". Applied Optics. 19 (12): 1913–1920. doi:10.1364/AO.19.001913. PMID 20221155.
Jump up ^ Cruz, Joan Carroll (1984). Relics. Our Sunday Visitor. p. 49. ISBN 0-87973-701-8.
Jump up ^ G.M.Rinaldi, "Il Codice Pray", http://sindone.weebly.com/pray.html
Jump up ^ "Turin shroud 'older than thought'". BBC News. 31 January 2005.
Jump up ^ Joe Nickell, Inquest on the Shroud of Turin: Latest Scientific Findings, Prometheus Books, 1998, ISBN 9781573922722
Jump up ^ Watson E. Mills et alii, Mercer dictionary of the Bible, Mercer University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-86554-373-9, p. 822
Jump up ^ Humber, Thomas: The Sacred Shroud. New York: Pocket Books, 1980. ISBN 0-671-41889-0
Jump up ^ Catalogue of the Musée National du Moyen Age, Paris, A souvenir from Lirey by Mario Latendresse
Jump up ^ John Beldon Scott, Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin, University of Chicago Press, 2003, ISBN 0-226-74316-0, p. xxi
Jump up ^ See House of Savoy historian Filiberto Pingone in Filiberto Pingone, La Sindone dei Vangeli (Sindon Evangelica). Componimenti poetici sulla Sindone. Bolla di papa Giulio II (1506). Pellegrinaggio di S. Carlo Borromeo a Torino (1578). Introduzione, traduzione, note e riproduzione del testo originale a cura di Riccardo Quaglia, nuova edizione riveduta (2015), Biella 2015, ISBN 978-1-4452-8258-9
Jump up ^ Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin by John Beldon Scott 2003 ISBN 0-226-74316-0, p. 26
Jump up ^ "Shroud of Turin Saved From Fire in Cathedral". The New York Times. 12 April 1997.
Jump up ^ "To see the Shroud : 2M and counting" Archived 27 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Zenit. 5 May 2010
^ Jump up to: a b Povoledo, Elisabetta (29 March 2013). "Turin Shroud Going on TV, With Video From Pope". New York Times. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Turin Shroud shown live on Italy TV". BBC News. 30 March 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Pope:"I join all of you gathered before the Holy Shroud". The Vatican Today. Retrieved 3 April 2013
^ Jump up to: a b c Pope Francis and the Turin Shroud: Making sense of a mystery (31 March 2013). The Economist archive. Retrieved 3 April 2013
Jump up ^ "Turin Shroud goes back on display at city's cathedral". BBC News. 19 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Schwortz, Barrie M. "Shroud Exhibitions". Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Joan Carrol Cruz, 1984 Relics ISBN 0-87973-701-8, p. 55
Jump up ^ Ann Ball, Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices, Our Sunday Visitor, 2002 ISBN 0-87973-910-X, p. 533
Jump up ^ Ann Ball, Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices, Our Sunday Visitor, 2002, ISBN 0-87973-910-X, p. 239
Jump up ^ Dreisbach, Albert R. (2006) [1997]. "The Shroud of Turin: Its Ecumenical Implications" (PDF). Retrieved 15 June 2014. Returning to the ecumenical dimension of this sacred linen, it became very evident to me on the night of August 16, 1983, when local judicatory leaders offered their corporate blessing to the Turin Shroud Exhibit and participated in the Evening Office of the Holy Shroud. The Greek Archbishop, the Roman Catholic Archbishop, the Episcopal Bishop and the Presiding Bishop of the AME Church gathered before the world's first full-size, backlit transparency of the shroud and joined clergy representing the Assemblies of God, Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists and Presbyterians in ecumenical unity.
^ Jump up to: a b John Calvin, 1543, Treatise on Relics, trans. by Count Valerian Krasinski, 1854; 2nd ed. Edinburgh: John Stone, Hunter, and Company, 1870; reprinted with an introduction by Joe Nickell; Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2009.
Jump up ^ Dorothy Scallan, The Holy Man of Tours, TAN Books and Publishers, 2009, ISBN 0-89555-390-2
Jump up ^ Kitzinger, Ernst (1954). "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 8: 83. doi:10.2307/1291064. JSTOR 1291064.
Jump up ^ Charles S. Brown, Bible "Mysteries" Explained, Crystal Publishing, 2007, ISBN 0-9582813-0-0, p. 193
Jump up ^ Peter Rinaldi, The man in the Shroud, Futura Publications Ltd, 1972, ISBN 0-86007-010-7, p. 45
^ Jump up to: a b The Shroud of Turin by Bernard Ruffin 1999 ISBN 0-87973-617-8, pp. 155-156
Jump up ^ Phillips, Thomas J. (16 February 1989). "Shroud irradiated with neutrons?". Nature. 337 (6208): 594–594. doi:10.1038/337594a0.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, art. Shroud of Turin (relic)., 28 December 2010
Jump up ^ Maria Rigamonti, Mother Maria Pierina, Cenacle Publishing, 1999
Jump up ^ Joan Carroll Cruz, "Saintly Men of Modern Times", Our Sunday Visitor, 2003, ISBN 1-931709-77-7
Jump up ^ Michael Freze, 1993, Voices, Visions, and Apparitions, OSV Publishing, ISBN 0-87973-454-X, p. 57
Jump up ^ Matthew Bunson, OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history, revised edition, Our Sunday Visitor, 2004, ISBN 1-59276-026-0, p. 912
Jump up ^ Francis D'Emilio article on Pope John Paul II's visit to the Shroud of Turin, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette – 25 May 1998
Jump up ^ Address of John Paul II 24 May 1998.
Jump up ^ Pope John Paul II (24 May 1998). Address in Turin Cathedral (Speech). Turin, Italy. Archived from the original on 11 May 2000.
Jump up ^ In Joseph Ratzinger, The spirit of Liturgy, Ignatius Press, 2000, ISBN 0-89870-784-6, cf. [2] and [3]
Jump up ^ "Catholic News Service". Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pastoral Visit to Turin: Veneration of the Holy Shroud in the Cathedral of Turin - Meditation of the Holy Father (May 2, 2010) - BENEDICT XVI". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "2 May 2010: Pastoral Visit to Turin - Eucharistic Concelebration in St. Charles Square - BENEDICT XVI". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Newly beatified Holy Face nun remembered by Pope Benedict". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pope Francis to pray before the Holy Shroud in Turin". Romereports.com. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pope Francis to Venerate Famed Shroud of Turin in 2015". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pope will visit Shroud of Turin, commemorate birth of St. John Bosco - National Catholic Reporter". Ncronlone.org. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Delage, Yves (1902). "Le Linceul de Turin". Revue Scientifique. 22: 683–87.
Jump up ^ "Sindonology, n.". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 24 January 2017. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Tamburelli, Giovanni (November 1981). "Some Results in the Processing of the Holy Shroud of Turin". IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. PAMI-3 (6): 670–676. doi:10.1109/TPAMI.1981.4767168.
Jump up ^ Damon, P. E.; Donahue, D. J.; Gore, B. H.; Hatheway, A. L.; Jull, A. J. T.; Linick, T. W.; Sercel, P. J.; Toolin, L. J.; Bronk, C. R.; Hall, E. T.; Hedges, R. E. M.; Housley, R.; Law, I. A.; Perry, C.; Bonani, G.; Trumbore, S.; Woelfli, W.; Ambers, J. C.; Bowman, S. G. E.; Leese, M. N.; Tite, M. S. (16 February 1989). "Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin". Nature. 337 (6208): 611–615. doi:10.1038/337611a0. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "The Holy Shroud (of Turin)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ news.nationalgeographic.com Why Shroud of Turin's Secrets Continue to Elude Science, 17 April 2015
Jump up ^ Dale, W.S.A. (1987). "The Shroud of Turin: Relic or Icon?". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research. B29: 187–192. doi:10.1016/0168-583X(87)90233-3. This paper is significant in that it was presented to the international radiocarbon community shortly before radiocarbon dating was performed on the shroud.
Jump up ^ S. Benford, J. Marino, "Discrepancies in the radiocarbon dating area of the Turin shroud", Chemistry Today, vol 26 n 4 / July–August 2008, pp. 4–12, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Riani, Marco; Atkinson, Anthony C.; Fanti, Giulio; Crosilla, Fabio (27 April 2012). "Regression analysis with partially labelled regressors: carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin". Statistics and Computing. 23 (4): 551–561. doi:10.1007/s11222-012-9329-5. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Busson, P. – Letter – Sampling error? – Nature, Vol. 352, 18 July 1991, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Brown, John L. (2005). "Microscopical Investigation of Selected Raes Threads from the Shroud of Turin" (PDF) – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Robert Villarreal, "Analytical Results On Thread Samples Taken From The Raes Sampling Area (Corner) of the Shroud Cloth" Abstract (2008)
Jump up ^ Meacham, William (1 March 1986). "From the Proceedings of the Symposium Turin Shroud – Image of Christ?". Retrieved 14 April 2009 – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Garza-Valdes, Leoncio A. "A Christmas Letter from Dr. Garza-Valdes and an Update on his Work". Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association. Retrieved 3 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Christopher Ramsey, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, March 2008, http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/shroud.html
Jump up ^ Fanti, Giulio; Baraldi, Pietro; Basso, Roberto; Tinti, Anna (July 2013). "Non-destructive dating of ancient flax textiles by means of vibrational spectroscopy". Vibrational Spectroscopy. 67: 61–70. doi:10.1016/j.vibspec.2013.04.001. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Turin Shroud 'is not a medieval forgery'". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Stanglin, Doug (30 March 2013). "New test dates Shroud of Turin to era of Christ". USA Today. Associated Press. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Tosatti, Marco (28 March 2015). "Sindone, la battaglia dei reperti. Ma Fanti li ha buoni..." Vatican Insider (in Italian). "La Stampa" section. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Official Statement of the Papal Custodian of the Holy Shroud, Mons. Cesare Nosiglia" (PDF). Archdiocese of Turin – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Parker Jr., Shafer (6 May 2013). "Science Shines New Light on Shroud of Turin's Age". National Catholic Register. Padua, Italy: EWTN. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "A Critical Review of Giulio Fanti's New Book: Unreliable Results Because of Inadequacy of Methods". 4 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Giulio Fanti Responds to Gian Marco Rinaldi's Book Review". 16 April 2013.
Jump up ^ McCrone, W. C., Skirius, C., The Microscope, 28, 1980, pp 1–13; McCrone, W. C., The Microscope, 29, 1981, pp. 19–38. Microscope 1980, 28, 105, 115; 1981, 29, 19; Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst 1987/1988, 4/5, 50 and Acc. Chem. Res. 1990, 23, 77–83.
Jump up ^ Materials evaluation, Volume 40, Issues 1-5, 1982, Page 630
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rogers, Raymond N. (July 2008). A Chemist's Perspective On The Shroud of Turin. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 9780615239286. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Heller, J.H.; Adler (10 December 2000). "Blood, or Paint?" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "DNA of Jesus-era shrouded man in Jerusalem reveals earliest case of leprosy". Physorg.com. 16 December 2009. Retrieved 16 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Bell, Bethany (16 December 2009). "'Jesus-era' burial shroud found". BBC News. Retrieved 16 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Shroud of Turin Not Jesus', Tomb Discovery Suggests". National Geographic Daily News. 19 December 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Secrets of the Dead: Shroud of Christ?". PBS.org. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Sudarium of Oviedo..." Shroud.com. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "shroud of Turin". Skepdic.com. 23 August 2000. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Aldo Guerreschi and Michele Salcito IV Symposium Scientifique International, Paris 2002 "Photographic and Computer Studies" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Were particles of limestone dirt found on the Shroud of Turin?". ShroudStory.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2010. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Heller, John H.; Adler, Alan D. (15 August 1980). "Blood on the Shroud of Turin". Applied Optics. 19 (16): 2742. doi:10.1364/AO.19.002742. PMID 20234501.
Jump up ^ McCrone Research, Initial Examination - 1979, retrieved 16 June 2013.
Jump up ^ P. L. Baima Bollone,"Indagini identificative su fili della Sindone", Giornale della Accademia di Medicina di Torino, n° 1-12, 1982, pp. 228–239.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Raymond N. "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)" (PDF). Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Scandals and Follies of the 'Holy Shroud' |Skeptical Inquirer |Find Articles at BNET.com Archived 8 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Baden, Michael. 1980. Quoted in Reginald W. Rhein, Jr., The Shroud of Turin: Medical examiners disagree. Medical World News, 22 December, p. 50.
Jump up ^ McCrone in Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst,4/5, 50 1987/1988,
Jump up ^ Carlino, E; De Caro, L; Giannini, C; Fanti, G (30 June 2017). "Atomic resolution studies detect new biologic evidences on the Turin Shroud". PLOS ONE. 12 (6): e0180487. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180487. PMC 5493404  . PMID 28666007.
Jump up ^ Danin, Avinoam (1998). "Where Did the Shroud of Turin Originate? A Botanical Quest". ERETZ Magazine (November/December) – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Sheler, Jeffery L. (24 July 2000). "Shroud of Turin - Mysteries of History". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Danin, Avinoam. "The Origin of the Shroud of Turin from the Near East as Evidenced by Plant Images and by Pollen Grains". Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association.
Jump up ^ Max Frei, "Nine Years of Palynological Studies on the Shroud", Shroud Spectum International, (June 1982) pp. 3–7
Jump up ^ Mark Antonacci,The Resurrection of the Shroud, M. Evans and Company, Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-87131-963-2, p. 111
Jump up ^ The Shroud, By Ian Wilson, pg 100.
Jump up ^ Prof. Avinoam Danin; Flora of Israel; Published: online April 17th, 2011 | Updated: 17/01/15, view at http://flora.org.il/en/books/plant-stories-2/chapter-o/useful_plants_06/
Jump up ^ Nickell, Joe: "Pollens on the 'shroud': A study in deception". Skeptical Inquirer, Summer 1994., pp 379–385
Jump up ^ Carroll, Robert T. The Skeptic Dictionary, Hoboken, John Wiley and Sons, 2003, ISBN 0-471-27242-6
Jump up ^ Bernard Ruffin, The Shroud of Turin, 1999, ISBN 0-87973-617-8, p. 76
Jump up ^ Avinoam Danin (2008). Botany of the Shroud of Turin, An addition concerning new information since the 1999 report. Shroud of Turin Conference, 2008, Ohio.
^ Jump up to: a b c Salvatore Lorusso, Chiara Matteucci, Andrea Natali, Tania Chinni, Laura Solla (2011). "The Shroud of Turin between history and science: an ongoing debate". Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage. Vol 11, University of Bologna.
Jump up ^ Boi, M. (2017-04-01). "Pollen on the Shroud of Turin: The Probable Trace Left by Anointing and Embalming". Archaeometry. 59 (2): 316–330. doi:10.1111/arcm.12269. ISSN 1475-4754.
Jump up ^ Ball, Philip (2017-05). "Material witness: Is this holy relic preserved?". Nature Materials. 16 (5): 503. doi:10.1038/nmat4897. ISSN 1476-4660. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Barbet, Pierre. 1963. A Doctor at Calvary. New York: Image Publishers
Jump up ^ Bernard Ruffin, The Shroud of Turin, Our Sunday Visitor, 1999 ISBN 0-87973-617-8, p. 17
Jump up ^ Robert Bucklin, An Autopsy on the Man of the Shroud, 1997, Article
Jump up ^ Frederick Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry, M.Evans Publ., 2005, ISBN 1-59077-070-6
Jump up ^ Frederick Zugibe, "The Man of the Shroud was Washed", Sindon, Quad. No. 1, June 1989 [4]
Jump up ^ Pierluigi Baima Bollone, "Interpreting the Image on the Shroud", in Gian Maria Zaccone, Le due facce della Sindone. Pellegrini e scienziati alla ricerca di un volto, Torino, ODPF, 2001, pp. 119–126.
^ Jump up to: a b Fanti, G.; Basso, R.; Bianchini, G. (2010). "Turin Shroud: Compatibility Between a Digitized Body Image and a Computerized Anthropomorphous Manikin". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 54 (5): 050503. doi:10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.5.050503.
Jump up ^ Piczek, Isabel. "Is the Shroud of Turin a Painting?". Shroud.com. Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association.
Jump up ^ Joe Nickell, Inquest on the Shroud of Turin, 1983
Jump up ^ Paul, Gregory S. (6 May 2010). "The Shroud of Turin: The Great Gothic Art Fraud". Secular Web Kiosk. Internet Infidels. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Bevilacqua, M.; et al. (2013). "Do we really need new medical information about the Turin shroud?". Injury. 45 (2): 460–464. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2013.09.013. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Talk by Pete Schumacher presented on the website of the museum he created. http://shroudnm.com/library.html
Jump up ^ Paper by Pete Schumacher http://shroudnm.com/docs/1999-05-Photogrammetric-Responses-from-the-Shroud-of-Turin.pdf
Jump up ^ Heller, John H. Report on the Shroud of Turin, Houghton Mifflin, 1983. ISBN 0-395-33967-7, p. 207
Jump up ^ J. Dee German. "On the Visibility of the Shroud Image" (PDF). Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Jackson, John P., Eric J. Jumper, Bill Mottern, and Kenneth E. Stevenson. 1977. "The three-dimensional image of Jesus' burial cloth", Proceedings, 1977 United States Conference of Research on The Shroud of Turin, Holy Shroud Guild, New York, 1977, pp. 74–94.
Jump up ^ F. Filas, The dating of the Shroud from coins of Pontius Pilate, Cogan, Youngtown (Arizona), 1982
Jump up ^ N. Balossino, L'immagine della Sindone, ricerca fotografica e informatica, Editrice Elle Di Ci, 1997, ISBN 88-01-00798-1
Jump up ^ Lombatti, Antonio (1997). "Doubts Concerning the Coins Over the Eyes". British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter (45) – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Fanti, Giulio; Maggiolo, Roberto (1 June 2004). "The double superficiality of the frontal image of the Turin Shroud". Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics. 6 (6): 491–503. doi:10.1088/1464-4258/6/6/001.
Jump up ^ A. Marion, A.-L. Courage, Nouvelles découvertes sur le suaire de Turin, Paris, Albin Michel, 1998, ISBN 2-226-09231-5
Jump up ^ Guscin, Mark. "The 'Inscriptions' on the Shroud" (PDF). British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter. Retrieved 27 March 2010 – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ Frale 2009
Jump up ^ Owen, Richard (26 April 2009). "Knights Templar hid the Shroud of Turin, says Vatican". The Times. Retrieved 24 October 2010. her study of the trial of the Knights Templar had brought to light a document in which Arnaut Sabbatier (...) was shown "a long linen cloth on which was impressed the figure of a man" and instructed to venerate the image by kissing its feet three times.
^ Jump up to: a b c Owen, Richard (21 November 2009). "Death certificate is imprinted on the Shroud of Turin, says Vatican scholar". The Times. Retrieved 24 October 2010. .
^ Jump up to: a b Daily Telegraph: "Jesus Christ's 'death certificate' found on Turin Shroud" [5]
Jump up ^ "New Light on the Shroud". Archived from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ The Jesus Inquest: The Case for and Against the Resurrection of the Christ by Charles Foster 2011 ISBN 0-8499-4811-8 Appendix 2: The Turin Shroud
Jump up ^ Vallerani, Massimo, "I templari e la Sindone: l'"ipotetica della falsità" e l'invenzione della storia", Historia Magistra, 2, 2009, abstract. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Squires, Nick (3 May 2010). "Pope Benedict says Shroud of Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus". Csmonitor.com. Retrieved 6 June 2016 – via Christian Science Monitor.
^ Jump up to: a b Baldacchini, G.; Lazzaro, P. Di; Murra, D.; Fanti, G. (2008). "Coloring linens with excimer lasers to simulate the body image of the Turin Shroud". Applied Optics. 47 (9): 1278–1285. doi:10.1364/ao.47.001278.
^ Jump up to: a b Fanti, G. (2010). "Can a Corona Discharge Explain the Body Image of the Turin Shroud?". J. Imaging Sci. Technol. 54 (2): 020508. doi:10.2352/j.imagingsci.technol.2010.54.2.020508.
Jump up ^ Ball, Philip (28 January 2005). "To know a veil". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news050124-17. ISSN 1744-7933. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Walter C. McCrone, Judgment day for the Shroud of Turin, Amherst, N.Y., Prometheus Books, (1999) ISBN 1-57392-679-5
Jump up ^ G. Imbalzano, "Il linguaggio della Sindone", Sindon journal of the Centro Internazionale di Sindonologia of Turin, n.29, December 1980, pp. 13–23
Jump up ^ Morris et al., "X-Ray fluorescence investigation of the Shroud of Turin", X-Ray Spectrometry, vol. 9, n. 2, April 1980, pp. 40–47
Jump up ^ A. D. Adler, "Aspetti fisico-chimici delle immagini sindoniche", Sindone, cento anni di ricerca, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, Roma 1998, pp. 165–184
^ Jump up to: a b Fanti, Giulio; Marinelli, Emanuela. "Results of a Probabilistic Model Applied to the Research Carried Out on the Turin Shroud" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2010 – via Shroud.com.
Jump up ^ The Shroud Center of Colorado: The Shroud A Critical Summary of Observations, Data and Hypothesis. 2013 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2013. pg 13 Item I21.0
Jump up ^ J. J. Lorre – D. J. Lynn, "Digital enhancement of images of the Shroud of Turin", in: Proceedings of the 1977 United States Conference of research on the Shroud of Turin, Albuquerque 1977, Holy Shroud Guild, New York 1977
Jump up ^ Scwortz, Barrie. "The 1978 STURP Team". Shroud.com. STERA, Inc. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
Jump up ^ LiveScience.com, New Shroud of Turin Evidence: A Closer Look, retrieved 16 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Garlaschelli, L. (2010). "Life-size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and its Image". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 54 (4): 040301. doi:10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040301.
Jump up ^ Heimburger T., Fanti G., "Scientific Comparison between the Turin Shroud and the First Handmade Whole Copy", International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images, 2010, [6]
Jump up ^ Fanti, G.; Heimburger, T. (2011). "Letter to the Editor Comments on "Life-Size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and Its Image" by L. Garlaschelli". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 55 (2): 020102. doi:10.2352/j.imagingsci.technol.2011.55.2.020102.
Jump up ^ "Remaking the Shroud". Channel.nationalgeographic.com. 22 January 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Nicholas P L Allen, Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1993) The methods and techniques employed in the manufacture of the Shroud of Turin. Unpublished DPhil thesis, University of Durban-Westville.
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1993) Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph? The South African Journal of Art History, 11 November, 23–32
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1994)A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic? The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1),62–94
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1998)The Turin Shroud and the Crystal Lens. Empowerment Technologies Pty. Ltd., – Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Jump up ^ Hamilton, J.F. (1974). "Physical Properties of Silver Halide Microcrystals". Photographic Science and Engineering. 18 (5): 493–500.
Jump up ^ Craig, Emily A, Bresee, Randal R, Image Formation and the Shroud of Turin, Journal of Imaging Science and Technology, Volume 34, Number 1, 1994
^ Jump up to: a b Fanti, G.; Moroni, M. (1 March 2002). "Comparison of Luminance Between Face of Turin Shroud Man and Experimental Results". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 46 (2): 142–154. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Ingham, Richard (21 June 2005). "Turin Shroud Confirmed as Fake". Physorg.com. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
Jump up ^ Thibault Heimburger. "The Turin Shroud Body Image: The Scorch Hypothesis Revisited" (PDF). Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Rogers, R.N. and Arnoldi, A.: "The Shroud of Turin: an amino-carbonyl reaction (Maillard reaction) may explain the image formation.", Melanoidins in Food and Health, Volume 4, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2003, pp. 106–113, ISBN 92-894-5724-4
Jump up ^ "Features of the Center". Shroud Center of Southern California. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Fanti, G.; Botella, J. A.; Di Lazzaro, P.; Heimburger, T.; Schneider, R.; Svensson, N. (2010). "Microscopic and Macroscopic Characteristics of the Shroud of Turin Image Superficiality". Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 54 (4): 040201. doi:10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040201.
Jump up ^ Alan A. Mills, "Image formation on the Shroud of Turin", in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 1995, vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 319–326.
Jump up ^ N. Noguier de Malijay, La Santa Sindone di Torino, Libreria del S. Cuore, Torino, 1930
Jump up ^ Jackson, John P.; Jumper, Eric J.; Ercoline, William R. (15 July 1984). "Correlation of image intensity on the Turin Shroud with the 3-D structure of a human body shape". Applied Optics. 23 (14): 2244. doi:10.1364/AO.23.002244. PMID 18212985.
Jump up ^ A. Belyakov, "Prospettive di ricerca in Russia sulla Sindone di Torino", Atti del convegno di San Felice Circeo (LT) 24–25 agosto 1996, pp. 19–24
Jump up ^ G. Carter, "Formation of the Image on the Shroud of Turin", American Chemical Society Volume on Archaeological Chemistry, 1983
Jump up ^ Di Lazzaro, P.; Baldacchini, G.; Fanti, G.; Murra, D.; Santoni, A. (22 April 2009). "XVII International Symposium on Gas Flow, Chemical Lasers, and High-Power Lasers" (PDF). XVII International Symposium on Gas Flow, Chemical Lasers, and High-Power Lasers. 7131: 71311R–71311R–6. doi:10.1117/12.816826. |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ G. Fanti, F. Lattarulo, O. Scheuermann, "Body Image Formation Hypotheses Based on Corona Discharge", 2005, Article
Jump up ^ Fanti, G. (2011). "Hypotheses Regarding the Formation of the Body Image: A Critical Compendium [Abstract]". The Journal of Imaging Science and Technology. 55 (6): 060507. doi:10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2011.55.6.060507.
Jump up ^ Squires, Nick (28 March 2013). "Turin Shroud 'is not a medieval forgery'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
Jump up ^ The Conservation of the Shroud of Turin: Optical Studies, by Paolo Di Lazzaro, Daniele Murra, Antonino Santoni, Enrico Nichelatti, at "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "COLORAZIONE SIMIL–SINDONICA DI TESSUTI DI LINO TRAMITE RADIAZIONE NEL LONTANO ULTRAVIOLETTO" (PDF). ISSN 0393-3016.
^ Jump up to: a b Boyle, Alan (23 December 2011). "Was Holy Shroud created in a flash? Italian researchers resurrect claim". Cosmic Log. NBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Curciarello, F.; De Leo, V.; Fazio, G.; Mandaglio, G. (March 2012). "The abrupt changes in the yellowed fibril density in the Linen of Turin". Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids. 167 (3): 224–228. doi:10.1080/10420150.2011.629320.
Jump up ^ Casabianca, Tristan (May 2013). "The Shroud of Turin: A Historiographical Approach". The Heythrop Journal. 54 (3): 414–423. doi:10.1111/heyj.12014.
Further reading[edit]
Picknett, Lynn and Prince, Clive: The Turin Shroud: In Whose Image?, Harper-Collins, 1994 ISBN 0-552-14782-6.
Nickell, Joe : Inquest on the Shroud of Turin: Latest Scientific Findings, Prometheus Books; Subsequent edition, 1998, ISBN 1-57392-272-2.
McCrone, Walter : Judgment Day for The Turin Shroud, Prometheus Books, 1999, ISBN 1-57392-679-5
Antonacci, Mark : The Resurrection of the Shroud, M. Evans & Co., New York 2000, ISBN 0-87131-890-3
Zugibe, Frederick : The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry – (2005), 2nd edition, ISBN 1-59077-070-6
Whiting, Brendan, The Shroud Story, Harbour Publishing, 2006, ISBN 0-646-45725-X
Di Lazzaro, Paolo (ed.) : Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images, ENEA, 2010, ISBN 978-88-8286-232-9.
O'Shea, Jim "The Linen God - A Novel" 2013 ISBN 978-1938679063
Olmi, Massimo, Indagine sulla croce di Cristo, Torino 2015 ISBN 978-88-6737-040-5
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shroud of Turin.
Sindone.org – official site of the custodians of the shroud in Turin
Shroud.com – Shroud of Turin research and information site by Barrie Schwortz, former STURP member.
"Science And The Shroud", Time magazine', 20 April 1998
"The Skeptical Shroud of Turin", FreeInquiry.com
"Shroud of Turin" – DMOZ directory of shroud websites
"Length Measurements on the Shroud of Turin"
[show]
v
t
e
Tourism in Turin
Archaeological sites
Palatine Towers
Basilica and Cathedral
Turin Cathedral
Shroud of Turin
Basilica of Corpus Domini
Basilica of Our Lady
Basilica of Superga
Santuario della Consolata
Churches
Chapel of the Holy Shroud
San Lorenzo
Gran Madre di Dio
Madonna del Pilone
Monte dei Cappuccini
San Dalmazzo
Santa Teresa
Other
Castello del Valentino
Mole Antonelliana
Palazzo Carignano
Palazzo Chiablese
Palazzo Madama
University Library
Villa della Regina
Royal Palace with Armory and Royal Library
Theatres
Teatro Carignano
Teatro Regio
Museums
Egyptian Museum
Museum of Human Anatomy Luigi Rolando
Museo Nazionale dell'Automobile
Museum of the Risorgimento
Oriental Art Museum
National Museum of Cinema
Sabauda Gallery
Natural History Museum
Ancient Art Museum
Gardens and parks
Parco del Valentino
Botanical Garden
Events and traditions
Italian Environmental Film Festival
Torino Film Festival
Turin International Book Fair
Terra Madre Salone del Gusto
Authority control
GND: 4127043-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shroud_of_Turin&oldid=836826116"
Categories:
Shroud of Turin
Tourist attractions in Turin
Culture in Turin
Forgery controversies
Fringe theories
Relics associated with Jesus
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al.
Webarchive template wayback links
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference
CS1 Italian-language sources (it)
All articles lacking reliable references
Articles lacking reliable references from April 2015
CS1 errors: dates
CS1 errors: chapter ignored
Use dmy dates from August 2017
Articles lacking reliable references from April 2018
Pages using deprecated image syntax
Articles containing Italian-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016
Articles needing more detailed references
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
አማርኛ
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Bikol Central
Български
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
41 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 17 April 2018, at 02:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class src alt title

values: Changes must be reviewed before being displayed on this page.

attrs: id class src style alt

attrs: class href

value: i

attrs: id style class

values: flaggedrevs_short flaggedrevs_stable_synced plainlinks noprint nomobile

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources

values: Turin shroud positive and negative displaying original color information 708 x 465 pixels 94 KB.jpg

values: Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist (Turin)

values: Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

values:
/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth
mw-redirect
Jesus of Nazareth

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_devotions
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic devotions

values: Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin

values:
/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers_(1356)
mw-redirect
Battle of Poitiers (1356)

values:
/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople
mw-redirect
Sack of Constantinople

values:
/wiki/Poor_Clare_Nuns
mw-redirect
Poor Clare Nuns

values:
/wiki/Clotilde_of_Savoy
mw-redirect
Clotilde of Savoy

values:
/wiki/Diocese_of_Turin
mw-redirect
Diocese of Turin

values:
/wiki/Apostle_Peter
mw-redirect
Apostle Peter

values:
/wiki/Holy_Face_Medal
mw-redirect
Holy Face Medal

values:
/wiki/Apostle_of_the_Holy_Face
mw-redirect
Apostle of the Holy Face

values:
/wiki/Image_of_Camuliana
mw-redirect
Image of Camuliana

values:
/wiki/Resurrection_of_Christ
mw-redirect
Resurrection of Christ

values:
/wiki/Osservatore_Romano
mw-redirect
Osservatore Romano

values:
/wiki/Curia_(religion)
mw-redirect
Curia (religion)

values: Feast of the Holy Winding Sheet of Christ

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

values:
/wiki/Sister_Maria_Pierina_De_Micheli
mw-redirect
Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli

values:
/wiki/Greek_(language)
mw-redirect
Greek (language)

values: Edit section: Material chemical analysis

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Material historical analysis

values:
/wiki/Roman_empire
mw-redirect
Roman empire

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)

values: Edit section: Biological and medical forensics

values:
/wiki/Forensic_pathologist
mw-redirect
Forensic pathologist

values:
/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia
mw-redirect
Edessa, Mesopotamia

values: A more detailed citation is required. (June 2016)

values:
/wiki/Journal_of_Optics_A
mw-redirect
Journal of Optics A

values:
/wiki/Octavian_Augustus
mw-redirect
Octavian Augustus

values: Edit section: Hypotheses on image origin

values:
/wiki/Infrared_thermography
mw-redirect
Infrared thermography

values:
/wiki/Ferric_oxide
mw-redirect
Ferric oxide

values:
/wiki/Raymond_N._Rogers
mw-redirect
Raymond N. Rogers

values:
/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation
mw-redirect
Ultraviolet radiation

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep14484

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26434580

values: Category:CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al.

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1484%2FJ.RHE.3.215

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.it/ROGERS-3.PDF

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tca.2004.09.029

values:
nofollow
external text
http://shroud.com/pdfs/marben.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://shroud.com/pdfs/textevid.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/c14debat.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/jackson.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/n65part5.pdf

values:
nofollow
external free
http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/shroud.html

values:
/wiki/Daily_Telegraph
mw-redirect
Daily Telegraph

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat2170

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18432204

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/meacham2.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F202996

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2742663

values: National Institute of Standards and Technology

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7024245

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.19.001913

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20221155

values:
nofollow
external free
http://sindone.weebly.com/pray.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4210369.stm

values:
/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_National_du_Moyen_Age
mw-redirect
Musée National du Moyen Age

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/expos.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1291064

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1291064

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F337594a0

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/180066

values: The site requires a paid subscription to access this page.

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109%2FTPAMI.1981.4767168

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F337611a0

values: wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/The Holy Shroud (of Turin)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/brown1.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/meacham.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/latebra3.htm

values:
/wiki/Materials_evaluation_(journal)
mw-redirect
Materials evaluation (journal)

values:
/wiki/Lulu_(company)
mw-redirect
Lulu (company)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/ford1.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/guscin.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.skepdic.com/shroud.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/aldo3.pdf

values: The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (April 2015)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.19.002742

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20234501

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28666007

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/danin.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/danin2.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Farcm.12269

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4754

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat4897

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4660

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/bucklin.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/piczek.htm

values:
/wiki/Gregory_Paul
mw-redirect
Gregory Paul

values:
nofollow
external free
http://shroudnm.com/library.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/lombatti.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/guscin2.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364%2Fao.47.001278

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews050124-17

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1744-7933

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/fanti3en.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shroud.com/78team.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.physorg.com/news4652.html

values:
nofollow
http://www.shroudcentersocal.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.23.002244

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18212985

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1117%2F12.816826

values: The Journal of Imaging Science and Technology

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0393-3016

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Fheyj.12014

values:
nofollow
http://www.sindone.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.shroud.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://freeinquiry.com/skeptic/shroud/
external text

values:
navbox-image
8
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Basilica of Our Lady Help of Christians, Turin

values:
/wiki/Church_of_San_Lorenzo,_Turin
mw-redirect
Church of San Lorenzo, Turin

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4127043-5

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference

values: Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from April 2015

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from April 2018

values: Category:Pages using deprecated image syntax

values: Category:Articles containing Italian-language text

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016

values: Category:Articles needing more detailed references

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Shroud_of_Turin
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: የቶሪኖ ከፈን – Amharic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values: كفن تورينو – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl
display: none;

values: Торинска плащаница – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ιερά Σινδόνη – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: کفن تورین – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 토리노의 수의 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Թուրինյան սավան – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values: תכריכי טורינו – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: ქრისტეს სუდარა – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Торинско платно – Macedonian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Туринская плащаница – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Торински покров – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: புனித உடற்போர்வை – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Туринська плащаниця – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Shroud_of_Turin rootpage-Shroud_of_Turin skin-vector action-view