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List of Formula One Grand Prix winners
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Formula One, abbreviated to F1, is the highest class of open-wheeled auto racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motorsport's world governing body.[1] The "formula" in the name refers to a set of rules to which all participants and cars must conform. The F1 world championship season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held usually on purpose-built circuits, and in a few cases on closed city streets. The most famous Grand Prix is the Monaco Grand Prix in Monte Carlo.[2] Each winner is presented with a trophy and the results of each race are combined to determine two annual Championships, one for drivers and one for constructors. The World Championship for Drivers is held since 1950,[3] after the Formula One standard was agreed upon in 1946.[4] The Constructors' Championship was added for the 1958 season and has been awarded ever since.[3]
Michael Schumacher holds the record for the most Grand Prix victories, having won 91 times.[5] Lewis Hamilton is second with 67 wins and Alain Prost and Sebastian Vettel are tied at third with 51 wins each. Michael Schumacher holds the distinction of having the longest time between his first win and his last. He won his first Grand Prix in 1992 at the Belgian Grand Prix, and his last in 2006 at the Chinese Grand Prix, a span of 14 years, 1 month and 1 day.[6] Riccardo Patrese holds the record for the longest period of time between two race wins–more than six-and-a-half years between the 1983 South African Grand Prix and the 1990 San Marino Grand Prix.[7] Mario Andretti had to wait the longest time between his maiden victory at the 1971 South African Grand Prix and his second win–coming five years, seven months and 18 days later at the 1976 Japanese Grand Prix.[8] Sebastian Vettel holds the record for the most consecutive wins, having won nine Grands Prix in a row from the 2013 Belgian Grand Prix to the 2013 Brazilian Grand Prix. Max Verstappen is the youngest winner of a Grand Prix; he was 18 years and 227 days old when he won the 2016 Spanish Grand Prix.[9] Luigi Fagioli is the oldest winner of a Formula One Grand Prix; he was 53 years and 22 days old when he won the 1951 French Grand Prix.[10]
As of the 2018 Hungarian Grand Prix, out of the 761 drivers who started a Grand Prix,[11] there have been 107 different Formula One Grand Prix winners.[12] The first Grand Prix winner was Giuseppe Farina at the 1950 British Grand Prix, and the most recent driver to score their first Grand Prix win was Valtteri Bottas.[13]
This list includes the winners of the Indianapolis 500 race between 1950 and 1960, as they formed part of the World Championships,[14] even though they were not run by Formula One regulations, nor are they referred to as Grands Prix.[15]
Michael Schumacher won a record 91 Grands Prix during his career.
Contents
1 By driver
2 By nationality
3 Most wins per season
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
By driver[edit]
All figures correct as of the 2018 Hungarian Grand Prix
Key
Driver has competed in the 2018 season
Bold Formula One World Champion
Formula One Grand Prix Winners
Rank
Country
Driver
Wins
Seasons active
First win
Last win
1 Germany
Michael Schumacher
91 1991–2006
2010–2012 1992 Belgian Grand Prix 2006 Chinese Grand Prix
2 United Kingdom
Lewis Hamilton
67 2007– 2007 Canadian Grand Prix 2018 Hungarian Grand Prix
3 France
Alain Prost
51 1980–1991
1993 1981 French Grand Prix 1993 German Grand Prix
3 Germany
Sebastian Vettel
51 2007– 2008 Italian Grand Prix 2018 British Grand Prix
5 Brazil
Ayrton Senna
41 1984–1994 1985 Portuguese Grand Prix 1993 Australian Grand Prix
6 Spain
Fernando Alonso
32 2001
2003– 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix 2013 Spanish Grand Prix
7 United Kingdom
Nigel Mansell
31 1980–1992
1994–1995 1985 European Grand Prix 1994 Australian Grand Prix
8 United Kingdom
Jackie Stewart
27 1965–1973 1965 Italian Grand Prix 1973 German Grand Prix
9 United Kingdom
Jim Clark
25 1960–1968 1962 Belgian Grand Prix 1968 South African Grand Prix
9 Austria
Niki Lauda
25 1971–1979
1982–1985 1974 Spanish Grand Prix 1985 Dutch Grand Prix
11 Argentina
Juan Manuel Fangio
24 1950–1951
1953–1958 1950 Monaco Grand Prix 1957 German Grand Prix
12 Brazil
Nelson Piquet
23 1978–1991 1980 United States Grand Prix West 1991 Canadian Grand Prix
12 Germany
Nico Rosberg
23 2006–2016 2012 Chinese Grand Prix 2016 Japanese Grand Prix
14 United Kingdom
Damon Hill
22 1992–1999 1993 Hungarian Grand Prix 1998 Belgian Grand Prix
15 Finland
Mika Häkkinen
20 1991–2001 1997 European Grand Prix 2001 United States Grand Prix
15 Finland
Kimi Räikkönen
20 2001–2009
2012– 2003 Malaysian Grand Prix 2013 Australian Grand Prix
17 United Kingdom
Stirling Moss
16 1950–1962 1955 British Grand Prix 1961 German Grand Prix
18 United Kingdom
Jenson Button
15 2000–2017 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix
19 Australia
Jack Brabham
14 1955–1970 1959 Monaco Grand Prix 1970 South African Grand Prix
19 United Kingdom
Graham Hill
14 1958–1975 1962 Dutch Grand Prix 1969 Monaco Grand Prix
19 Brazil
Emerson Fittipaldi
14 1970–1980 1970 United States Grand Prix 1975 British Grand Prix
22 Italy
Alberto Ascari
13 1950–1955 1951 German Grand Prix 1953 Swiss Grand Prix
22 United Kingdom
David Coulthard
13 1994–2008 1995 Portuguese Grand Prix 2003 Australian Grand Prix
24 United States
Mario Andretti
12 1968–1972
1974–1982 1971 South African Grand Prix 1978 Dutch Grand Prix
24 Argentina
Carlos Reutemann
12 1972–1982 1974 South African Grand Prix 1981 Belgian Grand Prix
24 Australia
Alan Jones
12 1975–1981
1983
1985–1986 1977 Austrian Grand Prix 1981 Caesars Palace Grand Prix
27 Canada
Jacques Villeneuve
11 1996–2006 1996 European Grand Prix 1997 Luxembourg Grand Prix
27 Brazil
Rubens Barrichello
11 1993–2011 2000 German Grand Prix 2009 Italian Grand Prix
27 Brazil
Felipe Massa
11 2002
2004–2017 2006 Turkish Grand Prix 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix
30 Sweden
Ronnie Peterson
10 1970–1978 1973 French Grand Prix 1978 Austrian Grand Prix
30 South Africa
Jody Scheckter
10 1972–1980 1974 Swedish Grand Prix 1979 Italian Grand Prix
30 United Kingdom
James Hunt
10 1973–1979 1975 Dutch Grand Prix 1977 Japanese Grand Prix
30 Austria
Gerhard Berger
10 1984–1997 1986 Mexican Grand Prix 1997 German Grand Prix
34 Australia
Mark Webber
9 2002–2013 2009 German Grand Prix 2012 British Grand Prix
35 New Zealand
Denny Hulme
8 1965–1974 1967 Monaco Grand Prix 1974 Argentine Grand Prix
35 Belgium
Jacky Ickx
8 1967–1979 1968 French Grand Prix 1972 German Grand Prix
37 France
René Arnoux
7 1978–1989 1980 Brazilian Grand Prix 1983 Dutch Grand Prix
37 Colombia
Juan Pablo Montoya
7 2001–2006 2001 Italian Grand Prix 2005 Brazilian Grand Prix
37 Australia
Daniel Ricciardo
7 2011– 2014 Canadian Grand Prix 2018 Monaco Grand Prix
40 United Kingdom
Tony Brooks
6 1956–1961 1957 British Grand Prix 1959 German Grand Prix
40 United Kingdom
John Surtees
6 1960–1972 1963 German Grand Prix 1967 Italian Grand Prix
40 Austria
Jochen Rindt
6 1964–1970 1969 United States Grand Prix 1970 German Grand Prix
40 France
Jacques Laffite
6 1974–1986 1977 Swedish Grand Prix 1981 Canadian Grand Prix
40 Canada
Gilles Villeneuve
6 1977–1982 1978 Canadian Grand Prix 1981 Spanish Grand Prix
40 Italy
Riccardo Patrese
6 1977–1993 1982 Monaco Grand Prix 1992 Japanese Grand Prix
40 Germany
Ralf Schumacher
6 1997–2007 2001 San Marino Grand Prix 2003 French Grand Prix
47 Italy
Giuseppe Farina
5 1950–1955 1950 British Grand Prix 1953 German Grand Prix
47 Switzerland
Clay Regazzoni
5 1970–1980 1970 Italian Grand Prix 1979 British Grand Prix
47 United Kingdom
John Watson
5 1973–1983
1985 1976 Austrian Grand Prix 1983 United States West Grand Prix
47 Finland
Keke Rosberg
5 1978–1986 1982 Swiss Grand Prix 1985 Australian Grand Prix
47 Italy
Michele Alboreto
5 1981–1994 1982 Caesars Palace Grand Prix 1985 German Grand Prix
52 New Zealand
Bruce McLaren
4 1959–1970 1959 United States Grand Prix 1968 Belgian Grand Prix
52 United States
Dan Gurney
4 1959–1968
1970 1962 French Grand Prix 1967 Belgian Grand Prix
52 United Kingdom
Eddie Irvine
4 1993–2002 1999 Australian Grand Prix 1999 Malaysian Grand Prix
52 Netherlands
Max Verstappen
4 2015– 2016 Spanish Grand Prix 2018 Austrian Grand Prix
56 United Kingdom
Mike Hawthorn
3 1952–1958 1953 French Grand Prix 1958 French Grand Prix
56 United Kingdom
Peter Collins
3 1952–1958 1956 Belgian Grand Prix 1958 British Grand Prix
56 United States
Phil Hill
3 1958–1964
1966 1960 Italian Grand Prix 1961 Italian Grand Prix
56 France
Didier Pironi
3 1978–1982 1980 Belgian Grand Prix 1982 Dutch Grand Prix
56 Belgium
Thierry Boutsen
3 1983–1993 1989 Canadian Grand Prix 1990 Hungarian Grand Prix
56 United Kingdom
Johnny Herbert
3 1989–2000 1995 British Grand Prix 1999 European Grand Prix
56 Germany
Heinz-Harald Frentzen
3 1994–2003 1997 San Marino Grand Prix 1999 Italian Grand Prix
56 Italy
Giancarlo Fisichella
3 1996–2009 2003 Brazilian Grand Prix 2006 Malaysian Grand Prix
56 Finland
Valtteri Bottas
3 2013– 2017 Russian Grand Prix 2017 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix
65 Argentina
José Froilán González
2 1950–1957
1960 1951 British Grand Prix 1954 British Grand Prix
65 United States
Bill Vukovich
2 1951–1955 1953 Indianapolis 500 1954 Indianapolis 500
65 France
Maurice Trintignant
2 1950–1964 1955 Monaco Grand Prix 1958 Monaco Grand Prix
65 Germany
Wolfgang von Trips
2 1956–1961 1961 Dutch Grand Prix 1961 British Grand Prix
65 Mexico
Pedro Rodríguez
2 1963–1971 1967 South African Grand Prix 1970 Belgian Grand Prix
65 Switzerland
Jo Siffert
2 1962–1971 1968 British Grand Prix 1971 Austrian Grand Prix
65 United States
Peter Revson
2 1964
1971–1974 1973 British Grand Prix 1973 Canadian Grand Prix
65 France
Patrick Depailler
2 1972
1974–1980 1978 Monaco Grand Prix 1979 Spanish Grand Prix
65 France
Jean-Pierre Jabouille
2 1974–1975
1977–1981 1979 French Grand Prix 1980 Austrian Grand Prix
65 France
Patrick Tambay
2 1977–1986 1982 German Grand Prix 1983 San Marino Grand Prix
65 Italy
Elio de Angelis
2 1979–1986 1982 Austrian Grand Prix 1985 San Marino Grand Prix
76 United States
Johnnie Parsons
1 1950–1958 1950 Indianapolis 500 1950 Indianapolis 500
76 United States
Lee Wallard
1 1950–1951 1951 Indianapolis 500 1951 Indianapolis 500
76 Italy
Luigi Fagioli
1 1950–1951 1951 French Grand Prix 1951 French Grand Prix
76 Italy
Piero Taruffi
1 1950–1956 1952 Swiss Grand Prix 1952 Swiss Grand Prix
76 United States
Troy Ruttman
1 1950–1952, 1954
1956–1958, 1960 1952 Indianapolis 500 1952 Indianapolis 500
76 United States
Bob Sweikert
1 1952–1956 1955 Indianapolis 500 1955 Indianapolis 500
76 Italy
Luigi Musso
1 1954–1958 1956 Argentine Grand Prix 1956 Argentine Grand Prix
76 United States
Pat Flaherty
1 1950–1959 1956 Indianapolis 500 1956 Indianapolis 500
76 United States
Sam Hanks
1 1950–1957 1957 Indianapolis 500 1957 Indianapolis 500
76 United States
Jimmy Bryan
1 1952–1960 1958 Indianapolis 500 1958 Indianapolis 500
76 United States
Rodger Ward
1 1951–1960
1963 1959 Indianapolis 500 1959 Indianapolis 500
76 Sweden
Joakim Bonnier
1 1956–1971 1959 Dutch Grand Prix 1959 Dutch Grand Prix
76 United States
Jim Rathmann
1 1950
1952–1960 1960 Indianapolis 500 1960 Indianapolis 500
76 Italy
Giancarlo Baghetti
1 1961–1967 1961 French Grand Prix 1961 French Grand Prix
76 United Kingdom
Innes Ireland
1 1959–1966 1961 United States Grand Prix 1961 United States Grand Prix
76 Italy
Lorenzo Bandini
1 1961–1967 1964 Austrian Grand Prix 1964 Austrian Grand Prix
76 United States
Richie Ginther
1 1960–1967 1965 Mexican Grand Prix 1965 Mexican Grand Prix
76 Italy
Ludovico Scarfiotti
1 1963–1968 1966 Italian Grand Prix 1966 Italian Grand Prix
76 United Kingdom
Peter Gethin
1 1970–1974 1971 Italian Grand Prix 1971 Italian Grand Prix
76 France
François Cevert
1 1970–1973 1971 United States Grand Prix 1971 United States Grand Prix
76 France
Jean-Pierre Beltoise
1 1967–1974 1972 Monaco Grand Prix 1972 Monaco Grand Prix
76 Brazil
José Carlos Pace
1 1972–1977 1975 Brazilian Grand Prix 1975 Brazilian Grand Prix
76 Germany
Jochen Mass
1 1973–1982 1975 Spanish Grand Prix 1975 Spanish Grand Prix
76 Italy
Vittorio Brambilla
1 1974–1980 1975 Austrian Grand Prix 1975 Austrian Grand Prix
76 Sweden
Gunnar Nilsson
1 1976–1977 1977 Belgian Grand Prix 1977 Belgian Grand Prix
76 Italy
Alessandro Nannini
1 1986–1990 1989 Japanese Grand Prix 1989 Japanese Grand Prix
76 France
Jean Alesi
1 1989–2001 1995 Canadian Grand Prix 1995 Canadian Grand Prix
76 France
Olivier Panis
1 1994–1999
2001–2004 1996 Monaco Grand Prix 1996 Monaco Grand Prix
76 Italy
Jarno Trulli
1 1997–2011 2004 Monaco Grand Prix 2004 Monaco Grand Prix
76 Poland
Robert Kubica
1 2006–2010 2008 Canadian Grand Prix 2008 Canadian Grand Prix
76 Finland
Heikki Kovalainen
1 2007–2013 2008 Hungarian Grand Prix 2008 Hungarian Grand Prix
76 Venezuela
Pastor Maldonado
1 2011–2015 2012 Spanish Grand Prix 2012 Spanish Grand Prix
By nationality[edit]
All figures correct as of the 2018 Hungarian Grand Prix
Key
Bold Driver has competed in the 2018 season
List of races won by nationality of driver
Rank
Country
Wins
Driver(s)
N°
1
United Kingdom
271 Lewis Hamilton (67), Nigel Mansell (31), Jackie Stewart (27), Jim Clark (25), Damon Hill (22), Stirling Moss (16), Jenson Button (15), Graham Hill (14), David Coulthard (13), James Hunt (10), Tony Brooks (6), John Surtees (6), John Watson (5), Eddie Irvine (4), Mike Hawthorn (3), Peter Collins (3), Johnny Herbert (3), Innes Ireland (1), Peter Gethin (1) 19
2
Germany
177 Michael Schumacher (91), Sebastian Vettel (51), Nico Rosberg (23), Ralf Schumacher (6), Heinz-Harald Frentzen (3), Wolfgang Von Trips (2), Jochen Mass (1) 7
3
Brazil
101 Ayrton Senna (41), Nelson Piquet (23), Emerson Fittipaldi (14), Rubens Barrichello (11), Felipe Massa (11), Carlos Pace (1) 6
4
France
79 Alain Prost (51), René Arnoux (7), Jacques Laffite (6), Didier Pironi (3), Maurice Trintignant (2), Patrick Depailler (2), Jean-Pierre Jabouille (2), Patrick Tambay (2), François Cevert (1), Jean-Pierre Beltoise (1), Jean Alesi (1), Olivier Panis (1) 12
5
Finland
49 Mika Häkkinen (20), Kimi Räikkönen (20), Keke Rosberg (5), Valtteri Bottas (3), Heikki Kovalainen (1) 5
6
Italy
43 Alberto Ascari (13), Riccardo Patrese (6), Giuseppe Farina (5), Michele Alboreto (5), Giancarlo Fisichella (3), Elio De Angelis (2), Luigi Fagioli (1), Piero Taruffi (1), Luigi Musso (1), Giancarlo Baghetti (1), Lorenzo Bandini (1), Ludovico Scarfiotti (1), Vittorio Brambilla (1), Alessandro Nannini (1), Jarno Trulli (1) 15
7
Australia
42 Jack Brabham (14), Alan Jones (12), Mark Webber (9), Daniel Ricciardo (7) 4
8
Austria
41 Niki Lauda (25), Gerhard Berger (10), Jochen Rindt (6) 3
9
Argentina
38 Juan Manuel Fangio (24), Carlos Reutemann (12), Jose-Froilan Gonzalez (2) 3
10
United States
33 Mario Andretti (12), Dan Gurney (4), Phil Hill (3), Bill Vukovich (2), Peter Revson (2), Johnnie Parsons (1), Lee Wallard (1), Troy Ruttman (1), Bob Sweikert (1), Pat Flaherty (1), Sam Hanks (1), Jimmy Bryan (1), Rodger Ward (1), Jim Rathmann (1), Richie Ginther (1) 15
11
Spain
32 Fernando Alonso (32) 1
12
Canada
17 Jacques Villeneuve (11), Gilles Villeneuve (6) 2
13
New Zealand
12 Denny Hulme (8), Bruce McLaren (4) 2
13
Sweden
12 Ronnie Peterson (10), Jo Bonnier (1), Gunnar Nilsson (1) 3
15
Belgium
11 Jacky Ickx (8), Thierry Boutsen (3) 2
16
South Africa
10 Jody Scheckter (10) 1
17
Colombia
7 Juan Pablo Montoya (7) 1
17
Switzerland
7 Clay Regazzoni (5), Jo Siffert (2) 2
19
Netherlands
4 Max Verstappen (4) 1
20
Mexico
2 Pedro Rodríguez (2) 1
21
Poland
1 Robert Kubica (1) 1
21
Venezuela
1 Pastor Maldonado (1) 1
Most wins per season[edit]
All figures correct as of the 2018 Hungarian Grand Prix
Key
Drivers who have competed in the 2018 season
Bold Won the World Championship in the same year
Year
Driver(s)
Constructor(s)
Wins
Races
1950
Nino Farina Alfa Romeo 3 7
Juan Manuel Fangio
1951
Juan Manuel Fangio Alfa Romeo 3 8
1952
Alberto Ascari Ferrari 6 8
1953
Alberto Ascari Ferrari 5 9
1954
Juan Manuel Fangio Maserati, Mercedes 6 9
1955
Juan Manuel Fangio Mercedes 4 7
1956
Juan Manuel Fangio Ferrari 3 8
1957
Juan Manuel Fangio Maserati 4 8
1958
Stirling Moss Vanwall 4 11
1959
Jack Brabham Cooper-Climax 2 9
Stirling Moss Cooper-Climax, Cooper-BRM
Tony Brooks Ferrari, Vanwall
1960
Jack Brabham Cooper-Climax 5 10
1961
Phil Hill Ferrari 2 8
Wolfgang von Trips
Stirling Moss Lotus-Climax, Ferguson-Climax
1962
Graham Hill BRM 4 9
1963
Jim Clark Lotus-Climax 7 10
1964
Jim Clark Lotus-Climax 3 10
1965
Jim Clark Lotus-Climax 6 10
1966
Jack Brabham Brabham-Repco 4 9
1967
Jim Clark Lotus-Ford 4 11
1968
Graham Hill Lotus-Ford 3 12
Jackie Stewart Matra-Ford
1969
Jackie Stewart Matra-Ford 6 11
1970
Jochen Rindt Ferrari 5 13
1971
Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford 6 11
1972
Emerson Fittipaldi Lotus-Ford 5 12
1973
Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford 5 15
1974
Emerson Fittipaldi McLaren-Ford 3 15
Carlos Reutemann Brabham-Ford
1975
Niki Lauda Ferrari 5 14
1976
James Hunt McLaren-Ford 6 16
1977
Mario Andretti Lotus-Ford 4 17
1978
Mario Andretti Lotus-Ford 6 16
1979
Alan Jones Williams-Ford 4 15
1980
Alan Jones Williams-Ford 5 14
1981
Nelson Piquet Brabham-Ford 3 15
1982
Didier Pironi Ferrari 2 16
Alain Prost Renault
René Arnoux
Niki Lauda McLaren-Ford
John Watson
1983
Alain Prost Renault 4 15
1984
Alain Prost McLaren-TAG 7 16
1985
Alain Prost McLaren-TAG 5 16
1986
Nigel Mansell Williams-Honda 5 16
1987
Nigel Mansell Williams-Honda 6 16
1988
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda 8 16
1989
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda 6 16
1990
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda 6 16
1991
Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda 7 16
1992
Nigel Mansell Williams-Renault 9 16
1993
Alain Prost Williams-Renault 7 16
1994
Michael Schumacher Benetton-Ford 8 16
1995
Michael Schumacher Benetton-Ford 9 17
1996
Damon Hill Williams-Renault 8 16
1997
Jacques Villeneuve Williams-Renault 7 17
1998
Mika Häkkinen McLaren-Mercedes 8 16
1999
Mika Häkkinen McLaren-Mercedes 5 16
2000
Michael Schumacher Ferrari 9 17
2001
Michael Schumacher Ferrari 9 17
2002
Michael Schumacher Ferrari 11 17
2003
Michael Schumacher Ferrari 6 16
2004
Michael Schumacher Ferrari 13 18
2005
Fernando Alonso Renault 7 19
Kimi Räikkönen McLaren-Mercedes
2006
Fernando Alonso Renault 7 18
Michael Schumacher Ferrari
2007
Kimi Räikkönen Ferrari 6 17
2008
Felipe Massa Ferrari 6 18
2009
Jenson Button Brawn-Mercedes 6 17
2010
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault 5 19
Fernando Alonso Ferrari
2011
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault 11 19
2012
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault 5 20
2013
Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault 13 19
2014
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes 11 19
2015
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes 10 19
2016
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes 10 19
2017
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes 9 20
2018
Lewis Hamilton Mercedes 5* 12*
* Season still in progress.
See also[edit]
List of Formula One Grand Prix winners (constructors)
References[edit]
General
Diepraam, Mattijs (24 June 2012). "World Championship Grand Prix Wins". Forix. Autosport. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
Specific
Jump up ^ "About FIA". Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2008.
Jump up ^ "His Serene Highness Prince Rainier of Monte Carlo awarded the first FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport". Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). 14 October 2004. Archived from the original on 15 November 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Williamson, Martin. "A brief history of Formula One". ESPN. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Timeline of Formula One". ESPN. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Superb Schumacher signs off in style". BBC Sport. 22 October 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2008.
Jump up ^ Lynch, Steven (25 May 2012). "The long wait". ESPN. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Wins: Interval between two". statsf1.com. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Leslie, Jack (18 August 2017). "The 5 Drivers with the Biggest Gap between First and Second F1 Wins". wtf1.com. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Ostlere, Lawrence (15 May 2016). "F1: Max Verstappen wins Spanish GP after Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg crash – live!". the Guardian. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Lynch, Steven (3 February 2012). "Over forty but still fast". ESPN. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Grands Prix chronology". Stats F1. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Wins chronology". Stats F1. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sochi stats - Bottas becomes F1's 107th different winner". formula1.com. 30 April 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Monaco and Indianapolis: a Crown worn just by two". FIA. 29 May 2016. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Thorn, Dan (5 January 2017). "8 Reasons Why F1 Was Weird in the 1950s". wtf1.com. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
External links[edit]
Formula One official website
FIA official website
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Nitrogen fixation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH3) or other molecules available to living organisms.[1] Atmospheric nitrogen or molecular dinitrogen (N2) is relatively inert: it does not easily react with other chemicals to form new compounds. The fixation process frees nitrogen atoms from their triply bonded diatomic form, N≡N, to be used in other ways.
Nitrogen fixation is essential for some forms of life because inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of the basic building blocks of plants, animals and other life forms, e.g., nucleotides for DNA and RNA, the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide for its role in metabolism (transferring electrons between molecules), and amino acids for proteins. Therefore, as part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, dyes, etc. Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with some plant groups, especially legumes. Looser relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants are often referred to as associative or non-symbiotic, as seen in nitrogen fixation occurring on rice roots. It also occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning.[2][3]
All biological nitrogen fixation is done by way of metalloenzymes called nitrogenases. These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium. Microorganisms that can fix nitrogen are prokaryotes (both bacteria and archaea, distributed throughout their respective Domains) called diazotrophs. Some higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations (symbiosis) with diazotrophs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Non-biological natural nitrogen fixation
2 Biological nitrogen fixation
2.1 Microorganisms that fix nitrogen
2.2 Root nodule symbioses
2.2.1 Legume family
2.2.2 Non-leguminous
2.3 Endosymbiosis in diatoms
3 Industrial nitrogen fixation
3.1 Haber process
3.2 Ambient nitrogen reduction
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Non-biological natural nitrogen fixation[edit]
Nitrogen can be fixed by lightning converting nitrogen and oxygen into NOx (nitrogen oxides), if there is oxygen in the air. NOx may react with water to make nitrite acid, which seeps into the soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants.
Biological nitrogen fixation[edit]
Schematic representation of the nitrogen cycle. Abiotic nitrogen fixation has been omitted.
Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel[4] and Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.[5] Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called a nitrogenase.[1] The overall reaction for BNF is:
N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e− → 2 NH3 + H2
The process is coupled to the hydrolysis of 16 equivalents of ATP and is accompanied by the co-formation of one molecule of H2.[6] The conversion of N2 into ammonia occurs at a cluster called FeMoco, an abbreviation for the iron-molybdenum cofactor. The mechanism proceeds via a series of protonation and reduction steps wherein the FeMoco active site hydrogenates the N2 substrate.[7]
In free-living diazotrophs, the nitrogenase-generated ammonium is assimilated into glutamate through the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway.
The microbial genes required for nitrogen fixation are widely distributed in diverse environments.[8][9]
Enzymes responsible for nitrogenase action are very susceptible to destruction by oxygen. For this reason, many bacteria cease production of the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Many nitrogen-fixing organisms exist only in anaerobic conditions, respiring to draw down oxygen levels, or binding the oxygen with a protein such as leghemoglobin.[1]
Microorganisms that fix nitrogen[edit]
Main article: Diazotroph
Diazotrophs are a diverse group of prokaryotes that includes cyanobacteria (e.g. the highly significant Trichodesmium and Cyanothece), as well as green sulfur bacteria, Azotobacteraceae, rhizobia and Frankia.
Cyanobacteria inhabit nearly all illuminated environments on Earth and play key roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycle of the biosphere. In general, cyanobacteria can use various inorganic and organic sources of combined nitrogen, like nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea, or some amino acids. Several cyanobacterial strains are also capable of diazotrophic growth, an ability that may have been present in their last common ancestor in the Archean eon.[10] Nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria in coral reefs can fix twice as much nitrogen as on land—around 1.8 kg of nitrogen is fixed per hectare per day (around 660 kg/ha/year). The colonial marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium is thought to fix nitrogen on such a scale that it accounts for almost half of the nitrogen fixation in marine systems globally.[11]
Root nodule symbioses[edit]
Legume family[edit]
Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include those of the legume family – Fabaceae – with taxa such as kudzu, clovers, soybeans, alfalfa, lupines, peanuts, and rooibos. They contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants; this helps to fertilize the soil.[1][12] The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., Styphnolobium) do not. In many traditional and organic farming practices, fields are rotated through various types of crops, which usually include one consisting mainly or entirely of clover or buckwheat (non-legume family Polygonaceae), often referred to as "green manure".[13]
The efficiency of nitrogen fixation in soil is dependent on many factors, including the legume as well as air and soil conditions. For example, nitrogen fixation by red clover can range from 50 - 200 lb/acre depending on these variables.[14]
Inga alley farming relies on the leguminous genus Inga, a small tropical, tough-leaved, nitrogen-fixing tree.[15]
Non-leguminous[edit]
A sectioned alder tree root nodule.
Although by far the majority of plant species able to form nitrogen-fixing root nodules are in the legume family Fabaceae, there are exceptions:
Parasponia, a tropical genus in the Cannabaceae also able to interact with rhizobia and form nitrogen-fixing nodules[16]
Actinorhizal plants such as alder and bayberry can also form nitrogen-fixing nodules, thanks to a symbiotic association with Frankia bacteria. These plants belong to 25 genera[17] distributed among 8 plant families.
The ability to fix nitrogen is present in the families listed below. They belong to the orders Cucurbitales, Fagales, and Rosales, which together with the Fabales form a clade of eurosids. The ability to fix nitrogen is not universally present in these families. For example, of 122 genera in the Rosaceae, only 4 genera are capable of fixing nitrogen. Fabales were the first lineage to branch off this nitrogen-fixing clade; thus, the ability to fix nitrogen may be plesiomorphic and subsequently lost in most descendants of the original nitrogen-fixing plant; however, it may be that the basic genetic and physiological requirements were present in an incipient state in the last common ancestors of all these plants, but only evolved to full function in some of them.
Family: Genera
Betulaceae: Alnus (alders)
Cannabaceae: Trema
Casuarinaceae:
Allocasuarina
Casuarina
Ceuthostoma
Gymnostoma
……

Coriariaceae: Coriaria
Datiscaceae: Datisca
Elaeagnaceae:
Elaeagnus (silverberries)
Hippophae (sea-buckthorns)
Shepherdia (buffaloberries)
……

Myricaceae:
Comptonia (plant)Comptonia (sweetfern)
Morella
Myrica (bayberries)
……

Rhamnaceae:
Ceanothus
Colletia
Discaria
Kentrothamnus
Retanilla
Talguenea
Trevoa
……

Rosaceae:
Cercocarpus (mountain mahoganies)
Chamaebatia (mountain miseries)
Dryas
Purshia/Cowania (bitterbrushes/cliffroses)
There are also several nitrogen-fixing symbiotic associations that involve cyanobacteria (such as Nostoc):
Some lichens such as Lobaria and Peltigera
Mosquito fern (Azolla species)
Cycads
Gunnera
Endosymbiosis in diatoms[edit]
Rhopalodia gibba, a diatom alga, is a eukaryote with cyanobacterial N2-fixing endosymbiont organelles. The spheroid bodies reside in the cytoplasm of the diatoms and are inseparable from their hosts.[18][19]
Industrial nitrogen fixation[edit]
The possibility that atmospheric nitrogen reacts with certain chemicals was first observed by Desfosses in 1828. He observed that mixtures of alkali metal oxides and carbon react at high temperatures with nitrogen. With the use of barium carbonate as starting material the first commercially used process became available in the 1860s developed by Margueritte and Sourdeval. The resulting barium cyanide could be reacted with steam yielding ammonia. In 1898 Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro decoupled the process and first produced calcium carbide and in a subsequent step reacted it with nitrogen to calcium cyanamide. The Ostwald process for the production of nitric acid was discovered in 1902. Frank-Caro process and Ostwald process dominated the industrial fixation of nitrogen until the discovery of the Haber process in 1909.[20][21] Prior to 1900, Nikola Tesla also experimented with the industrial fixation of nitrogen "by using currents of extremely high frequency or rate of vibration".[22][23]
Haber process[edit]
Main article: Haber process
Equipment for a study of nitrogen fixation by alpha rays (Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1926)
Artificial fertilizer production is now the largest source of human-produced fixed nitrogen in the Earth's ecosystem. Ammonia is a required precursor to fertilizers, explosives, and other products. The most common method is the Haber process. The Haber process requires high pressures (around 200 atm) and high temperatures (at least 400 °C), routine conditions for industrial catalysis. This highly efficient process uses natural gas as a hydrogen source and air as a nitrogen source.[24]
Much research has been conducted on the discovery of catalysts for nitrogen fixation, often with the goal of reducing the energy required for this conversion. However, such research has thus far failed to even approach the efficiency and ease of the Haber process. Many compounds react with atmospheric nitrogen to give dinitrogen complexes. The first dinitrogen complex to be reported was Ru(NH3)5(N2)2+.[25]
Ambient nitrogen reduction[edit]
Catalytic chemical nitrogen fixation at ambient conditions is an ongoing scientific endeavor. Guided by the example of nitrogenase, this area of homogeneous catalysis is ongoing, with particular emphasis on hydrogenation to give ammonia.[26]
Metallic lithium has long been known for burning in an atmosphere of nitrogen and then converting to lithium nitride. Hydrolysis of the resulting nitride gives ammonia. In a related process, trimethylsilyl chloride, lithium, and nitrogen react in the presence of a catalyst to give tris(trimethylsilyl)amine. Tris(trimethylsilyl)amine can then be used for reaction with α,δ,ω-triketones to give tricyclic pyrroles.[27] Processes involving lithium metal are however of no practical interest since they are noncatalytic and re-reducing the Li+ ion residue is difficult.
Beginning in the 1960s several homogeneous systems were identified that convert nitrogen to ammonia, sometimes even catalytically but often operating via ill-defined mechanisms. The original discovery is described in an early review:
"Vol'pin and co-workers, using a non-protic Lewis acid, aluminium tribromide, were able to demonstrate the truly catalytic effect of titanium by treating dinitrogen with a mixture of titanium tetrachloride, metallic aluminium, and aluminium tribromide at 50 °C, either in the absence or in the presence of a solvent, e.g. benzene. As much as 200 mol of ammonia per mol of TiCl4 was obtained after hydrolysis.…"[28]
Synthetic nitrogen reduction[29]
The quest for well defined intermediates led to the characterization of many transition metal dinitrogen complexes. Few of these well defined complexes function catalytically, their behavior illuminated likely stages in nitrogen fixation. Most fruitful of all of these early studies focused on M(N2)2(dppe)2 (M = Mo, W). For example, double protonation of such low valent complexes gave intermediates with the linkage M=N−NH2. In 1995, a molybdenum(III) amido complex was discovered that cleaved N2 to give the corresponding molybdenum(VI) nitride.[30] This and related terminal nitrido complexes have been used to make nitriles.[31]
In 2003 a related molybdenum amido complex was found to catalyze the reduction of N2. In addition to a source of protons, the catalyst requires a strong reducing agent.[29][32][33][34] However, this catalytic reduction fixates only a few nitrogen molecules. In these systems, like the biological one, hydrogen is provided to the substrate heterolytically, by means of protons and reducing equivalents rather than with H2 itself.
In 2011 Arashiba et al. reported yet another system with a catalyst again based on molybdenum but with a diphosphorus pincer ligand.[35] Photolytic nitrogen splitting is also considered.[36][37][38][39][40]
See also[edit]
Birkeland–Eyde process: an industrial fertiliser production process
Denitrification: an organic process of nitrogen release
George Washington Carver: an American botanist
Nif gene: a gene found in nitrogen fixing bacteria
Nitrification: biological production of nitrogen
Nitrogen cycle: the flow and transformation of nitrogen through the environment
Nitrogen deficiency
Nitrogen fixation package for quantitative measurement of nitrogen fixation by plants
Nitrogenase: enzymes used by organisms to fix nitrogen
Ostwald process: a chemical process for making nitric acid HNO3
Push–pull technology: the use of both repellent and attractive organisms in agriculture
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Postgate, J. (1998). Nitrogen Fixation (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Jump up ^ Hill, R. D.; Rinker, R. G.; Wilson, H. Dale (1979). "Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation by Lightning". J. Atmos. Sci. 37 (1): 179–192. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0179:ANFBL>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Hellriegel, H.; Wilfarth, H. (1888). Untersuchungen über die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen und Leguminosen [Studies on the nitrogen intake of Gramineae and Leguminosae]. Berlin: Buchdruckerei der "Post" Kayssler & Co.
Jump up ^ Beijerinck, M. W. (1901). "Über oligonitrophile Mikroben" [On oligonitrophilic microbes]. Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. 7 (2): 561–582.
Jump up ^ Chi Chung, Lee; Markus W., Ribbe; Yilin, Hu (2014). "Chapter 7. Cleaving the N,N Triple Bond: The Transformation of Dinitrogen to Ammonia by Nitrogenases". In Kroneck, Peter M. H.; Sosa Torres, Martha E. The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 147–174. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_6.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, B. M.; Lukoyanov, D.; Dean, D. R.; Seefeldt, L. C. (2013). "Nitrogenase: A Draft Mechanism". Acc. Chem. Res. 46: 587–595. PMC 3578145  . doi:10.1021/ar300267m.
Jump up ^ Gaby, J. C.; Buckley, D. H. (2011). "A global census of nitrogenase diversity". Environ. Microbiol. 13 (7): 1790–1799. PMID 21535343. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02488.x.
Jump up ^ Hoppe, B.; Kahl, T.; Karasch, P.; Wubet, T.; Bauhus, J.; Buscot, F.; Krüger, D. (2014). "Network analysis reveals ecological links between N-fixing bacteria and wood-decaying fungi". PLoS ONE. 9 (2): e88141. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988141H. PMC 3914916  . PMID 24505405. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088141.
Jump up ^ Latysheva, N.; Junker, V. L.; Palmer, W. J.; Codd, G. A.; Barker, D. (2012). "The evolution of nitrogen fixation in cyanobacteria". Bioinformatics. 28 (5): 603–606. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bts008.
Jump up ^ Bergman, B.; Sandh, G.; Lin, S.; Larsson, H.; Carpenter, E. J. (2012). "Trichodesmium – a widespread marine cyanobacterium with unusual nitrogen fixation properties". FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 37 (3): 1–17. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00352.x.
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (2000). Cycles of Life. Scientific American Library.
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Jump up ^ Op den Camp, Rik; Streng, A.; De Mita, S.; Cao, Q.; Polone, E.; Liu, W.; Ammiraju, J. S. S.; Kudrna, D.; Wing, R.; Untergasser, A.; Bisseling, T.; Geurts, R. (2010). "LysM-Type Mycorrhizal Receptor Recruited for Rhizobium Symbiosis in Nonlegume Parasponia". Science. 331 (6019): 909–912. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..909O. PMID 21205637. doi:10.1126/science.1198181.
Jump up ^ Dawson, J. O. (2008). "Ecology of actinorhizal plants". Nitrogen-fixing Actinorhizal Symbioses. 6. Springer. pp. 199–234. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-3547-0_8.
Jump up ^ Prechtl, Julia; Kneip, Christoph; Lockhart, Peter; Wenderoth, Klaus; Maier, Uwe-G. (2004). "Intracellular spheroid bodies of Rhopalodia gibba have nitrogen-fixing apparatus of cyanobacterial origin". Mol. Biol. Evol. 21 (8): 1477–1481. PMID 14963089. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh086.
Jump up ^ Nakayama, Takuro; Inagaki, Yuji (2014). "Unique genome evolution in an intracellular N2-fixing symbiont of a rhopalodiacean diatom". Acta Soc. Bot. Polon. 83 (4): 409–413. doi:10.5586/asbp.2014.046.
Jump up ^ Heinrich, H.; Nevbner, Rolf (1934). "Die Umwandlungsgleichung Ba(CN)2 → BaCN2 + C im Temperaturgebiet von 500 bis 1000 °C" [The conversion reaction Ba(CN)2 → BaCN2 + C in the temperature range from 500 to 1,000 °C]. Z. Elektrochem. Angew. Phys. Chem. 40 (10): 693–698. doi:10.1002/bbpc.19340401005. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Harry Alfred (1932). Fixed nitrogen.
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Jump up ^ Tesla, Nikola (1900). "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy". The Century Magazine. 60 (n.s. v. 38) (1900 May–Oct): 175.
Jump up ^ Vitousek, Peter M.; Aber, John; Howarth, Robert W.; Likens, Gene E.; Matson, Pamela A.; Schindler, David W.; Schlesinger, William H.; Tilman, G. David. "Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Causes and Consequences" (PDF). US Environmental Protection Agency.
Jump up ^ Allen, A. D.; Senoff, C. V. (1965). "Nitrogenopentammineruthenium(II) complexes". J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (24): 621. doi:10.1039/C19650000621.
Jump up ^ Schrock, Richard R. (2006). "Reduction of dinitrogen". PNAS. 103 (46): 17087. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603633103.
Jump up ^ Brook, Michael A. (2000). Silicon in Organic, Organometallic, and Polymer Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 193–194.
Jump up ^ Chatt, J.; Leigh, G. J. (1972). "Nitrogen Fixation". Chem. Soc. Rev. 1: 121. doi:10.1039/cs9720100121.
^ Jump up to: a b Yandulov, Dmitry V.; Schrock, Richard R.; Rheingold, Arnold L.; Ceccarelli, Christopher; Davis, William M. (2003). "Synthesis and Reactions of Molybdenum Triamidoamine Complexes Containing Hexaisopropylterphenyl Substituents". Inorg. Chem. 42 (3): 796–813. doi:10.1021/ic020505l.
Jump up ^ Laplaza, Catalina E.; Cummins, Christopher C. (1995). "Dinitrogen Cleavage by a Three-Coordinate Molybdenum(III) Complex". Science. 268 (5212): 861–863. doi:10.1126/science.268.5212.861.
Jump up ^ Curley, John J.; Sceats, Emma L.; Cummins, Christopher C. (2006). "A Cycle for Organic Nitrile Synthesis via Dinitrogen Cleavage". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (43): 14036–14037. doi:10.1021/ja066090a.
Jump up ^ Yandulov, Dmitry V.; Schrock, Richard R. (2003). "Catalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia at a Single Molybdenum Center". Science. 301 (5629): 76–78. PMC 2551323  . PMID 12843387. doi:10.1126/science.1085326.
Jump up ^ The catalyst is derived from molybdenum(V) chloride and tris(2-aminoethyl)amine N-substituted with three very bulky hexa-isopropylterphenyl (HIPT) groups. Nitrogen adds end-on to the molybdenum atom, and the bulky HIPT substituents prevent the formation of the stable and nonreactive Mo−N=N−Mo dimer. In this isolated pocket is the Mo−N2. The proton donor is a pyridinium salt of weakly coordinating counter anion. The reducing agent is decamethylchromocene. All ammonia formed is collected as the HCl salt by trapping the distillate with a HCl solution.
Jump up ^ Note also that, although the dinitrogen complex is shown in brackets, this species can be isolated and characterized. Here the brackets do not indicate that the intermediate is not observed.
Jump up ^ Arashiba, Kazuya; Miyake, Yoshihiro; Nishibayashi, Yoshiaki (2011). "A molybdenum complex bearing PNP-type pincer ligands leads to the catalytic reduction of dinitrogen into ammonia". Nature Chemistry. 3: 120–125. doi:10.1038/nchem.906.
Jump up ^ Rebreyend, C.; de Bruin, B. (2014). "Photolytic N2 Splitting: A Road to Sustainable NH3 Production?". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54: 42–44. doi:10.1002/anie.201409727.
Jump up ^ Solari, E.; Da Silva, C.; Iacono, B.; Hesschenbrouck, J.; Rizzoli, C.; Scopelliti, R.; Floriani, C. (2001). "Photochemical Activation of the N≡N Bond in a Dimolybdenum–Dinitrogen Complex: Formation of a Molybdenum Nitride". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 40: 3907–3909. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20011015)40:20<3907::AID-ANIE3907>3.0.CO;2-#.
Jump up ^ Huss, Adam S.; Curley, John J.; Cummins, Christopher C.; Blank, David A. (2013). "Relaxation and Dissociation Following Photoexcitation of the (μ-N2)[Mo(N[t-Bu]Ar)3]2 Dinitrogen Cleavage Intermediate". J. Phys. Chem. B. 117 (5): 1429–1436. doi:10.1021/jp310122x.
Jump up ^ Kunkely, H.; Vogler, A. (2010). "Photolysis of Aqueous [(NH3)5Os(μ-N2)Os(NH3)5]5+: Cleavage of Dinitrogen by an Intramolecular Photoredox Reaction". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49: 1591–1593. doi:10.1002/anie.200905026.
Jump up ^ Miyazaki, T.; Tanaka, H.; Tanabe, Y.; Yuki, M.; Nakajima, K.; Yoshizawa, K.; Nishibayashi, Y. (2014). "Cleavage and Formation of Molecular Dinitrogen in a Single System Assisted by Molybdenum Complexes Bearing Ferrocenyldiphosphine". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53: 11488–11492. doi:10.1002/anie.201405673.
External links[edit]
Hirsch, Ann M. (2009). "A Brief History of the Discovery of Nitrogen-fixing Organisms" (PDF). University of California, Los Angeles.
"Marine Nitrogen Fixation laboratory". University of Southern California.
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