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Visa policy of Azerbaijan
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Entry (right) and exit (left) stamps in a Swedish passport
Visitors to Azerbaijan must obtain a visa from one of the Azerbaijani diplomatic missions, unless they come from one of the visa exempt countries, countries eligible for visa on arrival or countries eligible for electronic visa.
Contents
[hide]
1 Visa policy map
2 General visa requirements
3 Visa exemption
4 Non-ordinary passports
5 Visa on arrival
6 Electronic visa
7 Visa facilitation
8 Bans
9 Visitor statistics
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Visa policy map[edit]
Visa policy of Azerbaijan for ordinary passport holders
Republic of Azerbaijan
Visa free
Visa issued upon arrival by air. Also eligible for ASAN electronic visa.
Visa on arrival under special conditions. Also eligible for ASAN electronic visa.
Eligible for ASAN electronic visa.
Visa obtained in person required prior to arrival.
Entry banned
General visa requirements[edit]
Azerbaijan visa
Passport must be valid for at least 6 months after the expiry date of the Azerbaijani visa applied for.[1] If there is less than 3 months for the expiry of a foreign citizen's passport, a visa will not be granted.[2] Citizens of specific countries listed, who are required to obtain a visa with an ordinary passport or with a service passport, have to obtain a visa before travelling to Azerbaijan. Visas are issued in at an embassy or consulate of the Republic of Azerbaijan or upon arrival at the border crossing points of the Republic of Azerbaijan.[3] The visa application form may be filled online and submitted to the diplomatic mission.[4]
Visa exemption[edit]
Citizens of the following 9 countries can visit Azerbaijan without a visa for up to 90 days:[5][6]
Belarus
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Moldova
Russia
Tajikistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Non-ordinary passports[edit]
Azerbaijan
Visa free access for diplomatic and service category passports
Visa free access for diplomatic passports
Additionally holders of diplomatic or service category passports of Albania, Argentina, Austria, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, China, Colombia, Croatia, Cuba, Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kuwait, Latvia, Libya (temporary not applied), Lithuania, Morocco, Montenegro, Pakistan, Peru, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Switzerland, Syria, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Vietnam and only holders of diplomatic passports of Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Laos, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Palestine, Poland, Qatar, Spain and Sweden do not require a visa to visit Azerbaijan.[7]
Visa waiver agreements have already been signed with the following countries but are not yet ratified or applied:
Benelux – on 23 November 2017 for service passports[8]
Bolivia – in August 2017 for holders of diplomatic and service passports[9]
Visa on arrival[edit]
Azerbaijan visa on arrival, issued to a national of Singapore at Baku International Airport
Citizens of the following countries can obtain a visa for Azerbaijan on arrival valid for 30 days obtainable at any international airport.[10][11][12][13]
Bahrain
China1
Indonesia
Iran[14][15]
Israel
Japan
Kuwait
Malaysia
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
Turkey (60 days)
United Arab Emirates
1 - including Hong Kong and Macau
Limited visa on arrival
Citizens of United States can obtain a 30 days visa on arrival only if arriving on a direct flight of Azerbaijan Airlines from New York City.[16]
Visa on arrival for holders of an official invitation letter issued by the State Migration Service of Azerbaijan or other Azerbaijan government authority. Visa on arrival for staff of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and their dependents, provided holding an official invitation letter issued by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 30 days for holders of an official invitation letter issued by the Operating Committee of Baku Chess Olympiad or an accreditation card issued by the International Chess Federation (FIDE).
Passengers with a residence permit issued by a GCC Member State can obtain a visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 30 days. They must travel with a national of the GCC country that issued the residence permit.
Electronic visa[edit]
Azerbaijan introduced electronic visas for citizens of designated countries in January 2017. The system is called ASAN Visa and the visas are issued for a single-entry visit up to 30 days.[17] The e-visa should be printed and presented together with the passport (that should be valid at least 3 months more than the validity period of the electronic visa) at the border checkpoint.[18] The e-Visa is issued within 3 working days.[19] As of May 2018, the designated 95 countries are the following:[20][21][12]
All European Union citizens
Albania
Algeria
Andorra
Argentina
Australia
Bahamas
Bahrain
Barbados
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brazil
Brunei
Canada
Chile
China1
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Djibouti[22]
Ecuador
Guatemala
Honduras
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Israel
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kuwait
Liechtenstein
Macedonia
Malaysia
Maldives
Mauritius
Mexico
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Nepal
New Zealand
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Qatar
San Marino
Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Seychelles
Singapore
South Africa
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Switzerland
Thailand
Trinidad and Tobago
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
United States
Vatican City
Vietnam
1 - including Hong Kong and Macau
As of February 2017, ASAN was looking into the possibility of making the electronic visa application available directly at the ports of entry at the border with Georgia, Russia, Turkey, and Iran.[23]
British travel magazine Wanderlust rated the Azerbaijan e-visa system (ASAN Visa) as the easiest visa to get in the world in 2017.[24]
There are plans to expand the ASAN Visa system for the issuance of visas to citizens of Azerbaijan as well. As of January 2018 Morocco was selected and negotiations were under way with Lithuania and United Arab Emirates.[25]
From 15 May 2018 citizens of Bahrain, China, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Turkey, United Arab Emirates[26] can obtain an electronic visa on arrival in Baku International Airport.
Visa facilitation[edit]
Azerbaijan concluded a visa facilitation agreement with the European Union (excluding Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom) which reduces the number of documents sufficient for justifying the purpose of the trip, envisages issuance of multiple-entry visas, limits the length of processing and reduces the issuing fee or waives it entirely for many categories of EU citizens.[27]
Bans[edit]
Due to a state of war with Armenia, according to media reports the Government of Azerbaijan bans the entry of citizens from Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan[28][29] (though there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
The government of Azerbaijan strictly bans any visit of foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno-Karabakh (the de facto Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without prior consent of the Government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included into the "list of persona non grata".[30]
Visitor statistics[edit]
Most visitors arriving to Azerbaijan were from the following countries of nationality:[31][32]
[show]Country
2016
2015
2014
2013
Russia 744,125 685,555 843,851 903,242
Georgia 506,306 571,648 699,532 810,390
Turkey 313,341 288,620 314,476 361,413
Iran 248,632 149,600 131,179 143,579
Iraq 62,983 2,147 738 991
Ukraine 55,508 55,119 58,201 51,802
United Arab Emirates 53,180 2,379 821 638
Kazakhstan 31,994 27,145 29,468 28,226
United Kingdom 29,514 34,892 33,563 32,841
Uzbekistan 16,093 15,185 19,336 18,627
Total 2,248,773 2,006,176 2,297,804 2,508,904
See also[edit]
Azerbaijan portal
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Azerbaijan.
Electronic visa (evisa) to Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani passport
Visa requirements for Azerbaijani citizens
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Azerbaijan Tourist Visa / Azerbaijan Visa Requirements".
Jump up ^ "Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs Visa Requirements - Documents required for granting visa".
Jump up ^ "Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs Visa Requirements".
Jump up ^ http://evisa.mfa.gov.az/
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Country information (visa section)". Timatic. International Air Transport Association (IATA) through Olympic Air. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ "Между Азербайджаном и странами Бенилюкса подписано соглашение по упрощению визового режима для дипломатов". 23 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Azerbaijan, Bolivia agree on partial visa liberalization [PHOTO]". 18 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "News.Az - Visa centers to open in Azerbaijani airports". news.az.
Jump up ^ Azerbaijan Simplified Visa Policy for Citizens of Certain Countries. Haqqin.az. 25 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b [3]
Jump up ^ FS. "List of states whose citizens can be issued visas at international airports of the Republic of Azerbaijan". www.mfa.gov.az.
Jump up ^ [4]
Jump up ^ [5]
Jump up ^ "US citizens traveling by the New York – Baku direct flight on AZAL are eligible to obtain Azerbaijani visa upon arrival at the Heydar Aliyev International Airport in Baku". 23 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Holding, APA Information Agency, APA. "Azerbaijan announces rules of e-visa issuance through ASAN Visa system".
Jump up ^ Holding, APA Information Agency, APA. "Azerbaijan to launch ASAN Visa portal on Jan. 10".
Jump up ^ "The Electronic Visa System of Azerbaijan Republic". evisa.gov.az.
Jump up ^ Azerbaijan publicizes list of countries that will use ASAN Visa system. APA. 15 December 2016
Jump up ^ ASAN Viza Enlarges List of Countries. Haqqin.az. 17 May 2017.
Jump up ^ [6]
Jump up ^ Visas to be Issued at Border. Haqqin.az. 20 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "You're welcome! The 5 easiest visas to get in the world". www.msn.com. Retrieved 2017-08-14.
Jump up ^ [7]
Jump up ^ https://ria.ru/tourism/20180515/1520578555.html
Jump up ^ AGREEMENT between the European Union and the Republic of Azerbaijan on the facilitation of the issuance of visas
Jump up ^ Azerbaijan Country Page. NCSJ: Advocates on Behalf of Jews in Russia, Ukraine, the Baltic States & Eurasia. Accessed 23 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Azerbaijan doesn't allow Armenians in the country".
Jump up ^ FS. "Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Romania". azembassy.ro.
Jump up ^ [8]
Jump up ^ "Number of foreign citizens arrived to Azerbaijan by countries".
External links[edit]
Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in English)
State Migration Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan (in English)
Electronic Visa System of Azerbaijan Republic
[show]
v
t
e
Visa policy by country
Visa
Passport
Travel document
Africa
Central
Angola
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
DR Congo
R Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
São Tomé and Príncipe
Eastern
Burundi
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritius
Mozambique
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia (Somaliland)
South Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Northern
Algeria
Egypt8
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Southern
Botswana
Lesotho
Namibia
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha1
South Africa
Swaziland
Western
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Americas
Caribbean
Dutch Caribbean (Aruba, Caribbean Netherlands, Curaçao, Sint Maarten)
Anguilla1
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
British Virgin Islands1
Cayman Islands1
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat1
Puerto Rico11
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos Islands1
United States Virgin Islands11
Central
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
North
Bermuda1
Canada
Mexico
United States
South
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Falkland Islands1
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands1
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Asia
Central & North
Afghanistan
Kazakhstan6
Kyrgyzstan
Russia3
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
East
China
Hong Kong
Macau
Japan
North Korea
South Korea
Mongolia
Taiwan (Republic of China)10
South
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Southeast (ASEAN)
Brunei
Cambodia
East Timor
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Western
Abkhazia510
Akrotiri and Dhekelia1 7
Armenia7
Artsakh7 10
Azerbaijan5
Bahrain
Cyprus7
Egypt8
Georgia5
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Northern Cyprus7 10
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
South Ossetia5
Syria
Turkey4
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Europe
European Union/EFTA
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Cyprus7
Denmark
Faroe Islands
Estonia
Finland
France
Overseas
Germany
Gibraltar1
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Overseas
Norway
Svalbard12
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Overseas
Other Europe
Abkhazia5 10
Akrotiri and Dhekelia1 7
Albania
Andorra
Armenia7
Artsakh7 10
Azerbaijan5
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Georgia5
Kazakhstan6
Kosovo10
Macedonia
Moldova
Monaco 2
Montenegro
Northern Cyprus7 10
Russia3
San Marino 2
Serbia
South Ossetia5 10
Transnistria10
Turkey4
Ukraine
Vatican City 2
Oceania
American Samoa11
Australia
Cook Islands9
Fiji
Guam11
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Niue9
Northern Mariana Islands11
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Pitcairn Islands1
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tokelau9
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
1 British Overseas Territories. 2 Open border with Schengen Area. 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. 5 Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. 9 Part of the Realm of New Zealand. 10 Partially recognized. 11 Unincorporated territory of the United States. 12 Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open-border status under Svalbard Treaty
[show]
v
t
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Visa requirements
Visa
Passport
Travel document
Africa
Central
Angolan
Cameroonian
Central African Republic
Chadian
DR Congo
R Congo
Equatorial Guinean
Gabonese
Santomean
Eastern
Burundian
Comorian
Djiboutian
Eritrean
Ethiopian
Kenyan
Malagasy
Malawian
Mauritian
Mozambican
Rwandan
Seychellois
Somali (Somaliland)
South Sudanese
Tanzanian
Ugandan
Zambian
Zimbabwean
Northern
Algerian
Egyptian8
Libyan
Moroccan
Sudanese
Tunisian
Southern
Botswana
Lesotho
Namibian
Saint Helena1
South African
Swazi
Western
Beninese
Burkinabe
Cape Verdean
Gambian
Ghanaian
Guinean
Guinea-Bissauan
Ivorian
Liberian
Malian
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Nigerian
Nigerien
Senegalese
Sierra Leonean
Togolese
Americas
Caribbean
Anguillan1
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamian
Barbadian
British Virgin Islands1
Caymanian1
Cuban
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenadian
Haitian
Jamaican
Montserratian1
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucian
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos Islands1
Central
Belizean
Costa Rican
El Salvador
Guatemalan
Honduran
Nicaraguan
Panamanian
North
Bermudian1
Canadian
Mexican
United States
South
Argentine
Bolivian
Brazilian
Chilean
Colombian
Ecuadorian
Guyanese
Paraguayan
Peruvian
Surinamese
Uruguayan
Venezuelan
Asia
Central & North
Afghanistani
Kazakhstani6
Kyrgyzstani
Russian3
Tajik
Turkmen
Uzbekistani
East
Chinese
Hong Kongese
Macanese
Japanese
North Korean
South Korean
Mongolian
Taiwanese9
South
Bangladeshi
Bhutanese
Indian
Maldivian
Nepalese
Pakistani
Sri Lankan
Southeast
Bruneian
Cambodian
East Timorese
Indonesian
Laotian
Malaysian
Myanmar
Philippine
Singaporean
Thai
Vietnamese
Western
Abkhaz5 9
Armenian7
Artsakh7 9
Azerbaijani5
Bahraini
Cypriot7
Egyptian8
Georgian5
Emirati
Iranian
Iraqi
Israeli
Jordanian
Kuwaiti
Lebanese
Northern Cypriot7 9
Omani
Palestinian
Qatari
Saudi
South Ossetian5 9
Syrian
Turkish4
Yemeni
Europe
European Union
Austrian
Belgian
British (BOTC · BN(O) · BOC)
Bulgarian
Croatian
Cypriot7
Czech
Danish
Dutch
Estonian (Non-citizens)
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hungarian
Irish
Italian
Latvian (Non-citizens)
Lithuanian
Luxembourg
Maltese
Polish
Portuguese
Romanian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Other Europe
Abkhaz5 9
Albanian
Andorran2
Armenian7
Artsakh7 9
Azerbaijani5
Belarusian
Bosnian and Herzegovinian
Georgian5
Gibraltar1
Icelandic2
Kazakhstani6
Kosovan9
Liechtenstein2
Macedonia
Moldovan
Monégasque2
Montenegrin
Northern Cypriot7 9
Norwegian2
Russian3
San Marino2
Serbian
South Ossetian5 9
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Swiss
Transnistrian9
Turkish4
Ukrainian
Vatican City2
Oceania
Australian
Fijian
Kiribati
Marshallese
Micronesian
Nauruan
New Zealand
Palauan
Papua New Guinean
Pitcairn Islands1
Samoan
Solomon Islands
Tongan
Tuvaluan
Vanuatuan
1 British Overseas Territories. 2 Open border with Schengen Area. 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia. 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. 5 Abkhazia9, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia9 are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia, Artsakh9, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus9 are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. 9 Partially recognized.
Immigration law
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Avocado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the place, see Avocado, California. For the music album, see Pearl Jam (album).
Avocado
Temporal range: 15–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Middle Miocene – Recent
Avocado fruit and foliage, Réunion island
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Laurales
Family: Lauraceae
Genus: Persea
Species: P. americana
Binomial name
Persea americana
Mill.
Synonyms
Laurus persea L.
Persea americana var. angustifolia Miranda
Persea americana var. drymifolia (Cham. & Schltdl.) S.F.Blake
Persea americana var. nubigena (L.O.Williams) L.E.Kopp
Persea drymifolia Cham. & Schltdl.
Persea edulis Raf.
Persea floccosa Mez
Persea gigantea L.O.Williams
Persea gratissima C.F.Gaertn.
Persea gratissima var. drimyfolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) Mez
Persea gratissima var. macrophylla Meisn.
Persea gratissima var. oblonga Meisn.
Persea gratissima var. praecox Nees
Persea gratissima var. vulgaris Meisn.
Persea leiogyna Blake
Persea nubigena L.O.Williams
Persea nubigena var. guatemalensis L.O.Williams
Persea paucitriplinervia Lundell
Persea persea (L.) Cockerell
Persea steyermarkii C.K.Allen [1]
The avocado (Persea americana) is a tree, long thought to have originated in South Central Mexico,[2] classified as a member of the flowering plant family Lauraceae.[3] Recent archaeological research produced evidence that the avocado was present in Peru as long as 8,000 to 15,000 years ago.[4] Avocado (also alligator pear) refers to the tree's fruit, which is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed.[5]
Avocados are commercially valuable and are cultivated in tropical and Mediterranean climates throughout the world.[3] They have a green-skinned, fleshy body that may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. Commercially, they ripen after harvesting. Avocado trees are partially self-pollinating and are often propagated through grafting to maintain a predictable quality and quantity of the fruit.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Etymology
2.1 Regional names
3 Botany
4 Cultivation
4.1 Harvest and postharvest
4.2 Breeding
4.3 Propagation and rootstocks
4.4 Growing indoors
4.5 Diseases
4.6 Cultivation in Mexico
4.7 Cultivation in California
4.8 Cultivation in Peru
4.9 A cultivars
4.10 B cultivars
4.11 Other cultivars
4.11.1 Stoneless avocado
5 Production and consumption
6 Avocado-related international trade issues
7 Culinary uses
8 Nutritional value
8.1 Nutrients and fat composition
9 As a houseplant
10 Allergies
11 Toxicity to animals
12 Coevolution
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
16 Further reading
17 External links
History
Native Oaxaca criollo avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties
Persea americana, or the avocado, is possibly thought to have originated in the Tehuacan Valley[6] in the state of Puebla, Mexico,[7] although fossil evidence suggests similar species were much more widespread millions of years ago. However, there is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Mexican (aoacatl), Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl) landraces.[8][9] The Mexican and Guatemalan landraces originated in the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala, respectively, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,[8] achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.[9] The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled[a] in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex.[9]
Archaeologists recently discovered the remains of the avocado plant in what is now Peru, carbon dated from 8,000 to 15,000 years ago in the Mesolithic period. This evidence was found in an earth mound intended to be a ceremonial structure called Huaca Prieta, 600 kilometers north of Lima, Peru. The earliest residents were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland eating avocados, chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.[10] The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.[6][9] Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence of avocado.[6] There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.[6]
The native, undomesticated variety is known as a criollo, and is small, with dark black skin, and contains a large seed.[11] It probably coevolved with extinct megafauna.[12] The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.[7] A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Incan city of Chan Chan.[13]
The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso (circa 1470–1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo.[14][15] The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias (es) in 1526.[8] The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term in 1669,[8] in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants. The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and Israel in 1908.[9] In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.[9]
Before 1915, the avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear. In 1915, the California Avocado Association introduced the then-innovative term avocado to refer to the plant.[9]
Etymology
The word "avocado" comes from the Spanish aguacate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ],[16] which goes back to the proto-Aztecan *pa:wa which also meant "avocado".[17] Sometimes the Nahuatl word was used with the meaning "testicle", probably because of the likeness between the fruit and the body part.[18]
The modern English name comes from an English rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as "avogato pear", a term which was later corrupted as "alligator pear".[19] Because the word avogato sounded like "advocate", several languages reinterpreted it to have that meaning. French uses avocat, which also means lawyer, and "advocate"-forms of the word appear in several Germanic languages, such as the (now obsolete) German Advogato-Birne, the old Danish advokat-pære (today it is called "avocado") and the Dutch advocaatpeer.[20]
Regional names
In other Central American and Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, it is known by the Mexican name, while South American Spanish-speaking countries use a Quechua-derived word, palta. In Portuguese, it is abacate. The fruit is sometimes called an avocado pear or alligator pear (due to its shape and the rough green skin of some cultivars).[3] The Nahuatl ahuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives.[21]
In the United Kingdom, the term "avocado pear" is still sometimes misused as applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s.[22] It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India and goes by the name "bơ" [ɓɘː] in Vietnamese, which is the same word that is used for butter.[23] In eastern China, it is known as è lí ("alligator pear") or huángyóu guǒ ("butter fruit"). In Taiwan, it is known as luò lí or "cheese pear".
Botany
Persea americana, young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots
The tree grows to 20 m (66 ft), with alternately arranged leaves 12–25 cm (4.7–9.8 in) long. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5–10 mm (0.2–0.4 in) wide. The pear-shaped fruit is 7–20 cm (2.8–7.9 in) long, weighs between 100 and 1,000 g (3.5 and 35.3 oz), and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 cm (2.0–2.5 in) long.[3]
Botanically, the avocado fruit is defined as a single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed,[5][24] rather than a drupe.
Cultivation
The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur, although the 'Hass' cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation water is highly saline. These soil and climate conditions are available in southern and eastern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Crete, the Levant, South Africa, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, parts of central and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, parts of southern India, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, California, Arizona, Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, Ecuador, and Rwanda. Each region has different cultivars.
Harvest and postharvest
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[25] Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only in subtropical or tropical climates. Several cold-hardy varieties are planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as −6.5 °C (20 °F) with only minor leaf damage.
Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 °C (37.9 to 42.1 °F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[26] The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin," and moving on without making a purchase.[27] In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.
Breeding
A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular avocados
The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'[28][29]
Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[30] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[31]

Propagation and rootstocks
Avocado is usually treated with a special technique to assist its sprouting process
A young avocado sprout
Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.[32] The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora.
Growing indoors
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Indoors, an avocado tree is usually grown from the pit of an avocado fruit. This is often done by removing the pit from a ripe, unrefrigerated avocado fruit. The pit is then stabbed with three or four toothpicks, about one-third of the way up from the flat end. The pit is placed in a jar or vase containing tepid water. It should split in four to six weeks and yield roots and a sprout. If there is no change by this time, the avocado pit is discarded. Once the stem has grown a few inches, it is placed in a pot with soil. It should be watered every few days. Avocados have been known to grow large, so owners must be ready to re-pot the plant several times.
Diseases
Main article: List of avocado diseases
P. americana, avocado plant flowers
Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.[33]
Cultivation in Mexico
Main article: Avocado production in Mexico
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.[34] In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 168,155 hectares (415,520 acres), and the harvest was 1.47 million tonnes.[35] The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.[36]
Cultivation in California
The avocado was introduced from Mexico to California in the 19th century, and has become a successful cash crop. About 59,000 acres (240 km2) – some 95% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California, with 60% in San Diego County.[37][38] Fallbrook, California, claims the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico[39]), and both Fallbrook and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals. Avocado is the official fruit of the State of California.[40]
Cultivation in Peru
Hass avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.[41] Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and, more recently, has begun to export avocados in significant quantities to North America.
Peru's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures year round. The soil is rich and sandy and the towering Andes mountains provide a constant flow of pure water for irrigation. Naturally sheltered as it is from heavy rain or freezing temperatures, Peru is an almost perfect climate for the cultivation of avocados.
Hass avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.
A cultivars
'Choquette'
Avocado 'Choquette' grafted
A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.
'Gwen'
A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100–200 g or 3.5–7.1 oz), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to −1 °C (30 °F).
'Hass'
Two 'Hass' avocados
The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.[15][42] All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California.[14][42] Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September, 2002.[15][42][43] 'Hass' trees have medium-sized (150–250 g or 5.3–8.8 oz), ovate fruit with a black, pebbled skin. The flesh has a nutty, rich flavor with 19% oil. A hybrid Guatemalan type can withstand temperatures to −1 °C (30 °F).
'Lula'
A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Mexican and Guatemalan types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida. It is also very commonly used as a rootstock for nursery production, and is hardy to −4 °C (25 °F).
'Maluma'
A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
'Pinkerton'
First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to −1 °C (30 °F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.
'Reed'
Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to −1 °C (30 °F). Tree size is about 5 by 4 m (16.4 by 13.1 ft).
B cultivars
'Bacon'
Developed by a farmer, James Bacon, in 1954, Bacon has medium-sized fruit with smooth, green skin with yellow-green, light-tasting flesh. When ripe, the skin remains green, but darkens slightly, and fruit yields to gentle pressure. It is cold-hardy down to −5 °C (23 °F).
'Brogden'
Possibly a cross between Mexican and West Indian types, 'Brogden' originated as a seedling grown in Winter Haven, Florida, on the property of Tom W. Brogden. The variety was recognized for its cold-hardiness to −5 °C (23 °F) and became commercially propagated as nursery stock for home growing. It is noted for its dark purple skin at maturity.
'Ettinger'
A Mexican/Guatemalan cross seedling of 'Fuerte', this cultivar originated in Israel, and was put into production there in 1947. Mature trees tolerate four hours at −6 °C (21 °F). The fruit has a smooth, thin, green skin that does not peel easily. The flesh is very pale green.
Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left: whole, right: in section
'Fuerte'
A Mexican/Guatemalan cross originating in Puebla, the 'Fuerte' earned its name, which means strong in Spanish, after it withstood a severe frost in California in 1913. Hardy to −3 °C (27 °F), it has medium-sized, pear-shaped fruit with a green, leathery, easy-to-peel skin. The creamy flesh of mild and rich flavor has 18% oil. The skin ripens green. Tree size is 6 by 4 m (19.7 by 13.1 ft).
'Monroe'
A Guatemalan/West Indian cross that originated from a seedling grown in Homestead, Florida, on the property of J.J.L. Phillips, it was patented in 1937 and became a major commercial cultivar due to its cold hardiness and production qualities. The fruit is large, averaging over 2 lb (0.91 kg) in weight, has an elliptical shape, and green, glossy skin. Hardy to −3 °C (27 °F).
'Sharwil'
Predominantly Guatemalan, with some Mexican race genes, 'Sharwil' was developed in 1951 by Sir Frank Sharpe at Redland Bay, southern Queensland. The name "Sharwil" is an amalgamation of Sharpe and Wilson (J.C. Wilson being the first propagator). Scions were sent from Australia to Hawaii in 1966. A medium-sized fruit with rough green skin, it closely resembles the 'Fuerte', but is slightly more oval in shape. The fruit has greenish-yellow flesh with a rich, nutty flavor and high oil content (20–24%), and a small seed. The skin is green when ripe. It represents more than 57% of the commercial farming in Hawaii, and represents up to 20% of all avocados grown in New South Wales, Australia. It is a regular and moderate bearer with excellent quality fruit, but is sensitive to frost. Disease and pest resistance are superior to 'Fuerte'.
'Zutano'
Originated by R.L. Ruitt in Fallbrook in 1926, this Mexican variety is hardy to −4 °C (25 °F). The large, pear-shaped fruit has a shiny, thin, yellow-green skin that peels moderately easily. The flesh is pale green with fibers and has a light flavor.
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.[44]
Stoneless avocado
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado," which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[45] Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.[46] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[47]
Production and consumption
Avocado production – 2014
Country
Production (millions of tonnes)
Mexico 1.52
Dominican Republic 0.43
Peru 0.35
Indonesia 0.31
Colombia 0.29
World 5.03
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[35]

In 2014, world production of avocados was 5 million tonnes, with Mexico alone accounting for 30% (1.52 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers include Dominican Republic, Peru, Indonesia and Colombia, together totaling 1.38 million tonnes or 27% of world production (table).[35]
In the US, per capita consumption has grown from 2 pounds in 2001 to 7 pounds in 2016.[48]
Avocado-related international trade issues
First international air shipment of avocados from Los Angeles, California, to Toronto, Ontario, for the Canadian National Exhibition
After the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, Mexico tried exporting avocados to the US. The US government resisted, claiming the trade would introduce Tephritidae fruit flies that would destroy California's crops. The Mexican government responded by inviting USDA inspectors to Mexico, but the US government declined, claiming fruit fly inspection was not feasible. The Mexican government then proposed to sell avocados only to the northeastern US in the winter (fruit flies cannot withstand extreme cold). The US government balked, but gave in when the Mexican government started erecting barriers to US corn.
Selling avocados in Santo Domingo, DR
Today, avocados from Mexico are allowed throughout the US, because USDA inspectors in Michoacán (where 90% of 'Hass' avocados from Mexico are grown) inspected fruit in Uruapan.[clarification needed][citation needed] Imports from Mexico in the 2005–2006 season exceeded 130,000 metric tons (143,300 short tons; 127,900 long tons).[49][50]
In 2009, Peru joined Chile and Mexico as an exporter of avocados to the US.[51]
In the US, avocados are grown in California and Florida, where land, labor, and water are expensive. Avocado trees require frequent, deep watering to bear optimally, particularly in spring, summer, and fall. Due to increased Southern California water costs, they are now costly to grow. California produces 90% of the United States' avocados.[37]
As of 2013, Mexico leads international exports, with other significant production in California, New Zealand, Peru, and South Africa.
Culinary uses
See also: List of avocado dishes
Avocado salad, and a tomato and black olive salsa, on a toasted baguette
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high smoke point, avocado oil is expensive compared to common salad and cooking oils, and mostly used for salads or dips.
A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning, quickly turning brown after exposure to air.[52] To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.
Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.[3] It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is popular in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.
Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. Caution should be used when cooking with untested cultivars; the flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[53]
A guacamole mix (right) used as a dip for tortilla chips (left).
It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as guacamole,[3] as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices.
In the Philippines, Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts. In Brazil, Vietnam, the Philippines[54] and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and hinted with orange flower water.
In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads.
Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare.
Sliced avocado
In Australia and New Zealand, it is commonly served in sandwiches, sushi, on toast, or with chicken. In Ghana, it is often eaten alone in sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed with sugar and milk, or treacle (a syrup made from the nectar of a particular palm flower) is a popular dessert. In Haiti, it is often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit eaten alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad.
Avocado is a primary ingredient in avocado soup. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers, tortas, hot dogs, and carne asada. Avocado can be combined with eggs (in scrambled eggs, tortillas, or omelettes), and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi).
In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'.[22]
Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines
Nutritional value
Avocados, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
670 kJ (160 kcal)
Carbohydrates
8.53 g
Sugars
0.66 g
Dietary fiber
6.7 g
Fat
14.66 g
Saturated
2.13 g
Monounsaturated
9.80 g
Polyunsaturated
1.82 g
Protein
2 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
beta-Carotene
lutein zeaxanthin
(1%)
7 μg
(1%)
62 μg
271 μg
Thiamine (B1)
(6%)
0.067 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(11%)
0.13 mg
Niacin (B3)
(12%)
1.738 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(28%)
1.389 mg
Vitamin B6
(20%)
0.257 mg
Folate (B9)
(20%)
81 μg
Vitamin C
(12%)
10 mg
Vitamin E
(14%)
2.07 mg
Vitamin K
(20%)
21 μg
Minerals
Calcium
(1%)
12 mg
Iron
(4%)
0.55 mg
Magnesium
(8%)
29 mg
Manganese
(7%)
0.142 mg
Phosphorus
(7%)
52 mg
Potassium
(10%)
485 mg
Sodium
(0%)
7 mg
Zinc
(7%)
0.64 mg
Other constituents
Water
73.23 g
Fluoride
7 µg
Beta-sitosterol
76 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Nutrients and fat composition
A typical serving of avocado (100 g) is moderate to rich in several B vitamins and vitamin K, with good content of vitamin C, vitamin E and potassium (right table, USDA nutrient data). Avocados also contain phytosterols and carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin.[55]
Avocados have diverse fats.[56] For a typical avocado:
About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid.[56]
Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid.[56]
The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.[56]
Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1% ω-3, 14% ω-6, 71% ω-9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% saturated fat (palmitic acid).[56]
Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has diverse uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.[3]
As a houseplant
Avocado houseplant leaf with ruler to indicate size
The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a (decorative) houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.
Allergies
Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,[57] is related to latex allergy[58] and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.[59]
Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,[60] rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses[38][61] can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.[62]
Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death.[63] The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound. A line of premium dog and cat food, AvoDerm, uses oils and meal made from avocado meat as main ingredients.[64] The manufacturer says the avocado's leaves and pit are the source of toxicity, and only in the Guatemalan variety of avocados, and the fruit is often eaten by orchard dogs as well as wildlife such as bears and coyotes.[65]
Coevolution
In 1982, evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen concluded that the avocado is an example of an 'evolutionary anachronism', a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground sloths or gomphotheres). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved with Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.[66][67]
See also
Food portal
Avocado cake
California Avocado Society
California Avocado Commission
Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul
Guacamole
List of avocado dishes
Plant propagation
Recalcitrant seed
Notes
Jump up ^ intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one
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Jump up ^ Wolstenholme, B. N. & Whiley, A. W. (1999). "Ecophysiology of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) tree as a basis for pre-harvest management" (PDF). Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura. 5: 77–88. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03.
Further reading
Bruce Shaffer; B. Nigel Wolstenhome; Anthony W. Whiley, eds. (2012). The Avocado: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI. ISBN 9781845937010.
External links
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Avocado
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Avocado Pear.
Media related to Persea americana at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of avocado at Wiktionary
Definitive illustrated list of avocado varieties
California Rare Fruit Growers, avocados beyond Persea americana
Authority control
NDL: 00560044
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q37153
APDB: 48991
BioLib: 207615
EoL: 596916
FoC: 200009046
GBIF: 3034046
GRIN: 27393
iNaturalist: 62831
IPNI: 467921-1
ITIS: 18154
IUCN: 96986556
NCBI: 3435
PalDat: Persea_americana
Plant List: kew-2529835
PLANTS: PEAM3
Tropicos: 17801262
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avocado&oldid=820634004"
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