text:
Geographic coordinate system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Longitude lines are perpendicular to and latitude lines are parallel to the Equator.
Geodesy
Fundamentals
Geodesy
Geodynamics
Geomatics
Cartography
History
Concepts
Geographical distance
Geoid
Figure of the Earth
Geodetic datum
Geodesic
Geographic coordinate system
Horizontal position representation
Latitude / Longitude
Map projection
Reference ellipsoid
Satellite geodesy
Spatial reference system
Spatial relations
Technologies
Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
Global Pos. System (GPS)
GLONASS (Russia)
BeiDou (BDS) (China)
Galileo (Europe)
NAVIC (India)
Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS) (Japan)
Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
Standards (History)
NGVD 29 Sea Level Datum 1929
OSGB36 Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
SK-42 Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
ED50 European Datum 1950
SAD69 South American Datum 1969
GRS 80 Geodetic Reference System 1980
ISO 6709 Geographic point coord. 1983
NAD 83 North American Datum 1983
WGS 84 World Geodetic System 1984
NAVD 88 N. American Vertical Datum 1988
ETRS89 European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
GCJ-02 Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
Geo URI Internet link to a point 2010
International Terrestrial Reference System
Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
v
t
e
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.[n 1] The coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position, and two or three of the numbers represent a horizontal position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation.[1]
To specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection.[2]
Contents
1 History
2 Geographic latitude and longitude
3 Measuring height using datums
3.1 Complexity of the problem
3.2 Common baselines
3.3 Datums
4 Map projection
4.1 UTM and UPS systems
4.2 Stereographic coordinate system
5 Cartesian coordinates
5.1 Earth-centered, Earth-fixed
5.2 Local east, north, up (ENU) coordinates
5.3 Local north, east, down (NED) coordinates
6 Expressing latitude and longitude as linear units
7 Geostationary coordinates
8 On other celestial bodies
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
11.1 Citations
11.2 Sources
12 External links
History[edit]
Main articles: History of geodesy, history of longitude, and history of prime meridians
The invention of a geographic coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who composed his now-lost Geography at the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC.[3] A century later, Hipparchus of Nicaea improved on this system by determining latitude from stellar measurements rather than solar altitude and determining longitude by timings of lunar eclipses, rather than dead reckoning. In the 1st or 2nd century, Marinus of Tyre compiled an extensive gazetteer and mathematically-plotted world map using coordinates measured east from a prime meridian at the westernmost known land, designated the Fortunate Isles, off the coast of western Africa around the Canary or Cape Verde Islands, and measured north or south of the island of Rhodes off Asia Minor. Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.[4]
Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography used the same prime meridian but measured latitude from the Equator instead. After their work was translated into Arabic in the 9th century, Al-Khwārizmī's Book of the Description of the Earth corrected Marinus' and Ptolemy's errors regarding the length of the Mediterranean Sea,[n 2] causing medieval Arabic cartography to use a prime meridian around 10° east of Ptolemy's line. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1407.
In 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England as the zero-reference line. The Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained.[5] France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911.
Geographic latitude and longitude[edit]
0°
Equator, the 0° parallel of latitude
Main articles: Latitude and Longitude
The "latitude" (abbreviation: Lat., φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.[n 3] Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the Equator and to each other. The North Pole is 90° N; the South Pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the Equator, the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The Equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
0°
Prime Meridian, the 0° of longitude
The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles. The meridian of the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, in south-east London, England, is the international prime meridian, although some organizations—such as the French Institut Géographique National—continue to use other meridians for internal purposes. The prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in several places for political reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands.
The combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a "graticule".[6] The origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km (390 mi) south of Tema, Ghana.
Measuring height using datums[edit]
Main articles: Geodetic datum, Figure of the Earth, and Reference ellipsoid
Complexity of the problem[edit]
To completely specify a location of a topographical feature on, in, or above Earth, one also has to specify the vertical distance from Earth's center or surface.
Earth is not a sphere, but an irregular shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the Equator about 0.3% larger than the radius measured through the poles. The shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation. Though early navigators thought of the sea as a flat surface that could be used as a vertical datum, this is not actually the case. Earth has a series of layers of equal potential energy within its gravitational field. Height is a measurement at right angles to this surface, roughly toward Earth's center, but local variations make the equipotential layers irregular (though roughly ellipsoidal). The choice of which layer to use for defining height is arbitrary.
Common baselines[edit]
Common height baselines include[2]
The surface of the datum ellipsoid, resulting in an ellipsoidal height
The mean sea level as described by the gravity geoid, yielding the orthometric height[1][7]
A vertical datum, yielding a dynamic height relative to a known reference height.
Along with the latitude ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } and longitude λ {\displaystyle \lambda } , the height h {\displaystyle h} provides the three-dimensional geodetic coordinates or geographic coordinates for a location.[8]
Datums[edit]
In order to be unambiguous about the direction of "vertical" and the "surface" above which they are measuring, map-makers choose a reference ellipsoid with a given origin and orientation that best fits their need for the area they are mapping. They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or geodetic datum.
Datums may be global, meaning that they represent the whole Earth, or they may be local, meaning that they represent an ellipsoid best-fit to only a portion of the Earth. Points on the Earth's surface move relative to each other due to continental plate motion, subsidence, and diurnal Earth tidal movement caused by the Moon and the Sun. This daily movement can be as much as a metre. Continental movement can be up to 10 cm a year, or 10 m in a century. A weather system high-pressure area can cause a sinking of 5 mm. Scandinavia is rising by 1 cm a year as a result of the melting of the ice sheets of the last ice age, but neighbouring Scotland is rising by only 0.2 cm. These changes are insignificant if a local datum is used, but are statistically significant if a global datum is used.[1]
Examples of global datums include World Geodetic System (WGS 84), the default datum used for the Global Positioning System,[n 4] and the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), used for estimating continental drift and crustal deformation.[9] The distance to Earth's center can be used both for very deep positions and for positions in space.[1]
Local datums chosen by a national cartographical organisation include the North American Datum, the European ED50, and the British OSGB36. Given a location, the datum provides the latitude ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } and longitude λ {\displaystyle \lambda } . In the United Kingdom there are three common latitude, longitude, and height systems in use. WGS 84 differs at Greenwich from the one used on published maps OSGB36 by approximately 112m. The military system ED50, used by NATO, differs from about 120m to 180m.[1]
The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a GPS receiver. Coordinates from the mapping system can sometimes be roughly changed into another datum using a simple translation. For example, to convert from ETRF89 (GPS) to the Irish Grid add 49 metres to the east, and subtract 23.4 metres from the north.[10] More generally one datum is changed into any other datum using a process called Helmert transformations. This involves converting the spherical coordinates into Cartesian coordinates and applying a seven parameter transformation (translation, three-dimensional rotation), and converting back.[1]
In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a 'Geographic Coordinate System'. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the North American Datum of 1983 is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'.
Further information: Geographic coordinate conversion
Map projection[edit]
Main article: Map projection
To establish the position of a geographic location on a map, a map projection is used to convert geodetic coordinates to two-dimensional coordinates on a map; it projects the datum ellipsoidal coordinates and height onto a flat surface of a map. The datum, along with a map projection applied to a grid of reference locations, establishes a grid system for plotting locations. Common map projections in current use include the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), the United States National Grid (USNG), the Global Area Reference System (GARS) and the World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF).[11] Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and easting E offsets relative to a specified origin.
Map projection formulas depend in the geometry of the projection as well as parameters dependent on the particular location at which the map is projected. The set of parameters can vary based on type of project and the conventions chosen for the projection. For the transverse Mercator projection used in UTM, the parameters associated are the latitude and longitude of the natural origin, the false northing and false easting, and an overall scale factor.[12] Given the parameters associated with particular location or grin, the projection formulas for the transverse Mercator are a complex mix of algebraic and trigonometric functions.[12]:45-54
UTM and UPS systems[edit]
Main articles: Universal Transverse Mercator and Universal Polar Stereographic
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) coordinate systems both use a metric-based cartesian grid laid out on a conformally projected surface to locate positions on the surface of the Earth. The UTM system is not a single map projection but a series of sixty, each covering 6-degree bands of longitude. The UPS system is used for the polar regions, which are not covered by the UTM system.
Stereographic coordinate system[edit]
Further information: Stereographic projection
During medieval times, the stereographic coordinate system was used for navigation purposes.[citation needed] The stereographic coordinate system was superseded by the latitude-longitude system. Although no longer used in navigation, the stereographic coordinate system is still used in modern times to describe crystallographic orientations in the fields of crystallography, mineralogy and materials science.[citation needed]
Cartesian coordinates[edit]
Main article: axes conventions
Every point that is expressed in ellipsoidal coordinates can be expressed as an rectilinear x y z (Cartesian) coordinate. Cartesian coordinates simplify many mathematical calculations. The Cartesian systems of different datums are not equivalent.[2]
Earth-centered, Earth-fixed[edit]
Earth Centered, Earth Fixed coordinates in relation to latitude and longitude.
Main article: ECEF
The earth-centered earth-fixed (also known as the ECEF, ECF, or conventional terrestrial coordinate system) rotates with the Earth and has its origin at the center of the Earth.
The conventional right-handed coordinate system puts:
The origin at the center of mass of the Earth, a point close to the Earth's center of figure
The Z axis on the line between the North and South Poles, with positive values increasing northward (but does not exactly coincide with the Earth's rotational axis)[13]
The X and Y axes in the plane of the Equator
The X axis passing through extending from 180 degrees longitude at the Equator (negative) to 0 degrees longitude (prime meridian) at the Equator (positive)
The Y axis passing through extending from 90 degrees west longitude at the Equator (negative) to 90 degrees east longitude at the Equator (positive)
An example is the NGS data for a brass disk near Donner Summit, in California. Given the dimensions of the ellipsoid, the conversion from lat/lon/height-above-ellipsoid coordinates to X-Y-Z is straightforward—calculate the X-Y-Z for the given lat-lon on the surface of the ellipsoid and add the X-Y-Z vector that is perpendicular to the ellipsoid there and has length equal to the point's height above the ellipsoid. The reverse conversion is harder: given X-Y-Z we can immediately get longitude, but no closed formula for latitude and height exists. See "Geodetic system." Using Bowring's formula in 1976 Survey Review the first iteration gives latitude correct within 10-11 degree as long as the point is within 10000 meters above or 5000 meters below the ellipsoid.
Local east, north, up (ENU) coordinates[edit]
Earth Centered Earth Fixed and East, North, Up coordinates.
In many targeting and tracking applications the local East, North, Up (ENU) Cartesian coordinate system is far more intuitive and practical than ECEF or Geodetic coordinates. The local ENU coordinates are formed from a plane tangent to the Earth's surface fixed to a specific location and hence it is sometimes known as a "Local Tangent" or "local geodetic" plane. By convention the east axis is labeled x {\displaystyle x} , the north y {\displaystyle y} and the up z {\displaystyle z} .
Local north, east, down (NED) coordinates[edit]
Also known as local tangent plane (LTP). In an airplane, most objects of interest are below the aircraft, so it is sensible to define down as a positive number. The North, East, Down (NED) coordinates allow this as an alternative to the ENU local tangent plane. By convention, the north axis is labeled x ′ {\displaystyle x'} , the east y ′ {\displaystyle y'} and the down z ′ {\displaystyle z'} . To avoid confusion between x {\displaystyle x} and x ′ {\displaystyle x'} , etc. in this article we will restrict the local coordinate frame to ENU.
Expressing latitude and longitude as linear units[edit]
Main articles: Length of a degree of latitude and Length of a degree of longitude
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
On the GRS80 or WGS84 spheroid at sea level at the Equator, one latitudinal second measures 30.715 metres, one latitudinal minute is 1843 metres and one latitudinal degree is 110.6 kilometres. The circles of longitude, meridians, meet at the geographical poles, with the west-east width of a second naturally decreasing as latitude increases. On the Equator at sea level, one longitudinal second measures 30.92 metres, a longitudinal minute is 1855 metres and a longitudinal degree is 111.3 kilometres. At 30° a longitudinal second is 26.76 metres, at Greenwich (51°28′38″N) 19.22 metres, and at 60° it is 15.42 metres.
On the WGS84 spheroid, the length in meters of a degree of latitude at latitude φ (that is, the distance along a north–south line from latitude (φ − 0.5) degrees to (φ + 0.5) degrees) is about
111132.92 − 559.82 cos  2 φ + 1.175 cos  4 φ − 0.0023 cos  6 φ {\displaystyle 111132.92-559.82\,\cos 2\varphi +1.175\,\cos 4\varphi -0.0023\,\cos 6\varphi } [14]
Similarly, the length in meters of a degree of longitude can be calculated as
111412.84 cos  φ − 93.5 cos  3 φ + 0.118 cos  5 φ {\displaystyle 111412.84\,\cos \varphi -93.5\,\cos 3\varphi +0.118\,\cos 5\varphi } [14]
(Those coefficients can be improved, but as they stand the distance they give is correct within a centimeter.)
An alternative method to estimate the length of a longitudinal degree at latitude φ {\displaystyle \textstyle {\varphi }\,\!} is to assume a spherical Earth (to get the width per minute and second, divide by 60 and 3600, respectively):
π 180 M r cos  φ {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{180}}M_{r}\cos \varphi \!}
where Earth's average meridional radius M r {\displaystyle \textstyle {M_{r}}\,\!} is 6,367,449 m. Since the Earth is not spherical that result can be off by several tenths of a percent; a better approximation of a longitudinal degree at latitude φ {\displaystyle \textstyle {\varphi }\,\!} is
π 180 a cos  β {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{180}}a\cos \beta \,\!}
where Earth's equatorial radius a {\displaystyle a} equals 6,378,137 m and tan  β = b a tan  φ {\displaystyle \textstyle {\tan \beta ={\frac {b}{a}}\tan \varphi }\,\!} ; for the GRS80 and WGS84 spheroids, b/a calculates to be 0.99664719. ( β {\displaystyle \textstyle {\beta }\,\!} is known as the reduced (or parametric) latitude). Aside from rounding, this is the exact distance along a parallel of latitude; getting the distance along the shortest route will be more work, but those two distances are always within 0.6 meter of each other if the two points are one degree of longitude apart.
Longitudinal length equivalents at selected latitudes
Latitude
City
Degree
Minute
Second
±0.0001°
60° Saint Petersburg 55.80 km 0.930 km 15.50 m 5.58 m
51° 28′ 38″ N Greenwich 69.47 km 1.158 km 19.30 m 6.95 m
45° Bordeaux 78.85 km 1.31 km 21.90 m 7.89 m
30° New Orleans 96.49 km 1.61 km 26.80 m 9.65 m
0° Quito 111.3 km 1.855 km 30.92 m 11.13 m
Geostationary coordinates[edit]
Geostationary satellites (e.g., television satellites) are over the Equator at a specific point on Earth, so their position related to Earth is expressed in longitude degrees only. Their latitude is always zero (or approximately so), that is, over the Equator.
On other celestial bodies[edit]
Similar coordinate systems are defined for other celestial bodies such as:
A similarly well-defined system based on the reference ellipsoid for Mars.
Selenographic coordinates for the Moon
See also[edit]
Atlas portal
Decimal degrees
Geodetic datum
Geographic coordinate conversion
Geographic information system
Geographical distance
Linear referencing
Map projection
Spatial reference systems
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In specialized works, "geographic coordinates" are distinguished from other similar coordinate systems, such as geocentric coordinates and geodetic coordinates. See, for example, Sean E. Urban and P. Kenneth Seidelmann, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd. ed., (Mill Valley CA: University Science Books, 2013) p. 20–23.
Jump up ^ The pair had accurate absolute distances within the Mediterranean but underestimated the circumference of the Earth, causing their degree measurements to overstate its length west from Rhodes or Alexandria, respectively.
Jump up ^ Alternative versions of latitude and longitude include geocentric coordinates, which measure with respect to Earth's center; geodetic coordinates, which model Earth as an ellipsoid; and geographic coordinates, which measure with respect to a plumb line at the location for which coordinates are given.
Jump up ^ WGS 84 is the default datum used in most GPS equipment, but other datums can be selected.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain (PDF), D00659 v2.3, Ordnance Survey, Mar 2015, retrieved 2015-06-22
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor, Chuck. "Locating a Point On the Earth". Retrieved 4 March 2014.
Jump up ^ McPhail, Cameron (2011), Reconstructing Eratosthenes' Map of the World (PDF), Dunedin: University of Otago, pp. 20–24 .
Jump up ^ Evans, James (1998), The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 102–103, ISBN 9780199874453 .
Jump up ^ Greenwich 2000 Limited (9 June 2011). "The International Meridian Conference". Wwp.millennium-dome.com. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ American Society of Civil Engineers (1994-01-01). Glossary of the Mapping Sciences. ASCE Publications. p. 224. ISBN 9780784475706.
Jump up ^ DMA Technical Report Geodesy for the Layman, The Defense Mapping Agency, 1983
Jump up ^ Kwok, Geodetic Survey Section Lands Department Hong Kong. "Geodetic Datum Transformation, p.24" (PDF). Geodetic Survey Section Lands Department Hong Kong. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Bolstad, Paul. GIS Fundamentals, 5th Edition (PDF). Atlas books. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-9717647-3-6.
Jump up ^ "Making maps compatible with GPS". Government of Ireland 1999. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Grids and Reference Systems". National Geospatial-Intelligence Agenc. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Geomatics Guidance Note Number 7, part 2 Coordinate Conversions and Transformations including Formulas" (PDF). International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP). pp. 9–10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Note on the BIRD ACS Reference Frames Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b [1] Geographic Information Systems - Stackexchange
Sources[edit]
Portions of this article are from Jason Harris' "Astroinfo" which is distributed with KStars, a desktop planetarium for Linux/KDE. See The KDE Education Project - KStars
External links[edit]
Wikidata has the property:
coordinate location (P625) (see uses)
Media related to Geographic coordinate system at Wikimedia Commons
hide
v
t
e
Circles of latitude / meridians
Equator
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
Equator
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
Equator
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
W 0° E
30°
60°
90°
120°
150°
180°
30°
60°
90°
120°
150°
180°
5°
15°
25°
35°
45°
55°
65°
75°
85°
95°
105°
115°
125°
135°
145°
155°
165°
175°
5°
15°
25°
35°
45°
55°
65°
75°
85°
95°
105°
115°
125°
135°
145°
155°
165°
175°
10°
20°
40°
50°
70°
80°
100°
110°
130°
140°
160°
170°
10°
20°
40°
50°
70°
80°
100°
110°
130°
140°
160°
170°
0°
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
5° N
15°
25°
35°
45°
55°
65°
75°
85°
5° S
15°
25°
35°
45°
55°
65°
75°
85°
45x90
45x90
45x90
45x90
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geographic_coordinate_system&oldid=866497302"
Categories:
Geographic coordinate systems
Cartography
Geocodes
Geodesy
Navigation
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Use dmy dates from July 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007
Articles needing additional references from May 2015
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiversity
Languages
Acèh
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
Аҧсшәа
العربية
Aragonés
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Авар
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Basa Banyumasan
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Cebuano
Čeština
ChiShona
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
ગુજરાતી
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Ирон
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Кыргызча
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Ligure
Lumbaart
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
日本語
Napulitano
Нохчийн
Norsk
Occitan
Олык марий
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Pälzisch
پنجابی
پښتو
Piemontèis
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Sardu
Scots
Sesotho sa Leboa
Setswana
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Ślůnski
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Türkmençe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Volapük
Võro
West-Vlams
Winaray
吴语
Yorùbá
粵語
中文
डोटेली
143 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 30 October 2018, at 18:09 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href class

value: p

attrs: href title

value: th

value: tr

values: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

values: European Terrestrial Reference System 1989

values: Restrictions on geographic data in China

values: International Terrestrial Reference System

values: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/History_of_prime_meridians
mw-redirect
History of prime meridians

values:
/wiki/Geography_(Eratosthenes)
mw-redirect
Geography (Eratosthenes)

values:
/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_Geography
mw-redirect
Ptolemy's Geography

values:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

values:
/wiki/Medieval_Arabic_cartography
mw-redirect
Medieval Arabic cartography

values:
/wiki/Jacobus_Angelus
mw-redirect
Jacobus Angelus

values:
/wiki/Greenwich,_England
mw-redirect
Greenwich, England

values: Edit section: Geographic latitude and longitude

values:
/wiki/File:Earthmap1000x500compac.jpg
image
Line across the Earth

values: position:absolute;z-index:3;border-top: 1px solid red;height:1px;left:0;right:0

values: position: absolute; z-index: 4; top: -1.5em; left: 25%; width: 50%; text-align: center

values: Fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)

values: position:absolute;z-index:3;border-left: 1px solid red;width:1px;top:0;height:100%;

values: position: absolute; z-index: 4; left: 0.5em; text-align: left; top: 48%

values: Edit section: Measuring height using datums

values:
/wiki/Vertical_datum
mw-redirect
Vertical datum

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:2.176ex;

values:
/wiki/Weather_system
mw-redirect
Weather system

values: International Terrestrial Reference Frame

values:
/wiki/Crustal_deformation
mw-redirect
Crustal deformation

values:
/wiki/Universal_Transverse_Mercator
mw-redirect
Universal Transverse Mercator

values:
/wiki/Universal_Polar_Stereographic
mw-redirect
Universal Polar Stereographic

values: Edit section: Stereographic coordinate system

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2007)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate
mw-redirect
Cartesian coordinate

values: Edit section: Earth-centered, Earth-fixed

values: Edit section: Local east, north, up (ENU) coordinates

values:
/wiki/East_north_up
mw-redirect
East north up

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;

values: Edit section: Local north, east, down (NED) coordinates

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.014ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.845ex; height:2.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.775ex; height:2.509ex;

values: Edit section: Expressing latitude and longitude as linear units

values:
/wiki/Length_of_a_degree_of_latitude
mw-redirect
Length of a degree of latitude

values:
/wiki/Length_of_a_degree_of_longitude
mw-redirect
Length of a degree of longitude

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:57.548ex; height:2.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:44.761ex; height:2.676ex;

values: {\displaystyle \textstyle {\varphi }\,\!}

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:1.907ex; height:2.176ex;

values: {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{180}}M_{r}\cos \varphi \!}

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; margin-right: -0.303ex; width:12.873ex; height:4.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:3.615ex; height:2.509ex;

values: {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{180}}a\cos \beta \,\!}

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:11.158ex; height:4.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:15.924ex; height:3.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:1.719ex; height:2.509ex;

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Spatial_reference_systems
mw-redirect
Spatial reference systems

values:
/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth
mw-redirect
Circumference of the Earth

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://edu.kde.org/kstars/index.phtml

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:350.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:415.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:476.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:534px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:591.6px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:652.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:714px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:296.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:235.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:174px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:112.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:53.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-6px; top:-13.04px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:368.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:386.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:408px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:426px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:444px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:465.6px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:487.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:505.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:526.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:544.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:562.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:584.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:602.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:624px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:642px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:663.6px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:681.6px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:703.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:346.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:325.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:307.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:285.6px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:264px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:246px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:224.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:206.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:184.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:166.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:145.2px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:123.6px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:102px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:84px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:62.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:44.4px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:22.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:4.8px; top:-22.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:375.6px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:397.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:433.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:454.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:494.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:516px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:552px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:573.6px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:613.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:634.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:674.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:692.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:336px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:318px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:274.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:253.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:217.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:195.6px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:152.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:134.4px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:94.8px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:73.2px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:33.6px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:12px; top:-11.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:175.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:154px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:136px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:114.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:96.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:74.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:56.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:35.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:13.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:-4.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:197.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:215.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:236.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:254.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:276.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:294.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:316px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:337.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-13.2px; top:355.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:164.08px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:146.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:125.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:103.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:85.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:65.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:44.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:24.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:4.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:186.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:204.4px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:226px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:244px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:265.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:283.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:305.2px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:326.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:-27.6px; top:344.8px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:170.4px; top:85.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:530.4px; top:85.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:170.4px; top:265.6px

values: position:absolute; font-size:85%; left:530.4px; top:265.6px

values: padding:0em 0.25em padding: 2.5em 9em 0em 3em; font-size:80%; margin:0 auto; text-align:left; width:720px; width: 720px; line-height: 1; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; position: relative; max-width: 100%; overflow-x: auto;

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2015

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ace
display: none;

values: Хэкумэтх кординатхэр – Kabardian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd
display: none;

values: Geografiese koördinatestelsel – Afrikaans

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: የምድር መጋጠሚያ ውቅር – Amharic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values: Агеографиатә акоординатқәа – Abkhazian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ab
display: none;

values: نظام إحداثيات جغرافي – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values: ভৌগোলিক স্থানাঙ্ক প্ৰণালী – Assamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values: Sistema de coordenaes xeográfiques – Asturian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

values: Географиялъул координатал – Avaric

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-av
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: جوغرافیایی مختصات سیستمی – South Azerbaijani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: ভৌগোলিক স্থানাঙ্ক ব্যবস্থা – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Sistem koordinat geografi – Basa Banyumasan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms
display: none;

values: Географик координаталар – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Геаграфічныя каардынаты – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Геаграфічныя каардынаты – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: भूगोलीय निर्देशांक सिस्टम – Bhojpuri

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bh
display: none;

values: Географска координатна система – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values: Газар зүйн һольбосол – Russia Buriat

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values: Dandira reRinganidzo dzeTaranyika – Shona

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Γεωγραφικές συντεταγμένες – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Geografia koordinata sistemo – Esperanto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: Koordenatu geografikoen sistema – Basque

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: دستگاه مختصات جغرافیایی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values: Geografyske koördinaten – Western Frisian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values: Sisteme di coordenadis gjeografichis – Friulian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fur
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values: Corys co-ordnaidyn çheer-oaylleeagh – Manx

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values: Co-chomharran an Domhain – Scottish Gaelic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: અક્ષાંશ-રેખાંશ – Gujarati

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values: Thi-lî chhô-phêu ne-thúng – Hakka Chinese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hak
display: none;

values: 지리 좌표계 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Աշխարհագրական կոորդինատներ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: भूगोलीय निर्देशांक प्रणाली – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb
display: none;

values: Zemljopisni koordinatni sustav – Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values: Systema geographic de coordinatas – Interlingua

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values: Географион координатæтæ – Ossetic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: קואורדינטות גאוגרפיות – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ಭೌಗೋಳಿಕ ನಿರ್ದೇಶಾಂಕ ಪದ್ಧತಿ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: გეოგრაფიული კოორდინატები – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Географиялық координаттар – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values: Географиялык координаталар – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values: ພິກັດພູມສາດ – Lao

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values: Ģeogrāfiskā koordinātu sistēma – Latvian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: Geographesch Koordinaten – Luxembourgish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lij
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values: Földrajzi koordináta-rendszer – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: भौगोलिक निर्देशाङ्क प्रणाली – Maithili

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mai
display: none;

values: Географски координатен систем – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രനിർദ്ദേശാങ്കവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: भौगोलिक गुणक पद्धती – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: გეოგრაფიული კოორდინატეფი – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values: نظام تحديد المكان الجغرافى – Egyptian Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values: دستگاه مختصات جغرافیایی – Mazanderani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values: Sistem koordinat geografis – Minangkabau

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-min
display: none;

values: Dê-lī cô̤-biĕu hiê-tūng – Min Dong Chinese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values: Газарзүйн солбицлын систем – Mongolian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: ပထဝီဝင် ကိုဩဒိနိတ် စနစ် – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values: Cemonocāyōtl cemānāhuacāyōcopa – Nāhuatl

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: भौगोलिक निर्देशाङ्क प्रणाली – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Sëštém d'u cördënazjôn gjögrafëxë – Neapolitan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values: Географин координаташ – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: Географик координат-влак – Eastern Mari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values: ଭୌଗଳିକ ଦିଗବାରେଣି – Odia

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-or
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਭੂਗੋਲੀ ਗੁਣਕ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl
display: none;

values: جغرافیائی کوآرڈینیٹ سسٹم – Western Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values: جغرافي کوراډينېټونو سيستم – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Географические координаты – Russian

values: География координаталара – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: भूगोलीयनिर्देशाङ्कप्रणाली – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values: Geographic coordinate system – Northern Sotho

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nso
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values: භූගෝලීය ඛණ්ඩාංක පද්ධතිය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values: Geographic coordinate system – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: جاگرافيائي بيھڪ نظام – Sindhi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Geografski koordinatni sistem – Slovenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-szl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values: سیستمی پۆتانە جوگرافیەکان – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Географски координатни систем – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Sistemang heograpikal ng mga koordinato – Tagalog

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: புவியியல் ஆள்கூற்று முறை – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: భౌగోళిక నిర్దేశాంక పద్ధతి – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: พิกัดภูมิศาสตร์ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Координатаҳои ҷуғрофӣ – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

values: Географічні координати – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: جغرافیائی متناسق نظام – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vls
display: none;

values: Sistema heyograpikal nga koordinada – Waray

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values: भौगोलिक निर्देशाङ्क प्रणाली – Doteli

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Geographic_coordinate_system rootpage-Geographic_coordinate_system skin-vector action-view


text:
Trans-cultural diffusion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map of cultural diffusion from Egypt by Grafton Elliot Smith (1928)
Anthropology
Outline
History
Types[show]
Archaeological
Biological
Cultural
Linguistic
Social
Archaeological[show]
Aerial
Aviation
Battlefield
Biblical
Bioarchaeological
Environmental
Ethnoarchaeological
Feminist
Forensic
Maritime
Paleoethnobotanical
Zooarchaeological
Biological[show]
Anthrozoological
Biocultural
Evolutionary
Forensic
Molecular
Neurological
Nutritional
Palaeoanthropological
Primatological
Social
Cultural
[show]
Applied
Art
Cognitive
Cyborg
Development
Digital
Ecological
Environmental
Economic
Political economy
Historical
Feminist
Institutional
Kinship
Legal
Media
Medical
Museums
Musical
Political
Psychological
Public
Religion
Symbolic
Transpersonal
Urban
Visual
Linguistic[show]
Anthropological
Descriptive
Ethnological
Ethnopoetical
Historical
Semiotic
Sociological
Research framework[show]
Anthropometry
Ethnography (online)
Ethnology
Cross-cultural comparison
Participant observation
Holism
Reflexivity
Thick description
Cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism
Emic and etic
Key concepts[show]
Culture
Development
Ethnicity
Evolution (sociocultural)
Gender
Kinship and descent
Meme
Prehistory

Race
Society
Value
Colonialism / Postcolonialism
Key theories[show]
Actor–network theory
Alliance theory
Cross-cultural studies
Cultural materialism
Culture theory
Diffusionism
Feminism
Historical particularism
Boasian anthropology
Functionalism
Interpretive
Performance studies
Political economy
Practice theory
Structuralism
Post-structuralism
Systems theory
Lists[show]
Anthropologists by nationality
Anthropology by year
Bibliography
Journals
List of indigenous peoples
Organizations
Anthropology portal
v
t
e
In cultural anthropology and cultural geography, cultural diffusion, as conceptualized by Leo Frobenius in his 1897/98 publication Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis, is the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages—between individuals, whether within a single culture or from one culture to another. It is distinct from the diffusion of innovations within a specific culture. Examples of diffusion include the spread of the war chariot and iron smelting in ancient times, and the use of automobiles and Western business suits in the 20th century.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Mechanisms
3 Theories
4 Hyperdiffusionism
5 Medieval Europe
6 Disputes
7 Contributors
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Types[edit]
Five major types of cultural diffusion have been defined:
Expansion diffusion: an innovation or idea that develops in a source area and remains strong there, while also spreading outward to other areas. This can include hierarchical, stimulus, and contagious diffusion.
Relocation diffusion: an idea or innovation that migrates into new areas, leaving behind its origin or source of the cultural trait.
Hierarchical diffusion: an idea or innovation that spreads by moving from larger to smaller places, often with little regard to the distance between places, and often influenced by social elites.
Contagious diffusion: an idea or innovation that spreads based on person-to-person contact within a given population.
Stimulus diffusion: an idea or innovation that spreads based on its attachment to another concept.
Mechanisms[edit]
Inter-cultural diffusion can happen in many ways. Migrating populations will carry their culture with them. Ideas can be carried by trans-cultural visitors, such as merchants, explorers, soldiers, diplomats, slaves, and hired artisans. Technology diffusion has often occurred by one society luring skilled scientists or workers by payments or other inducement. Trans-cultural marriages between two neighboring or interspersed cultures have also contributed. Among literate societies, diffusion can occur through letters, books, and, in modern times, through electronic media.
There are three categories of diffusion mechanisms:
Direct diffusion occurs when two cultures are very close to each other, resulting in intermarriage, trade, and even warfare. An example of direct diffusion is between the United States and Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countries engage in hockey, which started in Canada, and baseball, which is popular in American culture.
Forced diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates (conquers or enslaves) another culture and forces its own customs on the conquered people. An example would be the forced Christianization of the indigenous peoples of the Americas by the Spanish, French, English and Portuguese, or the forced Islamization of West African peoples by the Fula or of the Nuristanis by the Afghans.
Indirect diffusion happens when traits are passed from one culture through a middleman to another culture, without the first and final cultures being in direct contact. An example could be the presence of Mexican food in Canada, since a large territory (the United States) lies between.
Direct diffusion was common in ancient times, when small groups of humans lived in adjoining settlements. Indirect diffusion is common in today's world because of the mass media and invention of the Internet. Also of interest is the work of American historian and critic Daniel J. Boorstin in his book The Discoverers, in which he provides an historical perspective on the role of explorers in the diffusion of innovations between civilizations.
Theories[edit]
The many models that have been proposed for inter-cultural diffusion are:
Migrationism, the spread of cultural ideas by either gradual or sudden population movements
Culture circles diffusionism (Kulturkreise)—the theory that cultures originated from a small number of cultures
"Kulturkugel" (a German compound meaning "culture bullet", coined by J. P. Mallory), a mechanism suggested by Mallory[1] to model the scale of invasion vs. gradual migration vs. diffusion. According to this model, local continuity of material culture and social organization is stronger than linguistic continuity, so that cultural contact or limited migration regularly leads to linguistic changes without affecting material culture or social organization.[2]
Hyperdiffusionism—the theory that all cultures originated from one culture
A concept that has often been mentioned in this regard, which may be framed in the evolutionary diffusionism model, is that of "an idea whose time has come" — whereby a new cultural item appears almost simultaneously and independently in several widely separated places, after certain prerequisite items have diffused across the respective communities. This concept was invoked with regard to the independent development of calculus by Newton and Leibnitz, and the inventions of the airplane and of the electronic computer.
Hyperdiffusionism[edit]
Main article: Hyperdiffusionism in Archaeology
Hyperdiffusionists deny that parallel evolution or independent invention took place to any great extent throughout history; they claim that all major inventions and all cultures can be traced back to a single culture.[3]
Early theories of hyperdiffusionism can be traced to ideas about South America being the origin of mankind. Antonio de León Pinelo, a Spaniard who settled in Bolivia, claimed in his book Paraíso en el Nuevo Mundo that the Garden of Eden and the creation of man had occurred in present-day Bolivia and that the rest of the world was populated by migrations from there. Similar ideas were also held by Emeterio Villamil de Rada; in his book La Lengua de Adán he attempted to prove that Aymara was the original language of mankind and that humanity had originated in Sorata in the Bolivian Andes. The first scientific defence of humanity originating in South America came from the Argentine paleontologist Florentino Ameghino in 1880, who published his research in La antigüedad del hombre en el Plata.[4]
The work of Grafton Elliot Smith fomented a revival of hyperdiffusionism in 1911; he asserted that copper–producing knowledge spread from Egypt to the rest of the world along with megalithic culture.[5] Smith claimed that all major inventions had been made by the ancient Egyptians and were carried to the rest of the world by migrants and voyagers. His views became known as "Egyptocentric-Hyperdiffusionism".[6] William James Perry elaborated on Smith's hypothesis by using ethnographic data. Another hyperdiffusionist was Lord Raglan; in his book How Came Civilization (1939) he wrote that instead of Egypt all culture and civilization had come from Mesopotamia.[7] Hyperdiffusionism after this did not entirely disappear, but it was generally abandoned by mainstream academia.
Medieval Europe[edit]
Diffusion theory has been advanced[according to whom?] as an explanation for the "European miracle", the adoption of technological innovation in medieval Europe which by the 17th century culminated in European technological achievement surpassing the Islamic world and China.[8] Such technological import to medieval Europe include gunpowder, clock mechanisms, shipbuilding, paper and the windmill, however, in each of these cases Europeans not only adopted the technologies, but improved the manufacturing scale, inherent technology, and applications to a point clearly surpassing the evolution of the original invention in its country of origin.
Historians[who?] have questioned recently[year needed] whether Europe really owes the development of such inventions as gunpowder, the compass, the windmill or printing to the Chinese or other cultures.[9][10][11]
However historian Peter Frankopan argues that influences, particularly trade, through the middle east & central Asia to China through the silk roads have been overlooked in traditional histories of the "rise of the west". He argues that the renaissance was funded with trade with the east (due to the demise of Byzantium at the hands of Venice and the 4th Crusade), and that the trade allowed ideas and technology to be shared with Europe. But the constant warfare and rivalry in Europe meant there was extreme evolutionary pressure for developing these ideas for military and economic advantage, and a desperate need to use them in expansion.[12]
Disputes[edit]
Further information: Migrationism and diffusionism
While the concept of diffusion is well accepted in general, conjectures about the existence or the extent of diffusion in some specific contexts have been hotly disputed. An example of such disputes is the proposal by Thor Heyerdahl that similarities between the culture of Polynesia and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Andes are due to diffusion from the latter to the former—a theory that currently has few supporters among professional anthropologists. Heyerdahl's theory of Polynesian origins has not gained acceptance among anthropologists.[13][14][15][16][17]
Contributors[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Major contributors to inter-cultural diffusion research and theory include:
Franz Boas
Anne Walbank Buckland
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
Leo Frobenius
Cyrus H. Gordon
Fritz Graebner
A. C. Haddon
Stephen C. Jett
Alice Beck Kehoe
David H. Kelley
A. L. Kroeber
E. Lorges
William James Perry
Friedrich Ratzel
W. H. R. Rivers
Everett Rogers
Wilhelm Schmidt
Grafton Elliot Smith
E. B. Tylor
Clark Wissler
Thomas Friedman
Vinay Joseph
See also[edit]
Cultural appropriation
Demic diffusion
Diffusion of innovations
Meme
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the context of Indo-Aryan migration; Mallory, "A European Perspective on Indo-Europeans in Asia". In The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern and Central Asia. Ed. Mair. Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man (1998)
Jump up ^ The term is a 'half-facetious' mechanical analogy, imagining a "bullet" of which the tip is material culture and the "charge" is language and social structure. Upon "intrusion" into a host culture, migrants will "shed" their material culture (the "tip") while possibly still maintaining their "charge" of language and, to a lesser extent, social customs (viz., the effect is a diaspora culture, which depending on the political situation may either form a substratum or a superstratum within the host culture).
Jump up ^ Legend and lore of the Americas before 1492: an encyclopedia of visitors, explorers, and immigrants, Ronald H. Fritze, 1993, p. 70
Jump up ^ Indians of the Andes: Aymaras and Quechuas, Harold Osborne, 2004, pp. 2–3
Jump up ^ The Routledge Dictionary of Anthropologists, Gérald Gaillard, 2004, p. 48
Jump up ^ Megaliths, Myths and Men: An Introduction to Astro-Archaeology, Peter Lancaster Brown, 2000, p. 267
Jump up ^ Sociocultural Evolution: Calculation and Contingency, Bruce G. Trigger, 1998, p. 101
Jump up ^ Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial revolution: European Society and Economy 1000–1700, W.W. Norton and Co., New York (1980) ISBN 0-393-95115-4
Jump up ^ Peter Jackson: The Mongols and the West, Pearson Longman 2005, p. 315
Jump up ^ Donald F. Lach: Asia in the Making of Europe. 3 volumes, Chicago, Illinois, 1965–93; I:1, pp. 82–83
Jump up ^ Robert Bartlett: The Making of Europe. Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950–1350, Allen Lane, 1993
Jump up ^ 'The Silk Roads: A New History of the Workd' ISBN 9781101912379
Jump up ^ Robert C. Suggs The Island Civilizations of Polynesia, New York: New American Library, pp. 212-224
Jump up ^ Kirch, P. (2000). On the Roads to the Wind: An archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000
Jump up ^ Barnes, S.S.; et al. (2006). "Ancient DNA of the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) from Rapa Nui (Easter Island)" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 33 (11): 1536. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.02.006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19.
Jump up ^ Physical and cultural evidence had long suggested that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland, not South America. In the late 1990s, genetic testing found that the mitochondrial DNA of the Polynesians is more similar to people from southeast Asia than to people from South America, showing that their ancestors most likely came from Asia.
Jump up ^ Friedlaender, J.S.; et al. (2008). "The genetic structure of Pacific Islanders". PLoS Genetics. 4 (1): e19. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0040019. PMC 2211537  . PMID 18208337.
References[edit]
Frobenius, Leo. Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis. Petermanns Mitteilungen 43/44, 1897/98
Kroeber, Alfred L. (1940). "Stimulus diffusion." American Anthropologist 42(1), Jan.–Mar., pp. 1–20
Rogers, Everett (1962) Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, Macmillan Company
Sorenson, John L. & Carl L. Johannessen (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 238–297. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
External links[edit]
"Diffusionism and Acculturation" by Gail King and Meghan Wright, Anthropological Theories, M.D. Murphy (ed.), Department of Anthropology, College of Arts and Sciences, The University of Alabama.
[show]
v
t
e
Culture
Outline
Sciences
Cultural anthropology
Cultural astronomy
Cultural ecology
Cultural geography
Cultural neuroscience
Cultural studies
Culturology
Culture theory
Neuroculture
Subfields
Bioculture
Cross-cultural studies
Cross-cultural communication
Cross-cultural leadership
Cross-cultural psychiatry
Cross-cultural psychology
Cultural analytics
Cultural economics
Cultural entomology
Cultural health
Cultural history
Cultural mapping
Cultural mediation
Cultural psychology
Culturomics
Intercultural learning
Intercultural relations
Philosophy of culture
Popular culture studies
Semiotics of culture
Sociology of culture
Sound culture
Theology of culture
Transcultural nursing
Types
Constructed culture
Dominant culture
Folk culture
High culture
Individualistic culture
Legal culture
Low culture
Microculture
Official culture
Political culture
Civic
Popular culture
Urban
Primitive culture
Subculture
Alternative culture
list
Super culture
Vernacular culture
Culture by location
Aspects
Acculturation
Cultural appropriation
Cultural area
Cultural artifact
Cultural baggage
Cultural behavior
Cultural bias
Cultural capital
Cross-cultural
Cultural communication
Cultural conflict
Cultural cringe
Cultural dissonance
Cultural emphasis
Cultural framework
Cultural heritage
Cultural icon
Cultural identity
Cultural industry
Cultural invention
Cultural landscape
Cultural learning
Cultural leveling
Cultural memory
Cultural pluralism
Cultural practice
Cultural property
Cultural reproduction
Cultural system
Cultural technology
Cultural universal
Cultureme
Enculturation
High- and low-context cultures
Interculturality
Manuscript culture
Material culture
Non-material culture
Organizational culture
Print culture
Protoculture
Safety culture
Technoculture
Trans-cultural diffusion
Transculturation
Visual culture
Politics
Colonial mentality
Consumer capitalism
Cross cultural sensitivity
Cultural assimilation
Cultural attaché
Cultural backwardness
Cultural Bolshevism
Cultural conservatism
Cultural contracts
Cultural deprivation
Cultural diplomacy
Cultural environmentalism
Cultural exception
Cultural feminism
Cultural genocide
Cultural globalization
Cultural hegemony
Cultural imperialism
Cultural intelligence
Cultural liberalism
Cultural nationalism
Cultural pessimism
Cultural policy
Cultural racism
Cultural radicalism
Cultural retention
Cultural Revolution
Cultural rights
Cultural safety
Cultural silence
Cultural subsidy
Cultural Zionism
Culture change
Culture minister
Culture of fear
Culture war
Deculturalization
Dominator culture
Interculturalism
Intraculturalism
Monoculturalism
Multiculturalism
Biculturalism
Pluriculturalism
Security culture
Transculturism
Related
Animal culture
Archaeological culture
Bennett scale
Bullying culture
Cannabis culture
Circuit of culture
Coffee culture
Cross-cultural
Cultural center
Cultural Christian
Cultural Mormon
Cultural competence
Cultural critic
Cultural Detective
Cultural determinism
Cultural diversity
Cultural encoding
Cultural evolutionism
Cultural Hindu
Cultural homogenization
Cultural institution
Cultural jet lag
Cultural Judaism
Cultural lag
Cultural literacy
Cultural mosaic
Cultural movement
Cultural mulatto
Cultural Muslim
Cultural probe
Cultural relativism
Culture speculation
Cultural tourism
Pop-culture
Cultural translation
Cultural turn
Cultural sensibility
Culture and positive psychology
Culture and social cognition
Culture gap
Culture hero
Culture industry
Culture shock
Culturgen
Children's culture
Culturalism
Cyberculture
Death and culture
Disability culture
Deaf culture
Emotions and culture
Intercultural communication
Intercultural competence
Languaculture
Living things in culture
Media culture
Oppositional culture
Participatory culture
Permission culture
Rape culture
Remix culture
Tea culture
Transformation of culture
Urban culture
Welfare culture
Category
Portal
Commons
WikiProject
changes
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trans-cultural_diffusion&oldid=834225000"
Categories:
Anthropology
Cultural history
Human migration
Hyperdiffusionism in archaeology
Majority–minority relations
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Cultural exchange
Hidden categories:
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2015
Articles needing the year an event occurred from July 2015
Articles needing additional references from July 2015
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Italiano
עברית
مصرى
Nederlands
Norsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Slovenčina
Svenska
Українська
中文
14 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 April 2018, at 15:46.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

value: li

value: ul

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0.75em 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0.5em 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Media_anthropology
mw-redirect
Media anthropology

values:
/wiki/Online_ethnography
mw-redirect
Online ethnography

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Contact_linguistics
mw-redirect
Contact linguistics

values:
/wiki/War_chariot
mw-redirect
War chariot

values:
/wiki/Business_suit
mw-redirect
Business suit

values:
/wiki/Mexican_food
mw-redirect
Mexican food

values:
/wiki/Electronic_computer
mw-redirect
Electronic computer

values:
/wiki/Hyperdiffusionism_in_Archaeology
mw-redirect
Hyperdiffusionism in Archaeology

values: The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (July 2015)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/European_miracle
mw-redirect
European miracle

values:
/wiki/Medieval_Europe
mw-redirect
Medieval Europe

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2015)

values: Need the year this event took place (July 2015)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/A._C._Haddon
mw-redirect
A. C. Haddon

values:
/wiki/A._L._Kroeber
mw-redirect
A. L. Kroeber

values:
/wiki/E._B._Tylor
mw-redirect
E. B. Tylor

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2006.02.006

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18208337

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Sound_culture
mw-redirect
Sound culture

values:
/wiki/Constructed_culture
mw-redirect
Constructed culture

values:
/wiki/Folk_culture
mw-redirect
Folk culture

values:
/wiki/High-_and_low-context_cultures
mw-redirect
High- and low-context cultures

values:
/wiki/Cultural_racism
mw-redirect
Cultural racism

values:
/wiki/Security_culture
mw-redirect
Security culture

values:
/wiki/Cultural_Mormon
mw-redirect
Cultural Mormon

values:
/wiki/Cultural_competence
mw-redirect
Cultural competence

values:
/wiki/Cultural_evolutionism
mw-redirect
Cultural evolutionism

values:
/wiki/Transformation_of_culture
mw-redirect
Transformation of culture

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2015

values: Category:Articles needing the year an event occurred from July 2015

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from July 2015

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: انتشار ثقافي – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: مبادله فرهنگی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Դիֆուզիոնիզմ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: सांस्‍कृतिक प्रसार – Hindi

values: דיפוזיוניזם – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Диффузионизм – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Етнічна дифузія – Ukrainian

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Trans-cultural_diffusion rootpage-Trans-cultural_diffusion skin-vector action-view