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Human reproductive system
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The human reproductive system usually involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his penis into the female's vagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. A small portion of the sperm pass through the cervix into the uterus, and then into the fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Only one sperm is required to fertilize the ovum. Upon successful fertilization, the fertilized ovum, or zygote, travels out of the fallopian tube and into the uterus, where it implants in the uterine wall. This marks the beginning of gestation, better known as pregnancy, which continues for nine months as the foetus develops. When the foetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth or labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.[1]
The female reproductive system has two functions: The first is to produce egg cells, and the second is to protect and nourish the fetus until birth. The male reproductive system has one function, and it is to produce and deposit sperm. Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sex characteristics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Male
1.2 Female
2 Development
3 Reproduction
3.1 Production of gametes
4 Disease
5 References
Structure[edit]
Male[edit]
Main article: Human male reproductive system
The male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the body and around the pelvis region of a male that contribute towards the reproduction process. The primary direct function of the male reproductive system is to provide the male sperm for fertilization of the ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The first category is sperm production and storage. Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's gland also called bulbo-urethral gland.
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes: larger, more muscular stature, deepened voice, facial and body hair, broad shoulders, and development of an adam's apple. An important sexual hormone of males is androgen, and particularly testosterone.
The testes release a hormone that controls the development of sperm. This hormone is also responsible for the development of physical characteristics in men such as facial hair and a deep voice.
Female[edit]
Main article: Human female reproductive system
The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vulva, which leads to the vagina, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the uterus, which holds the developing fetus; and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The breasts are involved during the parenting stage of reproduction, but in most classifications they are not considered to be part of the female reproductive system.
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. Each ovary contains hundreds of egg cells or ova (singular ovum).
Approximately every 28 days, the pituitary gland releases a hormone that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow. One ovum is released and it passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus to receive the ovum. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through the process of menstruation. If the ovum is fertilized by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the fetus develops.
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the reproductive system
The development of the reproductive system and the development of the urinary system are closely tied in the development of the human fetus. Despite the differences between the adult female and male are derived from the intermediate mesoderm. The three main fetal precursors of the reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Müllerian ducts, and the gonad. Endocrine hormones are a well known and critical controlling factor in the normal differentiation of the reproductive system.[2]
The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferens, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal vesicle in the male reproductive system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system. For the Müllerian Duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in the male reproductive system and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female system. In both sexes the gonad goes on to form the testes and ovaries, because they are derived from the same undeveloped structure they are considered homologous organs. There are a number of other homologous structures shared between male and female reproductive systems. However, despite the similarity in function of the female fallopian tubes and the male epididymis and vas deferens, they are not homologous but rather analogous structures as they arise from different fetal structures.
Reproduction[edit]
Further information: Human reproduction
Production of gametes[edit]
Main articles: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis. Gametogenesis occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid number of chromosome(n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23 chromosomes.[3]
In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only after puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the epididymis where they gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or primary spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is each forever young. The production and survival of sperms require a temperature that is lower than the normal core body temperature. Since the scrotum, where the testes is present, is situated outside the body cavity, it provides a temperature about 3 °C below normal body temperature.
In females, gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the ovarian follicles of the ovaries. This process does not produce mature ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original diploid germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and three polar bodies which are not capable of fertilization It has long been understood that in females, unlike males, all of the primary oocytes ever found in a female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages of ova production will then not resume until puberty.[3] However, recent scientific data has challenged that hypothesis.[4] This new data indicates that in at least some species of mammal oocytes continue to be replenished in females well after birth.[5]
Disease[edit]
Main article: Reproductive system disease
Like all complex organ systems the human reproductive system is affected by many diseases. There are four main categories of reproductive diseases in humans. They are: 1) genetic or congenital abnormalities, 2) cancers, 3) infections which are often sexually transmitted diseases, and 4) functional problems cause by environmental factors, physical damage, psychological issues, autoimmune disorders, or other causes. The best known type of functional problems include sexual dysfunction and infertility which are both broad terms relating to many disorders with many causes. The human reproductive system usually involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his erect penis into the female's vagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon successful fertilization and implantation, gestation of the fetus then occurs within the female's uterus for approximately nine months, this process is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the process of birth is known as labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing out the vagina (the female genital organ). Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female breasts to nurse the baby.[1]
Specific reproductive diseases are often symptoms of other diseases and disorders, or have multiple, or unknown causes making them difficult to classify. Examples of unclassifiable disorders include Peyronie's disease in males and endometriosis in females. Many congenital conditions cause reproductive abnormalities but are better known for their other symptoms, these include: Turner syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, and Bloom syndrome.[6]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Sexual Reproduction in Humans. 2006. John W. Kimball. Kimball's Biology Pages, and online textbook.
Jump up ^ EDRI Federal Project Inventory: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Abnormal Reproductive Development US EPA. Dr. William R. Kelce. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Development of sex cells in Reproductive system, Body Guide. Adam.
Jump up ^ Tilly JL, Niikura Y, Rueda BR (August 2008). "The Current Status of Evidence for and Against Postnatal Oogenesis in Mammals: A Case of Ovarian Optimism Versus Pessimism?". Biol. Reprod. 80 (1): 2–12. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.108.069088. PMC 2804806  . PMID 18753611.
Jump up ^ Johnson J, Canning J, Kaneko T, Pru JK, Tilly JL (March 2004). "Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary". Nature. 428 (6979): 145–50. doi:10.1038/nature02316. PMID 15014492.
Jump up ^ Genetic Conditions > Reproductive system. 2007. Genetics Home Reference. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
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2018 Open Championship
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
2018 Open Championship
Tournament information
Dates
19–22 July 2018
Location
Angus, Scotland
Course(s)
Carnoustie Golf Links
Championship Course
Organized by
The R&A
Tour(s)
European Tour
PGA Tour
Japan Golf Tour
Statistics
Par
71
Length
7,402 yards (6,768 m)
Field
156 players, 79 after cut
Cut
145 (+3)
Prize fund
$10,500,000[1]
Winner's share
$1,890,000
€1,625,387
Champion
Francesco Molinari
276 (−8)
← 2017
2019 →
Carnoustie
Location in Scotland
Carnoustie
Location in Angus, Scotland
The 2018 Open Championship was the 147th Open Championship, and was held from 19–22 July 2018 at Carnoustie Golf Links in Angus, Scotland. It was the eighth Open Championship to be played at Carnoustie.
Playing conditions were unusual as a result of the heatwave in Scotland which had produced brown, dry and sun-baked fairways and brown rough.[2] The fairways played quickly, enabling several players to hit drives that covered over 400 yards.[3]
Francesco Molinari posted a bogey-free final round of 69 to win his first major championship. Molinari finished two shots ahead of Kevin Kisner, Rory McIlroy, Justin Rose and Xander Schauffele. He became the first Italian player to win a major.
Contents
1 Media
2 Venue
2.1 Course layout
3 Field
3.1 Nationalities in the field
3.2 Past champions in the field
3.2.1 Made the cut
3.2.2 Missed the cut
4 Round summaries
4.1 First round
4.2 Second round
4.3 Third round
4.4 Final round
4.4.1 Scorecard
5 References
6 External links
Media[edit]
The 2018 Open Championship was the third to be televised domestically by Sky Sports on dedicated channel Sky Sports The Open.[4] In the United States, it was the third Open Championship to be televised by NBC (Golf Channel's parent network).[5]
Venue[edit]
Main article: Carnoustie Golf Links
The 2018 event was the eighth Open Championship played at the Carnoustie Golf Links. The most recent was in 2007, with Pádraig Harrington winning the first of his two consecutive Open titles.[6]
Course layout[edit]
Championship Course[7]
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
1 Cup 396 4 10 South America 465 4
2 Gulley 461 4 11 Dyke 382 4
3 Jockie's Burn 350 4 12 Southward Ho 503 4
4 Hillocks 415 4 13 Whins 175 3
5 Brae 412 4 14 Spectacles 513 5
6 Hogan's Alley ^ 580 5 15 Lucky Slap 472 4
7 Plantation 410 4 16 Barry Burn 248 3
8 Short 187 3 17 Island 460 4
9 Railway 474 4 18 Home 499 4
Out 3,685 36 In 3,717 35
Total 7,402 71
^ the 6th hole was named Long until 2003
Lengths of the course for previous Opens:[8]
2007: 7,421 yards (6,786 m), par 71
1999: 7,361 yards (6,731 m), par 71
1975: 7,065 yards (6,460 m), par 72
1968: 7,252 yards (6,631 m), par 72
1953: 7,200 yards (6,585 m), par 72
1937: 7,200 yards (6,585 m), par 72
1931: 6,701 yards (6,127 m), par 72
Field[edit]
Each player is classified according to the first category in which he qualified, but other categories are shown in parentheses.[9][10]
1. The Open Champions aged 60 or under on 22 July 2018
Mark Calcavecchia, Stewart Cink (2), Darren Clarke (2), David Duval, Ernie Els (2), Todd Hamilton, Pádraig Harrington (2), Zach Johnson (2), Tom Lehman, Sandy Lyle, Rory McIlroy (2,3,4,5,10), Phil Mickelson (2,4,15), Louis Oosthuizen (2,4,15), Jordan Spieth (2,3,4,8,9,12,15), Henrik Stenson (2,4,5), Tiger Woods
Eligible but did not enter: Ian Baker-Finch, Ben Curtis,[11] Justin Leonard[12]
Paul Lawrie and John Daly withdrew before the tournament.[13][14]
2. The Open Champions for 2008–2017
3. Top 10 finishers and ties in the 2017 Open Championship
Rafa Cabrera-Bello (4,5), Branden Grace (4,5,15), Brooks Koepka (4,8,12,15), Matt Kuchar (4,12,15), Marc Leishman (4,12,15), Li Haotong (4,5), Alex Norén (4,5,6), Matthew Southgate
4. Top 50 players in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR) for Week 21, 2018
Kiradech Aphibarnrat (5), Daniel Berger (12,15), Patrick Cantlay (12), Paul Casey (12), Kevin Chappell (12,15), Jason Day (10,11,12,15), Bryson DeChambeau, Tony Finau (12), Ross Fisher (5), Matthew Fitzpatrick (5), Tommy Fleetwood (5), Rickie Fowler (12,15), Sergio García (5,9,12), Adam Hadwin (12,15), Brian Harman (12), Tyrrell Hatton (5), Charley Hoffman (12,15), Dustin Johnson (8,12,15), Kim Si-woo (11,15), Kevin Kisner (12,15), Satoshi Kodaira (20), Alexander Lévy (5), Hideki Matsuyama (12,15), Francesco Molinari (5,6), Pat Perez (12), Ian Poulter, Jon Rahm (5,12), Patrick Reed (9,12,15), Justin Rose (5,12), Xander Schauffele (12), Charl Schwartzel (5,15), Webb Simpson (11,12), Cameron Smith, Kyle Stanley (12), Brendan Steele, Justin Thomas (10,12,15), Bubba Watson (9), Gary Woodland (12)
5. Top 30 on the 2017 Race to Dubai
Nicolas Colsaerts, Paul Dunne, Dylan Frittelli, Scott Jamieson, Shane Lowry, Thorbjørn Olesen, Thomas Pieters, Jordan Smith, Hideto Tanihara, Peter Uihlein, Lee Westwood, Fabrizio Zanotti
Bernd Wiesberger did not play due to injury.[15]
6. Last three BMW PGA Championship winners
Chris Wood
7. Top 5 players, not already exempt, within the top 20 of the 2018 Race to Dubai through the BMW International Open
Alexander Björk, Jorge Campillo, Matt Wallace
8. Last five U.S. Open winners
Martin Kaymer
9. Last five Masters Tournament winners
Danny Willett
10. Last five PGA Championship winners
Jason Dufner (12), Jimmy Walker
11. Last three Players Championship winners
12. The 30 qualifiers for the 2017 Tour Championship
Russell Henley, Jhonattan Vegas (15)
13. Top 5 players, not already exempt, within the top 20 of the 2018 FedEx Cup points list through the Travelers Championship
Chesson Hadley, Patton Kizzire, Luke List
14. Winner of the 2017 Open de Argentina
Brady Schnell
15. Playing members of the 2017 Presidents Cup teams
Emiliano Grillo, Anirban Lahiri, Adam Scott
16. Winner of the 2017 Asian Tour Order of Merit
Gavin Green
17. Winner of the 2017 PGA Tour of Australasia Order of Merit
Brett Rumford
18. Winner of the 2017–18 Sunshine Tour Order of Merit
George Coetzee
19. Winner of the 2017 Japan Open
Yuta Ikeda
20. Top 2 on the 2017 Japan Golf Tour Official Money List
Yūsaku Miyazato
21. Top 2, not already exempt, on the 2018 Japan Golf Tour Official Money List through the Japan Golf Tour Championship
Kodai Ichihara, Ryuko Tokimatsu
22. Winner of the 2017 Senior Open Championship
Bernhard Langer
23. Winner of the 2018 Amateur Championship
Jovan Rebula (a)
24. Winner of the 2017 U.S. Amateur
Doc Redman forfeited his exemption by turning professional in May 2018.[16]
25. Winner of the 2018 European Amateur
Nicolai Højgård (a)
26. Recipient of the 2017 Mark H. McCormack Medal
Joaquín Niemann forfeited his exemption by turning professional in April 2018.
27. Winner of the 2017 Asia-Pacific Amateur Championship
Lin Yuxin (a)
Open Qualifying Series
The Open Qualifying Series (OQS) consists of 11 events from the six major tours and the Korean Tour. Places are available to the leading players (not otherwise exempt) who finish in the top n and ties. In the event of ties, positions go to players ranked highest according to that week's OWGR.
Location
Tournament
Date
Spots
Top
Qualifiers
Australia Emirates Australian Open 26 Nov 3 10 Jonas Blixt, Cameron Davis, Matt Jones
Africa Joburg Open 11 Dec 3 10 Shaun Norris, Shubhankar Sharma, Erik van Rooyen
Singapore SMBC Singapore Open 21 Jan 4 12 Danthai Boonma, Sean Crocker, Lucas Herbert, Jazz Janewattananond
Japan Mizuno Open 27 May 4 12 Shota Akiyoshi, Michael Hendry, Masahiro Kawamura, Masanori Kobayashi
Korea Kolon Korea Open 24 Jun 2 8 Choi Min-chel, Park Sang-hyun
France HNA Open de France 1 Jul 3 10 Marcus Kinhult, Russell Knox, Julian Suri
United States Quicken Loans National 1 Jul 4 12 Abraham Ancer, Ryan Armour, Bronson Burgoon, Kang Sung-hoon
Ireland Dubai Duty Free Irish Open 8 Jul 3 10 Ryan Fox, Zander Lombard, Andy Sullivan
United States A Military Tribute at The Greenbrier 8 Jul 4 12 Austin Cook, Jason Kokrak, Kelly Kraft, Brandt Snedeker
Scotland Aberdeen Standard Investments Scottish Open 15 Jul 3 10 Jens Dantorp, Eddie Pepperell, Brandon Stone
United States John Deere Classic 15 Jul 1 5 Michael Kim
Final Qualifying
The Final Qualifying events were played on 3 July at four courses covering Scotland and the North-West, Central and South-coast regions of England. Three qualifying places were available at each location.
Notts (Hollinwell) – Rhys Enoch, Ashton Turner, Oliver Wilson
Prince's – Retief Goosen, Tom Lewis, Haraldur Magnús
St Annes Old Links – Marcus Armitage, James Robinson, Jack Senior
The Renaissance Club – Thomas Curtis, Grant Forrest, Sam Locke (a)
Alternates
To make up the full field of 156, additional places are allocated in ranking order from the Official World Golf Ranking at the time that these places are made available by the Championship Committee.
Chez Reavie (ranked 53, week 25)[17]
An Byeong-hun (56)[17]
Charles Howell III (60)[17]
Kevin Na (63)[17]
Beau Hossler (64)[17]
Ryan Moore (67; replaced Paul Lawrie)[18]
Andrew Landry (ranked 68, week 27; replaced Bernd Wiesberger)[15]
Keegan Bradley (75; replaced John Daly)[14]
Nationalities in the field[edit]
North America (56)
South America (3)
Europe (52)
Oceania (10)
Asia (23)
Africa (12)
Canada (1) Argentina (1) England (22) Australia (8) China (2) South Africa (12)
Mexico (1) Paraguay (1) Northern Ireland (2) New Zealand (2) India (2)
United States (54) Venezuela (1) Scotland (5) Japan (10)
Wales (1) Malaysia (1)
Ireland (3) South Korea (5)
Belgium (2) Thailand (3)
Denmark (2)
France (1)
Germany (2)
Iceland (1)
Italy (1)
Spain (4)
Sweden (6)
Past champions in the field[edit]
Made the cut[edit]
Player
Country
Year(s) won
R1
R2
R3
R4
Total
To par
Finish
Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland 2014 69 69 70 70 278 −6 T2
Tiger Woods United States 2000, 2005, 2006 71 71 66 71 279 −5 T6
Jordan Spieth United States 2017 72 67 65 76 280 −4 T9
Zach Johnson United States 2015 69 67 72 74 282 −2 T17
Phil Mickelson United States 2013 73 69 70 71 283 −1 T24
Stewart Cink United States 2009 72 70 71 70 283 −1 T24
Louis Oosthuizen South Africa 2010 72 70 69 73 284 E T28
Henrik Stenson Sweden 2016 70 75 71 69 285 +1 T35
Source:[19]
Missed the cut[edit]
Player
Country
Year(s) won
R1
R2
Total
To par
Tom Lehman United States 1996 75 71 146 +4
Ernie Els South Africa 2002, 2012 73 76 149 +7
Mark Calcavecchia United States 1989 73 76 149 +7
Pádraig Harrington Ireland 2007, 2008 76 74 150 +8
Todd Hamilton United States 2004 75 76 151 +9
Sandy Lyle Scotland 1985 75 76 151 +9
Darren Clarke Northern Ireland 2011 82 83 165 +23
David Duval United States 2001 80 WD
Source:[19]
Round summaries[edit]
First round[edit]
Thursday, 19 July 2018
Kevin Kisner opened with 66 (−5) for a one-shot lead over Tony Finau, Zander Lombard, and Erik van Rooyen.[20] Kisner was one-over after his first five holes before making a 40-foot eagle putt at the 6th. He made another 35-footer for birdie at the following hole, and added three straight birdies on the back-nine.[21]
Finau made eight birdies in his round to join Van Rooyen and Lombard in second place. Defending champion Jordan Spieth was 3-under before playing his final four holes in 4-over, including a double bogey at the 15th. He finished with 72 (+1).[22] Three-time champion Tiger Woods, playing at the Open for the first time since 2015, had two early birdies but made three bogeys on the back-nine to finish even-par.[23]
Place
Player
Country
Score
To par
1 Kevin Kisner United States 66 −5
T2 Tony Finau United States 67 −4
Zander Lombard South Africa
Erik van Rooyen South Africa
T5 Ryan Moore United States 68 −3
Brendan Steele United States
Brandon Stone South Africa
T8 Russell Henley United States 69 −2
Zach Johnson United States
Kang Sung-hoon South Korea
Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland
Pat Perez United States
Jon Rahm Spain
Chez Reavie United States
Matthew Southgate England
Justin Thomas United States
Danny Willett England
Source:[19]
Second round[edit]
Friday, 20 July 2018
Zach Johnson, the 2015 champion, holed a 30-foot putt at the 18th to post a round of 67 (−4) and tie first round leader Kevin Kisner. Kisner held a two-shot lead playing the 18th, but hit his approach in the burn guarding the green and made double bogey.[24]
Pat Perez, Tommy Fleetwood and Xander Schauffele were a shot behind at five-under. Perez was tied for the lead playing the 18th, but hit into a bunker and made bogey.[25] Fleetwood, runner-up at the U.S. Open after shooting 63 in the final round, shot a bogey-free 65 (−6); Fleetwood owns the course record of 63 at Carnoustie, made at the 2017 Dunhill Links Championship.[26][27]
Rory McIlroy, the 2014 champion, shot 69 (−2) for a second straight day to join a group two shots out of the lead.[28] Jordan Spieth, one-over after the first round, rebounded with a 4-under 67 to get within three of the lead, while Tiger Woods shot another even-par round.[29]
World No. 1 and 2 Dustin Johnson and Justin Thomas both missed the cut, Johnson making a double bogey at the last while Thomas made three straight double bogeys on the front-nine.[30]
Place
Player
Country
Score
To par
T1 Zach Johnson United States 69-67=136 −6
Kevin Kisner United States 66-70=136
T3 Tommy Fleetwood England 72-65=137 −5
Pat Perez United States 69-68=137
Xander Schauffele United States 71-66=137
T6 Tony Finau United States 67-71=138 −4
Matt Kuchar United States 70-68=138
Zander Lombard South Africa 67-71=138
Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland 69-69=138
Erik van Rooyen South Africa 67-71=138
Source:[19]
Amateurs: Locke (+3), Højgård (+6), Lin (+12), Rebula (+16)
Third round[edit]
Saturday, 21 July 2018
Defending champion Jordan Spieth shot a six-under 65 to tie Kevin Kisner and Xander Schauffele for the 54-hole lead.[31] Spieth, beginning the third round three off the lead, drove the green on the par-four 1st and made eagle, and then added a birdie on the 4th to tie. At the 10th, he hit his tee shot into the rough but managed to escape with a birdie, and then made another at 11. He birdied the par-5 14th, and then holed a long birdie putt at the par-3 16th.[32]
Schauffele shot a four-under 67 that included six birdies, finishing his round with a long putt at the 18th from just off the back of the green. Kisner, tied for the lead coming into the round, shot a bogey-free 68 (−3).[33]
Francesco Molinari didn't make a bogey while getting six birdies to shoot 65 (−6) and move to three off of the lead.[34]
Tiger Woods began the round six behind but made three straight birdies on holes 9–11, and then briefly tied for the lead after a birdie at 14. He made bogey on the 16th but managed to save par at the last after his tee shot narrowly missed the burn. He finished with a round of 66 (−5) and was four back.[35]
Zach Johnson was tied with Kisner entering the round but made bogey at 11 and double bogey at the 12th, settling for a one-over round of 72 and falling four shots behind. Justin Rose had the round of the day with 64, tying for the lowest round at an Open Championship at Carnoustie.[36]
Place
Player
Country
Score
To par
T1 Kevin Kisner United States 66-70-68=204 −9
Xander Schauffele United States 71-66-67=204
Jordan Spieth United States 72-67-65=204
4 Kevin Chappell United States 70-69-67=206 −7
5 Francesco Molinari Italy 70-72-65=207 −6
T6 Tommy Fleetwood England 72-65-71=208 −5
Zach Johnson United States 69-67-72=208
Matt Kuchar United States 70-68-70=208
Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland 69-69-70=208
Alex Norén Sweden 70-71-67=208
Webb Simpson United States 70-71-67=208
Tiger Woods United States 71-71-66=208
Source:[19]
Final round[edit]
Sunday, 22 July 2018
Francesco Molinari shot a bogey-free round of 69 (−2) to become the first Italian to win a major championship.[37] Molinari was three shots behind at the start of the round and began with 13 straight pars before a birdie at the par-5 14th. He hit his approach close to the pin at the 18th and converted another birdie to post 8-under. Molinari didn't make a bogey in his last 37 holes.[38]
Tiger Woods, paired with Molinari, made two birdies on the front-nine to take solo possession of the lead. At the 11th, however, he hit his tee shot in the rough and his approach over the green. His chip shot came up short of the green and he failed to get up-and-down, settling for a double bogey. He made another bogey at the 12th, and despite getting a birdie at the par-5 14th after chipping from close to the 4th pin on the double green he finished three shots behind after an even-par 71.[39][40]
Xander Schauffele was in a three-way tie for the lead at the start of the round but found trouble at the 5th when his approach shot buried in a greenside bunker. That led to a bogey, and he made another bogey at the 6th after hitting into a bunker once again. At the 7th Schauffele hit his tee shot into the rough and failed to get out on his second shot. His third went over the green and he made double bogey. He rebounded with a birdie at the 10th to get back into the lead, and another at the 14th. One shot back of Molinari playing the 17th, Schauffele's approach went well right of the green and he made bogey to finish two behind.[41]
Kevin Kisner was also tied for the lead, but began his round with a double bogey at the 2nd after having to play sideways out of a fairway bunker. He made three more bogeys on the front-nine for a four-over 40. He began the second nine with a birdie at 10, joining a six-way tie for the lead at six-under. A dropped shot at the 12th, however, saw Kisner fall out of the lead and he also finished two behind Molinari.[42]
Defending champion Jordan Spieth, tied with Kisner and Schauffele at the start of the round, failed to make a birdie on his way to a five-over 76. He made a bogey at the 5th after hitting into a fairway bunker, then had a double bogey at the 6th after taking an unplayable lie from a bush. He made two more bogeys on the back-nine to finish four shots back.[43]
Rory McIlroy was two-over par after his first eight holes, before birdies at the 9th and 11th. At the 14th he holed a long putt for eagle to tie for the lead at 6-under. But he failed to make another birdie the rest of the round and settled into the four-way tie for second.[44] Justin Rose, who needed a 13-foot birdie at the 18th Friday just to make the cut, eagled the 14th after his approach hit the flag, then birdied the 18th after a close approach to also finish runner-up.[45]
Place
Player
Country
Score
To par
Money ($)
1 Francesco Molinari Italy 70-72-65-69=276 −8 1,890,000
T2 Kevin Kisner United States 66-70-68-74=278 −6 694,250
Rory McIlroy Northern Ireland 69-69-70-70=278
Justin Rose England 72-73-64-69=278
Xander Schauffele United States 71-66-67-74=278
T6 Kevin Chappell United States 70-69-67-73=279 −5 327,000
Eddie Pepperell England 71-70-71-67=279
Tiger Woods United States 71-71-66-71=279
T9 Tony Finau United States 67-71-71-71=280 −4 219,000
Matt Kuchar United States 70-68-70-72=280
Jordan Spieth United States 72-67-65-76=280
Source:[19]
Amateur: Locke (+9)
Scorecard[edit]
Hole
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Par 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 5 4 3 4 4
Molinari −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −7 −7 −7 −7 −8
Kisner −9 −7 −6 −6 −6 −7 −6 −5 −5 −6 −6 −5 −5 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6
McIlroy −5 −4 −4 −4 −3 −3 −3 −3 −4 −4 −5 −4 −4 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6
Rose −4 −4 −4 −4 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −5 −5 −5 −5 −6
Schauffele −9 −9 −9 −9 −8 −7 −5 −5 −5 −6 −6 −6 −6 −7 −7 −7 −6 −6
Chappell −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −5 −5 −5 −5 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −4 −5
Pepperell −1 −1 −2 −2 −3 −4 −4 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −4 −4 −4 −5 −5
Woods −5 −5 −5 −6 −6 −7 −7 −7 −7 −7 −5 −4 −4 −5 −5 −5 −5 −5
Spieth −9 −9 −9 −9 −8 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −5 −5 −4 −4
Cumulative tournament scores, relative to par
Eagle Birdie Bogey Double bogey
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Bogey-free 65 puts Fleetwood one off Open lead". Reuters. 20 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
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Jump up ^ Harig, Bob (20 July 2018). "Rory McIlroy benefits from softer grounds at Carnoustie". ESPN. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
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Jump up ^ Murray, Scott (21 July 2018). "The Open 2018: Jordan Spieth surges to front in third round – as it happened". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Wacker, Brian (21 July 2018). "British Open 2018: A frustrating year for Jordan Spieth is one round from being great". Golf Digest. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Magical Francesco Molinari continues red-hot form with sparkling 65". Eurosport.com. Reuters. 21 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
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Jump up ^ Jurejko, Jonathan (22 July 2018). "Francesco Molinari wins The Open after holding off Tiger Woods, Justin Rose & Rory McIlroy". BBC Sport. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Hodgetts, Rob (22 July 2018). "Francesco Molinari wins British Open as Tiger Woods falls short". CNN.com. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Rory McIlroy: 'For a while I thought Tiger was going to win. My mindset was go and spoil the party'". Irish Independent. Reuters. 22 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Dean, Sam (22 July 2018). "Justin Rose releases himself from Carnoustie shackles to renew his love for the Open". The Telegraph. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
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Temporomandibular joint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Temporomandibular joint
Articulation of the mandible. Lateral aspect.
Articulation of the mandible. Medial aspect.
Details
Artery
Superficial temporal artery
Nerve
Auriculotemporal nerve, masseteric nerve
Identifiers
Latin
Articulatio temporomandibularis
Acronym(s)
TMJ
MeSH
A02.835.583.861
Dorlands
/Elsevier
12161641
TA
A03.1.07.001
FMA
54832
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Skull of a sheep. Temporal bone (Os temporale) coloured. Line: Tympanicum: articular face for temporomandibular joint; arrow: external acoustic pore.
The temporomandibular joints (TMJ) are the two joints connecting the jawbone to the skull. It is a bilateral synovial articulation between the temporal bone of the skull above and the mandible below; it is from these bones that its name is derived.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Capsule and articular disc
1.2 Ligaments
1.3 Innervation
1.4 Blood supply
1.5 Development
2 Function
2.1 Jaw movements
3 Examination
4 Disorders
4.1 Disc displacement
4.2 Congenital
4.3 Traumatic
4.4 Inflammatory
4.5 Degenerative
4.6 Idiopathic
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
The main components are the joint capsule, articular disc, mandibular condyles, articular surface of the temporal bone, temporomandibular ligament, stylomandibular ligament, sphenomandibular ligament, and lateral pterygoid muscle.
Capsule and articular disc[edit]
Main article: Articular disk of the temporomandibular joint
The capsule is a dense fibrous membrane that surrounds the joint and incorporates the articular eminence. It attaches to the articular eminence, the articular disc and the neck of the mandibular condyle.
The unique feature of the temporomandibular joint is the articular disc. The disc is composed of dense fibrous connective tissue that is positioned between the two bones that form the joint. The temporomandibular joints are one of the few synovial joints in the human body with an articular disc, another being the sternoclavicular joint. The disc divides each joint into two. These two compartments are synovial cavities, which consists of an upper and a lower synovial cavity. The synovial membrane lining the joint capsule produces the synovial fluid that fills these cavities.[1]
The central area of the disc is avascular and lacks innervation, and, in contrast, the peripheral region has both blood vessels and nerves. Few cells are present, but fibroblasts and white blood cells are among these. The central area is also thinner but of denser consistency than the peripheral region, which is thicker but has a more cushioned consistency. The synovial fluid in the synovial cavities provides the nutrition for the avascular central area of the disc. With age, the entire disc thins and may undergo addition of cartilage in the central part, changes that may lead to impaired movement of the joint.[1]
The lower joint compartment formed by the mandible and the articular disc is involved in rotational movement—this is the initial movement of the jaw when the mouth opens. The upper joint compartment formed by the articular disc and the temporal bone is involved in translational movement—this is the secondary gliding motion of the jaw as it is opened widely. The part of the mandible which mates to the under-surface of the disc is the condyle and the part of the temporal bone which mates to the upper surface of the disk is the articular fossa or glenoid fossa or mandibular fossa.
The articular disc is a fibrous extension of the capsule in between the two bones of the joint. The disc functions as articular surfaces against both the temporal bone and the condyles and divides the joint into two sections, as already described. It is biconcave in structure and attaches to the condyle medially and laterally. The anterior portion of the disc splits in the vertical dimension, coincident with the insertion of the superior head of the lateral pterygoid. The posterior portion also splits in the vertical dimension, and the area between the split continues posteriorly and is referred to as the retrodiscal tissue. Unlike the disc itself, this piece of connective tissue is vascular and innervated, and in some cases of anterior disc displacement, the pain felt during movement of the mandible is due to the condyle compressing this area against the articular surface of the temporal bone.
Ligaments[edit]
There are three ligaments associated with the temporomandibular joints: one major and two minor ligaments. These ligaments are important in that they define the border movements, or in other words, the farthest extents of movements, of the mandible. Movements of the mandible made past the extents functionally allowed by the muscular attachments will result in painful stimuli, and thus, movements past these more limited borders are rarely achieved in normal function.
The major ligament, the temporomandibular ligament, is actually the thickened lateral portion of the capsule, and it has two parts: an outer oblique portion (OOP) and an inner horizontal portion (IHP). The base of this triangular ligament is attached to the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the articular tubercle; its apex is fixed to the lateral side of the neck of the mandible. This ligament prevents the excessive retraction or moving backward of the mandible, a situation that might lead to problems with the joint.[2]
The two minor ligaments, the stylomandibular and sphenomandibular ligaments are accessory and are not directly attached to any part of the joint.
The stylomandibular ligament separates the infratemporal region (anterior) from the parotid region (posterior), and runs from the styloid process to the angle of the mandible; it separates the parotid and submandibular salivary glands. It also becomes taut when the mandible is protruded.
The sphenomandibular ligament runs from the spine of the sphenoid bone to the lingula of mandible. The inferior alveolar nerve descends between the sphenomandibular ligament and the ramus of the mandible to gain access to the mandibular foramen. The sphenomandibular ligament, because of its attachment to the lingula, overlaps the opening of the foramen. It is a vestige of the embryonic lower jaw, Meckel cartilage. The ligament becomes accentuated and taut when the mandible is protruded.[2]
Other ligaments, called "oto-mandibular ligaments",[3][4][5] connect the middle ear (malleus) with the temporomandibular joint:
discomallear (or disco-malleolar) ligament,
malleomandibular (or malleolar-mandibular) ligament.
Innervation[edit]
Sensory innervation of the temporomandibular joint is derived from the auriculotemporal and masseteric branches of V3 or mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. These are only sensory innervation. Recall that motor is to the muscles.
The specific mechanics of proprioception in the temporomandibular joint involve four receptors. Ruffini endings function as static mechanoreceptors which position the mandible. Pacinian corpuscles are dynamic mechanoreceptors which accelerate movement during reflexes. Golgi tendon organs function as static mechanoreceptors for protection of ligaments around the temporomandibular joint. Free nerve endings are the pain receptors for protection of the temporomandibular joint itself.
Blood supply[edit]
Its arterial blood supply is provided by branches of the external carotid artery, predominately the superficial temporal branch. Other branches of the external carotid artery, namely the deep auricular artery, anterior tympanic artery, ascending pharyngeal artery, and maxillary artery, may also contribute to the arterial blood supply of the joint.
Development[edit]
Formation of the temporomandibular joints occurs at around 12 weeks in utero when the joint spaces and the articular disc develop.[6] At approximately 10 weeks the component of the fetus future joint becomes evident in the mesenchyme between condylar cartilage of the mandible and the developing temporal bone. Two slits like joint cavities and intervening disk make their appearance in this region by 12 weeks. The mesenchyme around the joint begins to form the fibrous joint capsule. Very little is known about the significance of newly forming muscles in joint formation. The developing superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle attaches to the anterior portion of the fetal disk. The disk also continues posterior through the petrotympanic fissure and attaches to the malleus of middle ear.
A growth center is located in the head of each mandibular condyle before an individual reaches maturity. This growth center consists of hyaline cartilage underneath the periosteum on the articulating surface of the condyle. This is the last growth center of bone in the body and is multidirectional in its growth capacity, unlike a typical long bone. This area of cartilage within the bone grows in length by appositional growth as the individual grows to maturity. Over time, the cartilage is replaced by bone, using endochondral ossification. This mandibular growth center in the condyle allows the increased length of the mandible needed for the larger permanent teeth, as well as for the larger brain capacity of the adult. This growth of the mandible also influences the overall shape of the face, and thus is charted and referred to during orthodontic therapy. When an individual reaches full maturity, the growth center of bone within the condyle has disappeared.[1]
Function[edit]
Temporomandibular joint
Each temporomandibular joint is classed as a "ginglymoarthrodial" joint since it is both a ginglymus (hinging joint) and an arthrodial (sliding) joint.[7] The condyle of the mandible articulates with the temporal bone in the mandibular fossa. The mandibular fossa is a concave depression in the squamous portion of the temporal bone.
These two bones are actually separated by an articular disc, which divides the joint into two distinct compartments. The inferior compartment allows for rotation of the condylar head around an instantaneous axis of rotation,[8] corresponding to the first 20mm or so of the opening of the mouth. After the mouth is open to this extent, the mouth can no longer open without the superior compartment of the temporomandibular joints becoming active.
At this point, if the mouth continues to open, not only are the condylar heads rotating within the lower compartment of the temporomandibular joints, but the entire apparatus (condylar head and articular disc) translates. Although this had traditionally been explained as a forward and downward sliding motion, on the anterior concave surface of the glenoid fossa and the posterior convex surface of the articular eminence, this translation actually amounts to a rotation around another axis. This effectively produces an evolute which can be termed the resultant axis of mandibular rotation, which lies in the vicinity of the mandibular foramen, allowing for a low-tension environment for the vasculature and innervation of the mandible.[8]
The necessity of translation to produce further opening past that which can be accomplished with sole rotation of the condyle can be demonstrated by placing a resistant fist against the chin and trying to open the mouth more than 20 or so mm.
The resting position of the temporomandibular joint is not with the teeth biting together. Instead, the muscular balance and proprioceptive feedback allow a physiologic rest for the mandible, an interocclusal clearance or freeway space, which is 2 to 4 mm between the teeth.[2]
Jaw movements[edit]
Sagittal section of the articulation of the mandible
Play media
Dynamics of temporomandibular joint during voluntary mouth opening and closing visualized by real-time MRI[9]
Normal full jaw opening is 40-50 millimeters as measured from edge of lower front teeth to edge of upper front teeth.
When measuring the vertical range of motion, the measurement must be adjusted for the overbite. For example, if the measurement from the edge of the lower front teeth to the edge of the upper front teeth is 40 millimeters and the overbite is 3 millimeters, then the jaw opening is 43 millimeters.
During jaw movements, only the mandible moves.
Normal movements of the mandible during function, such as mastication, or chewing, are known as excursions. There are two lateral excursions (left and right) and the forward excursion, known as protrusion. The reversal of protrusion is retrusion.
When the mandible is moved into protrusion, the mandibular incisors, or front teeth of the mandible, are moved so that they first come edge to edge with the maxillary (upper) incisors and then surpass them, producing a temporary underbite. This is accomplished by translation of the condyle down the articular eminence (in the upper portion of the joint) without any more than the slightest amount of rotation taking place (in the lower portion of the joint), other than that necessary to allow the mandibular incisors to come in front of the maxillary incisors without running into them. (This is all assuming an ideal Class I or Class II occlusion, which is not entirely important to the lay reader.)
During chewing, the mandible moves in a specific manner as delineated by the two temporomandibular joints. The side of the mandible that moves laterally is referred to as either the working or rotating side, while the other side is referred to as either the balancing or orbiting side. The latter terms, although a bit outdated, are actually more precise, as they define the sides by the movements of the respective condyles.
When the mandible is moved into a lateral excursion, the working side condyle (the condyle on the side of the mandible that moves outwards) only performs rotation (in the horizontal plane), while the balancing side condyle performs translation. During actual functional chewing, when the teeth are not only moved side to side, but also up and down when biting of the teeth is incorporated as well, rotation (in a vertical plane) also plays a part in both condyles.
The mandible is moved primary by the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid and the temporalis. These four muscles, all innervated by V3, or the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve, work in different groups to move the mandible in different directions. Contraction of the lateral pterygoid acts to pull the disc and condyle forward within the glenoid fossa and down the articular eminence; thus, action of this muscle serves to protrude the jaw, it with assistance of gravity and the digastricus muscle also opens the jaw. The other three muscles close the mouth; the masseter and the medial pterygoid by pulling up the angle of the mandible and the temporalis by pulling up on the coronoid process of the mandible.
Examination[edit]
The temporomandibular joints can be palpated anterior to or within the external acoustic meatus during movements of the mandible. Auscultation of the joint can also be done.[2]
Disorders[edit]
Temporomandibular joint pain is generally due to one of four reasons.
Myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome, primarily involving the muscles of mastication. This is the most common cause.
Internal derangements, an abnormal relationship of the disc to any of the other components of the joint. Disc displacement is an example of internal derangement.
Osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint, a degenerative joint disease of the articular surfaces.
Temporal arteritis, for which it is considered a reliable diagnostic criteria.
Pain or dysfunction of the temporomandibular joint is sometimes referred to as "TMJ", and temporomandibular joint disorder (or dysfunction) may be abbreviated TMD. This term is used to refer to a group of problems involving the temporomandibular joints and the muscles, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels, and other tissues associated with them.
Although rare, other pathologic conditions may also affect the function of temporomandibular joints, causing pain and swelling. These conditions include chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, giant cell tumor and aneurysmal bone cyst.[10]
Disc displacement[edit]
The most common disorder of a temporomandibular joint is disc displacement. In essence, this is when the articular disc, attached anteriorly to the superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle and posteriorly to the retrodiscal tissue, moves out from between the condyle and the fossa, so that the mandible and temporal bone contact is made on something other than the articular disc. This, as explained above, is usually very painful, because unlike these adjacent tissues, the central portion of the disc contains no sensory innervation.
In most instances of disorder, the disc is displaced anteriorly upon translation, or the anterior and inferior sliding motion of the condyle forward within the fossa and down the articular eminence. On opening, a "pop" or "click" can sometimes be heard and usually felt also, indicating the condyle is moving back onto the disk, known as "reducing the joint" (disc displacement with reduction). Upon closing, the condyle will slide off the back of the disc, hence another "click" or "pop" at which point the condyle is posterior to the disc. Upon clenching, the condyle compresses the bilaminar area, and the nerves, arteries and veins against the temporal fossa, causing pain and inflammation.
In disc displacement without reduction the disc stays anterior to the condylar head upon opening. Mouth opening is limited and there is no "pop" or "click" sound on opening.
Congenital[edit]
Aplasia of mandible or cranial bone[11]
Hypoplasia of mandible or cranial bone[11]
Hyperplasia of mandible or cranial bone[11]
Dysplasia abnormal tissue development[11]
Traumatic[edit]
Mandibular dislocation
Fracture
Subluxation
Inflammatory[edit]
Synovitis[12]
Capsulitis[12]
Myositis[11]
Degenerative[edit]
Osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Idiopathic[edit]
Temporomandibular disorder (TMD, also termed "temporomandibular joint pain-dysfunction syndrome") is pain and dysfunction of the TMJ and the muscles of mastication (the muscles that move the jaw). TMD does not fit neatly into any one etiologic category since the pathophysiology is poorly understood and it represents a range of distinct disorders with multifactorial etiology. TMD accounts for the majority of pathology of the TMJ, and it is the second most frequent cause of orofacial pain after dental pain (i.e. toothache).[13]
Fibromyalgia[12]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Bath-Balogh and Fehrenbach, 2011, page 266.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Illustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck, Fehrenbach and Herring, Elsevier, 2012, page 118.
Jump up ^ Rodríguez-Vázquez, J.F.; Mérida-Velasco, J.R.; Mérida-Velasco, J.A.; Jiménez-Collado, J. (1998). "Anatomical considerations on the discomalleolar ligament". J. Anat. 192. (Pt 4) (Pt 4): 617–621. doi:10.1017/S0021878298003501. PMC 1467815  . PMID 9723988.
Jump up ^ Rodríguez-Vázquez, J.F.; Merída Velasco, JR; Jiménez Collado, J (January 1993). "Relationships between the temporomandibular joint and the middle ear in human fetuses" (PDF). J Dent Res. 72. 72 (1): 62–66. doi:10.1177/00220345930720010901. PMID 8418109.
Jump up ^ Rowicki, T.; Zakrzewska, J. (2006). "A study of the discomalleolar ligament in the adult human" (PDF). Folia Morphol. (Warsz). 65 (2): 121–125. PMID 16773599.
Jump up ^ Salentijn, L. Biology of Mineralized Tissues: Prenatal Skull Development, Columbia University College of Dental Medicine post-graduate dental lecture series, 2007
Jump up ^ Alomar, X; Medrano, J.; Cabratosa, J.; Clavero, J.A.; Lorente, M.; Serra, I.; Monill, J.M.; Salvador, A. (June 2007). "Anatomy of the temporomandibular joint". Seminars in ultrasound, CT, and MR. 28 (3): 170–83. doi:10.1053/j.sult.2007.02.002. PMID 17571700.
^ Jump up to: a b Moss, ML. The non-existent hinge axis, Am. Inst, Oral Biol. 1972, 59-66
Jump up ^ Zhang, S.; Gersdorff, N.; Frahm, J. (2011). "Real-Time Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Temporomandibular Joint Dynamics" (PDF). The Open Medical Imaging Journal. 5: 1–7. doi:10.2174/1874347101105010001.
Jump up ^ Zadik, Yehuda; Aktaş Alper; Drucker Scott; Nitzan W Dorrit (2012). "Aneurysmal bone cyst of mandibular condyle: A case report and review of the literature". J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 40 (8): e243–8. doi:10.1016/j.jcms.2011.10.026. PMID 22118925.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wright EF (16 November 2011). "Chapter 5: TMD Diagnostic Categories". Manual of Temporomandibular Disorders. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-94955-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Okeson JP (21 July 2014). "Chapter 10: Classification of temporomandibular disorders". Management of Temporomandibular Disorders and Occlusion. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-24208-0.
Jump up ^ Manfredini, D; Guarda-Nardini, L; Winocur, E; Piccotti, F; Ahlberg, J; Lobbezoo, F (October 2011). "Research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders: a systematic review of axis I epidemiologic findings". Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics. 112 (4): 453–62. doi:10.1016/j.tripleo.2011.04.021. PMID 21835653.
External links[edit]
Temporomandibular Joint Disorders (TMJD). Causes - Symptoms - Diagnosis & Treatment
The American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (AAOMS) - The Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health
International College of Cranio Mandibular Orthopedics
[hide]
v
t
e
Joints and ligaments of the head and neck
Temporomandibular
Capsule
Articular disk
Lateral
Temporomandibular ligament
Medial
Sphenomandibular ligament
Stylomandibular ligament
Atlanto-occipital
capsule
membranes (anterior atlantoöccipital membrane
posterior atlantoöccipital membrane)
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Arthrodial joint

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Temporal arteritis

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Temporomandibular joint disorder

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Oral pathology

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Giant cell tumor

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Temporomandibular disorder

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values: مفصل صدغي فكي – Arabic

values: Κροταφογναθική άρθρωση – Greek

values: Articulación temporomandibular – Spanish

values: مفصل گیجگاهی‌زیرواره‌ای – Persian

values: Articulation temporo-mandibulaire – French

values: Articulación temporomandibular – Galician

values: Կրծոսկր-անրակային հոդ – Armenian

values: Articolazione temporo-mandibolare – Italian

values: מפרק לסתי-רקתי – Hebrew

values: Самай-шықшыт буыны – Kazakh

values: Smilkininis žandikaulio sąnarys – Lithuanian

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values: Articulação temporomandibular – Portuguese

values: Височно-нижнечелюстной сустав – Russian

values: Вилични зглоб – Serbian

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