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Svalbard Global Seed Vault
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Svalbard Global Seed Vault
Svalbard globale frøhvelv
Location within Svalbard
General information
Status
Complete
Type
Seed bank
Location
Spitsbergen
Town or city
Longyearbyen
Country
Norway
Coordinates
78°14′09″N 15°29′29″E / 78.235867°N 15.491374°E / 78.235867; 15.491374Coordinates: 78°14′09″N 15°29′29″E / 78.235867°N 15.491374°E / 78.235867; 15.491374
Elevation
130 m (430 ft)
Groundbreaking
19 June 2006[1]
Opened
26 February 2008[2]
Cost
45 million kr[3]
(US$8.8 million, 2008)
Technical details
Floor count
1
Floor area
c. 1,000 m2
(c. 11,000 sq ft)[4]
Awards and prizes
Norwegian Lighting Prize for 2009
No. 6 TIME's Best Inventions of 2008
Website
Official website
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault (Norwegian: Svalbard globale frøhvelv) is a secure seed bank on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen near Longyearbyen in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago, about 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) from the North Pole.[5] Conservationist Cary Fowler, in association with the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR),[6] started the vault to preserve a wide variety of plant seeds that are duplicate samples, or "spare" copies, of seeds held in gene banks worldwide. The seed vault is an attempt to ensure against the loss of seeds in other genebanks during large-scale regional or global crises. The seed vault is managed under terms spelled out in a tripartite agreement between the Norwegian government, the Crop Trust and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen).[7]
The Norwegian government entirely funded the vault's approximately 45 million kr (US$8.8 million in 2008) construction.[3] Storing seeds in the vault is free to end users, with Norway and the Crop Trust paying for operational costs. Primary funding for the Trust comes from organisations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and from various governments worldwide.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Construction
3 Mission
4 Access to seeds
5 Seed storage
6 Crop Trust
7 Awards and honors
8 Capacity
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
The Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) has, since 1984, stored backup Nordic plant germplasm via frozen seeds in an abandoned coal mine at Svalbard. In January 2008, the Nordic Gene Bank merged with two other Nordic conservation groups to form NordGen.[9] The Svalbard Global Seed Vault officially opened on 26 February 2008,[2] although the first seeds arrived in January 2008.[10] Five percent of the seeds in the vault, about 18,000 samples with 500 seeds each, came from the Centre for Genetic Resources of the Netherlands (CGN), part of Wageningen University, Netherlands.[11]
As part of the vault's first anniversary, more than 90,000 food crop seed samples were placed into storage, bringing the total number of seed samples to 400,000.[12] Among the new seeds are included 32 varieties of potatoes from Ireland's national gene banks and 20,000 new samples from the U.S. Agricultural Research Service.[13] Other seed samples came from Canada and Switzerland, as well as international seed researchers from Colombia, Mexico and Syria.[14] This 4-tonne (3.9-long-ton; 4.4-short-ton) shipment brought the total number of seeds stored in the vault to over 20 million.[12] As of this anniversary, the vault contained samples from approximately one-third of the world's most important food crop varieties.[14] Also part of the anniversary, experts on food production and climate change met for a three-day conference in Longyearbyen.[15]
Japanese sculptor Mitsuaki Tanabe (田辺光彰) presented a work to the vault named "The Seed 2009 / Momi In-Situ Conservation".[16] In 2010 a delegation of seven U.S. congressmen handed over a number of different varieties of chili pepper.[17]
By 2013, approximately one-third of the genera diversity stored in gene banks globally was represented at the Seed Vault.[18] In 2017 it stored more than 930,000 samples of seeds, which represent 13,000 years of agricultural history.[19]
In October 2016, the seed vault experienced an unusually large degree of water intrusion due to higher than average temperatures and heavy rainfall. While it is common for some water to seep into the vault's 100-metre (328 ft) entrance tunnel during the warmer spring months, in this case the water encroached 15 metres (49 ft) into the tunnel before freezing.[20] The vault was designed for water intrusion and as such the seeds were not at risk.[20] As a result, however, Norwegian public works agency Statsbygg plans to make improvements to the tunnel to prevent any such intrusion in the future, including waterproofing the tunnel walls, removing heat sources from the tunnel, and digging exterior drainage ditches.[21]
Construction[edit]
Cary Fowler at the Seed Vault during its construction
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, and Iceland's prime ministers ceremonially laid "the first stone" on 19 June 2006.[1]
The seedbank is 120 metres (390 ft) inside a sandstone mountain on Spitsbergen Island,[22] and employs robust security systems. Seeds are packaged in special three-ply foil packets and heat sealed to exclude moisture.[23] The facility is managed by the Nordic Genetic Resource Center, though there are no permanent staff on-site.
Spitsbergen was considered ideal because it lacked tectonic activity and had permafrost, which aids preservation. Its being 130 metres (430 ft) above sea level will keep the site dry even if the ice caps melt.[22] Locally mined coal provides power for refrigeration units that further cool the seeds to the internationally recommended standard of −18 °C (−0.4 °F).[24] If the equipment fails, at least several weeks will elapse before the facility rises to the surrounding sandstone bedrock's temperature of −3 °C (27 °F),[5] and is estimated to take two centuries to warm to 0 °C (32 °F).[25]
A feasibility study prior to construction determined that the vault could preserve most major food crops' seeds for hundreds of years. Some, including those of important grains, could potentially remain viable for thousands of years.[26]
Entrance to the Seed Vault at dusk, highlighting its illuminated artwork
Running the length of the facility's roof and down the front face to the entryway is an illuminated artwork named Perpetual Repercussion by Norwegian artist Dyveke Sanne that marks the location of the vault from a distance.[27] In Norway, government-funded construction projects exceeding a certain cost must include artwork. KORO, the Norwegian State agency overseeing art in public spaces, engaged the artist to install lighting that highlights the importance and qualities of Arctic light. The roof and vault entrance are filled with highly reflective stainless steel, mirrors, and prisms. The installation reflects polar light in the summer months, while in the winter, a network of 200 fibre-optic cables gives the piece a muted greenish-turquoise and white light.[28]
Mission[edit]
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault's mission is to provide a safety net against accidental loss of diversity in traditional genebanks. While the popular press has emphasized its possible utility in the event of a major regional or global catastrophe, it will be more frequently accessed when genebanks lose samples due to mismanagement, accident, equipment failures, funding cuts, and natural disasters. These events occur with some regularity. War and civil strife have a history of destroying some genebanks. The national seed bank of the Philippines was damaged by flooding and later destroyed by a fire; the seed banks of Afghanistan and Iraq have been lost completely.[25] According to The Economist, "the Svalbard vault is a backup for the world's 1,750 seed banks, storehouses of agricultural biodiversity."[25] Norwegian law has prohibited the storing of genetically modified seeds at the vault.[29]
The adjacent Arctic World Archive provides a similar service for data, which is etched as code into reels of film. Project lead Piql of Norway states that the film, when properly preserved, should last for 1,000 years.[30]
Access to seeds[edit]
Vault seed samples are copies of samples stored in the depositing genebanks. Researchers, plant breeders, and other groups wishing to access seed samples cannot do so through the seed vault; they must instead request samples from the depositing genebanks. The samples stored in the genebanks will, in most cases, be accessible in accordance with the terms and conditions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, approved by 118 countries or parties.[26][31]
The seed vault functions like a safe deposit box in a bank. The bank owns the building and the depositor owns the contents of his or her box. The Government of Norway owns the facility and the depositing genebanks own the seeds they send. The deposit of samples in Svalbard does not constitute a legal transfer of genetic resources. In genebank terminology this is called a "black box" arrangement. Each depositor signs a Deposit Agreement with NordGen, acting on behalf of Norway. The Agreement makes clear that Norway does not claim ownership over the deposited samples and that ownership remains with the depositor, who has the sole right of access to those materials in the seed vault. No one has access to anyone else's seeds from the seed vault.[26][32] The database of samples and depositors is maintained by NordGen.[33]
The Syrian Civil War caused another seed bank, the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, to move its headquarters from Aleppo to Beirut. Due to difficulties by ICARDA in transferring its collection, in 2015 the Svalbard Vault authorized the first withdrawal of seeds in its history.[34][35][36]
Seed storage[edit]
Seed storage containers on metal shelving inside the vault
The seeds are stored in sealed three-ply foil packages,[23] then placed into plastic tote containers on metal shelving racks. The storage rooms are kept at −18 °C (−0.4 °F). The low temperature and limited access to oxygen will ensure low metabolic activity and delay seed aging. The permafrost surrounding the facility will help maintain the low temperature of the seeds should the electricity supply fail.[37][32] In the years since its opening, the vault saw minor water intrusion at its entrance during the annual spring permafrost thawing; warmer temperatures and heavy rainfall in October 2016 caused significantly greater amounts of water to inundate the entrance, but the facility's design ensured that the water froze after several meters and the seeds were not endangered.[20][38]
Crop Trust[edit]
The Crop Trust, officially known as the Global Crop Diversity Trust, plays a key role in the planning of the seed vault and coordinating shipments of seed samples to the Vault in conjunction with the Nordic Genetic Resource Center. The Trust provides most of the annual operating costs for the facility, and has set aside endowment funds to do so, while the Norwegian government finances upkeep of the structure itself. With support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and other donors, the Crop Trust assists selected genebanks in developing countries as well as the international agricultural research centers in packaging and shipping seeds to the seed vault. An International Advisory Council provides guidance and advice. It includes representatives from the FAO, CGIAR, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources and other institutions.[citation needed]
Awards and honors[edit]
Svalbard Global Seed Vault ranked at No. 6 on Time's Best Inventions of 2008.[39] It was awarded the Norwegian Lighting Prize for 2009.[40]
Capacity[edit]
A seed sample consists of around 500 seeds sealed in an airtight aluminum bag, and the facility has a storage capacity of 4.5 million seed samples.[41]
Year
Species
Total samples
Ref.
2008 (Feb) 268,000 [42]
2010 500,000 [43]
2013 (Feb) 774,601 [18]
2014 (Feb) 820,619 [44]
2015 (May) 4,000 840,000 [45][46]
2016 (Oct) 880,000 [47]
2017 (Feb) 930,821 [48]
See also[edit]
Arctic policy of Norway
Center of origin
Frozen zoo, a similar concept, but for animals
Millennium Seed Bank Partnership
Orthodox seed
Recalcitrant seed
Survivalism
Australian Grains Genebank
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Work begins on Arctic seed vault". BBC News. 19 June 2006. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Mellgren, Doug (27 February 2008). "'Doomsday' seed vault opens in Arctic". MSNBC.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Hopkin, Michael (March 2008). "Biodiversity: Frozen futures". Nature. 452 (7186): 404–405. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..404H. doi:10.1038/452404a.
Jump up ^ "Description of the facility". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles, Daniel (23 June 2006). "A 'Forever' Seed Bank Takes Root in the Arctic". Science. 312 (5781): 1730–1731. doi:10.1126/science.312.5781.1730b. PMID 16794050.
Jump up ^ Siebert, Charles (July 2011). "Food Ark". National Geographic. 220 (1): 108–131. OCLC 741814684.
Jump up ^ "What is NordGen?". Nordic Genetic Resource Center. Archived from the original on 21 April 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Our Donors". The Crop Trust. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "About Us". Nordic Genetic Resources Center. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Kinver, Mark (31 January 2008). "'Doomsday' seeds arrive in Norway". BBC News. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Aarden, Marieke (26 February 2008). "Opslag met miljarden zaden, voor tijden van oorlog". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). Retrieved 3 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Walsh, Bryan (27 February 2009). "The Planet's Ultimate Backup Plan: Svalbard". Time. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "ARS ships more seeds to genebank facility in Norway". High Plains Journal. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, Linda (26 February 2009). "Global Seed Vault Marks First Anniversary; 20 Million Seeds From One-Third Of Earth's Food Crops Now Stored In Case Of Disaster". All Headline News. Retrieved 1 March 2009. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "More seeds for 'doomsday vault'". BBC News. 26 February 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
Jump up ^ 日本人彫刻家の作品が種子貯蔵庫へ (in Japanese). Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2009. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Kinver, Mark (13 July 2010). "'Red hot' chillies arrive at frozen seed vault". BBC News. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Westengen, Ola T.; Jeppson, Simon; Guarino, Luigi (May 2013). "Global Ex-Situ Crop Diversity Conservation and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Assessing the Current Status". PLOS ONE. 8 (5). e64146. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064146. PMC 3650076  . PMID 23671707.
Jump up ^ Duggan, Jennifer (April 2017). "Inside the 'Doomsday' Vault". Time. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Griggs, Mary Beth (22 May 2017). "Turns out the Svalbard seed vault is probably fine". Popular Science. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Aschim, Hege Njaa (20 May 2017). "Improvements on the Svalbard Global Seed Vault". Norwegian Directorate of Public Construction and Property. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Deep Freeze". Modern Marvels. Season 14. Episode 34. 25 September 2007. History.
^ Jump up to: a b "Svalbard Global Seed Vault". The Crop Trust. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Svalbard Global Seed Vault: From safety in permafrost to optimal conditions". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 20 May 2008. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Banking against Doomsday". The Economist. 10 March 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fowler, Cary (26 February 2008). "The Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Securing the Future of Agriculture" (PDF). Global Crop Diversity Trust.
Jump up ^ "Svalbard Global Seed Vault". KORO: Public Art Norway. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Lighting Installation". The Crop Trust. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "FAQ about the Seed Vault - Crop Trust". The Crop Trust. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Deamer, Kacey (1 April 2017). "'Doomsday' Library Joins Seed Vault in Arctic Norway". Live Science. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Members: Contracting Parties". PlantTreaty.org. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Management and Operations". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "SGSV by Depositor". Nordic Genetic Resources Center. 24 August 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Alister (21 September 2015). "Syrian war spurs first withdrawal from doomsday Arctic seed vault". Reuters. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Robins-Early, Nick (22 September 2015). "Syrian War Causes The Global Doomsday Seed Vault's First Withdrawal". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Dan, Charles (24 September 2015). "Reclaiming Syria's Seeds From An Icy Arctic Vault". NPR. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Frequently Asked Questions". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Netto, Joseph; Simon, Darran (21 May 2017). "Water breaches 'Doomsday' vault entrance, seeds unharmed". CNN. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Best Inventions of 2008: The Global Seed Vault". Time. 29 October 2008. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Awarded the Norwegian Lighting Prize for 2009". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 4 November 2009. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "More about the physical plant". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 23 February 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Arctic Seed Vault Opens Doors for 100 Million Seeds". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 26 February 2008. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ MacDougall, Ian (12 March 2010). "Norway Doomsday Seed Vault Hits 1/2 Million Mark". U.S. News & World Report. Associated Press. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Dell'Amore, Christine (27 February 2014). "Doomsday Seed Vault's New Adds: "Space Beer" Barley, Brazil Beans". National Geographic. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "A global backstop". Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 23 February 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Straehley, Steve (7 March 2015). "Doomsday Seed Vault Adds Tree Seeds for First Time". AllGov.com. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Combatting Climate Change, One Seed at a Time" (Press release). The Crop Trust. 18 October 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Major Deposit to World's Largest Seed Collection in the Arctic" (Press release). The Crop Trust. 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
Wikinews has related news: Seeds placed in Norwegian vault as agricultural 'insurance policy'
Official website
Crop Trust
Nordic Genetic Resource Center
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text:
Lysosome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cell biology
The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome (little dots)
Vesicle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
Cytoskeleton
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the cytoplasm)
Lysosome
Centrosome
Cell membrane
A lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle found in nearly all animal cells. They are spherical vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down many kinds of biomolecules. Simply stated, a lysosome is a type of vesicle with specific composition, of both its membrane proteins, and proteins of its lumen. The lumen's pH (4.5–5.0)[1] is optimal for the enzymes involved in hydrolysis, analogous to the activity of the stomach. Besides degradation of polymers, the lysosome is involved in various cell processes, including secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signaling, and energy metabolism.[2]
The lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from outside the cell and obsolete components inside the cell. Material from outside the cell is taken-up through endocytosis, while material from the inside of the cell is digested through autophagy. Their sizes can be very different—the biggest ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones.[3] They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974.
Lysosomes are known to contain more than 60 different enzymes.[4][5] Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are imported from the Golgi apparatus in small vesicles, which fuse with larger acidic vesicles. Enzymes destined for a lysosome are specifically tagged with the molecule mannose 6-phosphate, so that they are properly sorted into acidified vesicles.[6][7]
Synthesis of lysosomal enzymes is controlled by nuclear genes. Mutations in the genes for these enzymes are responsible for more than 30 different human genetic disorders, which are collectively known as lysosomal storage diseases. These diseases result from an accumulation of specific substrates, due to the inability to break them down. These genetic defects are related to several neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and ageing-related diseases.[8][9]
Lysosomes should not be confused with liposomes, or with micelles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Function and structure
3 Formation
4 Pathogen entry
5 Disease
6 Lysosomotropism
7 Controversy in botany
8 Etymology and pronunciation
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Discovery[edit]
TEM views of various vesicular compartments. Lysosomes are denoted by "Ly". They are dyed dark due to their acidity; in the center of the top image, a Golgi Apparatus can be seen, distal from the cell membrane relative to the lysosomes.
Christian de Duve, the chairman of the Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium, had been studying the mechanism of action of a pancreatic hormone insulin in liver cells. By 1949, he and his team had focused on the enzyme called glucose 6-phosphatase, which is the first crucial enzyme in sugar metabolism and the target of insulin. They already suspected that this enzyme played a key role in regulating blood sugar levels. However, even after a series of experiments, they failed to purify and isolate the enzyme from the cellular extracts. Therefore, they tried a more arduous procedure of cell fractionation, by which cellular components are separated based on their sizes using centrifugation.
They succeeded in detecting the enzyme activity from the microsomal fraction. This was the crucial step in the serendipitous discovery of lysosomes. To estimate this enzyme activity, they used that of standardised enzyme acid phosphatase, and found that the activity was only 10% of the expected value. One day, the enzyme activity of purified cell fractions which had been refrigerated for five days was measured. Surprisingly, the enzyme activity was increased to normal of that of the fresh sample. The result was the same no matter how many times they repeated the estimation, and led to the conclusion that a membrane-like barrier limited the accessibility of the enzyme to its substrate, and that the enzymes were able to diffuse after a few days (and react with their substrate). They described this membrane-like barrier as a "saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase."[10]
It became clear that this enzyme from the cell fraction came from a membranous fractions, which were definitely cell organelles, and in 1955 De Duve named them "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties.[11] The same year, Alex B. Novikoff from the University of Vermont visited de Duve's laboratory, and successfully obtained the first electron micrographs of the new organelle. Using a staining method for acid phosphatase, de Duve and Novikoff confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes using light and electron microscopic studies.[12][13] de Duve won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for this discovery.
Originally, De Duve had termed the organelles the "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" of the cells, for their hypothesized role in apoptosis.[14] However, it has since been concluded that they only play a minor role in cell death.[15]
Function and structure[edit]
Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes, enabling the cell to break down various biomolecules it engulfs, including peptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. The enzymes responsible for this hydrolysis require an acidic environment for optimal activity.
In addition to being able to break down polymers, lysosomes are capable of fusing with other organelles & digesting large structures or cellular debris; through cooperation with phagosomes, they are able to conduct autophagy, clearing out damaged structures. Similarly, they are able to break-down virus particles or bacteria in phagocytosis of macrophages.
The size of lysosomes varies from 0.1 μm to 1.2 μm.[16] With a pH ranging from 4.5 to 5.0, the interior of the lysosomes is acidic compared to the slightly basic cytosol (pH 7.2). The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the lysosome. The cell is additionally protected from any lysosomal acid hydrolases that drain into the cytosol, as these enzymes are pH-sensitive and do not function well or at all in the alkaline environment of the cytosol. This ensures that cytosolic molecules and organelles are not destroyed in case there is leakage of the hydrolytic enzymes from the lysosome.
The lysosome maintains its pH differential by pumping in protons (H+ ions) from the cytosol across the membrane via proton pumps and chloride ion channels. Vacuolar H+-ATPases are responsible for transport of protons, while the counter transport of chloride ions is performed by ClC-7 Cl−/H+ antiporter. In this way a steady acidic environment is maintained.[17][18]
It sources its versatile capacity for degradation by import of enzymes with specificity for different substrates; cathepsins are the major class of hydrolytic enzymes, while lysosomal alpha-glucosidase (GAA) is responsible for carbohydrates, and ACP2 is necessary to release phosphate groups of phospholipids.
Formation[edit]
The lysosome is shown in purple, as an endpoint in Endocytotic sorting. AP2 is necessary for vesicle formation, whereas the Mannose-6-receptor is necessary for sorting Hydrolase into the Lysosome's lumen.
Many components of animal cells are recycled by transferring them inside or embedded in sections of membrane. For instance, in endocytosis (more specifically, macropinocytosis), a portion of the cell's plasma membrane pinches off to form a vesicle that will eventually fuse with an organelle within the cell. Without active replenishment, the plasma membrane would continuously decrease in size. It is thought that lysosomes participate in this dynamic membrane exchange system and are formed by a gradual maturation process from endosomes.[19][20]
The production of lysosomal proteins suggests one method of lysosome sustainment. Lysosomal protein genes are transcribed in the nucleus. mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus into the cytosol, where they are translated by ribosomes. The nascent peptide chains are translocated into the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they are modified. Upon exiting the endoplasmic reticulum and entering the Golgi apparatus via vesicular transport, a specific lysosomal tag, mannose 6-phosphate, is added to the peptides. The presence of these tags allow for binding to mannose 6-phosphate receptors in the Golgi apparatus, a phenomenon that is crucial for proper packaging into vesicles destined for the lysosomal system.[21]
Upon leaving the Golgi apparatus, the lysosomal enzyme-filled vesicle fuses with a late endosome, a relatively acidic organelle with an approximate pH of 5.5. This acidic environment causes dissociation of the lysosomal enzymes from the mannose 6-phosphate receptors. The enzymes are packed into vesicles for further transport to established lysosomes.[21] The late endosome itself can eventually grow into a mature lysosome, as evidenced by the transport of endosomal membrane components from the lysosomes back to the endosomes.[19]
Pathogen entry[edit]
Cholera gaining entry into a cell via endocytosis.
As the endpoint of endocytosis, the lysosome also acts as a safeguard in preventing pathogens from being able to reach the cytoplasm before being degraded. Pathogens often hijack endocytotic pathways such as pinocytosis in order to gain entry into the cell. The lysosome prevents easy entry into the cell by hydrolyzing the biomolecules of pathogens necessary for their replication strategies; reduced Lysosomal activity results in an increase in viral infectivity, including HIV.[22] In addition, AB5 toxins such as cholera hijack the endosomal pathway while evading lysosomal degradation.[22]
Disease[edit]
Lysosomes are responsible for a group of genetically inherited disorders called lysosomal storage diseases (LSD). They are a type of inborn errors of metabolism caused by malfunction of one of the enzymes. The rate of incidence is estimated to be 1 in 5,000 live births, and the true figure expected to be higher as many cases are likely to be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. The primary cause is deficiency of an acidic hydrolase (a hydrolase which functions best in acidic environments). Other conditions are due to defects in lysosomal membrane proteins that fail to transport the enzyme, non-enzymatic soluble lysosomal proteins. The initial effect of such disorders is accumulation of specific macromolecules or monomeric compounds inside the endosomal–autophagic–lysosomal system.[8] This results in abnormal signaling pathways, calcium homeostasis, lipid biosynthesis and degradation and intracellular trafficking, ultimately leading to pathogenetic disorders. The organs most affected are brain, viscera, bone and cartilage.[23][24]
There is no direct medical treatment to cure LSDs.[25] The most common LSD is Gaucher's disease, which is due to deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase. Consequently, the enzyme substrate, the fatty acid glucosylceramide accumulates, particularly in white blood cells, which in turn affects spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain and bone marrow. The disease is characterized by bruises, fatigue, anaemia, low blood platelets, osteoporosis, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.[26][27]
Metachromatic leukodystrophy is another lysosomal storage disease that also affects sphingolipid metabolism.
Lysosomotropism[edit]
Weak bases with lipophilic properties accumulate in acidic intracellular compartments like lysosomes. While the plasma and lysosomal membranes are permeable for neutral and uncharged species of weak bases, the charged protonated species of weak bases do not permeate biomembranes and accumulate within lysosomes. The concentration within lysosomes may reach levels 100 to 1000 fold higher than extracellular concentrations. This phenomenon is called "lysosomotropism"[28] or "acid trapping". The amount of accumulation of lysosomotropic compounds may be estimated using a cell-based mathematical model.[29]
A significant part of the clinically approved drugs are lipophilic weak bases with lysosomotropic properties. This explains a number of pharmacological properties of these drugs, such as high tissue-to-blood concentration gradients or long tissue elimination half-lifes; these properties have been found for drugs such as haloperidol,[30] levomepromazine,[31] and amantadine.[32] However, high tissue concentrations and long elimination half-lives are explained also by lipophilicity and absorption of drugs to fatty tissue structures. Important lysosomal enzymes, such as acid sphingomyelinase, may be inhibited by lysosomally accumulated drugs.[33][34] Such compounds are termed FIASMAs (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase)[35] and include for example fluoxetine, sertraline, or amitriptyline.
Ambroxol is a lysosomotropic drug of clinical use to treat conditions of productive cough for its mucolytic action. Ambroxol triggers the exocytosis of lysosomes via neutralization of lysosomal pH and calcium release from acidic calcium stores.[36] Presumably for this reason, Ambroxol was also found to improve cellular function in some disease of lysosomal origin such as Parkinson's or lysosomal storage disease.[37][38]
Controversy in botany[edit]
By scientific convention, the term lysosome is applied to those vesicular organelles only in animals, and vacuoles to plants, fungi and algae. Discoveries in plant cells since the 1970s started to challenge this definition. Plant vacuoles are found to be much more diverse in structure and function than previously thought.[39][40] Some vacuoles contain their own hydrolytic enzymes and perform the classic lysosomal activity, which is autophagy.[41][42][43] These vacuoles are therefore seen as fulfilling the role of the animal lysosome. Based on de Duve's description that "only when considered as part of a system involved directly or indirectly in intracellular digestion does the term lysosome describe a physiological unit", some botanists strongly argued that these vacuoles are lysosomes.[44] However, this is not universally accepted as the vacuoles are strictly not similar to lysosomes, such as in their specific enzymes and lack of phagocytic functions.[45] Vacuoles do not have catabolic activity and do not undergo exocytosis as lysosomes do.[46]
Etymology and pronunciation[edit]
The word lysosome (/ˈlaɪsoʊsoʊm/, /ˈlaɪzəzoʊm/) is New Latin that uses the combining forms lyso- (referring to lysis and derived from the Latin lysis, meaning "to loosen", via Ancient Greek λύσις [lúsis]), and -some, from soma, "body", yielding "body that lyses" or "lytic body". The adjectival form is lysosomal. The forms *lyosome and *lyosomal are much rarer; they use the lyo- form of the prefix but are often treated by readers and editors as mere unthinking replications of typos, which has no doubt been true as often as not.
See also[edit]
Peroxisome
Cathelicidin
Antimicrobial peptides
Innate immune system
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Lüllmznn-Rauch R (2005). "History and Morphology of Lysosome". In Zaftig P. Lysosomes (Online-Ausg. 1 ed.). Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience/Eurekah.com. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-387-28957-1.
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Jump up ^ "Lysosomal Enzymes". www.rndsystems.com. R&D Systems. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
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Jump up ^ Kornhuber J, Muehlbacher M, Trapp S, Pechmann S, Friedl A, Reichel M, Mühle C, Terfloth L, Groemer TW, Spitzer GM, Liedl KR, Gulbins E, Tripal P (2011). Riezman H, ed. "Identification of novel functional inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase". PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e23852. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023852. PMC 3166082  . PMID 21909365.
Jump up ^ Kornhuber J, Tripal P, Reichel M, Mühle C, Rhein C, Muehlbacher M, Groemer TW, Gulbins E (2010). "Functional Inhibitors of Acid Sphingomyelinase (FIASMAs): a novel pharmacological group of drugs with broad clinical applications". Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry. 26 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1159/000315101. PMID 20502000.
Jump up ^ Fois, Giorgio; Hobi, Nina; Felder, Edward; Ziegler, Andreas; Miklavc, Pika; Walther, Paul; Radermacher, Peter; Haller, Thomas; Dietl, Paul. "A new role for an old drug: Ambroxol triggers lysosomal exocytosis via pH-dependent Ca2+ release from acidic Ca2+ stores". Cell Calcium. 58 (6): 628–637. doi:10.1016/j.ceca.2015.10.002.
Jump up ^ Albin, Roger L.; Dauer, William T. (1 May 2014). "Magic shotgun for Parkinson's disease?". Brain. 137 (5): 1274–1275. doi:10.1093/brain/awu076. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 24771397.
Jump up ^ McNeill, Alisdair; Magalhaes, Joana; Shen, Chengguo; Chau, Kai-Yin; Hughes, Derralyn; Mehta, Atul; Foltynie, Tom; Cooper, J. Mark; Abramov, Andrey Y. (1 May 2014). "Ambroxol improves lysosomal biochemistry in glucocerebrosidase mutation-linked Parkinson disease cells". Brain. 137 (5): 1481–1495. doi:10.1093/brain/awu020. ISSN 0006-8950. PMC 3999713  . PMID 24574503.
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Jump up ^ Samaj J, Read ND, Volkmann D, Menzel D, Baluska F (August 2005). "The endocytic network in plants". Trends in Cell Biology. 15 (8): 425–33. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2005.06.006. PMID 16006126.
Jump up ^ Matile, P (1978). "Biochemistry and Function of Vacuoles". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 29 (1): 193–213. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.29.060178.001205.
Jump up ^ Moriyasu Y, Ohsumi Y (August 1996). "Autophagy in Tobacco Suspension-Cultured Cells in Response to Sucrose Starvation". Plant Physiology. 111 (4): 1233–1241. doi:10.1104/pp.111.4.1233. PMC 161001  . PMID 12226358.
Jump up ^ Jiao BB, Wang JJ, Zhu XD, Zeng LJ, Li Q, He ZH (January 2012). "A novel protein RLS1 with NB-ARM domains is involved in chloroplast degradation during leaf senescence in rice". Molecular Plant. 5 (1): 205–17. doi:10.1093/mp/ssr081. PMID 21980143.
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Jump up ^ Holtzman E (1989). Lysosomes. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 7, 15. ISBN 978-0306-4-3126-5.
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External links[edit]
Look up lysosome in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document "Science Primer".
3D structures of proteins associated with lysosome membrane
Hide and Seek Foundation For Lysosomal Research
Lysosomal Disease Network, a research consortium funded by the NIH through its NCATS/Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network
Self-Destructive Behavior in Cells May Hold Key to a Longer Life
Mutations in the Lysosomal Enzyme–Targeting Pathway and Persistent Stuttering
Animation showing how lysosomes are made, and their function
[hide]
v
t
e
Structures of the cell / organelles (TH H1.00.01.2-3)
Endomembrane system
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Parenthesome
Autophagosome
Vesicles
Exosome
Lysosome
Endosome
Phagosome
Vacuole
Acrosome
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Melanosome
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NDL: 00569577
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lysosome&oldid=812205266"
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text:
United States presidential approval rating
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Approval ratings of President Barack Obama by state in 2015—approval of the president was highest in Hawaii (at 58 percent) and lowest in West Virginia (at 24 percent)
>50%
40–49%
30–39%
<30%
In the United States, presidential job approval ratings were introduced by George Gallup in the late 1930s (probably 1937) to gauge public support for the President of the United States during his term. An approval rating is a percentage determined by a polling which indicates the percentage of respondents to an opinion poll who approve of a particular person or program. Typically, an approval rating is given to a political figure based on responses to a poll in which a sample of people are asked whether they approve or disapprove of that particular political figure. A typical question might ask:
Do you approve or disapprove of the way [Donald Trump] is handling his job as president?[1]
Like most surveys that predict public opinion, the approval rating is subjective. Many unscientific approval rating systems exist that skew popular opinion. However, the approval rating is generally accepted as a statistically valid indicator of the comparative changes in the popular United States mood regarding a President.
Contents
[hide]
1 President Donald Trump
2 Historical comparison
2.1 Graphs
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
President Donald Trump[edit]
Main article: Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration
Most recent polls for President Donald Trump[2][3][4]
Polling group
Date
Approval
Disapproval
Unsure
Net +/-
Sample size[4]
Population[4]
Rasmussen Reports[a][5] June 13–17, 2018 48% 50% 2% -2% 1500 !≈1,500 Likely voters
Ipsos/Reuters[6] June 10–14, 2018 43% 53% 4% -10% 2,507 All adults
Monmouth University[7] June 12–13, 2018 43% 46% 11% -3% 806 All adults
Gallup Poll[b][8] June 11–17, 2018 45% 50% 5% -5% 1500 !≈1,500 All adults
Fox News[c][9] June 3–6, 2018 45% 51% 4% -6% 1,001 Registered voters
Quinnipiac University[10] May 31–June 5, 2018 40% 51% 8% -11% 1223 !1,223 Registered voters
Investor's Business Daily[d][11] May 29–June 5, 2018 36% 55% 2% -19% 905 All adults
NBC News/Wall Street Journal[e][12] June 1–4, 2018 44% 53% 3% -9% 900 Registered voters
CBS News[f][13] May 3–6, 2018 40% 55% 6% -15% 1,101 All adults
CNN[g][14] May 2–5, 2018 41% 53% 6% -12% 1015 !1,015 All adults
Pew Research Center[15] April 25–May 1, 2018 39% 54% 6% -15% 1503 !1,503 All adults
Kaiser Family Foundation[h][16] April 20–30, 2018 40% 55% 5% -15% 2,000 All adults
NPR/PBS NewsHour/Marist[17] April 10–13, 2018 38% 54% 8% -16% 1,011 All adults
ABC News/Washington Post[i][18] April 8–11, 2018 40% 56% 4% -16% 1,002 All adults
CNBC[j][19] March 17–20, 2018 39% 50% 11% -11% 801 All adults
George Washington University[k][20] March 4–8, 2018 42% 55% 4% -13% 1,000 Likely voters
Suffolk University/USA Today[21] February 20–24, 2018 38% 60% 3% -22% 1000 !1,000 Registered voters
Public Policy Polling[22] February 9–11, 2018 44% 50% 6% -6% 0687 !687 Registered voters
Public Religion Research Institute[l][23] October 18–30, 2017 41% 54% 5% -13% 2019 !2,019 All adults
Washington Post/University of Maryland[24] September 27–October 5, 2017 37% 63% 1% -26% 1663 !1,663 All adults
Bloomberg News[m][25] July 8–12, 2017 40% 56% 4% -16% 1001 !1,001 All adults
Historical comparison[edit]
Historical Gallup Poll approval highs and lows for each President since 1937[26][27][28][n]
Order
President
Highest approval
Lowest approval
High –
Low
Highest disapproval
Highest margin
Lowest margin
Final poll
Approval
average[26]
Polls
per year
45[29][30] Trump 45 (01/24/17, 06/17/18) 33 (10/29/17, 12/01/17) 13 62 (10/29/17, 10/30/17, 12/01/17) 1 (01/24/17) −31 (10/29/17, 12/01/17) 39.1[30][31]
44[32][33] Obama 69 (01/24/09) 38 (09/05/14)[o] 31 57 (10/10/14) 56 (01/23-24/09) −18 (10/10/14) 59 (01/19/17) 47.9 348.4
43[34] G. W. Bush 90 (9/21/01) 25 (10/05/08, 10/12/08, 11/02/08) 65 71 (10/10/08) 83 (09/22/01) −46 (10/12/08) 34 (01/11/09) 49.4 33.7
42[35] Clinton 73 (12/19/98) 37 (06/06/93) 36 54 (09/07/94) 45 (12/17/00) −14 (09/07/94) 66 (01/14/01) 55.1 28.5
41[36] G. H. W. Bush 89 (02/28/91) 29 (08/02/92, 10/13/92) 60 60 (07/31/92) 82 (03/03/91) −30 (08/02/92, 10/13/92) 56 (01/11/93) 60.9 39.5
40[37] Reagan 71 (01/30/86) 35 (01/31/83) 36 56 (01/28/83) 52 (01/30/86) −21(01/31/83) 63 (12/29/88) 52.8 37.0
39[38] Carter 74 (03/15/77) 28 (06/26/79, 10/02/79) 46 59 (06/26/79) 66 (03/15/77) −31 (06/26/79) 34 (12/08/80) 45.5 22.7
38[39] Ford 70 (08/13/74) 36 (03/25/75) 34 46 (04/15/75, 11/18/75) 26 (08/13/74) −7 (02/25/75, 03/25/75, 04/15/75) 53 (12/13/76) 47.2 14.7
37[40] Nixon 66 (01/23/73) 24 (01/02/74) 42 66 (08/05/74) 57 (03/17/69) −42 (08/05/74) 24 (08/05/74) 49.1 17.7
36[41] Johnson 79 (03/05/64) 34 (08/12/68) 45 52 (08/12/68) 75 (12/10/63) −18 (08/12/68) 49 (01/06/69) 55.1 15.3
35[42] Kennedy 83 (03/05/62) 56 (09/10/63) 27 30 (09/12/63, 11/08/63) 78 (03/05/62) 27 (09/10/63) 58 (11/13/63) 70.1 13.7
34[43] Eisenhower 77 (11/22/55, 12/19/56) 47 (03/25/58) 30 36 (03/25/58) 66 (04/02/53, 12/19/56) 12 (03/25/58) 59 (12/13/60) 65.0 14.4
33[44] Truman 87 (08/22/45) 22 (11/16/51, 02/14/52) 65 67 (01/06/52) 85(08/22/45) −43 (01/04/52) 32 (12/16/52) 45.4 8.4
32[45] F. D. Roosevelt 83 (01/08/42) 48 (08/18/39) 35 46 (05/22/38, 05/29/38, 11/07/38) 73 (01/23/42) 65 (12/15/43) 63
Graphs[edit]
Gallup Poll graphs of approval ratings for Presidents of the United States
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Harry S. Truman
Dwight D. Eisenhower
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson
Richard Nixon
Gerald Ford
Jimmy Carter
Ronald Reagan
George H. W. Bush
Bill Clinton
George W. Bush
Barack Obama
Donald Trump
See also[edit]
Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States
Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Rolling 3-day average of 500 likely voters each day; no neutral/unsure choice.
Jump up ^ Weekly averages.
Jump up ^ Conducted by Anderson Robbins Research (D) and Shaw & Company Research (R).
Jump up ^ Conducted by TIPP, a division of TechnoMetrica Market Intelligence.
Jump up ^ Conducted by Hart Research Associates (D) and Public Opinion Strategies (R).
Jump up ^ Conducted by SSRS of Glen Mills, Pennsylvania.
Jump up ^ Conducted by SSRS.
Jump up ^ Conducted by SSRS of Glen Mills, PA.
Jump up ^ Conducted by Langer Research Associates and Abt Associates of Rockville, MD.
Jump up ^ Conducted by Hart Research Associates (D) and Public Opinion Strategies (R).
Jump up ^ Conducted by The Tarrance Group (R) and Lake Research Partners (D).
Jump up ^ Conducted by SSRS.
Jump up ^ Conducted by Selzer & Company.
Jump up ^ Only the results of Gallup polls are included as no other poll results exist for presidents before President Clinton.
Jump up ^ Last of eight, sometimes overlapping, 3-day averages.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Presidential Approval Ratings – Donald Trump". Gallup. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "President Trump: Job Ratings". PollingReport.com. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ "President Trump Job Approval". RealClearPolitics. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "How (un)popular is Donald Trump?". fivethirtyeight.com. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Trump Approval Index History". Retrieved February 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Trump approval at reuters.com". Retrieved June 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Trump Looked Strong, But So Did Kim; North Korea May Have Gained More". June 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Trump Job Approval (Weekly)". Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Fox News Poll". June 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Voters Have Trump's Back As He Faces Kim Jong-Un, Quinnipiac University National Poll Finds; Except For First Lady, Trump Team Gets Low Grades". June 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Investor's Business Daily/TIPP Poll – June 2018" (PDF). June 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NBC News/Wall Street Journal Survey" (PDF). June 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Trump's Job Approval Ticks Up". May 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ "CNN May 2018" (PDF). May 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ "MAY 2018 POLITICAL SURVEY" (PDF). May 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Kaiser Health Tracking Poll: Preview of the Role of Health Care in the 2018 Midterm Campaigns". May 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NPR/PBS NewsHour/Marist Poll of 1,011 National Adults" (PDF). April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Washington Post-ABC News poll April 8-11, 2018". April 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ "CNBC AAES First Quarter Survey" (PDF). March 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "GW Battleground (LXIII)" (PDF). March 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Suffolk University/USA TODAY FINAL" (PDF). March 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Democrats Lead by 8 Points On Generic House Ballot Nationally" (PDF). February 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "PRRI 2017 American Values Survey" (PDF). December 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Washington Post-University of Maryland Democracy Poll, Sept. 27-Oct. 5, 2017". October 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bloomberg News National Poll". July 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Presidential Approval Ratings – Gallup Historical Statistics and Trends". Gallup. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lydia Saad (March 29, 2017). "Trump's Approval Rating Unusually Low, Unusually Early". Gallup. Retrieved April 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ The American Presidency Project at UC Santa Barbara.
Jump up ^ "Gallup Daily: Trump Job Approval". Gallup. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Trump Job Approval (Weekly)". Gallup. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey M. Jones (April 24, 2018). "Trump's Fifth-Quarter Job Approval Up; Still Historically Low". Gallup.
Jump up ^ Graphical display and numbers of Gallup "daily tracking" polls
Jump up ^ "Presidential Approval Ratings -- Barack Obama".
Jump up ^ "Gallup.com". Gallup.com. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ Inc., Gallup,. "Presidential Approval Ratings -- Bill Clinton". gallup.com. Retrieved January 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for George H. W. Bush". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Ronald Reagan". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Jimmy Carter". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Gerald Ford". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Richard Nixon". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Lyndon B. Johnson". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for John F. Kennedy". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ Presidential Job Approval for "Dwight D. Eisenhower". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Harry S. Truman". American Presidency Project.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Job Approval for Franklin D. Roosevelt". American Presidency Project.
External links[edit]
"Historical Presidential Job Performance Ratings". Roper Center.
"Trump approval ratings". FiveThirtyEight.
[http://www.data360.org/graph_group.aspx?Graph_Group_Id=292 "Midterm Presidential Approval Ratings". Data360.
"President Job Approval Ratings". PresidentPollsUSA.
"Historical Presidential Approval Ratings 1945–2009". The Wall Street Journal.
"President Obama's Ongoing Job Approval". CongressRatings)
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