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Forth Road Bridge
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For the adjacent railway bridge, see Forth Bridge. For the film, see The Forth Road Bridge. For the second road bridge over the Firth of Forth, see Queensferry Crossing.
Forth Road Bridge
View from North Queensferry
Coordinates
56°00′03″N 03°24′15″W / 56.00083°N 3.40417°W / 56.00083; -3.40417Coordinates: 56°00′03″N 03°24′15″W / 56.00083°N 3.40417°W / 56.00083; -3.40417
Carries
Motor vehicles (A90 road)
Cyclists (National Cycle Route 1)
Pedestrians
Crosses
Firth of Forth
Locale
Edinburgh and Fife, Scotland
Official name
Forth Road Bridge
Maintained by
Transport Scotland
Characteristics
Design
Suspension bridge
Total length
2,512 m (8,241 ft)[1]
Width
33 m (108 ft) dual two-lane carriageway, two cycle/footpaths[1]
Height
156 m (512 ft)[2]
Longest span
1,006 m (3,301 ft)[1]
Clearance below
44.3 m (145 ft)[1]
History
Constructed by
Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long
Opened
4 September 1964
Statistics
Daily traffic
65,000 vpd (2012 figures)[3]
Toll
Free since 11 February 2008
Forth Road Bridge
Location in Edinburgh
The Forth Road Bridge is a suspension bridge in east central Scotland. The bridge, opened in 1964, spans the Firth of Forth, connecting Edinburgh, at Queensferry, to Fife, at North Queensferry. It replaced a centuries-old ferry service to carry vehicular traffic, cyclists and pedestrians across the Forth; railway crossings are made by the adjacent Forth Bridge, opened in 1890.
The Scottish Parliament voted to scrap tolls on the bridge from February 2008. The bridge was nearing the end of its life in the 2010s, and a parallel replacement was built. On 5 September 2017 the bridge carried its final private cars, as the vast majority of traffic was transferred to the new Queensferry Crossing. Following a few weeks closure for repairs, the new role of the Forth Road Bridge will be as a public transport corridor, open only to buses, taxis, cyclists and pedestrians. At its peak, the Forth Road Bridge carried 65,000 vehicles per day (vpd), which is now expected to drop to only a few hundred following the opening of the Queensferry Crossing.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Design
1.2 Construction
1.3 Operation
2 Statistics
3 Structural issues
3.1 2016 public inquiry
3.2 2018 repairs
4 Tolling issues
4.1 Variable tolling proposals
4.2 Abolition
5 Additional crossings
5.1 Queensferry Crossings
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The first crossing at what is now the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret, queen consort of King Malcolm III, who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews.[4] Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry, which remain to this day; and the service remained in uninterrupted use as a passenger ferry for over eight hundred years. There were proposals as early as the 1740s for a road crossing at the site, although their viability was only considered following the construction of the Forth Bridge in 1890.[5]
The importance of the crossing to vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s. The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here, although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead.[6]
There was a period of renewed lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s, at which time the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry. Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s, providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries that aimed to supplement the services of the adjacent railway bridge. Their success allowed for the addition of two more craft in the 1940s and 1950s,[7] by which time the ferries were making 40,000 crossings annually, carrying 1.5 million passengers and 800,000 vehicles.
Design[edit]
With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth (the Kincardine Bridge, built in 1936) still around 15 miles (24 km) upstream, the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife[8] prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board (FRBJB) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service. The authorities on both sides investigated in 1955, and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary. This was known as the Maunsell Scheme, and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge. The scheme was abandoned as being too ambitious, and consideration reverted to a bridge concept.[9]
Construction[edit]
Under construction in July 1962
The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year.[10] Mott, Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of £11.5 million, while the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was £19.5 million. The resident design engineer was John Alexander King Hamilton FRSE (1900–1982).[11]
It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe.[12] 210,000 tons of concrete were involved in its construction, with 9 miles (14 kilometres) of grade-separated dual-carriageway approach roads. Reed and Mallik (known for Reema construction of houses) of Salisbury, Wiltshire, built the approach viaducts.
Twenty-four individual bridges were built for the approach roads. The 4 1⁄2-mile (7.2 km) southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge, over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh, near Craigiehall. There were two-level interchanges built at Burnshot, Dolphington (B924) and the Echline junction (A904 and B800). At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway. The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd. The 4 mi (6 km) northern approach road had three two-level junctions at Ferry Toll[13] (for the B980), Admiralty (for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985, and Inverkeithing via the A921) and at Mastertown/Masterton (for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus). The Masterton junction was an octopus junction, a variation of a clover-leaf junction, having six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct. There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road. The northern approach road terminated as the A823(M) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline, next to Rosyth railway station.[14] The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow, later bought by Alfred McAlpine.
Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964.[15] The ferry service was discontinued as of that date.
Operation[edit]
The bridge's management was delegated to the FRBJB, and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit, the Forth Estuary Transport Authority.[16]
On 1 December 2010, the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow. After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways, the bridge was closed in both directions at 6.40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours.[17] As part of celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the bridge's operation, artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it.[18]
On 1 June 2015, Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit.
Statistics[edit]
The bridge's central main span is 1,006 metres (3,301 ft) long, its two side spans are each 408 metres (1,339 ft) long, and the approach viaducts are 252 metres (827 ft) on the north side and 438 metres (1,437 ft) on the south side. At a total length of 2,512 metres (8,241 ft), it was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth-longest span in the world at the time of its construction. The bridge comprises 39,000 tonnes of steel and 115,000 cubic metres of concrete. The towers reach 156 metres (512 ft) above mean water level. Its width comprises a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction bounded by cycle/footpaths on each side. The main strung cables are 590 millimetres (23 in) in diameter, comprising 11,618 high tensile wires, each five millimetres in diameter, and each cable carries 13,800 tonnes of the bridge's load.[1][2]
The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south-east and north-east Scotland, linking Edinburgh to Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway, which begins 1 2⁄3 miles (2.7 km) north of the bridge's northern terminus. The bridge carried around 2.5 million vehicles in its first year but the annual figure has risen steadily over time to around 21.4 million vehicles in 2008.[19] The bridge carried its 250-millionth vehicle in 2002.
It was awarded Historic Scotland's Category A listed structure status in 2001.
Structural issues[edit]
An inspection of the integrity of the cables under way on the bridge
High-tensile wires suspending the deck of the northbound carriageway
Forth Road Bridge anchorage chamber, north side
FETA began to be concerned over the structural wear of the bridge in the 21st century. The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge (30,000 vehicles per day in each direction) was routinely exceeded as traffic levels outstripped predictions. The Scottish Government stated in 2006 that 60,000 vehicles travelled on more than half the days in a year.[20] This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge, originally planned at 120 years.[20]
In 2003, an inspection programme was launched (costing £1.2 million) to assess the condition of the main suspension cables after corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size. The study was completed two years later and reported that the main cables had suffered an 8–10% loss of strength. Future projections highlighted the likelihood of this accelerating, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst-case scenario, followed by full closure by 2020.[21]
An acoustic monitoring system was commissioned in August 2006, using listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables. In January 2006, the Scottish Executive completed a third-party audit on the bridge which concluded that FETA had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice. The report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required by 2013.[22]
Several options were implemented to increase the bridge's lifespan. These included a dehumidification programme that slowed the rate of corrosion in the main cables by keeping air in the voids between the main cables' strands below 40% humidity. Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006, which took two and a half years to complete at a cost of £7.8 million.[23] As part of the works, some of the corroded cable strands were spliced.[24]
The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015 after steelwork defects had been discovered during routine inspections[25] and traffic was restricted 7.5 tonne or less (public service vehicles excepted).[26] On 23 December the Road Bridge reopened for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). On 4 February, it was announced this had been pushed back to March, due to further problems with the truss end link pins in the southern towers, which required additional remedial work.[27][28][29]
2016 public inquiry[edit]
Map of the Firth of Forth showing the Forth Road Bridge crossing in green between the Queensferry Crossing and the Forth Bridge
This section is incomplete. (January 2016)
On 20 January Scottish Parliament began an inquiry led by the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee (ICI) to determine the circumstances that led to the discovery of a cracked truss in the bridge's undercarriage.[30] Evidence was heard from; Forth Estuary Transport Authority (Feta), Transport minister Derek Mackay, engineers and officials from Amey along with a number of other experts and key personnel.
On the first day, Richard Hornby, of engineering consulting firm Arup, stated that the truss end in question had been inspected 23 times since 2001, and no fault had been found. It was revealed a pin had seized up, which caused the truss end to crack, and was only the quality of the steel which had stopped its cracking appearing earlier. Hornby also made clear that even if the seized pin had been picked up earlier, it was "virtually impossible" to lubricate the bearing.[31][32] Several witnesses defended a decision by previous operator Forth Estuary Transport Authority (Feta) not to proceed with a £15 million truss end link replacement project in 2010. This claim was disputed by Barry Colford, former chief engineer and bridgemaster at the Feta. Lesley Hinds, Feta’s former convener, pointed out that the bridge budget had been cut by 58% in 2011, while senior staff at Feta had "deep concerns" about the transfer of bridge management to a private company.[33][34]
2018 repairs[edit]
A programme of work is scheduled to take place in 2018 to replace expansion joints in both towers along with replacing the truss end links. Plans to replace these joints were postponed by the bridge management following the Scottish Government's commitment to the construction of the Queensferry Crossing; the original work proposals would have involved round-the-clock contraflows during the installation of ramps and mini-bridges to carry traffic over the work area, and heavy lorries being diverted.[35]
Tolling issues[edit]
On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge.[36]
Initially, it was suggested that tolling would cease once the original cost of construction plus accrued interest was repaid – this was done in 1993 and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995. Instead legislation enabling the continued levying of tolls was renewed by Parliament (originally that of the UK but now the Scottish Parliament) in 1998, 2003 and 2006.[37]
Originally, a toll was paid for each direction of travel with sets of toll booths on both carriageways. In 1997, the northbound toll was doubled (from 40p to 80p) and the southbound toll abolished on the presumption that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge, and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion without reducing revenue.
The Forth Estuary Transport Authority (FETA) justified the continued use of tolls by suggesting they were necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works. These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers in the event of collision in the Firth. The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns (the original tower structure was hollow) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork. Also, the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a detected failure. A new paint system required development for the bridge (the original was phased out due to environmental concerns).[38]
Variable tolling proposals[edit]
In late 2005, FETA's committee approved a proposal for a revamp of the tolls. The minimum toll would be set to the existing £1 figure, but would increase dependent on the time of day, rising to a maximum of £4 for evening rush hour travel. All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant, as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys. According to FETA's chairman Lawrence Marshall, the system would provide the most efficiency, claiming that 80% of peak-time journeys are made by single-occupant vehicles. The proposal, passed with the chairman's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked, was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005, and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott. Environmental groups welcomed the proposal, although local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital. At the same time, a counter-argument was tabled by Fife councillors proposing the complete removal of tolls.[39]
The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006, and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling (Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as "dead in the water".[40] Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted and refused to rule out the plan, receiving crticism from the opposition Scottish National Party.[41]
By late January 2006, campaigning was under way for the Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006 scheduled to take place for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated. The by-election, scheduled for 9 February, was contested by – in addition to the major political parties in Scotland – an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party. It was won by Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie, overturning a large Labour majority on a 16% swing. In the aftermath of the by-election defeat, media speculation suggested the Executive had turned against the proposals, and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006. FETA condemned the decision, while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short-changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridge.[42]
Abolition[edit]
Following the formation of an SNP minority government after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007, a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007, where it was agreed by a large majority. Toll levies at that point totalled £16 million annually.[43]
The Abolition of Bridge Tolls (Scotland) Bill, required to revoke legislation mandating toll collection on the bridge, was introduced to the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007, passed on 20 December 2007, and received royal assent on 24 January 2008.[44] The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00:01 GMT.[45] This immediately followed a major upgrade and reconfiguration of the tolls on the northbound carriageway (the toll on the southbound carriageway had been removed some years before, simplifying the arrangement as most journeys were, and remain, two-way).[46]
Additional crossings[edit]
The Forth Bridges, with the road bridge crossing to the left (west) of the rail bridge
The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences.[47]
Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge[48] adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge. This bridge opened in November 2008.
Queensferry Crossings[edit]
Main article: Queensferry Crossing
Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s, but were shelved, despite preliminary work on route selection. Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced. The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007, and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained as a public transport link.
The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011, and construction began in September 2011. The Queensferry Crossing is a cable-stayed bridge, with an overall length of 1.7 miles (2.7 km). Around 2.5 miles (4.0 km) of new connecting roads were built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry, and Junction 1a on the M9. The new bridge continues the M90 motorway, (extending its southern terminus) from Admiralty to the M9 junction 1a (re-numbering the M9 spur). The crossing opened on 30 August 2017.
See also[edit]
Bridges portal
Scotland portal
List of bridges in Scotland
List of longest suspension bridge spans
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Forth Road Bridge Facts and Figures". Forth Bridges Visitors Centre Trust. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "FORTH ROAD BRIDGE FACTS & FIGURES". Forth Bridges Visitor Centre Trust. Archived from the original on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Forth Crossing Bridge Constructors (consortium). "3 Centuries of Spanning the Forth" (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2012. Traffic: Each year, almost 24 million vehicles cross the bridge. Statistics show that, typically, 2% more vehicles head south than north.
Jump up ^ "Queensferry History Group Newsletter". Myweb.tiscali.co.uk. 4 November 2004. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "History – Pre 1950". Forth Estuary Transport Authority. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "1922 Road Lists – Roader's Digest: The SABRE Wiki". sabre-roads.org.uk. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Withdrawal of the Firth of Forth Paddle Ferries". www.megoran.fsworld.co.uk. September 2004. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Forth Road Bridge. Burghs Support Committee's Action". The Glasgow Herald. 27 October 1944. p. 3. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
Jump up ^ National Archive of Scotland ref.DD4/4300/2/8
Jump up ^ "Work begins on Forth Road Bridge. South Queensferry's Hopes As Tourist Centre". The Herald. 2 September 1958. p. 11. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
Jump up ^ BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF FORMER FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 1783 – 2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
Jump up ^ Concrete Quarterly Winter 1964 Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Ferrytoll Park & Ride". Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Pixl8 Developer. "M90. Inverkeithing to Perth and M85. Perth by-pass". Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Bridge – Introduction". Forth Estuary Transport Authority. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "New transport body for Forth road bridge". Scottish Executive. 17 January 2001. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Auslan Cramb (1 December 2010). "Snow closes Forth Bridge for first time". Telegraph. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "How Kate Downie prepared Road Bridge Diaries". Edinburgh Evening News. 16 August 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Traffic Statistics". Forth Estuary Transport Authority. Archived from the original on 16 May 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Toll Bridges". Scottish Government. 3 July 2006. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Colford, Barry R; Cocksedge, Charles P E. "Forth Road Bridge – First internal inspection, strength evaluation, acoustic monitoring and dehumidification of the main cables" (PDF). FETA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Audit of the Main Cable Inspection and Assessment: Final Report". The Scottish Government. 7 March 2006. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "FETA Forges Ahead to Tackle Corrosion". Forth Estuary Transport Authority. 1 December 2006. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Severe corrosion found on Forth Bridge cables". ndtcabin.com. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Motorists face third day of disruption due to defect on Forth Road Bridge". Herald Scotland. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Weight restriction on Forth Road Bridge as traffic chaos continues". Dunfermline Press. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Full reopening of Forth Road Bridge delayed by month for HGVs – BBC News
Jump up ^ ‘Northbound only’ HGVs to use Forth Road Bridge at night – The Scotsman
Jump up ^ Weather delays full reopening of Forth Bridge as HGV trial starts | Edinburgh & East | News
Jump up ^ Inquiry into closure of the Forth Road Bridge to begin at Holyrood | Edinburgh & East | News
Jump up ^ Nutt, Kathleen (21 January 2016). "Inspections could not have detected Forth Road Bridge fault, inquiry is told". The National. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Seized pin caused Forth Road Bridge fault, engineer tells Holyrood inquiry". BBC News. 20 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Vital work shelved due to funding cuts, Forth Road Bridge inquiry hears". The Courier. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Forth Road Bridge engineers 'wanted to replace' link which broke – BBC News
Jump up ^ Dalton, Alastair (31 January 2017). "Major roadworks on Forth Road Bridge after Queensferry Crossing opens". The Scotsman. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Abolition of bridge tolls". The Scottish Government. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "National Alliance Against Tolls – Scotland". notolls.org.uk. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bridge Projects". Forth Estuary Transport Authority. Archived from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "UK | Scotland | Bridge board backs £4 toll plan". BBC News. 25 November 2005. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Not even an election can bridge the gap between Gordon and Jack – News". scotsman.com. 29 January 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "UK | Scotland | Minister defiant on bridge issues". BBC News. 26 January 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bridge boss furious over decision to freeze tolls – News". scotsman.com. 2 March 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bridge tolls 'scrapped by the end of the year' – Politics". scotsman.com. 1 June 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Abolition of Bridge Tolls (Scotland) Bill" Scottish Parliament. Archived 12 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Date set for bridge tolls to be removed – Politics". scotsman.com. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Granted planning permission in August 2006
Jump up ^ "Time running out for new bridge – News". scotsman.com. 26 January 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "UK | Scotland | Tayside and Central | Name chosen for new Forth bridge". BBC News. 1 October 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Forth Road Bridge.
Official website
Forth Estuary Transport Authority
Bridges Visitor Centre Trust – Home Page
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Raid: World War II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for products and services. Please help to establish notability by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond its mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.
Find sources: "Raid: World War II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Raid: World War II
Developer(s)
Lion Game Lion[1]
Publisher(s)
Starbreeze Studios
505 Games (console retail)
Engine
Diesel Engine 2.0[2]
Platform(s)
Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One
Release
List[show]
Windows
WW: 26 September 2017
Playstation 4
US: 10 October 2017
EU: 13 October 2017
Xbox One
US: 10 October 2017
EU: 13 October 2017
Genre(s)
First-person shooter, tactical shooter
Mode(s)
Single-player, multiplayer
Raid: World War II is a four player co-op first-person shooter video game that lets players team up as the Raid crew and venture through events of World War II. The game is in development by Lion Game Lion and will be published by Starbreeze Studios for Microsoft Windows.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Development
3 References
4 External links
Synopsis[edit]
During World War II, the Nazis are on the verge of winning the war in Europe, bullets do little as the Nazis seem unstoppable. In the meantime, four prisoners of war – Sterling, Rivet, Kurgan and Wolfgang have been freed by “Mrs. White,” a secret British Intelligence Operative, who needs someone to take down Hitler and his Third Reich once and for all. Their objective is to fight the war - without rules or mercy. Their reward is all the Nazi gold they can carry. These specialists are brought together with a purpose, rebel against the Nazi oppression and sabotage the Nazis' chances of victory by sabotaging, assassinate, steal, and pulverise anything bearing the Swastika.[3]
Development[edit]
RAID: World War II is being developed by Lion Game Lion, a Croatian Starbreeze partner studio, that has been developing DLC contents for Payday 2.[4] The team behind Raid: World War II chose to work with Diesel, an engine made by Overkill Software (ex-Grin Studios), because they have an extensive experience on working with the engine. The game has a budget of 8 million dollars (USD), all financed by Starbreeze Studios.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "PRESS RELEASE MAY 8, 2015".
Jump up ^ "NEWSRAID: World War II Can Be Played as a Single Player Title With AI Companions".
Jump up ^ Faller, Patrick (2017-08-11). "Steal From Hitler This September In Ex-Payday 2 Devs' New FPS, Raid: World War 2". GameSpot. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ "Starbreeze announces PAYDAY collaboration with independent studio Lion Game Lion".
External links[edit]
Official website
Lion Game Lion homepage
Starbreeze homepage
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raid:_World_War_II&oldid=806170253"
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Broca's area
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Broca's area
Broca's area is made up of Brodmann areas 44 (pars opercularis) and 45 (pars triangularis)
Broca's area (shown in red)
Details
Part of
Frontal lobe
Artery
Middle cerebral
Vein
Superior sagittal sinus
Identifiers
NeuroNames
ancil-251
NeuroLex ID
242176 Broca's area
Dorlands
/Elsevier
a_59/12150965
FMA
242176
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
Broca's area or the Broca area /broʊˈkɑː/ or /ˈbroʊkə/ is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere (usually the left) of the hominid brain[1] with functions linked to speech production.
Language processing has been linked to Broca's area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients.[2] They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.[3] Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's aphasia, also called expressive aphasia. Broca's area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, represented in Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map as areas 44 and 45 of the dominant hemisphere.[3] Studies of chronic aphasia have implicated an essential role of Broca's area in various speech and language functions. Further, fMRI studies have also identified activation patterns in Broca's area associated with various language tasks. However, slow destruction of the Broca's area by brain tumors can leave speech relatively intact, suggesting its functions can shift to nearby areas in the brain.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Functions
2.1 Language comprehension
2.2 Action recognition and production
2.3 Speech-associated gestures
2.4 Speaking without Broca's area
2.5 Mirror neurons
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Stuttering
3.2 Aphasia
3.3 Expressive aphasia vs. other aphasias
3.4 Newer implications related to lesions in Broca's area
3.4.1 Broca's area: A key center in the linking phonemic sequences
4 History
4.1 Broca's patients
4.1.1 Louis Victor Leborgne (Tan)
4.1.2 Lelong
4.2 MRI findings
5 Evolution of language
6 Additional images
7 See also
8 External links
9 References
Structure[edit]
Broca's area is often identified by visual inspection of the topography of the brain either by macrostructural landmarks such as sulci or by the specification of coordinates in a particular reference space. The currently used Talairach and Tournoux atlas projects Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic map onto a template brain. Because Brodmann's parcelation was based on subjective visual inspection of cytoarchitectonic borders and also Brodmann analyzed only one hemisphere of one brain, the result is imprecise. Further, because of considerable variability across brains in terms of shape, size, and position relative to sulcal and gyral structure, a resulting localization precision is limited.[5]
Nevertheless, Broca's area in the left hemisphere and its homologue in the right hemisphere are designations usually used to refer to pars triangularis (PTr) and pars opercularis (POp) of the inferior frontal gyrus. The PTr and POp are defined by structural landmarks that only probabilistically divide the inferior frontal gyrus into anterior and posterior cytoarchitectonic areas of 45 and 44, respectively, by Brodmann's classification scheme.[6]
Area 45 receives more afferent connections from prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal gyrus, and the superior temporal sulcus, compared to area 44, which tends to receive more afferent connections from motor, somatosensory, and inferior parietal regions.[6]
The differences between area 45 and 44 in cytoarchitecture and in connectivity suggest that these areas might perform different functions. Indeed, recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the PTr and Pop, corresponding to areas 45 and 44, respectively, play different functional roles in the human with respect to language comprehension and action recognition/understanding.[6]
Functions[edit]
Language comprehension[edit]
For a long time, it was assumed that the role of Broca's area was more devoted to language production than language comprehension. However, there is evidence to demonstrate that Broca's area also plays a significant role in language comprehension. Patients with lesions in Broca's area who exhibit agrammatical speech production also show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences.[7] Also, a number of neuroimaging studies have implicated an involvement of Broca's area, particularly of the pars opercularis of the left inferior frontal gyrus, during the processing of complex sentences.[8] Further, it has recently been found in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments involving highly ambiguous sentences result in a more activated inferior frontal gyrus.[9] Therefore, the activity level in the inferior frontal gyrus and the level of lexical ambiguity are directly proportional to each other, because of the increased retrieval demands associated with highly ambiguous content.
There is also specialisation for particular aspects of comprehension within Broca's area. Work by Devlin et al. (2003)[10] showed in a repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) study that there was an increase in reaction times when performing a semantic task under rTMS aimed at the pars triangularis (situated in the anterior part of Broca's area). The increase in reaction times is indicative that that particular area is responsible for processing that cognitive function. Disrupting these areas via TMS disrupts computations performed in the areas leading to an increase in time needed to perform the computations (reflected in reaction times). Later work by Nixon et al. (2004)[11] showed that when the pars opercularis (situated in the posterior part of Broca's area) was stimulated under rTMS there was an increase in reaction times in a phonological task. Gough et al. (2005)[12] performed an experiment combining elements of these previous works in which both phonological and semantic tasks were performed with rTMS stimulation directed at either the anterior or the posterior part of Broca's area. The results from this experiment conclusively distinguished anatomical specialisation within Broca's area for different components of language comprehension. Here the results showed that under rTMS stimulation:
Semantic tasks only showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the anterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 10% (50ms) was seen compared to a no-TMS control group)
Phonological tasks showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the posterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 6% (30ms) was seen compared to control)
To summarise, the work above shows anatomical specialisation in Broca's area for language comprehension, with the anterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding the meaning of words (semantics) and the posterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding how words sound (phonology).
Action recognition and production[edit]
Recent experiments have indicated that Broca's area is involved in various cognitive and perceptual tasks. One important contribution of Brodmann's area 44 is also found in the motor-related processes. Observation of meaningful hand shadows resembling moving animals activates frontal language area, demonstrating that Broca's area indeed plays a role in interpreting action of others.[13] An activation of BA 44 was also reported during execution of grasping and manipulation.[14]
Speech-associated gestures[edit]
It has been speculated that because speech-associated gestures could possibly reduce lexical or sentential ambiguity, comprehension should improve in the presence of speech-associated gestures. As a result of improved comprehension, the involvement of Broca's area should be reduced.[6]
Many neuroimaging studies have also shown activation of Broca's area when representing meaningful arm gestures. A recent study has shown evidence that word and gesture are related at the level of translation of particular gesture aspects such as its motor goal and intention.[15] This finding helps explain why, when this area is defective, those who use sign language also suffer from language deficits.[16] This finding that aspects of gestures are translated in words within Broca's area also explains language development in terms of evolution. Indeed, many authors have proposed that speech evolved from a primitive communication that arose from gestures.[13][17] (See below.)
Speaking without Broca's area[edit]
Damage to Broca's area is commonly associated with telegraphic speech made up of content vocabulary. For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say something like, "Drive, store. Mom." meaning to say, "My mom drove me to the store today." Therefore, the content of the information is correct, but the grammar and fluidity of the sentence is missing.[18]
The essential role of the Broca's area in speech production has been questioned since it can be destroyed while leaving language nearly intact. In one case of a computer engineer, a slow-growing glioma tumor was removed. The tumor and the surgery destroyed the left inferior and middle frontal gyrus, the head of the caudate nucleus, the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the anterior insula. However, there were minimal language problems three months after removal and the individual returned to his professional work. These minor problems include the inability to create syntactically complex sentences including more than two subjects, multiple causal conjunctions, or reported speech. These were explained by researchers as due to working memory problems. They also attributed his lack of problems to extensive compensatory mechanisms enabled by neural plasticity in the nearby cerebral cortex and a shift of some functions to the homologous area in the right hemisphere.[4]
Mirror neurons[edit]
Communication, both verbal and nonverbal, requires that the interacting individuals stay "tuned" to one another. Mirror neurons were discovered in the 1990s in frontal area F5 of the monkey cortex. These neurons are active during execution of object-related hand actions, but they are also active, importantly, when the monkey is just observing similar acts. For example, the mirror neurons are activated when the monkey takes a raisin from a tray and also when he views another monkey or the human experimenter doing the same. No information is yet available about possible hemispheric lateralization of the monkey mirror neurons.
Mirror neurons have visuomotor properties, being sensitive to goal-related motor acts, but they can also be activated by sounds that imply actions. Importantly, the mirror neurons do not only react to visual input and then project, via some transformational step, to motor-output-related neurons but are also part of a system that forms a neuronal representation of the observed motor acts. Similar to F5, the rostral part of the inferior parietal cortex contains neurons that are active during action observation and execution; this region receives input from the STS, which is known to contain neurons responding to biological motion [19]
Clinical significance[edit]
Stuttering[edit]
A speech disorder known as stuttering is seen to be associated with underactivity in Broca's area.[20]
Aphasia[edit]
Aphasia is an acquired language disorder affecting all modalities such as writing, reading, speaking, and listening and results from brain damage. It is often a chronic condition that creates changes in all areas of one's life.[21]
Expressive aphasia vs. other aphasias[edit]
Patients with expressive aphasia, also known as Broca's aphasia, are individuals who know "what they want to say, they just cannot get it out".[21] They are typically able to comprehend words, and sentences with a simple syntactic structure (see above), but are more or less unable to generate fluent speech. Other symptoms that may be present include problems with fluency, articulation, word-finding, word repetition, and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences, both orally and in writing.[3]
This specific group of symptoms distinguishes those who have expressive aphasia from individuals with other types of aphasia. There are several distinct "types" of aphasia, and each type is characterized by a different set of language deficits. Although those who have expressive aphasia tend to retain good spoken language comprehension, other types of aphasia can render patients completely unable to understand any language at all, unable to understand any spoken language (auditory verbal agnosia),[22][23][24] whereas still other types preserve language comprehension, but with deficits. People with expressive aphasia may struggle less with reading and writing (see alexia) than those with other types of aphasia.[25] Although individuals with expressive aphasia tend to have a good ability to self-monitor their language output (they "hear what they say" and make corrections), other types of aphasics can seem entirely unaware of their language deficits.
In the classical sense, expressive aphasia is the result of injury to Broca's area; it is often the case that lesions in specific brain areas cause specific, dissociable symptoms,[26] although case studies show there is not always a one-to-one mapping between lesion location and aphasic symptoms.[23] The correlation between damage to certain specific brain areas (usually in the left hemisphere) and the development of specific types of aphasia makes it possible to deduce (albeit very roughly) the location of a suspected brain lesion based only on the presence (and severity) of a certain type of aphasia, though this is complicated by the possibility that a patient may have damage to a number of brain areas and may exhibit symptoms of more than one type of aphasia. The examination of lesion data in order to deduce which brain areas are essential in the normal functioning of certain aspects of cognition is called the deficit-lesion method; this method is especially important in the branch of neuroscience known as aphasiology. Cognitive science - to be specific, cognitive neuropsychology - are branches of neuroscience that also make extensive use of the deficit-lesion method.[27]
Major characteristics of different types of acute aphasia[21]
Type of aphasia
Speech repetition
Naming
Auditory comprehension
Fluency
Expressive aphasia Moderate–severe Moderate–severe Mild difficulty Non-fluent, effortful, slow
Receptive aphasia Mild–severe Mild–severe Defective Fluent paraphasic
Conduction aphasia Poor Poor Relatively good Fluent
Mixed transcortical aphasia Moderate Poor Poor Non-fluent
Transcortical motor aphasia Good Mild–severe Mild Non-fluent
Transcortical sensory aphasia Good Moderate–severe Poor Fluent
Global aphasia Poor Poor Poor Non-fluent
Anomic aphasia Mild Moderate–severe Mild Fluent
Newer implications related to lesions in Broca's area[edit]
Since studies carried out in the late 1970's [28]it has been understood that the relationship between Broca's area and Broca's aphasia is not as consistent as once thought.[29] Lesions to Broca's area alone don't result in a Broca's aphasia, nor do Broca's aphasic patients necessarily have lesions in Broca's area.[30] Lesions to Broca's area alone are known to produce just a transient mutism that resolves inside 3–6 weeks. This discovery suggests that Broca's area may be included in some aspect of verbalization or articulation; however, it does not address its part in sentence comprehension. Still, Broca's area frequently emerges in functional imaging studies of sentence processing.[31] However, it also becomes activated in word-level tasks.[32] This suggests that Broca’s area is not dedicated to sentence processing but supports a function common to both. In fact, Broca's area can show activation in such non-linguistic tasks as imagery of motion.[33]
Considering the hypothesis that Broca's area may be most involved in articulation, its activation in all of these tasks may be due to subjects' covert articulation while formulating a response. Despite this caveat, a consensus seems to be forming that whatever role Broca's area may play, it may relate to known working memory functions of the frontal areas. (There is a wide distribution of Talairach coordinates [34] reported in the functional imaging literature that are referred to as part of Broca's area.) The processing of a passive voice sentence, for example, may require working memory to assist in the temporary retention of information while other relevant parts of the sentence are being manipulated (i.e. to resolve the assignment of thematic roles to arguments). Miyake, Carpenter, and Just have proposed that sentence processing relies on such general verbal working memory mechanisms while Caplan and Waters consider Broca’s area to be involved in working memory specifically for syntactic processing. Friederici (2002) breaks Broca's area into its component regions and suggests that Brodmann's area 44 is involved in working memory for both phonological [35] and syntactic structure. This area becomes active first for phonology and later for syntax as the time course for the comprehension process unfolds. Brodmann's area 45 together with Brodmann's area 47 is viewed as being specifically involved in working memory for semantic features and thematic structure where processes of syntactic reanalysis and repair are required. These areas come online after Brodmann's area 44 has finished its processing role and where comprehension of complex sentences must rely on general memory resources. All of these theories indicate a move towards a view that syntactic comprehension problems arise from a computational rather than a conceptual deficit. Newer theories are taking a more dynamic view of how the brain integrates different linguistic and cognitive components and are examining the time course of these operations.
Neurocognitive studies have already implicated frontal areas adjacent to Broca's area as important for working memory in non-linguistic as well as linguistic tasks.[36] Cabeza and Nyberg's analysis of imaging studies of working memory supports the view that BA45/47 is recruited for selecting or comparing information, while BA9/46 might be more involved in the manipulation of information in working memory. Since large lesions are typically required to produce a Broca's aphasia, it is likely that these regions may also become compromised in some patients and may contribute to their comprehension deficits for complex morphosyntactic structures.
Broca's area: A key center in the linking phonemic sequences[edit]
Broca's area has been previously associated with a variety of processes, including phonological segmentation, syntactic processing, and unification, all of which involve segmenting and linking different types of linguistic information.[37][38][39] Although repeating and reading single words do not engage semantic and syntactic processing, they do require an operation linking phonemic sequences with motor gestures. Findings indicate that this linkage is coordinated by Broca's area through reciprocal interactions with temporal and frontal cortices responsible for phonemic and articulatory representations, respectively, including interactions with motor cortex before the actual act of speech. Based on these unique findings, it has been proposed that Broca's area is not the seat of articulation per se, but rather is a key node in manipulating and forwarding neural information across large-scale cortical networks responsible for key components of speech production.
History[edit]
In a study published in 2007, the preserved brains of both Leborgne and Lelong (patients of Broca) were reinspected using high-resolution volumetric MRI. The purpose of this study was to scan the brains in three dimensions and to identify the extent of both cortical and subcortical lesions in more detail. The study also sought to locate the exact site of the lesion in the frontal lobe in relation to what is now called Broca's area with the extent of subcortical involvement.[3]
Broca's patients[edit]
Louis Victor Leborgne (Tan)[edit]
Leborgne was a patient of Broca's. At 30 years old, he was almost completely unable to produce any words or phrases.[40] He was able to repetitively produce only the word tan. After his death, a neurosyphilitic lesion was discovered on the surface of his left frontal lobe.
Lelong[edit]
Lelong was another patient of Broca's. He also exhibited reduced productive speech. He could only say five words, 'yes', 'no', 'three', 'always', and 'lelo' (a mispronunciation of his own name). A lesion within the lateral frontal lobe was discovered during Lelong's autopsy. Broca's previous patient, Leborgne, had this lesion in the same area of his frontal lobe. These two cases led Broca to believe that speech was localized to this particular area.[41]
MRI findings[edit]
Examination of the brains of Broca's two historic patients with high-resolution MRI has produced several interesting findings. First, the MRI findings suggest that other areas besides Broca's area may also have contributed to the patients' reduced productive speech. This finding is significant because it has been found that, though lesions to Broca's area alone can possibly cause temporary speech disruption, they do not result in severe speech arrest. Therefore, there is a possibility that the aphasia denoted by Broca as an absence of productive speech also could have been influenced by the lesions in the other region.[citation needed] Another finding is that the region, which was once considered to be critical for speech by Broca, is not precisely the same region as what is now known as Broca's area. This study provides further evidence to support the claim that language and cognition are far more complicated than once thought and involve various networks of brain regions.[42]
Evolution of language[edit]
The pursuit of a satisfying theory that addresses the origin of language in humans has led to the consideration of a number of evolutionary "models". These models attempt to show how modern language might have evolved, and a common feature of many of these theories is the idea that vocal communication was initially used to complement a far more dominant mode of communication through gesture. Human language might have evolved as the "evolutionary refinement of an implicit communication system already present in lower primates, based on a set of hand/mouth goal-directed action representations."[13]
"Hand/mouth goal-directed action representations" is another way of saying "gestural communication", "gestural language", or "communication through body language". The recent finding that Broca's area is active when people are observing others engaged in meaningful action is evidence in support of this idea. It was hypothesized that a precursor to the modern Broca's area was involved in translating gestures into abstract ideas by interpreting the movements of others as meaningful action with an intelligent purpose. It is argued that over time the ability to predict the intended outcome and purpose of a set of movements eventually gave this area the capability to deal with truly abstract ideas, and therefore (eventually) became capable of associating sounds (words) with abstract meanings. The observation that frontal language areas are activated when people observe Hand Shadows[43] is further evidence that human language may have evolved from existing neural substrates that evolved for the purpose of gesture recognition.[44] The study, therefore, claims that Broca's area is the "motor center for speech", which assembles and decodes speech sounds in the same way it interprets body language and gestures. Consistent with this idea is that the neural substrate that regulated motor control in the common ancestor of apes and humans was most likely modified to enhance cognitive and linguistic ability.[17] Studies of speakers of American Sign Language and English suggest that the human brain recruited systems that had evolved to perform more basic functions much earlier; these various brain circuits, according to the authors, were tapped to work together in creating language.[45]
Another recent finding has showed significant areas of activation in subcortical and neocortical areas during the production of communicative manual gestures and vocal signals in chimpanzees.[46] Further, the data indicating that chimpanzees intentionally produce manual gestures as well as vocal signals to communicate with humans suggests that the precursors to human language are present at both the behavioral and neuronanatomical levels. More recently, the neocortical distribution of activity-dependent gene expression in marmosets provided direct evidence that the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which comprises Broca's area in humans and has been associated with auditory processing of species-specific vocalizations and orofacial control in macaques, is engaged during vocal output in a New World monkey.[47][48] These findings putatively set the origin of vocalization-related neocortical circuits to at least 35 million years ago, when the Old and New World monkey lineages split.
Additional images[edit]
Broca's area (shown in red). Animation.
Approximate location of Broca's area highlighted in gray.
Arcuate fasciculus connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area.
Play media
Human brain dissection video (24 sec). Demonstrating the location of Broca's area in inferior frontal gyrus.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Broca's area.
Broca's region
Lobes of the brain
Progressive nonfluent aphasia
Wernicke's area
External links[edit]
"Paul Broca's discovery of the area of the brain governing articulated language", analysis of Broca's 1861 article, on BibNum [click 'à télécharger' for English version].
References[edit]
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[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
Medial frontal gyrus
8
9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
Collateral (temporal+occipital)
Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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