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Marriage Is a Crazy Thing
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Marriage Is a Crazy Thing
Theatrical poster
Hangul
결혼은 미친 짓이다
Hanja
結婚은 미치다 짓이다
Revised Romanization
Gyeolhoneun michin jishida
McCune–Reischauer
Kyŏrhonŭn mich‘in chisida
Directed by
Yoo Ha
Produced by
Cha Seung-jae
Written by
Yoo Ha
Based on
Marriage Is a Crazy Thing
by Lee Man-gyo
Starring
Kam Woo-sung
Uhm Jung-hwa
Music by
Kim Jun-seok
Jo Seong-woo
Cinematography
Kim Yeong-ho
Edited by
Park Gok-ji
Release date
April 26, 2002 (2002-04-26)
Running time
103 minutes
Country
South Korea
Language
Korean
Box office
US$6,558,851[1]
Marriage Is a Crazy Thing is a 2002 South Korean erotic film, and the second film directed by South Korean poet-turned-director Yoo Ha.[2][3]
Contents
1 Story
2 Cast
3 Awards
4 References
5 External links
Story[edit]
Joon-young (Kam Woo-sung) is a Korean professor of English literature and a perpetual bachelor. But when he meets Yeon-hee (Uhm Jung-hwa) on a blind date, his days of bachelorhood seem numbered. But because of the views both of them have on marriage, she marries someone else and the professor becomes her kept man, living with her only on weekends. But even this limited relationship brings up the conflicts that result in fights and jealousy.
Cast[edit]
Kam Woo-sung - Joon-young
Uhm Jung-hwa - Yeon-hee
Park Won-sang - Kyu-jin
Kang So-jung - Se-eun
Yoon Ye-ri - Yoo-ri
Kim Ki-cheon - uncle
Lee Ju-sil - mother
Ryu Hyun-kyung - female student part-time worker
Awards[edit]
2002 Korean Film Awards[4]
Best New Actor - Kam Woo-sung
2003 Baeksang Arts Awards
Best Actress - Uhm Jung-hwa
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Box office by Country: Crazy Marriage". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2012-06-04.
Jump up ^ Kim, Kyu Hyun. "Marriage Is a Crazy Thing". Koreanfilm.org. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
Jump up ^ "Commercial Releases in 2002: Ranked Box-Office Results for Seoul". Koreanfilm.org. Retrieved 2012-06-04.
Jump up ^ "Marriage Is a Crazy Thing - Awards". Cinemasie. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
External links[edit]
Marriage Is a Crazy Thing at the Korean Movie Database
Marriage Is a Crazy Thing on IMDb
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Works of Yoo Ha
Films
Features
On a Windy Day We Must Go to Apgujeong (1993)
Marriage Is a Crazy Thing (2002)
Once Upon a Time in High School (2004)
A Dirty Carnival (2006)
A Frozen Flower (2008)
Howling (2012)
Gangnam Blues (2015)
Shorts
A Day of Poet Goobo (1990)
Books
It's Sunshining Mind to Him Who Is Leaving (1990)
We Must Go to Apgujeong-dong on Windy Days (1991)
There Are No Ugly Brides (1991)
Moorim Diary (1994)
Love of the Sewoon Shopping Mall's Kid (1995)
Contributing to the Bruce Lee's Generation (1995)
My Love Was Lightweight Like a Butterfly (1999)
How to Appreciate Jazz Music Interestingly (1999)
The Thousand Days' Story About Horses (2000)
Whole Dinner of the World (2007)

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Monera
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Monora" redirects here. For the Romanian village of Mănărade, called Monora in Hungarian, see Blaj.
Monera
Scientific classification
Included groups
Bacteria and Archaea
Excluded groups
Domain Eukaryota
Monera (Greek - μονήρης (monḗrēs), "single", "solitary") (/məˈnɪərə/ mə-NEER-ə[citation needed]) was a kingdom that contained unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell organization (having no nuclear membrane), such as bacteria. They are single-celled organisms with no true nuclear membrane (prokaryotic organisms). The taxon Monera was first proposed as a phylum by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Subsequently, the phylum was elevated to the rank of kingdom in 1925 by Édouard Chatton. The last commonly accepted mega-classification with the taxon Monera was the five-kingdom classification system established by Robert Whittaker in 1969.
Under the three-domain system of taxonomy, introduced by Carl Woese in 1977, which reflects the evolutionary history of life, the organisms found in kingdom Monera have been divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria (with Eukarya as the third domain). Furthermore, the taxon Monera is paraphyletic (does not include all descendants of their most recent common ancestor), as Archaea and Eukarya are currently believed to be more closely related than either is to Bacteria. The term "moneran" is the informal name of members of this group and is still sometimes used (as is the term "prokaryote") to denote a member of either domain.[1]
Most bacteria were classified under Monera; however, Cyanobacteria (often called the blue-green algae) were initially classified under Plantae due to their ability to photosynthesize.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Haeckel's classification
1.2 Subsequent classifications
1.3 Rise to prominence
1.4 Three-domain system
2 Blue-green algae
3 Summary
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
See also: Bacterial taxonomy
Haeckel's classification[edit]
Tree of Life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)[2]
Traditionally the natural world was classified as animal, vegetable, or mineral as in Systema Naturae. After the development of the microscope, attempts were made to fit microscopic organisms into either the plant or animal kingdoms. In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and called them "animalcules," assigning them to the class Vermes of the Animalia.[3][4][5] Due to the limited tools — the sole references for this group were shape, behaviour, and habitat — the description of genera and their classification was extremely limited, which was accentuated by the perceived lack of importance of the group.[6][7][8]
Ten years after The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, in 1866 Ernst Haeckel, a supporter of evolution, proposed a three-kingdom system which added the Protista as a new kingdom that contained most microscopic organisms.[2] One of his eight major divisions of Protista was composed of the monerans (called Moneres by Haeckel), which he defined as completely structureless and homogeneous organisms, consisting only of a piece of plasma. Haeckel's Monera included not only bacterial groups of early discovery but also several small eukaryotic organisms; in fact the genus Vibrio is the only bacterial genus explicitly assigned to the phylum, while others are mentioned indirectly, which led Copeland to speculate that Haeckel considered all bacteria to belong to the genus Vibrio, ignoring other bacterial genera.[7] One notable exception were the members of the modern phylum Cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc, which were placed in the phylum Archephyta of Algae (vide infra: Blue-green algae).
The Neolatin noun Monera and the German noun Moneren/Moneres are derived from the ancient Greek noun moneres () which Haeckel states to mean "simple",[2] however it actually means "single, solitary".[9] Haeckel also describes the protist genus Monas in the two pages about Monera in his 1866 book.[2] The informal name of a member of the Monera was initially moneron,[10] but later moneran was used.[1]
Due to its lack of features, the phylum was not fully subdivided, but the genera therein were divided into two groups:
die Gymnomoneren (no envelope [sic.]): Gymnomonera
Protogenes — such as Protogenes primordialis, an unidentified amoeba (eukaryote) and not a bacterium
Protamaeba — an incorrectly described/fabricated species
Vibrio — a genus of comma-shaped bacteria first described in 1854[11]
Bacterium — a genus of rod-shaped bacteria first described in 1828. Haeckel does not explicitly assign this genus to the Monera.
Bacillus — a genus of spore-forming rod-shaped bacteria first described in 1835[12] Haeckel does not explicitly assign this genus to the Monera kingdom.
Spirochaeta — thin spiral-shaped bacteria first described in 1835 [13] Haeckel does not explicitly assign this genus to the Monera.
Spirillum — spiral-shaped bacteria first described in 1832[14] Haeckel does not explicitly assign this genus to the Monera.
etc.: Haeckel does provide a comprehensive list.
die Lepomoneren (with envelope): Lepomonera
Protomonas — identified to a synonym of Monas, a flagellated protozoan, and not a bacterium.[10] The name was reused in 1984 for an unrelated genus of bacteria.[15]
Vampyrella — now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium.
Subsequent classifications[edit]
Like Protista, the Monera classification was not fully followed at first and several different ranks were used and located with animals, plants, protists or fungi. Furthermore, Häkel's classification lacked specificity and was not exhaustive — it in fact covers only a few pages—, consequently a lot of confusion arose even to the point that the Monera did not contain bacterial genera and others according to Huxley.[10] They were first recognized as a kingdom by Enderlein in 1925 (Bakterien-Cyclogenie. de Gruyter, Berlin).
The most popular scheme was created in 1859 by C. Von Nägeli who classified non-phototrophic Bacteria as the class Schizomycetes.[16]
The class Schizomycetes was then emended by Walter Migula (along with the coinage of the genus Pseudomonas in 1894)[17] and others.[18] This term was in dominant use even in 1916 as reported by Robert Earle Buchanan, as it had priority over other terms such as Monera.[19] However, starting with Ferdinand Cohn in 1872 the term bacteria (or in German Bacterien) became prominently used to informally describe this group of species without a nucleus: Bacterium was in fact a genus created in 1828 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg[20] Additionally, Cohn divided the bacteria according to shape namely:
Spherobacteria for the cocci
Microbacteria for the short, non-filamentous rods
Desmobacteria for the longer, filamentous rods and Spirobacteria for the spiral forms.
Successively, Cohn created the Schizophyta of Plants which contained the non-photrophic bacteria in the family Schizomycetes and the phototrophic bacteria (blue green algae/Cyanobacteria) in the Schizophyceae[21] This union of blue green algae and Bacteria was much later followed by Haeckel, who classified the two families in a revised phylum Monera in the Protista.[22]
Stanier and van Neil (1941, The main outlines of bacterial classification. J Bacteriol 42: 437- 466) recognized the Kingdom Monera with 2 phyla, Myxophyta and Schizomycetae, the latter comprising classes Eubacteriae (3 orders), Myxobacteriae (1 order), and Spirochetae (1 order); Bisset (1962, Bacteria, 2nd ed., Livingston, London) distinguished 1 class and 4 orders: Eubacteriales, Actinomycetales, Streptomycetales, and Flexibacteriales; Orla-Jensen (1909, Die Hauptlinien des naturalischen Bakteriensystems nebst einer Ubersicht der Garungsphenomene. Zentr. Bakt. Parasitenk., II, 22: 305-346) and Bergey et al (1925, Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, Baltimore : Williams & Wilkins Co.) with many subsequent editions) also presented classifications.
Rise to prominence[edit]
The term Monera became well established in the 20s and 30s when to rightfully increase the importance of the difference between species with a nucleus and without, In 1925 Édouard Chatton divided all living organisms into two empires Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: the Kingdom Monera being the sole member of the Prokaryotes empire.[23][clarification needed]
The anthropic importance of the crown group of animals, plants and fungi was hard to depose; consequently, several other megaclassification schemes ignored on the empire rank but maintained the kingdom Monera consisting of bacteria, such Copeland in 1938 and Whittaker in 1969.[7][24] The latter classification system was widely followed, in which Robert Whittaker proposed a five kingdom system for classification of living organisms.[24] Whittaker's system placed most single celled organisms into either the prokaryotic Monera or the eukaryotic Protista. The other three kingdoms in his system were the eukaryotic Fungi, Animalia, and Plantae. Whittaker, however, did not believe that all his kingdoms were monophyletic.[25] Whittaker subdivided the kingdom into two branches containing several phyla:
Myxomonera branch
Cyanophyta, now called Cyanobacteria
Myxobacteria
Mastigomonera branch
Eubacteriae
Actinomycota
Spirochaetae
Alternative commonly followed subdivision systems were based on Gram stains. This culminated in the Gibbons and Murray classification of 1978:[26]
Gracilicutes (gram negative)
Photobacteria (photosynthetic): class Oxyphotobacteriae (water as electron acceptor, includes the order Cyanobacteriales = blue green algae, now phylum Cyanobacteria) and class Anoxyphotobacteriae (anaerobic phototrophs, orders: Rhodospirillales and Chlorobiales
Scotobacteria (non-photosynthetic, now the Proteobacteria and other gram negative nonphotosynthetic phyla)
Firmacutes [sic] (gram positive, subsequently corrected to Firmicutes[27])
several orders such as Bacillales and Actinomycetales (now in the phylum Actinobacteria)
Mollicutes (gram variable, e.g. Mycoplasma)
Mendocutes (uneven gram stain, "methanogenic bacteria" now known as the Archaea)
Three-domain system[edit]
Main article: Three-domain system
For current subdivision of Bacteria, see Bacterial phyla.
In 1977, a PNAS paper by Carl Woese and George Fox demonstrated that the archaea (initially called archaebacteria) are not significantly closer in relationship to the bacteria than they are to eukaryotes. The paper received front-page coverage in The New York Times,[28] and great controversy initially. The conclusions have since become accepted, leading to replacement of the kingdom Monera with the two kingdoms Bacteria and Archaea.[25][29] A minority of scientists, including Thomas Cavalier-Smith, continue to reject the widely accepted division between these two groups. Cavalier-Smith has published classifications in which the archaebacteria are part of a subkingdom of the Kingdom Bacteria.[30]
Blue-green algae[edit]
Main article: cyanobacteria
Although it was generally accepted that one could distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes on the basis of the presence of a nucleus, mitosis versus binary fission as a way of reproducing, size, and other traits, the monophyly of the kingdom Monera (or for that matter, whether classification should be according to phylogeny) was controversial for many decades. Although distinguishing between prokaryotes from eukaryotes as a fundamental distinction is often credited to a 1937 paper by Édouard Chatton (little noted until 1962), he did not emphasize this distinction more than other biologists of his era.[25] Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel believed that the bacteria (a term which at the time did not include blue-green algae) and the blue-green algae had a single origin, a conviction which culminated in Stanier writing in a letter in 1970, "I think it is now quite evident that the blue-green algae are not distinguishable from bacteria by any fundamental feature of their cellular organization".[31] Other researchers, such as E. G. Pringsheim writing in 1949, suspected separate origins for bacteria and blue-green algae. In 1974, the influential Bergey's Manual published a new edition coining the term cyanobacteria to refer to what had been called blue-green algae, marking the acceptance of this group within the Monera.[25]
Summary[edit]
Linnaeus
1735[32]
Haeckel
1866[33]
Chatton
1925[23]
Copeland
1938[7]
Whittaker
1969[34]
Woese et al.
1990[35]
Cavalier-Smith
1998[30]
2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms 2 empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 3 domains 6 kingdoms
(not treated) Protista Prokaryota Monera Monera Bacteria Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryota Protoctista Protista Eucarya Protozoa
Chromista
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Main article: Kingdom (biology) § Summary
Monerans are a group of organisms having prokaryotic structure. Archaea differ from Bacteria in having a different 16Ssrna. They also have a different cell wall structure.
See also[edit]
Bacterial cell structure
Endosymbiont
Kingdom (biology)
Prokaryote
Symbiogenesis
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Moneran", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2011, retrieved 2011-08-09
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (1867). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin. ISBN 1-144-00186-2.
Jump up ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1684). "An abstract of a letter from Mr. Anthony Leevvenhoek at Delft, dated Sep. 17, 1683, Containing Some Microscopical Observations, about Animals in the Scurf of the Teeth, the Substance Call'd Worms in the Nose, the Cuticula Consisting of Scales". Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775). 14 (155–166): 568–574. doi:10.1098/rstl.1684.0030. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
Jump up ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1700). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, concerning the Worms in Sheeps Livers, Gnats, and Animalcula in the Excrements of Frogs" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions (1684–1775). 22 (260–276): 509–518. doi:10.1098/rstl.1700.0013. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
Jump up ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1702). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning Green Weeds Growing in Water, and Some Animalcula Found about Them". Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775). 23 (277–288): 1304–11. doi:10.1098/rstl.1702.0042. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
Jump up ^ Don J. Brenner; Noel R. Krieg; James T. Staley (July 26, 2005) [1984(Williams & Wilkins)]. George M. Garrity, ed. Introductory Essays. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2A (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-387-24143-2. British Library no. GBA561951.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Copeland, H. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". Quarterly Review of Biology. 13: 383–420. doi:10.1086/394568.
Jump up ^ Woese, C. R. (1987). "Bacterial evolution". Microbiological reviews. 51 (2): 221–271. PMC 373105  . PMID 2439888.
Jump up ^ μονήρης. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
^ Jump up to: a b c Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe (1880). Zoological classification; a handy book of reference with tables of the subkingdoms, classes, orders, etc., of the animal kingdom, their characters and lists of the families and principal genera.
Jump up ^ PACINI (F.): Osservazione microscopiche e deduzioni patologiche sul cholera asiatico. Gazette Medicale de Italiana Toscano Firenze, 1854, 6, 405-412.
Jump up ^ EHRENBERG (C.G.): Dritter Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation in der Richtung des kleinsten Raumes. Physikalische Abhandlungen der Koeniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus den Jahren 1833-1835, 1835, pp. 143-336.
Jump up ^ EHRENBERG (C.G.): Dritter Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation in der Richtung des kleinsten Raumes. Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin) aus den Jahre 1833-1835, pp. 143-336.
Jump up ^ EHRENBERG (C.G.): Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Organization der Infusorien und ihrer geographischen Verbreitung besonders in Sibirien. Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1832, 1830, 1-88.
Jump up ^ Protomonas entry in LPSN [ Euzéby, J.P. (1997). "List of Bacterial Names with Standing in Nomenclature: a folder available on the Internet". Int J Syst Bacteriol. 47 (2): 590–2. ISSN 0020-7713. PMID 9103655. doi:10.1099/00207713-47-2-590. ]
Jump up ^ C. Von Nägeli (1857). R. Caspary, ed. "Bericht über die Verhandlungen der 33. Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, gehalten in Bonn von 18 bis 24 September 1857" [Report on the negotiations on 33 Meeting of German Natural Scientists and Physicians, held in Bonn, 18 to 24 September 1857]. Botanische Zeitung. 15: 749–776.
Jump up ^ Migula W (1894). "Über ein neues System der Bakterien". Arb Bakteriol Inst Karlsruhe. 1: 235–328.
Jump up ^ CHESTER F. D. (1897). "Classification of the Schizomycetes". Annual Report Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station. 9: 62.
Jump up ^ Buchanan R E (Nov 1916). "Studies in the Nomenclature and Classification of Bacteria: The Problem of Bacterial Nomenclature". J Bacteriol. 1 (6): 591–6. PMC 378679  . PMID 16558720.
Jump up ^ Ferdinand Cohn (1872). "Untersuchungen uber Bakterien". Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen. 1. pp. 127–224.
Jump up ^ Ferdinand Cohn (1875). "Untersuchungen uber Bakterien". Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen. 1. pp. 141–208.
Jump up ^ Ernst Haeckel. The Wonders of Life. Translated by Joseph McCabe. New York and London. I904.
^ Jump up to: a b Chatton, É. (1925). "Pansporella perplexa. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale. 10-VII: 1–84.
^ Jump up to: a b R H Whittaker (1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–160. Bibcode:1969Sci...163..150W. PMID 5762760. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jan Sapp (June 2005). "The Prokaryote-Eukaryote Dichotomy: Meanings and Mythology". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 69 (2): 292–305. PMC 1197417  . PMID 15944457. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.2.292-305.2005.
Jump up ^ GIBBONS (N.E.) and MURRAY (R.G.E.): Proposals concerning the higher taxa of bacteria. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 1978, 28, 1-6.
Jump up ^ MURRAY (R.G.E.): The higher taxa, or, a place for everything...? In: N.R. KRIEG and J.G. HOLT (ed.) Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, vol. 1, The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1984, p. 31-34
Jump up ^ Lyons, Richard D. (Nov 3, 1977). "Scientists Discover a Form of Life That Predates Higher Organisms". The New York Times. pp. A1, A20. |section= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Holland L. (22 May 1990). "Woese,Carl in the forefront of bacterial evolution revolution". scientist. 4 (10).
^ Jump up to: a b Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). "A revised six-kingdom system of life". Biological Reviews. 73 (03): 203–66. PMID 9809012. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x.
Jump up ^ Roger Stanier to Peter Raven, 5 November 1970, National Archives of Canada, MG 31, accession J35, vol. 6, as quoted in Sapp, 2005
Jump up ^ Linnaeus, C. (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species.
Jump up ^ Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin.
Jump up ^ Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. Bibcode:1969Sci...163..150W. PMID 5762760. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150.
Jump up ^ Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya.". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–9. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. PMC 54159  . PMID 2112744. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576.
External links[edit]
Woese CR (June 1987). "Bacterial evolution". Microbiol. Rev. 51 (2): 221–71. PMC 373105  . PMID 2439888. Woese reviewed the historical steps leading to the use of the term "Monera" and its later abandonment.
What is Monera? A descriptive details of the entire kingdom
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monera&oldid=806840122"
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Justin Henry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Justin Henry
Born
Justin Henry
(1971-05-25) May 25, 1971 (age 46)
Rye, New York, U.S.
Occupation
Businessman, actor
Years active
1979–present
Known for
Billy Kramer in Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)
Justin Henry (born May 25, 1971) is an American actor, known for playing the object of the titular custody battle in the 1979 film Kramer vs. Kramer, a debut role that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, when he was eight years old. As of 2018, he is the youngest actor to be nominated in any category, and the only actor ever nominated in the same decade as his or her birth. The performance later earned him a spot (No. 80) on VH1's list of 100 Greatest Kid Stars. Most of his film and television credits came as a child or teenager, although he has continued acting as an adult.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Life and career
2.1 Acting career
2.2 Business career
3 Filmography
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Justin Henry was born in Rye, New York, the son of Michele (née Andrews), a real estate agent, and Clifford Henry, an investment adviser.[2] He was educated at Brunswick School, an all-boys college-preparatory private day school located in Greenwich, Connecticut, followed by Skidmore College, a private liberal arts college in Saratoga Srings, New York, where he earned a B.A. in psychology in 1993.[3]
Life and career[edit]
Acting career[edit]
Henry began his acting career in Kramer vs. Kramer. For his performance in that film, he became the youngest person to ever be nominated for an Oscar or Golden Globe. His next role was in a 1983 episode of the American television series Fantasy Island.[4] On the big screen, Henry appeared in the Brat Pack film Sixteen Candles (1984), as Mike Baker, one of Samantha Baker's siblings.[5] Henry also played the son of a married couple played by Don Johnson and Susan Sarandon in the film Sweet Hearts Dance (1988). In this role, critic Janet Maslin called him a "large and amusingly sullen teenager".[6]
After graduation, Henry's next widely seen performance was in 1997, as a medical student in a two-episode role during the fourth season of ER.[4] He starred opposite Ally Sheedy, Jason David Frank and Brian O'Halloran in the mockumentary The Junior Defenders, which was filmed that same year but released direct-to-video in 2007.[7]
Business career[edit]
Henry co-founded the Slamdunk Film Festival in 1998.[8] Although he continues to make occasional appearances in film and television,[4][5] he has been a Regional Director of Sales at Veoh since 2009.[citation needed] He is currently a platform director for AOL.[9]
Filmography[edit]
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1979 Kramer vs. Kramer Billy Kramer Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film - Leading Young Actor
YoungStar Award for Best Young Actor/Performance in a Motion Picture Drama
Nominated— Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
Nominated— Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture
Nominated— Golden Globe for New Actor of the Year
1983 Tiger Town Alex
1984 Sixteen Candles Mike Baker
1985 Martin's Day Martin
1985 Double Negative
1988 Sweet Hearts Dance Kyle Boon
1996 Andersonville Tyce
1997 ER Med Student James Sasser Season 4 Episodes 4 and 5
2003 Finding Home Prescott
2004 Lost Chester Gould
2007 The Junior Defenders Jimmy Fletcher
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "VH1 Names Gary Coleman the top of the 100 Great Kid TV Stars". Entertainment Magazine. August 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
Jump up ^ "Justin Henry Biography (1971-)".
Jump up ^ "Justin Henry Biography". All Movie Guide. The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c Justin Henry on IMDb
^ Jump up to: a b Justin Henry at AllMovie
Jump up ^ "Love and Unhappiness in Sweet Hearts Dance". nytimes.com (The New York Times). September 23, 1988. Retrieved 2009-02-14. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Interview with Brian O'Halloran". View Askew. February 2, 1998. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ "CANNES 2001: Attention-Getting? Slamdunk, Slamdance, Streaking, and a Sandwich Board". indieWIRE. May 15, 2001. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ https://www.linkedin.com/in/justin-henry-1210943. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Bibliography[edit]
Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 386-387.
External links[edit]
Justin Henry on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actor in a Feature Film
1979–1990
Dennis Christopher (1979)
Justin Henry (1980)
Ricky Schroder (1981)
Henry Thomas (1982)
C. Thomas Howell (1983)
Anthony Michael Hall (1984)
Sean Astin (1985)
Peter Billingsley (1986)
River Phoenix (1987)
Fred Savage (1987)
Patrick Dempsey (1987)
Corey Feldman (1987)
Christian Bale (1988)
Corey Feldman (1988)
Corey Haim (1988)
Lukas Haas (1988)
Sean Astin (1989)
Macaulay Culkin (1990)
1991–2010
Ethan Embry (1991)
Elijah Wood (1993)
Edward Furlong (1994)
Jason James Richter (1994)
Mason Gamble (1994)
Brad Renfro (1995)
Wil Horneff (1996)
Lucas Black (1997)
Blake Heron (1998)
Kevin Zegers (1998)
Miko Hughes (1999)
Haley Joel Osment (2000)
Rob Brown (2001)
Anton Yelchin (2002)
Tyler Hoechlin (2003)
Jeremy Sumpter (2004)
Jamie Bell (2005)
Josh Hutcherson (2006)
Logan Lerman (2007)
Josh Hutcherson (2008)
Nate Hartley (2009)
Max Records (2010)
2011–present
Jaden Smith (2011)
Dakota Goyo (2012)
Tom Holland (2013)
Miles Elliot (2014)
Reese Hartwig (2015)
Michael Grant (2016)
Julian Feder (2017)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 12508664
ISNI: 0000 0001 1946 6845
BNF: cb14052788d (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Justin_Henry&oldid=826727038"
Categories:
1971 births
Living people
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People from Rye, New York
Skidmore College alumni
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Countercurrent exchange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Counter heat current exchange: Note the gradually declining differential and that the once hot and cold streams exit at the reversed temperature difference; the hotter entering stream becomes the exiting cooler stream and vice versa.
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some component, between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging both heat and mass.
The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential. For example, in the diagram at the right, the fluid being heated (exiting top) has a higher exiting temperature than the cooled fluid (exiting bottom) that was used for heating. With cocurrent or parallel exchange the heated and cooled fluids can only approach one another. The result is that countercurrent exchange can achieve a greater amount of heat or mass transfer than parallel under otherwise similar conditions. See: flow arrangement.
Countercurrent exchange when set up in a circuit or loop can be used for building up concentrations, heat, or other properties of flowing liquids. Specifically when set up in a loop with a buffering liquid between the incoming and outgoing fluid running in a circuit, and with active transport pumps on the outgoing fluid's tubes, the system is called a countercurrent multiplier, enabling a multiplied effect of many small pumps to gradually build up a large concentration in the buffer liquid.
Other countercurrent exchange circuits where the incoming and outgoing fluids touch each other are used for retaining a high concentration of a dissolved substance or for retaining heat, or for allowing the external buildup of the heat or concentration at one point in the system.
Countercurrent exchange circuits or loops are found extensively in nature, specifically in biologic systems. In vertebrates, they are called a rete mirabile, originally the name of an organ in fish gills for absorbing oxygen from the water. It is mimicked in industrial systems. Countercurrent exchange is a key concept in chemical engineering thermodynamics and manufacturing processes, for example in extracting sucrose from sugar beet roots.
Countercurrent multiplication is a similar but different concept where liquid moves in a loop followed by a long length of movement in opposite directions with an intermediate zone. The tube leading to the loop passively building up a gradient of heat (or cooling) or solvent concentration while the returning tube has a constant small pumping action all along it, so that a gradual intensification of the heat or concentration is created towards the loop. Countercurrent multiplication has been found in the kidneys[1] as well as in many other biological organs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Three current exchange systems
1.1 Cocurrent flow—half transfer
1.1.1 Cocurrent flow examples
1.2 Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer
1.2.1 Countercurrent flow examples
1.2.2 Conditions for higher transfer results
2 Countercurrent exchange in biological systems
2.1 Countercurrent multiplication loop
2.1.1 In the kidney
2.1.2 History
2.2 Countercurrent exchange of heat in organisms
2.3 Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water
3 Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research
4 See also
5 External links
6 References
Three current exchange systems[edit]
Three topologies of countercurrent exchange systems
Countercurrent exchange along with cocurrent exchange and contra-current exchange comprise the mechanisms used to transfer some property of a fluid from one flowing current of fluid to another across a barrier allowing one way flow of the property between them. The property transferred could be heat, concentration of a chemical substance, or other properties of the flow.
When heat is transferred, a thermally-conductive membrane is used between the two tubes, and when the concentration of a chemical substance is transferred a semipermeable membrane is used.
Cocurrent flow—half transfer[edit]
A comparison between the operations and effects of a cocurrent and a countercurrent flow exchange system is depicted by the upper and lower diagrams respectively. In both it is assumed (and indicated) that red has a higher value (e.g. of temperature) than blue and that the property being transported in the channels therefore flows from red to blue. Note that channels are contiguous if effective exchange is to occur (i.e. there can be no gap between the channels).
In the cocurrent flow exchange mechanism, the two fluids flow in the same direction.
As the cocurrent and countercurrent exchange mechanisms diagram showed, a cocurrent exchange system has a variable gradient over the length of the exchanger. With equal flows in the two tubes, this method of exchange is only capable of moving half of the property from one flow to the other, no matter how long the exchanger is.
If each stream changes its property to be 50% closer to that of the opposite stream's inlet condition, exchange will stop when the point of equilibrium is reached, and the gradient has declined to zero. In the case of unequal flows, the equilibrium condition will occur somewhat closer to the conditions of the stream with the higher flow.
Cocurrent flow examples[edit]
Cocurrent and Countercurrent heat exchange
A cocurrent heat exchanger is an example of a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism.
Two tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.
The hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end, there is a very small temperature difference (both are at the same temperature of 40 °C or close to it), and very little heat transfer if any at all. If the equilibrium—where both tubes are at the same temperature—is reached before the exit of the liquid from the tubes, no further heat transfer will be achieved along the remaining length of the tubes.
A similar example is the cocurrent concentration exchange. The system consists of two tubes, one with brine (concentrated saltwater), the other with freshwater (which has a low concentration of salt in it), and a semi permeable membrane which allows only water to pass between the two, in an osmotic process. Many of the water molecules pass from the freshwater flow in order to dilute the brine, while the concentration of salt in the freshwater constantly grows (since the salt is not leaving this flow, while water is). This will continue, until both flows reach a similar dilution, with a concentration somewhere close to midway between the two original dilutions. Once that happens, there will be no more flow between the two tubes, since both are at a similar dilution and there is no more osmotic pressure.
Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer[edit]
Spiral counter-current heat exchange schematic
In countercurrent flow, the two flows move in opposite directions.
Two tubes have a liquid flowing in opposite directions, transferring a property from one tube to the other. For example, this could be transferring heat from a hot flow of liquid to a cold one, or transferring the concentration of a dissolved solute from a high concentration flow of liquid to a low concentration flow.
The counter-current exchange system can maintain a nearly constant gradient between the two flows over their entire length of contact. With a sufficiently long length and a sufficiently low flow rate this can result in almost all of the property transferred. So, for example, in the case of heat exchange, the exiting liquid will be almost as hot as the original incoming liquid's heat.
Countercurrent flow examples[edit]
Classic flat pipe cocurrent and counter-current exchange shown again
In a countercurrent heat exchanger, the hot fluid becomes cold, and the cold fluid becomes hot.
In this example, hot water at 60 °C enters the top pipe. It warms water in the bottom pipe which has been warmed up along the way, to almost 60 °C. A minute but existing heat difference still exists, and a small amount of heat is transferred, so that the water leaving the bottom pipe is at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the cold input fluid (21 °C).
The result is that the top pipe which received hot water, now has cold water leaving it at 20 °C, while the bottom pipe which received cold water, is now emitting hot water at close to 60 °C. In effect, most of the heat was transferred.
Conditions for higher transfer results[edit]
It should be noted that nearly complete transfer in systems implementing countercurrent exchange, is only possible if the two flows are, in some sense, "equal".
For a maximum transfer of substance concentration, an equal flowrate of solvents and solutions is required. For maximum heat transfer, the average specific heat capacity and the mass flow rate must be the same for each stream. If the two flows are not equal, for example if heat is being transferred from water to air or vice versa, then, similar to cocurrent exchange systems, a variation in the gradient is expected because of a buildup of the property not being transferred properly.[2]
Countercurrent exchange in biological systems[edit]
Rete mirabile = RM
Countercurrent exchange in biological systems occurred following the discovery of countercurrent multiplication systems by Werner Kuhn.
Countercurrent exchange is used extensively in biological systems for a wide variety of purposes. For example, fish use it in their gills to transfer oxygen from the surrounding water into their blood, and birds use a countercurrent heat exchanger between blood vessels in their legs to keep heat concentrated within their bodies. In vertebrates, this type of organ is referred to as a rete mirabile (originally the name of the organ in the fish gills). Mammalian kidneys use countercurrent exchange to remove water from urine so the body can retain water used to move the nitrogenous waste products (see countercurrent multiplier).
Countercurrent multiplication loop[edit]
Counter current multiplication loop diagram
A countercurrent multiplication loop is a system where fluid flows in a loop so that the entrance and exit are at similar low concentration of a dissolved substance but at the far end of the loop there is a high concentration of that substance. A buffer liquid between the incoming and outgoing tubes receives the concentrated substance. The incoming and outgoing tubes do not touch each other.
The system allows the buildup of a high concentration gradually, by allowing a natural buildup of concentration towards the tip inside the in-going tube, (for example using osmosis of water out of the input pipe and into the buffer fluid), and the use of many active transport pumps each pumping only against a very small gradient, during the exit from the loop, returning the concentration inside the output pipe to its original concentration.
The incoming flow starting at a low concentration has a semipermeable membrane with water passing to the buffer liquid via osmosis at a small gradient. There is a gradual buildup of concentration inside the loop until the loop tip where it reaches its maximum.
Theoretically a similar system could exist or be constructed for heat exchange.
In the example shown in the image, water enters at 299 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Water passes because of a small osmotic pressure to the buffer liquid in this example at 300 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Further up the loop there is a continued flow of water out of the tube and into the buffer, gradually raising the concentration of NaCl in the tube until it reaches 1199 mg/L at the tip. The buffer liquid between the two tubes is at a gradually rising concentration, always a bit over the incoming fluid, in this example reaching 1200 mg/L. This is regulated by the pumping action on the returning tube as will be explained immediately.
The tip of the loop has the highest concentration of salt (NaCl) in the incoming tube—in the example 1199 mg/L, and in the buffer 1200 mg/L. The returning tube has active transport pumps, pumping salt out to the buffer liquid at a low difference of concentrations of up to 200 mg/L more than in the tube. Thus when opposite the 1000 mg/L in the buffer liquid, the concentration in the tube is 800 and only 200 mg/L are needed to be pumped out. But the same is true anywhere along the line, so that at exit of the loop also only 200 mg/L need to be pumped.
In effect, this can be seen as a gradually multiplying effect—hence the name of the phenomena: a 'countercurrent multiplier' or the mechanism: Countercurrent multiplication, but in current engineering terms, countercurrent multiplication is any process where only slight pumping is needed, due to the constant small difference of concentration or heat along the process, gradually raising to its maximum. There is no need for a buffer liquid, if the desired effect is receiving a high concentration at the output pipe.[3]
In the kidney[edit]
Loop of Henle (Gray's Anatomy book)
A circuit of fluid in the Loop of Henle—an important part of the kidneys allows for gradual buildup of the concentration of urine in the kidneys, by using active transport on the exiting nephrons (tubules carrying liquid in the process of gradually concentrating the urea). The active transport pumps need only to overcome a constant and low gradient of concentration, because of the countercurrent multiplier mechanism[4]
Various substances are passed from the liquid entering the nephrons until exiting the loop (See the nephron flow diagram). The sequence of flow is as follows:
Renal corpuscle: Liquid enters the nephron system at the Bowman's capsule.[5]
Proximal convoluted tubule: It then may reabsorb urea in the thick descending limb.[6] Water is removed from the nephrons by osmosis (and glucose and other ions are pumped out with active transport), gradually raising the concentration in the nephrons.[7]
Loop of Henle Descending: The liquid passes from the thin descending limb to the thick ascending limb. Water is constantly released via osmosis.[8][citation needed] Gradually there is a buildup of osmotic concentration, until 1200 mOsm is reached at the loop tip, but the difference across the membrane is kept small and constant.
For example, the liquid at one section inside the thin descending limb is at 400 mOsm while outside it is 401. Further down the descending limb, the inside concentration is 500 while outside it is 501, so a constant difference of 1 mOsm is kept all across the membrane, although the concentration inside and outside are gradually increasing.[citation needed]
Loop of Henle Ascending: after the tip (or 'bend') of the loop, the liquid flows in the thin ascending limb.[9][citation needed] Salt–sodium Na+ and chloride Cl− ions are pumped out of the liquid[10][citation needed] gradually lowering the concentration in the exiting liquid, but, using the countercurrent multiplier mechanism, always pumping against a constant and small osmotic difference.
For example, the pumps at a section close to the bend, pump out from 1000 mOsm inside the ascending limb to 1200 mOsm outside it, with a 200 mOsm across. Pumps further up the thin ascending limb, pump out from 400 mOsm into liquid at 600 mOsm, so again the difference is retained at 200 mOsm from the inside to the outside, while the concentration both inside and outside are gradually decreasing as the liquid flow advances.
The liquid finally reaches a low concentration of 100 mOsm when leaving the thin ascending limb and passing through the thick one[11]
Distal convoluted tubule: Once leaving the loop of Henle the thick ascending limb can optionally reabsorb and re increase the concentration in the nephrons.[12]
Collecting duct: The collecting duct receives liquid between 100 mOsm if no re-absorption is done, to 300 or above if re-absorption was used. The collecting duct may continue raising the concentration if required, by gradually pumping out the same ions as the Distal convoluted tubule, using the same gradient as the ascending limbs in the loop of Henle, and reaching the same concentration.[13]
Ureter: The liquid urine leaves to the Ureter.
Same principle is used in hemodialysis within artificial kidney machines.
History[edit]
Initially the countercurrent exchange mechanism and its properties were proposed in 1951 by professor Werner Kuhn and two of his former students who called the mechanism found in the Loop of Henle in mammalian kidneys a Countercurrent multiplier[14] and confirmed by laboratory findings in 1958 by Professor Carl W. Gottschalk.[15] The theory was acknowledged a year later after a meticulous study showed that there is almost no osmotic difference between liquids on both sides of nephrons.[16] Homer Smith, a considerable contemporary authority on renal physiology, opposed the model countercurrent concentration for 8 years, until conceding ground in 1959.[17] Ever since, many similar mechanisms have been found in biologic systems, the most notable of these: the Rete mirabile in fish.
Countercurrent exchange of heat in organisms[edit]
The arterial and deep vein blood supply to the human arm. The superficial (subcutaneous) veins are not shown. The deep veins are wrapped round the arteries, and the consequent counter-current flow allows the hand to be cooled down considerably without loss of body heat, which is short-circuited by the counter current flow.[18][19]
In cold weather the blood flow to the limbs of birds and mammals is reduced on exposure to cold environmental conditions, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes).[19][20][21] This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather.[18][19] The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, thereby reducing heat loss via this route, and forcing the blood returning from the extremities into the counter-current blood flow systems in the centers of the limbs. Birds and mammals that regularly immerse their limbs in cold or icy water have particularly well developed counter-current blood flow systems to their limbs, allowing prolonged exposure of the extremities to the cold without significant loss of body heat, even when the limbs are as thin as the lower legs, or tarsi, of a bird, for instance.[20]
When animals like the leatherback turtle and dolphins are in colder water to which they are not acclimatized, they use this CCHE mechanism to prevent heat loss from their flippers, tail flukes, and dorsal fins. Such CCHE systems are made up of a complex network of peri-arterial venous plexuses, or venae comitantes, that run through the blubber from their minimally insulated limbs and thin streamlined protuberances.[20] Each plexus consists of a central artery containing warm blood from the heart surrounded by a bundle of veins containing cool blood from the body surface. As these fluids flow past each other, they create a heat gradient in which heat is transferred and retained inside the body. The warm arterial blood transfers most of its heat to the cool venous blood now coming in from the outside. This conserves heat by recirculating it back to the body core. Since the arteries give up a good deal of their heat in this exchange, there is less heat lost through convection at the periphery surface.[18]
Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and doesn't lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to −70 °C (−94 °F).
Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water[edit]
Sea and desert birds have been found to have a salt gland near the nostrils which concentrates brine, later to be "sneezed" out to the sea, in effect allowing these birds to drink seawater without the need to find freshwater resources. It also enables the seabirds to remove the excess salt entering the body when eating, swimming or diving in the sea for food. The kidney cannot remove these quantities and concentrations of salt.
The salt secreting gland has been found in seabirds like pelicans, petrels, albatrosses, gulls, and terns. It has also been found in Namibian ostriches and other desert birds, where a buildup of salt concentration is due to dehydration and scarcity of drinking water.
In seabirds the salt gland is above the beak, leading to a main canal above the beak, and water is blown from two small nostrils on the beak, to empty it. The salt gland has two countercurrent mechanisms working in it:
a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'veinules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with active transport powered by ATP.
b. The blood supply system to the gland is set in countercurrent exchange loop mechanism for keeping the high concentration of salt in the gland's blood, so that it doesn't leave back to the blood system.
The glands remove the salt efficiently and thus allow the birds to drink the salty water from their environment while they are hundreds of miles away from land.[22][23]
Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research[edit]
Hardendale Lime Works in the UK using countercurrent kilns to reach high temperatures
Countercurrent Chromatography is a method of separation, that is based on the differential partitioning of analytes between two immiscible liquids using countercurrent or cocurrent flow.[24] Evolving from Craig's Countercurrent Distribution (CCD), the most widely used term and abbreviation is CounterCurrent Chromatography or CCC,[25] in particular when using hydrodynamic CCC instruments. The term partition chromatography is largely a synonymous and predominantly used for hydrostatic CCC instruments.
Distillation of chemicals such as in petroleum refining is done towers or columns with perforated trays. Vapor from the low boiling fractions bubbles upward through the holes in the trays in contact with the down flowing high boiling fractions. The concentration of low boiling fraction increases in each tray up the tower as it is "stripped". The low boiling fraction is drawn off the top of the tower and the high boiling fraction drawn from the bottom. The process in the trays is a combination of heat transfer and mass transfer. Heat is supplied at the bottom, known as a "reboiler" and cooling is done with a condenser at the top.
Counter flow in liquid-liquid extraction
Liquid-liquid extraction (also called 'solvent extraction' or 'partitioning') is a common method for extracting a substance from one liquid into another liquid at a different 'phase' (such as "slurry"). This method, which implements a countercurrent mechanism, is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fine organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, the production of vegetable oils and biodiesel, and other industries.
Gold can be separated from a cyanide solution with the Merrill-Crowe process using Counter Current Decantation (CCD). In some mines, Nickel and Cobalt are treated with CCD, after the original ore was treated with concentrated Sulfuric acid and steam in Titanium covered autoclaves, producing nickel cobalt slurry. The nickel and cobalt in the slurry are removed from it almost completely using a CCD system exchanging the cobalt and nickel with flash steam heated water.
Countercurrent furnace (kiln) heat exchange
Lime can be manufactured in countercurrent furnaces allowing the heat to reach high temperatures using low cost, low temperature burning fuel. Historically this was developed by the Japanese in certain types of the Anagama kiln. The kiln is built in stages, where fresh air coming to the fuel is passed downwards while the smoke and heat is pushed up and out. The heat does not leave the kiln, but is transferred back to the incoming air, and thus slowly builds up to 3000 °C and more.
Cement counter-current rotary kiln
Cement may be created using a countercurrent kiln where the heat is passed in the cement and the exhaust combined, while the incoming air draft is passed along the two, absorbing the heat and retaining it inside the furnace, finally reaching high temperatures.
Gasification: the process of creating methane and carbon monoxide from organic or fossil matter, can be done using a Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier which is built in a similar way to the Anagama kiln, and must therefore withstand more harsh conditions, but reaches better efficiency.
In nuclear power plants, water leaving the plant must not contain even trace particles of Uranium. Counter Current Decantation (CCD) is used in some facilities to extract water, totally clear of Uranium.
Exchange current decantation depicted in centrifugal extractors as 1st stage
Some Centrifugal extractors use counter current exchange mechanisms for extracting high rates of the desired material.
Some protein skimmers: a device to clean saltwater pools and fish ponds of organic matter—use counter current technologies.
Countercurrent processes have also been used to study the behavior of small animals and isolate individuals with altered behaviors due to genetic mutations.[26][27][28]
See also[edit]
Anagama kiln
Bidirectional traffic
Economizer
Regenerative heat exchanger
Countercurrent multiplier
External links[edit]
Countercurrent multiplier animation from Colorado University.
Research about elephant seals using countercurrent heat exchange to keep heat from leaving their body while breathing out, during hibernation.
Patent for a snow mask with a removable countercurrent exchange module which keeps the warmth from leaving the mask when breathing out.
An industrial system for aerating waste water and sewage which works on the countercurrent exchange principle, without pipes. Air bubbles floating upwards meet water in a down current, causing more of the air to dissolve.[29]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Both countercurrent exchange and countercurrent multiplication systems have been found in the kidneys. The latter in the loop of Henle, the first in the vasa recta
Jump up ^ The specific heat capacity should be calculated on a mass basis, averaged over the temperature range involved. This is in keeping with the second law of thermodynamics
Jump up ^ Hsuan Jung Huang, Peixin He, Faulkner Larry R (1986). "Current multiplier for use with ultramicroelectrodes". Analytical Chemistry. 58 (13): 2889–2891. doi:10.1021/ac00126a070. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ See the countercurrent multiplier animation at the Colorado University website.
Jump up ^ Beginning with the afferent arteriole, a blood vessel leading to the Glomerulus, filtered blood is passed to the nephrons in the Bowman's capsule which surrounds the Glomerulus. (The blood leaves the Glomerulus in the efferent arteriole).
Jump up ^ The liquid from the Bowman's capsule reaches the thick descending limb. Urea may be reabsorbed into the low (300 mOsm) osmotic concentration in the limb nephrons. The urea absorption in the thick descending limb is inhibited by Sartans and catalyzed by lactates and ketones.
Jump up ^ Glucose, amino acids, various ions and organic material leave the limb, gradually raising the concentration in the nephrons. Dopamin inhibits the secretion from the thick descending limb, and Angiotensin II catalyzes it
Jump up ^ The semipermeable membrane of the thin descending limb does not permit passage of ions or large dissolved molecules
Jump up ^ The thin ascending limb's membrane does not permit free passage of any substance including water.
Jump up ^ Furosemide inhibits salt secretion from the thin ascending limb, while aldosterone catalyzes the secretion.
Jump up ^ Water or liquid with very low osmotic concentration leaving the nephrons is reabsorbed in the Peritubular capillaries and returned to the blood.
Jump up ^ Reabsorbing and increasing the concentration is done by optionally absorbing potassium (K+) and hydrogen (H+) cations, while releasing water and the continued pumping out of calcium (Ca+) and salt (Na+ and Cl− ions). The repeated concentration by secretion of calcium and salt ions is inhibited by thiazides and catalyzed by Aantidiuretic hormone and aldosterone
Jump up ^ Atrial natriuretic peptide and urodilatin inhibit water salt and calcium secretion from the collecting duct, while antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone catalyze it.
Jump up ^ The original lecture was published in 1951 in German. According to a book on Jewish scientists under the Reich Kuhn theorized and studied this mechanism already in the early 1940s. This was confirmed in 2001 in the translation to the original lecture published with remarks by Professor Bart Hargitay, then one of the two former student aids. Harbitay says: Before settling in Basel, Kuhn did some very fundamental work in Kiel, separating isotopes in a centrifuge. This caused him to be fascinated with the effect of countercurrents in multiplying a very small single effect to significant separations. (Journal of the American Society of Nephrology website)
Jump up ^ Gottschalk, C. W.; Mylle, M. (1958), "Evidence that the mammalian nephron functions as a countercurrent multiplier system", Science, 128 (3324): 594, doi:10.1126/science.128.3324.594, PMID 13580223 .
Jump up ^ Gottschalk, C. W.; Mylle, M. (1959), "Micropuncture study of the mammalian urinary concentrating mechanism: evidence for the countercurrent hypothesis", American Journal of Physiology, 196 (4): 927–936, PMID 13637248 . See also History of the urinary concentrating mechanism an article in 'Kidney'—the Journal of International Society of Nephrology, where Prof. Gottschalk points to the heated debate prior to the acceptance of the theory of the countercurrent multiplier action of the kidney
Jump up ^ Smith, Homer W., The fate of sodium and water in the renal tubules, Bull. New York Academy of Medicine 35:293–316, 1959.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1981). "Countercurrent systems in animals". Scientific American (May): 118–128.
^ Jump up to: a b c Williams, Peter L.; Warwick, Roger; Dyson, Mary; Bannister, Lawrence H. (1989). Gray’s Anatomy (Thirty-seventh ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 691–692, 791, 10011–10012. ISBN 0443 041776.
^ Jump up to: a b c Scholander, P. F. (1957). "The wonderful net". Scientific American (April): 96–110.
Jump up ^ Gilroy, Anne M.; MacPherson, Brian R.; Ross, Lawrence M. (2008). Atlas of Anatomy. Stuttgart: Thieme Medical Publishers. pp. 318, 349. ISBN 978-1-60406-062-1.
Jump up ^ Proctor, Noble S.; Lynch, Patrick J. (1993). Manual of Ornithology. Yale University Press.
Jump up ^ Ritchison, Gary. "Avian osmoregulation". Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "TheLiquidPhase". Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Countercurrent Chromatography". University of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Benzer Seymour (1967). "Behavioral Mutants Of Drosophila Isolated By Countercurrent Distribution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 58 (3): 1112–1119. doi:10.1073/pnas.58.3.1112.
Jump up ^ Dusenbery David B (1973). "Countercurrent separation: A new method for studying behavior of small aquatic organisms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 70: 1349–1352. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.5.1349.
Jump up ^ Dusenbery David B., Sheridan Robert E., Russell Richard L. (1975). "Chemotaxis-Defective Mutants of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". Genetics. 80 (2): 297–309. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ According to the company, almost half of the electricity in the US is used to aerate sewage and wastewater. The countercurrent exchange method saves up to 50% of the electricity
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