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One-Test wonder
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2016)
In cricket, a one-Test wonder is usually a cricketer who is only selected for one Test match during his career and never represents his country again (not necessarily due to poor performance).[1][2][3] The term may derive from "one-hit wonder", which is used to describe singers who have only one hit song.[citation needed] The term is also used in rugby.[4]
More rarely, the term may refer to a player who has played in more than one Test, but was very successful only once. Examples include the bowlers India's Narendra Hirwani,[5] and Australia's Bob Massie,[6] both of whom took eight wickets in each innings of their debut matches, but then failed to live up to their early promise.
Notable examples[edit]
As of September 2006, there had been 377 players who have only played one Test match.[7] Some of the best performances by these players are:
Andy Ganteaume, who scored 112 for the West Indies in his only Test innings in 1948, and so has the highest Test batting average of all time.[8]
Rodney Redmond is the only other player to have scored a century in his only Test, scoring 107 and 56 while opening the batting for New Zealand in 1973.[9]
West Indian Vic Stollmeyer, brother of Jeff Stollmeyer, scored 96 in his only Test.[10]
Stuart Law scored 54 not out in his only Test innings for Australia, leaving him without a Test average.[11]
Gobo Ashley took 7 for 95 for South Africa in the first innings of his single Test in 1889.[12]
Charles Marriott recorded match figures of 11 for 96 (5 for 37 and 6 for 59) in his only Test for England in 1933.[13][14] No other bowler has taken more than ten wickets in his only Test.[15]
Among wicket-keepers, Indian player Rajindernath made four stumpings in his only Test, but was not called on to bat.[16]
About one in eight Test cricketers are only picked once.[1] Occasionally, one-Test wonders have been recalled to Test cricket after a gap of several years. One example was Ryan Sidebottom, who was recalled for his second Test in 2007 after his debut in 2001.[17] Coincidentally his father, Arnie Sidebottom, was a one-Test wonder.[18]
Darren Pattinson is an unusual one-test wonder in that he played a single test for England, while his brother James Pattinson had a more successful Test career with Australia.
As of May 2007, fourteen one-Test wonders have also played in a single One Day International for their team.[15]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Huw Richards (6 June 2007). "Cricket: Sidebottom lifts family curse". New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Martin Bowerman (14 December 2006). "No shame in one-Test wonder". The Daily Telegraph (Sydney). Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Is WA's Chris Rogers a one-Test wonder". The Sunday Times (Western Australia). 18 January 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Darren Walton (6 November 2008). "Turner no longer a one-Test wonder". Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Narendra Hirwani took 8/61 and 8/75 for India in the fourth Test against West Indies at Madras in January 1988.[1]
Jump up ^ Bob Massie took 8/84 and 8/53 for Australia in the second Test against England at Lord's in June 1972.[2]
Jump up ^ The 377 One-Test wonders in September 2006 exclude Alan Jones, who played one "Test" for England against a Rest of the World XI in 1970 which was later stripped of Test status, and never played for England again - The uncapped One-Test wonder, Cricinfo, September 9, 2006.
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ [4]
Jump up ^ "Vic Stollmeyer". Cricinfo. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
Jump up ^ Cricinfo - Players and Officials - Stuart Law
Jump up ^ [5]
Jump up ^ [6]
Jump up ^ Best performances by One-Test wonders, Stump Bearders No 33, BBC Sport, 20 August 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b One-match wonders, and Shah's second chance, Cricinfo, May 16, 2007
Jump up ^ Cricinfo - Players and Officials - Rajindernath
Jump up ^ Cricinfo - Glowing in the cold
Jump up ^ Cricinfo - Sidebottom ready for long-awaited second chance
External links[edit]
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
Ultimate One-Test wonder, Cricinfo, December 31, 2005
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Jannah
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"Firdaus" redirects here. For the city in Iran, see Ferdows.
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Jannah (Arabic: جنّة Jannah; plural: Jannat), lit. "garden", is the final abode of the righteous[1] and the Islamic believers, but also the Garden of Eden, where Adam and Hawwa dwelt. Firdaws (Arabic: فردوس) is the literal term meaning paradise, but the Quran generally uses the term Jannah symbolically referring to paradise. However "Firdaus" also designates the highest layer of heaven.[2]
In contrast to Jannah, the words Jahannam, Dozukh, and Nār are used to refer to the concept of hell. There are many words in the Arabic language for both Heaven and Hell and those words also appear in the Quran and ahadith. Most of them have become part of the Islamic traditions.[3]
Jannah is often compared to Christian concepts of Heaven.
Contents
1 Heaven and Jannah
2 Images and descriptions of Jannah
3 Inhabitants of Jannah
3.1 Non-Muslims in Jannah
3.2 Number of people who will enter Jannah
4 Quranic names of Jannah
4.1 Layers of Jannah
4.2 Doors of Jannah
5 See also
6 References
Heaven and Jannah[edit]
While Jannah in the Quran is often translated as "Heaven" in the sense of an abode where believers are rewarded in afterlife, سماء sama' (usually pl. samawat) is also translated as "heaven" in the sense of the sky,[4] sometimes referred to as "seven firmament"[4] (2:29) or "seven strong" (78:12).[5][6] The seven layers of heaven are thought to be analogous to the seven layers of Jahannam (hell).
Some sources connect the two in some way. According to Sufi cosmology, Paradise is often depicted over the seven heavens, between the 8th and the 9th heaven.[7] In some modern interpretations, based on Surah 21:30 and 67:5, the lowest heaven is also interpreted as the observable universe, with the other 6 heavens beyond, once were a mess together[clarification needed] with the earths and later expanded.[8][7]
Images and descriptions of Jannah[edit]
An artists representation of "Muhammed's Paradise". A Persian miniature from The History of Mohammed, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.
The Paradise is described as surrounded by eight principal gates, each level generally being divided into a hundred degrees guarded by angels (in some traditions Ridwan). The highest level is known as firdaws (sometimes called Eden) or Illiyin. Entrants will be greeted by angels with salutations of peace or As-Salamu Alaykum.[9] Furthermore, paradise is considered to be "as vast as the heavens and the earth".[10]
In the Quran, "the Garden" is described with material delights, such as beautiful maidens, precious stones, delicious foods, and constantly flowing water—the latter especially appealing to the desert dwelling Arabs, who spend most of their life in arid lands. The Islamic texts describes life for its immortal inhabitants as: one that is happy—without hurt, sorrow, fear or shame—where every wish is fulfilled. Traditions relate that inhabitants will be of the same age (33 years), and of the same standing. Their life is one of bliss including wearing sumptuous robes, bracelets and perfumes as they partake in exquisite banquets served in priceless vessels by immortal youths (Houri), as they recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones.
According to Muslim belief, everything one longs for in this world will be there in Paradise.[11]
They will eat delicious food and drink, and every bowl will have a new taste. They will take eructation which will digest the food and there will be perfumed sweating for the digestion of water. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children (provided they were admitted to paradise)—conversing and recalling the past.[12]
The food in Jannah never rotting and so delicious it will make any person on earth live without feeling hunger forever. The dwellings for inhabitants will be pleasant, with lofty gardens, shady valleys, fountains scented with camphor or ginger; rivers of water, milk, honey and Sharab-un-Tahoora (pure drink); delicious fruits of all seasons without thorns;
One day in paradise is considered equal to a thousand years on earth. Palaces are made from bricks of gold, silver, pearls, among other things. Traditions also note the presence of horses and camels of "dazzling whiteness", along with other creatures. Large trees whose shades are ever deepening, mountains made of musk, between which rivers flow in valleys of pearl and ruby.[9]
The names of four rivers are Saihan (Syr Darya), Jaihan (Amu Darya), Furat (Euphrates) and Nil (Nile).[13] Salsabil is the name of a spring that is the source of the rivers of Rahma (mercy) and Al-Kawthar (abundance).[14] Sidrat al-Muntaha is a Lote tree that marks the end of the seventh heaven, the boundary where no creation can pass.[citation needed]
In spite of the goodly dwellings given to the inhabitants of paradise, the approval of God and nearness to him is considered greater. According to the Quran, God will bring the elect near to his throne (‘arsh), a day on which "some faces shall be shining in contemplating their Lord." The vision of God is regarded as the greatest of all rewards, surpassing all other joys.[9] The true beauty of paradise is also understood as the joy of beholding God, the creator.[15][16]
Besides the material notion of the paradise, those descriptions are also interpreted as allegories, explaining the state of joy people will get. For some theologicans, seeing God is not a question of sight, but of awareness of Gods presence.[17] The Persian theologian Al-Ghazali said:
This life belongs to the world of earth and the world of visibility; the hereafter belongs to the world of transcendental and the world of beings. By this life I understand your state before death, by hereafter I understand your state after death ... However, it is impossible to explain the world of beings in this life by any other means than allegories.
Inhabitants of Jannah[edit]
According to the Quran, the basic criterion for salvation in the afterlife is the belief in the oneness of God (tawḥīd), Angels of God, revealed books of God, all messengers of God, as well as repentance to God, and doing good deeds. Though one must do good deeds and believe in God, salvation can only be attained through God's judgment.[18]
Regarding salvation from hell, according to hadith literature, Muhammad said, “Surely a time will come over hell when its gates shall be blown by wind, there shall be none in it, and this shall be after they have remained therein for many years.”[19] Still in the Hadith literature, Muhammad is reported to have said, "Allah will bring out people from the Fire and admit them into Paradise."[20] Otherwise some hadiths indicate, that the majority of mankind will not access heaven.[21] According to Sunni Islam, a Muslim, even if condemned to hell, will eventually enter Heaven.[22]
As in life there are many trials which one must face. This is also a condition individuals must encounter in order to enter Jannah.
Or do ye think that ye shall enter the Garden (of bliss) without such (trials) as came to those who passed away before you? They encountered suffering and adversity, and were so shaken in spirit that even the Messenger and those of faith who were with him cried: "When (will come) the help of Allah?" Ah! Verily, the help of Allah is (always) near!
—  Qur'an, sura 2 (al-Baqarah), ayah 214[23]
Did ye think that ye would enter Heaven without Allah testing those of you who fought hard (In His Cause) and remained steadfast?
—  Qur'an, sura 3 (Al-i-Imran), ayah 142[24]
Non-Muslims in Jannah[edit]
There are different opinions among scholars in regard whether Non-Muslims could enter Jannah. Some Muslims and Islamic scholars argued Surah 2:62 indicates Jannah is not exclusively for Muslims.
Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans—those who believed in Allah and the Last Day and did righteousness—will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.2:62
On the other hand, other scholars hold this verse is abrogated by Surah 3:85 and just applied until the arrival of Muhammad.[25][26] For example, before Jesus was born, Jewish will enter Jannah alike Christians, who lived before Muhammad enter Jannah, but every religious group needs to accept the newest prophet.[27]
And whoever desires other than Islam as religion—never will it be accepted from him, and he, in the Hereafter, will be among the losers.3:85
Scholars like Ibn Arabi did not hold the first to be abrogated by the latter, since "Islam" in this context, does not apply to Islam as a religious tradition, but to "submission".[28][29] Ghazali distinguished between the "saved" and "those who will attain success". Therefore, righteous Non-Muslims will neither enter hell nor Jannah, but will stay in Araf.[30]
Further those, who regard Jannah as exclusively for Muslims argue, that Islam is the "completed" and "perfected" religion and it is necessary to believe in the whole teaching of God, the prophets and the angels that just can be done by a Muslim.[31]
According to the Islamic theologican Süleyman Ateş, argues Muslims had made a mistake Jewish and Christians made before by claiming paradise being exclusive for Muslims. Further he states, that those who believes in God without associating any partners with Him, believes in the hereafter without any doubt and do good and useful deeds can enter paradise, conditions several religions offer. He also refers to the Quran 5:66 that there are good and bad people among any religion, and even not all Muslims may enter paradise.[32]
Finally, most scholars agree that Non-Muslims who did not hear the message of Islam and Non-Muslims who died in childhood are eligible for Jannah as well[33]:
… And We never punish until We have sent a Messenger (to give warning).17:15
Number of people who will enter Jannah[edit]
Several precise numbers are mentioned in the hadith literature regarding the extremely high standards required to qualify for Jannah. Initially, a select elite group of 70,000 people from the followers of Muhammad will enter Jannah without any accountability of their sins.[21]
After the above group, only 1 out of 100 people from the rest of humanity (Muslim and Non-Muslim) would qualify for Jannah. It is understood that despite this small percentage, the actual number of people who would make it to Jannah would be higher, as Allah would forgive the sins of many people, allowing them to enter Jannah as well.[34]
Quranic names of Jannah[edit]
Layers of Jannah[edit]
Firdaws – The Highest Gardens of the Paradise (al-Kahf,[35] Al-Mu’minoon[36])
Dār al-maqāmah – The Home (Fāṭir[37])
Jannatul Aliyah (suras Haqqah, Ghashiyah)
Dār al-salām – Home of Peace (Yūnus,[38] Al-An'am[39])
Dār al-Ākhirah – The Home in the Hereafter (al-‘Ankabūt[40])
al-Jannah – This is the most commonly used term in the Quran and Hadith. (al-Baqarah,[41] Āl ‘Imran,}},[42][43])
Jannat al-ʿadn – Gardens of Everlasting Bliss (al-Tawbah:[44] 72, al-Ra‘d[45])
Jannat al-Khuld – The Eternal Gardens (al-Furqān[46])
Jannat al-Ma’wā – Garden of Abode (al-Najm[47])
Jannat al-Na‘īm – The Gardens of Delight (al-Mā’idah,[48] Yūnus,[49] al-Ḥajj[50])
Maq‘ad al-Ṣidq – Assembly of Truth (al-Qamar[51])
al-Maqām al-Amīn – The House of Security (al-Dukhān[52])
Doors of Jannah[edit]
According to hadith, there are eight doors of Jannah. Their names are as following:[53]
Bāb al-Ṣalāh: For those who were punctual in prayer
Bāb al-Jihād: For those who took part in jihad
Bāb al-Ṣadaqah: For those who gave charity more often
Bāb al-Rayyān: For those who fasted (siyam)
Bāb al-Ḥajj: For those participated in the annual pilgrimage
Bāb al-Kāẓimīn al-Ghayẓ wa-al-‘Āfīn ‘an al-Nās: For those who withheld their anger and forgave others
Bāb al-Aymān: For those who by virtue of their faith are saved from reckoning and chastisement
Bāb al-Dhikr: For those who showed zeal in remembering God
See also[edit]
Elysium
Garden of Eden
Isra and Mi'raj
Riyāḍ al-Jannah (Garden of Heaven) is a part of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Joseph Hell Die Religion des Islam Motilal Banarsidass Publishe 1915
Jump up ^ Asad, Muhammad (1984). The Message of the Qu'rán (PDF). Gibraltar, Spain: Dar al-Andalus Limited. pp. 712–713. ISBN 1904510000.
Jump up ^ Asad, Muhammad (1984). The Message of the Qu'rán (PDF). Gibraltar, Spain: Dar al-Andalus Limited. p. 531. ISBN 1904510000.
^ Jump up to: a b Saalih al-Munajjid, General Supervisor, Muhammad (3 May 2015). "70217: Which was created first, the heavens or the earth?". Islam Question and Answer. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Surah Nabaa, Chapter 78". al-Islam. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "english tafsir. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an - The Meaning of the Qur'an. 78. Surah An Naba (The News)". englishtafsir.com. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Sachiko Murata The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought SUNY Press 1992 ISBN 978-0-791-40913-8 page 127
Jump up ^ Muzaffar Iqbal Contemporary Issues in Islam and Science, Band 2 Routledge 2017 ISBN 978-1-351-94915-6
^ Jump up to: a b c "Jannah", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
Jump up ^ "Quran". Quran.com. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Annemarie Schimmel. Islam and The Wonders of Creation: The Animal Kingdom. Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 2003. Page 46
Jump up ^ Quran 55:56-58, 56:15-25
Jump up ^ Hughes, Patrick (1995). "EDEN". A Dictionary of Islam. New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Services. p. 106. ISBN 9788120606722. ISBN 81-206-0672-8.
Jump up ^ Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi (2004). Divine sayings (Mishkat al-Anwar). Oxford, UK: Anqa Publishing. pp. 105, note 7. ISBN 0-9534513-5-6.
Jump up ^ Mouhanad Khorchide, Sarah Hartmann Islam is Mercy: Essential Features of a Modern Religion Verlag Herder GmbH ISBN 978-3-451-80286-7 chapter 2.4
Jump up ^ Farnáz Maʻsúmián Life After Death: A Study of the Afterlife in World Religions Kalimat Press 1995 page 81
Jump up ^ Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6 page 237
Jump up ^ Moiz Amjad. "Will Christians enter Paradise or go to Hell? Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.". Renaissance - Monthly Islamic journal 11(6), June, 2001.
Jump up ^ Ibn Jarir al-Tabari in Mujma Al Kabir
Jump up ^ "Allah will bring out people from the Fire and admit them into Paradise". sunnah.com. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "4203: How many will enter Paradise? - islamqa.info". islamqa.info. Retrieved 2018-04-07.
Jump up ^ A F Klein Religion Of Islam Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-09954-0 page 92
Jump up ^ Quran 2:214
Jump up ^ Quran 3:142
Jump up ^ David Marshall Communicating the Word: Revelation, Translation, and Interpretation in Christianity and Islam Georgetown University Press 2011 ISBN 978-1-589-01803-7 p. 8
Jump up ^ Lloyd Ridgeon Islamic Interpretations of Christianity Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-84020-3
Jump up ^ "Who are the Jews and Christians who will enter Paradise? - islamqa.info". islamqa.info. Retrieved 2018-04-04. As far as the Jews are concerned, their faith meant believing in the Tawraat (original Torah) and following the way of Moosa (peace be upon him) until ‘Eesa came, after which whoever continued to follow the Torah and the way of Moosa, and did not leave this and follow ‘Eesa, was doomed. As far as the Christians are concerned, their faith meant believing in the Injeel (original Gospel) and following the laws of ‘Eesa; whoever did this was a believer whose faith was acceptable to Allah, until Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) came, after which whoever did not follow Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and leave the way of ‘Eesa and the Injeel that he had been following before, was doomed.
Jump up ^ Robert McKim Religious Perspectives on Religious Diversity Philosophy of Religion - World Religions BRILL 2016 ISBN 978-9-004-33043-6 page 155
Jump up ^ William C. Chittick The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination SUNY Press 1989 ISBN 978-088-706885-0 page 197
Jump up ^ Mohammad Hassan Khalil Islam and the Fate of Others: The Salvation Question Oxford University Press, USA 2012 ISBN 978-0-199-79666-3 page 45-46
Jump up ^ Sinasi Gündüz, Sinasi Gunduz, Cafer S. Yaran Change and Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change and Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Tradition CRVP 2005 ISBN 978-1-565-18222-6 p. 12
Jump up ^ Sinasi Gündüz, Sinasi Gunduz, Cafer S. Yaran Change and Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change and Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Tradition CRVP 2005 ISBN 978-1-565-18222-6 p. 9
Jump up ^ "The fate of kuffaar who did not hear the message of Islam - islamqa.info". islamqa.info. Retrieved 2018-04-04.
Jump up ^ "22836: The ratio of people of Paradise to people of Hell - islamqa.info". islamqa.info. Retrieved 2018-04-07.
Jump up ^ Quran 18:107
Jump up ^ Quran 23:11
Jump up ^ Quran 35:35
Jump up ^ Quran 10:25
Jump up ^ Quran 6:127
Jump up ^ Quran 29:64
Jump up ^ Quran 2:35
Jump up ^ Quran 3:133
Jump up ^ Quran 5:72
Jump up ^ Quran 3:72
Jump up ^ Quran 13:23
Jump up ^ Quran 25:15
Jump up ^ Quran 53:15
Jump up ^ Quran 5:65
Jump up ^ Quran 10:9
Jump up ^ Quran 22:56
Jump up ^ Quran 54:55
Jump up ^ Quran 44:51
Jump up ^ The Eight Doors of Jannah Archived 2010-06-05 at the Wayback Machine.
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OSI model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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OSI model
by layer
7. Application layer[show]
NNTP
SIP
SSI
DNS
FTP
Gopher
HTTP
NFS
NTP
SMPP
SMTP
SNMP
Telnet
DHCP
Netconf
more....
6. Presentation layer[show]
MIME
XDR
ASN.1
5. Session layer[show]
Named pipe
NetBIOS
SAP
PPTP
RTP
SOCKS
SPDY
4. Transport layer[show]
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
SPX
3. Network layer[show]
IP
IPv4
IPv6
ICMP
IPsec
IGMP
IPX
AppleTalk
X.25 PLP
2. Data link layer[show]
ATM
ARP
IS-IS
SDLC
HDLC
CSLIP
SLIP
GFP
PLIP
IEEE 802.2
LLC
MAC
L2TP
IEEE 802.3
Frame Relay
ITU-T G.hn DLL
PPP
X.25 LAPB
Q.921 LAPD
Q.922 LAPF
1. Physical layer[show]
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
ITU-T V-Series
I.430
I.431
PDH
SONET/SDH
PON
OTN
DSL
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.15
IEEE 802.16
IEEE 1394
ITU-T G.hn PHY
USB
Bluetooth
RS-232
RS-449
v
t
e
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.
Communication in the OSI-Model (example with layers 3 to 5)
Contents
1 History
2 Description of OSI layers
2.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer
2.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
2.3 Layer 3: Network Layer
2.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
2.5 Layer 5: Session Layer
2.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
2.7 Layer 7: Application Layer
3 Cross-layer functions
4 Interfaces
5 Examples
6 Comparison with TCP/IP model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.[2]
Description of OSI layers[edit]
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
OSI Model
Layer
Protocol data unit (PDU)
Function[3]
Host
layers
7. Application Data High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access
6. Presentation Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption
5. Session Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes
4. Transport Segment, Datagram Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing
Media
layers
3. Network Packet Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control
2. Data link Frame Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer
1. Physical Symbol Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.[citation needed]
Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]
Main article: Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network topology. Bluetooth, Ethernet, and USB all have specifications for a physical layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]
Main article: Data link layer
The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]
Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.
Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]
Main article: network layer
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]
Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]
Main article: transport layer
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]
Feature name
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4
Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Connectionless network No No No No Yes
Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No
Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes
Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes
Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes
Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes
a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.
Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]
Main article: session layer
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]
Main article: presentation layer
The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation protocol data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The presentation layer can include compression functions.[9] The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN.1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]
Main article: application layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions[edit]
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Security service (telecommunication)[4] as defined by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) MPLS, ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI divides the Network Layer into 3 roles: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5.
ARP determines the mapping of an IPv4 address to the underlying MAC address. This is not a translation function. If it were IPv4 and the MAC address would be at the same layer. The implementation of the MAC protocol decodes the MAC PDU and delivers the User-Data to the IP-layer. Because Ethernet is a multi-access media, a device sending a PDU on an Ethernet frame needs to know what IP address maps to what MAC address.
DHCP assigns IPv4 addresses to new systems joining a network. There is no means to derive or obtain an IPv4 address from an Ethernet address.
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer service which is used to look up the IP address of a given domain name. Once a reply is received from the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer 4 connection or flow to the desired host. There are no connections at Layer 3.
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favorable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.[10]
Interfaces[edit]
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation-specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
Examples[edit]
Layer
OSI protocols
TCP/IP protocols
Signaling
System 7[11]
AppleTalk
IPX
SNA
UMTS
Miscellaneous examples
No.
Name
7 Application
FTAM
X.400
X.500
DAP
ROSE
RTSE
ACSE[12]
CMIP[13]
INAP
MAP
TCAP
ISUP
TUP
AFP
ZIP
RTMP
NBP
SAP
APPC
HL7
Modbus
HTTP
6 Presentation
ISO/IEC 8823
X.226

ISO/IEC 9576-1
X.236
MIME
SSL
TLS
XDR
AFP
TDI
ASCII
EBCDIC
MIDI
MPEG
5 Session
ISO/IEC 8327
X.225

ISO/IEC 9548-1
X.235
Sockets (session establishment in TCP / RTP / PPTP)
ASP
ADSP
PAP
NWLink
DLC?
Named pipes
NetBIOS
SAP
half duplex
full duplex
simplex
RPC
SOCKS
4 Transport
ISO/IEC 8073
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4 (X.224)
ISO/IEC 8602
X.234
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
DDP
SPX
NBF
3 Network
ISO/IEC 8208
X.25 (PLP)

ISO/IEC 8878
X.223
ISO/IEC 8473-1
CLNP X.233
ISO/IEC 10589
IS-IS
IP
IPsec
ICMP
IGMP
OSPF
RIP
SCCP
MTP
ATP (TokenTalk / EtherTalk)
IPX
RRC / BMC
NBF
Q.931
NDP
IS-IS
2 Data link
ISO/IEC 7666
X.25 (LAPB)

Token Bus
X.222
ISO/IEC 8802-2
LLC (type 1 / 2)[14]
PPP
SBTV
SLIP
MTP
Q.710
LocalTalk
ARA
PPP
IEEE 802.3 framing
Ethernet II framing
SDLC
PDCP[15]
LLC
MAC
ARP
ARQ
ATM
Bit stuffing
CDP
CRC
DOCSIS
FDDI
FDP
Fibre Channel
Frame Relay
HDP
HDLC
IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (Ethernet MAC and LLC)
IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)
ISL
ITU-T G.hn DLL
Linux interface bonding
PPP
Q.921
Token Ring
1 Physical
X.25 (X.21bis
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
EIA-530
G.703)[14]
MTP
Q.710
RS-232
RS-422
PhoneNet
Twinax
UMTS air interfaces
RS-232
Full duplex
RJ45 (8P8C)
V.35
V.34
I.430
I.431
T1
E1
10BASE-T
100BASE-TX
1000BASE-T
POTS
SONET
SDH
DSL
802.11a/b/g/n PHY
ITU-T G.hn PHY
CAN bus
DOCSIS
DWDM
OTN
Comparison with TCP/IP model[edit]
The design of protocols in the TCP/IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.[16] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful".[17] TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.[18]
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.
These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.[citation needed]
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application-layer protocol in its own right.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Computing portal
Layer 8
Hierarchical internetworking model
Management plane
Service layer
Protocol stacks
IBM Systems Network Architecture
Internet protocol suite
WAP protocol suite
Recursive InterNetwork Architecture (RINA)
List of information technology initialisms
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ITU-T X-Series Recommendations
Jump up ^ "Publicly Available Standards". Standards.iso.org. 2010-07-30. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained". Microsoft Support. Retrieved 2014-12-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "ITU-T Recommendataion X.800 (03/91), Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications". ITU. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "5.2 RM description for end stations". IEEE Std 802-2014, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture. ieee.
Jump up ^ International Organization for Standardization (1989-11-15). "ISO/IEC 7498-4:1989 -- Information technology -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Basic Reference Model: Naming and addressing". ISO Standards Maintenance Portal. ISO Central Secretariat. Retrieved 2015-08-17.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation X.224 (11/1995) ISO/IEC 8073, Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service". ITU.
Jump up ^ Grigonis, Richard (2000). Computer telephony- encyclopaedia. CMP. p. 331. ISBN 9781578200450.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T X.200 - Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Basic Reference Model: The basic model".
Jump up ^ Miao, Guowang; Song, Guocong (2014). Energy and spectrum efficient wireless network design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107039886.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993)], Architecture framework for the development of signaling and OA&M protocols using OSI concepts". ITU. pp. 4, 7.
Jump up ^ ITU Rec. X.227 (ISO 8650), X.217 (ISO 8649).
Jump up ^ X.700 series of recommendations from the ITU-T (in particular X.711) and ISO 9596.
^ Jump up to: a b "Internetworking Technology Handbook - Internetworking Basics [Internetworking]". Cisco. 15 January 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "3GPP specification: 36.300". 3gpp.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ RFC 3439
Jump up ^ "RFC 3439 - Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy". ietf.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Walter Goralski. The Illustrated Network: How TCP/IP Works in a Modern Network (PDF). Morgan Kaufmann. p. 26. ISBN 978-0123745415.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to OSI model.
Microsoft Knowledge Base: The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained
ISO/IEC standard 7498-1:1994 (PDF document inside ZIP archive) (requires HTTP cookies in order to accept licence agreement)
ITU-T X.200 (the same contents as from ISO)
"INFormation CHanGe Architectures and Flow Charts powered by Google App Engine". infchg.appspot.com. The ISO OSI Reference Model, Beluga graph of data units and groups of layers. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26.
Zimmermann, Hubert (April 1980). "OSI Reference Model — The ISO Model of Architecture for Open Systems Interconnection". IEEE Transactions on Communications. 28 (4): 425–432. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.9497  . doi:10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094702.
Cisco Systems Internetworking Technology Handbook
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI-model
OSI-model – Afrikaans
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af
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values: نموذج اتصال معياري – Arabic

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interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
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values: Эталонная мадэль OSI – Belarusian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-be
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values: Мадэль OSI – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

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interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
OSI model – Bosnian
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interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI-model
OSI-model – Danish
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values: Avatud süsteemide sidumise arhitektuur – Estonian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-et
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values: Μοντέλο αναφοράς OSI – Greek

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interlanguage-link interwiki-el
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interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
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values: مدل اتصال متقابل سامانه‌های باز – Persian

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values: ઓએસઆઈ મોડેલ – Gujarati

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
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values: ओएसआई प्रतिमान – Hindi

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
OSI model – Croatian
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hr
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interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_OSI
Model OSI – Indonesian
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id
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values: Atvērto sistēmu sadarbības bāzes etalonmodelis – Latvian

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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_OSI
Model OSI – Malay
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ms
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interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: OSI မော်ဒယ်လ် – Burmese

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interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

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https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI-model
OSI-model – Dutch
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nl
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interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
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interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
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https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_OSI
Model OSI – Polish
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pl
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interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
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values: Сетевая модель OSI – Russian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
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interlanguage-link interwiki-si
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https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_OSI
Model OSI – Slovak
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
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values: ОСИ модел – Serbian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
OSI model – Serbo-Croatian
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sh
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI-malli
OSI-malli – Finnish
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fi
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values: ఓ.ఎస్.ఐ నమూనా – Telugu

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interlanguage-link interwiki-te
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values: แบบจำลองโอเอสไอ – Thai

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interlanguage-link interwiki-th
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values: Мережева модель OSI – Ukrainian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
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https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
OSI model – Yoruba
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yo
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interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
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