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Universal background check
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This article is about background checks for private sales of firearms in the United States. For background checks in general, see Background check.
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Proposals for universal background checks would require almost all firearms transactions in the United States to be recorded and go through the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS), closing what is sometimes called the private sale loophole.
In a 2017 survey, a panel of 32 scholars of criminology, public health and law rated universal background checks as the most effective policy to prevent gun deaths, ranking it #1 of 29 possible gun-related policies.[1] Universal background checks enjoy high levels of public support; a 2016 representative survey found 86% of U.S. registered voters supported the measure.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Private sale loophole
3 Public support and opposition
4 Effectiveness
5 Implications for mental health counseling
6 States with universal background check laws
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
Background[edit]
Main article: Gun show loophole
Currently, federal law requires background checks (through the National Instant Criminal Background Check System) only for guns sold through licensed firearm dealers, which account for 78% of all gun sales in the United States. This data is according to a Study by the original author that found the 40% of firearms were transferred (this includes both sale and inheritance) done in 1994, but once updated in February of 2017 found that of 1613 adult gun owners, only 22% purchased a firearm through a private sale.[2] The current federal law allows people not "engaged in the business" of selling firearms to sell firearms without a license or records. The Coalition to Stop Gun Violence (CSGV) states that the National Instant Criminal Background Check System has prevented over two million convicted felons and other prohibited persons from purchasing firearms. According to the CSGV, the law also has a prohibitive effect, that deters illegal purchases.
In November 1998, President Bill Clinton directed the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury and the U.S. Attorney General (A.G.) to provide recommendations concerning the fact that 25 percent or more of sellers at gun shows are not required to run background checks on potential buyers. This was called the gun show loophole.[3]:3,12[4][5]:27 Two months later, Gun Shows: Brady Checks and Crime Gun Traces was released.[3] The Secretary and the A.G. made seven recommendations, including expanding the definition of "gun show," and reviewing the definition of "engaged in the business."
After the Columbine High School massacre in April 1999, gun shows and background checks became a focus of national debate.[6][7][8] In May, the executive vice president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) told the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime, "We think it is reasonable to provide mandatory, instant criminal background checks for every sale at every gun show."[9]:118 Those concerned about the shows believed they were a source of illegally trafficked firearms.[10][nb 1] Efforts to reverse a key feature of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) by requiring criminal background checks and purchase records on private sales at gun shows, which had become prolific in the U.S. since the law's passage in 1986, were unsuccessful.[11][12]
Private sale loophole[edit]
In the August 5, 2010, issue of The New England Journal of Medicine, researchers Garen J. Wintemute, Anthony A. Braga, and David M. Kennedy, wrote that gun shows account for only a fraction of all U.S. gun sales and that a more effective strategy would be to make all private-party gun sales go through the screening and record-keeping processes that FFL dealers are required to do.[13] Their report concluded:
Drawbacks with respect to expense and inconvenience notwithstanding, 83% of self-reported gun owners and 87% of the general population endorsed regulation for all private-party gun sales in a 2008 poll that was conducted for the advocacy organization Mayors Against Illegal Guns. Gun owners gave stronger support to this all-inclusive approach than to a gun-show-only proposal in a 2009 poll conducted for the same organization. Either proposal would face tough sledding on Capitol Hill. It would therefore seem preferable to move forward with the version that is most likely to reduce the rates of firearm-related violence.[13]
Following the December 14, 2012, Sandy Hook Elementary School massacre there were numerous calls for universal background checks,[14][15][16] to close what is now referred to as the "private sale loophole."[17][18][19] In an essay published in 2013, Wintemute said that comprehensive background checks that included private sales would result in a simple, fair framework for retail firearms commerce.[20]:103 In February 2014, researchers at the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research reported that after the 2007 repeal in Missouri of a long-standing law that required all handgun buyers to pass a background check there was a 23 percent increase in firearms homicides.[21]
In 2017, a study by researchers from Northeastern University and the Harvard School of Public Health showed that 22% of American gun owners who had obtained a gun in the previous two years did not undergo a background check before doing so.[22]
Public support and opposition[edit]
Universal background checks enjoy high levels of public support; a 2016 representative survey found 86% of U.S. registered voters supported the measure.[1] Five national polls conducted in 2015 show high levels of support for "expanded background checks for gun purchases," with rates varying (93% and 89% support in two Quinnipiac University surveys, 92% support in a CBS/New York Times survey, 86% support in a Gallup survey, 85% support in a Pew Research Center survey).[23] A 2015 survey found that more than 90% of Americans supported universal background checks, and that, on average, Americans thought they would be more effective than any other gun policy.[24] There is evidence that many Americans incorrectly think that universal background checks are required by federal law; a 2016 survey found that 41% of Americans believed this to be the case. The same survey found that 77% of Americans supported universal background checks, while only 53% supported stricter gun laws. Based on this data, the authors concluded that "this difference might be attributable to poor awareness of the limitations of existing laws."[25]
Those who oppose universal background checks argue that existing gun laws are sufficient; that the government does not prosecute enough of the attempted buyers who are turned away by the current system; that background checks are an invasion of privacy; that "transfer" might be defined too broadly.[26] Opponents also maintain that universal background checks would not stop crime[26][27] and assert that the only way to properly enforce a universal system would be to require a registration database.[27] Gun-rights advocate and author John Lott argues that universal background checks prevent poorer Americans from acquiring guns. Lott said that, as of December 2015, background checks added an effective cost of $80 (New York), $60 (Washington state), or $200 (Washington, D.C.) to transferring a firearm. Lott argues that universal background checks are an effective tax on guns and can prevent less affluent Americans from purchasing them, and that this disproportionately affects poor minorities who live in high-crime urban areas.[28]
Effectiveness[edit]
In a 2017 survey, a panel of 32 scholars of criminology, public health and law rated universal background checks as the most effective policy to prevent gun deaths, ranking it #1 of 29 possible gun-related policies.[1]
Research demonstrates that background check laws are effective in decreasing gun homicides and suicides.[29] A 2015 study published in the American Journal of Public Health found that a Connecticut law (enacted in 1995) requiring handgun buyers to undergo a background check (in order to obtain a required permit) "was associated with a 40 percent decline in gun homicides and a 15 percent drop in suicides" during the law's first ten years in effect.[30] A 2014 study published in the Journal of Urban Health found that the 2007 repeal of a "permit-to-purchase" handgun law in Missouri (including the repeal of a background-check requirement) was associated with a 23% increase in the firearm homicide rate and a 15% increase in the murder rate, translating "to increases of between 55 and 63 homicides per year in Missouri."[31] The study controlled for other variables that might affect homicides, including "changes in rates of unemployment, poverty, incarceration, burglary, law enforcement officers per capita, and the presence of four other types of state laws."[31]
Implications for mental health counseling[edit]
Universal background check laws, which require that a background check be conducted before any gun transfer, may apply to temporary removals of guns from the home of suicidal individuals. Some clinicians have reported that these laws have created confusion about whether a gun transfer would be legal, and therefore made it more difficult for them to counsel their patients.[32]
States with universal background check laws[edit]
Currently 8 U.S. states and the District of Columbia "have extended the background check requirement beyond federal law to at least some private sales."[33]
Eight states, plus the District of Columbia, universally prohibit any transfer of a firearm without a background check: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington State
Two states universally prohibit any transfer of a handgun only without a background check: Maryland, Pennsylvania
Four states require the buyer to pass a background check in order to obtain a permit required for buying a firearm: Hawaii, Illinois, Massachusetts and New Jersey
Four states require the buyer to pass a background check in order to obtain a permit required for buying a handgun only: Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska, and North Carolina.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ A report released in 2009, 10 years after Columbine, discussed the role that gun shows play in trafficking to Mexico.[5]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Quoctrung Bui & Margot Sanger-Katz, How to Prevent Gun Deaths? Where Experts and the Public Agree, New York Times (January 10, 2017).
Jump up ^ Matthew Miller, MD, ScD; Lisa Hepburn, PhD; Deborah Azrael, PhD. "Firearm Acquisition Without Background Checks". Annals of Internal Medicine. Retrieved February 20, 2017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b U.S. Department of the Treasury, U.S. Department of Justice (January 1999). "Gun Shows: Brady Checks and Crime Gun Traces" (PDF). atf.gov. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF). Retrieved June 27, 2014. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Gun Show undercover" (PDF). October 2009. p. 11. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Firearms Trafficking: U.S. Efforts to Combat Arms Trafficking to Mexico Face Planning and Coordination Challenges" (PDF). gao.gov. United States Government Accountability Office (GAO). June 2009. GAO-09-709. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The debate on gun policies in U.S. and midwest newspapers". Berkeley Media Studies Group. January 1, 2000.
Jump up ^ National Conference of State Legislatures (June 1, 2000). "Colorado After Columbine The Gun Debate". The Free Library by Farlex. Gale Group.
Jump up ^ "No Questions Asked: Background Checks, Gun Shows, and Crime" (PDF). Americans for Gun Safety Foundation. April 1, 2001.
Jump up ^ LaPierre, Wayne (May 27, 1999). "Statement of Wayne LaPierre, Executive Vice President, National Rifle Association". commdocs.house.gov (Testimony). Washington, D.C. Retrieved July 4, 2014. No loopholes anywhere for anyone.
Jump up ^ "Following the Gun: Enforcing Federal Laws Against Firearms Traffickers" (PDF). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). June 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2003.
Jump up ^ Olinger, David (February 13, 2000). "Dealers live for gun shows". Denverpost.com. Retrieved January 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Baum, Dan (June 8, 2000). "What I saw at the gun show". rollingstone.com. Retrieved January 30, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Wintemute, Garen J.; Braga, Anthony A.; Kennedy, David M. (August 5, 2010). "Private-Party Gun Sales, Regulation, and Public Safety". The New England Journal of Medicine. Massachusetts Medical Society. 363 (6): 508–511. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1006326. PMID 20592291. Retrieved June 27, 2014. Published online at nejm.org on June 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hartfield, Elizabeth (December 24, 2012). "In Gun Control Debate, Arguments for Tougher Background Checks, Better State Reporting". ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Sullum, Jacob (January 11, 2013). "4 Questions About 'Universal Background Checks' for Gun Purchases". Reason.com (Blog). Reason Foundation. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ More universal sources:
Avlon, John (January 12, 2013). "Gun debate still rages after Sandy Hook slaughter". The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Sullivan, Cheryl (January 12, 2013). "Gun debate 101: Time for 'universal' background checks on buyers?". Christian Science Monitor. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Martinez, Michael (January 28, 2013). "'Universal background check:' What does it mean?". Cable News Network. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Kristin (December 15, 2011). "Illegal Internet Gun Sales are Soaring in Virginia". WUSA9. Retrieved February 7, 2015. These Internet sales really are the new gun shows.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Eliza (November 29, 2012). "Gun-Control Lobby Targets Obama, Demands Reform". Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ More private sale loophole sources:
Kirkham, Chris (December 21, 2012). "Private Gun Sale Loophole Creates Invisible Firearms Market, Prompts Calls For Reform". The Huffington Post.
"Universal Background Checks & the Private Sale Loophole Policy Summary". Smart Gun Laws. Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. August 21, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2015.
Taylor, Marisa (December 22, 2014). "Gun law loophole could have provided Brinsley's murder weapon, say experts". Al Jazeera America. Through something known as the private sale loophole, he could have purchased the firearm in the private market at a gun show or out of someone’s trunk.
Dobbs, Taylor (January 16, 2015). "Gun Rights Group Slams Proposed Legislation". Vermont Public Radio.
Jump up ^ Wintemute, Garen J. (2013). "Comprehensive Background Checks for Firearm Sales: Evidence from Gun Shows". In Webster, Daniel W.; Vernick, Jon S. Reducing Gun Violence in America. JHU Press. pp. 95–107. ISBN 9781421411101. OCLC 823897002. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Webster, Daniel (February 18, 2014). "ID Check Repeal Prompts Spike In Murders, Study Finds". All Things Considered (Interview). Interview with Audie Cornish. NPR. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Miller, M; Hepburn, L; Azrael, D (3 January 2017). "Firearm Acquisition Without Background Checks: Results of a National Survey". Annals of Internal Medicine. PMID 28055050.
Jump up ^ Carroll, Lauren (5 January 2016). "Laura Ingraham wrongly says claim that 90% support for gun background checks has been debunked". Politifact. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Sorenson, Susan B. (October 2015). "Assessing views about gun violence reduction policy: A look at type of violence and expected effectiveness". Preventive Medicine. 79: 50–54. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.04.025.
Jump up ^ Aronow, Peter M; Miller, Benjamin T (January 2016). "Policy misperceptions and support for gun control legislation". The Lancet. 387 (10015): 223. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00042-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Good, Chris (April 10, 2013). "The Case Against Gun Background Checks". ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b G&A online editors (May 28, 2013). "NRA Members: Universal Background Checks 'Not a Solution'". Guns & Ammo. Intermedia Outdoors. Retrieved June 30, 2014. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Lott, John. "Mass Shootings and Gun Control". National Review.
Jump up ^ Danielle Kurtzleben, Research Suggests Gun Background Checks Work, But They're Not Everything, NPR (January 9, 2016).
Jump up ^ Kara E. Rudolph, Elizabeth A. Stuart, Jon S. Vernick & Daniel W. Webster, Association Between Connecticut’s Permit-to-Purchase Handgun Law and Homicides. American Journal of Public Health (August 2015), Vol. 105, No. 8, pp. e49-e54. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2015.302703.
^ Jump up to: a b Daniel Webster, Cassandra Kercher Crifasi & Jon S. Vernick, Effects of the repeal of Missouri's handgun purchaser licensing law on homicides., Journal of Urban Health (April 2014), Vol. 91, No. 2, pp. 293-302. doi:10.1007/s11524-014-9865-8.
Jump up ^ McCourt, AD; Vernick, JS; Betz, ME; Brandspigel, S; Runyan, CW (1 January 2017). "Temporary Transfer of Firearms From the Home to Prevent Suicide: Legal Obstacles and Recommendations". JAMA Internal Medicine. 177 (1): 96–101. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5704. PMID 27842186.
Jump up ^ "Universal Background Checks". Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved November 2, 2016. Eighteen states and D.C. have extended the background check requirement beyond federal law to at least some private sales....
Further reading[edit]
Editorial board (February 18, 2014). "Missouri study shows why we need universal gun background checks". Chicago Sun-Times. Sun-Times Media. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
Krouse, William J. (March 1, 2013). "Gun Control Proposals in the 113th Congress: Universal Background Checks, Gun Trafficking, and Military Style Firearms" (PDF). U.S. Department of State. Retrieved February 17, 2015.
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Endometrium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Endometrium
Uterus and uterine tubes. (Endometrium labeled at center right.)
Details
Identifiers
Latin
tunica mucosa uteri
MeSH
A05.360.319.679.490
Dorlands
/Elsevier
Endometrium
TA
A09.1.03.027
FMA
17742
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The endometrium is the inner epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus. It has a basal layer and a functional layer; the functional layer thickens and then is sloughed during the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle. During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.[1][2] The presence of commensal bacteria in the uterus and endometrium has been identified.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
2.1 Cycle
3 Gene and protein expression
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Embryo transfer
5 Microbiome
6 Additional images
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Structure[edit]
High magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone (oral contraceptive pill). H&E stain
Low magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium. H&E stain
The endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium plus the stroma on which it rests. The stroma is a layer of connective tissue that varies in thickness according to hormonal influences. Simple tubular uterine glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply of spiral arteries. In a woman of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished. These two layers occur only in endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, not in the lining of the uterine (Fallopian) tubes:[1][2]
The functional layer is adjacent to the uterine cavity. This layer is built up after the end of menstruation during the first part of the previous menstrual cycle. Proliferation is induced by estrogen (follicular phase of menstrual cycle), and later changes in this layer are engendered by progesterone from the corpus luteum (luteal phase). It is adapted to provide an optimum environment for the implantation and growth of the embryo. This layer is completely shed during menstruation.
The basal layer, adjacent to the myometrium and below the functional layer, is not shed at any time during the menstrual cycle, and from it the functional layer develops.
In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation.
It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing histological differences at each phase—for example in the ovarian cycle:
Phase
Days
Thickness
Epithelium
Menstrual phase 1–5 Thin Absent
Follicular phase 5–14 Intermediate Columnar
Luteal phase 15–27 Thick Columnar. Also visible are arcuate vessels of uterus
Ischemic phase 27–28 Columnar. Also visible are arcuate vessels of uterus
Function[edit]
The endometrium is the innermost glandular layer and functions as a lining for the uterus, preventing adhesions between the opposed walls of the myometrium, thereby maintaining the patency of the uterine cavity. During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich, glandular tissue layer. This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. The endometrium is central, echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has an average thickness of 6.7 mm.
During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.
Cycle[edit]
The endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration. Humans and great apes display the menstrual cycle, whereas most other mammals are subject to an estrous cycle. In both cases, the endometrium initially proliferates under the influence of estrogen. However, once ovulation occurs, in addition to estrogen, the ovary will also start to produce progesterone. This changes the proliferative pattern of the endometrium to a secretory lining. Eventually, the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment for one or more blastocysts.
Upon fertilization, the egg may implant into the uterine wall and provide feedback to the body with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). HCG provides continued feedback throughout pregnancy by maintaining the corpus luteum, which will continue its role of releasing progesterone and estrogen. The endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter case, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, the tearing of small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood that had constituted it through the vagina. The entire process occurs over a period of several days. Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; these help expel the menstrual endometrium.
In case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining is neither absorbed nor shed. Instead, it remains as decidua. The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation.
If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans, this will result in amenorrhea, or the absence of a menstrual period. After menopause, the lining is often described as being atrophic. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become hyperplastic. Long-term use of oral contraceptives with highly potent progestins can also induce endometrial atrophy.[4][5]
In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Various factors including the seasons, climate, and stress can affect its development. The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different stages of the cycle and this affects other parts of the reproductive system.
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and some 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal endometrium.[6][7] Just over 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the endometrium with only a handfull genes being highly endometrium specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and stromal cells of the endometrial mucosa. The expression of many of these proteins vary depending on the menstrual cycle, for example the progestorone receptor and thyrotropin-releasing hormone both expressed in the proliferative phase, and PAEP expressed in the secretory phase. Other proteins such as the HOX11 protein that is required for female fertility, is expressed in endometrial stroma cells throughout the menstrual cycle. Certain specific proteins such as the estrogen receptor are also expressed in other types of female tissue types, such as the cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries and breast.[8]
Clinical significance[edit]
Chorionic tissue can result in marked endometrial changes, known as an Arias-Stella reaction, that have an appearance similar to cancer.[9] Historically, this change was diagnosed as endometrial cancer and it is important only in so far as it should not be misdiagnosed as cancer.
Adenomyosis is the growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus (the myometrium).
Endometriosis is the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus.
Endometrial hyperplasia
Endometrial cancer is the most common cancer of the human female genital tract.
Asherman's syndrome, also known as intrauterine adhesions occurs when the basal layer of the endometrium is damaged by instrumentation (e.g., D&C) or infection (e.g., endometrial tuberculosis) resulting in endometrial sclerosis and adhesion formation partially or completely obliterating the uterine cavity.
Thin endometrium may be defined as an endometrial thickness of less than 8 mm. It usually occurs after menopause. Treatments that can improve endometrial thickness include Vitamin E, L-arginine and sildenafil citrate.[10]
Gene expression profiling using cDNA microarray can be used for the diagnosis of endometrial disorders.[11] The European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) released Guidelines with detailed information to assess the endometrium. [12]
Embryo transfer[edit]
An endometrial thickness (EMT) of less than 7 mm decreases the pregnancy rate in in vitro fertilization by an odds ratio of approximately 0.4 compared to an EMT of over 7 mm. However, such low thickness rarely occurs, and any routine use of this parameter is regarded as not justified.[13]
Triple-line endometrium measuring 7mm.
Observation of the endometrium by transvaginal ultrasonography is used when administering fertility medication, such as in in vitro fertilization. At the time of embryo transfer, it is favorable to have an endometrium of a thickness of between 7 and 14 mm with a triple-line configuration,[14] which means that the endometrium contains a hyperechoic (usually displayed as light) line in the middle surrounded by two more hypoechoic (darker) lines. A triple-line endometrium reflects the separation of the stratum basalis and functionalis layers, and is also observed in the periovulatory period secondary to rising estradiol levels, and disappears after ovulation.[15]
Microbiome[edit]
The endometrium was once thought to be sterile. Instead, a resident, non-pathogenic, and diverse population of microorganisms are present in healthy tissue. The uterus and its tissues are not sterile.[16][17][18][19]
The first studies of flora colonizing the human endometrium were published in 2015, were on special populations, and were too small from which to generalize. In one study of 58 women undergoing hysterectomy, investigators looked for 12 species of bacteria; Lactobacillus and Prevotella were the most commonly detected species and overall density was much lower than vaginal colonization. In another study of 22 infertile women undergoing fertility treatments, Lactobacillus and Flavobacterium were most prevalent, and characteristics of the flora were roughly similar in women who became pregnant and those who didn't.[3]
Additional images[edit]
The initial stages of human embryogenesis
Vertical section of mucous membrane of human uterus.
Endometrioid adenocarcinoma from biopsy. H&E stain.
Micrograph of the endometrium.
Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Micrograph showing endometrial stromal condensation, a finding seen in menses.
See also[edit]
endometrial regenerative cells, also known as endometrial stem cells.
CYTL1, also known as cytokine-like like protein 1.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Blue Histology - Female Reproductive System. School of Anatomy and Human Biology — The University of Western Australia Accessed 20061228 20:35
^ Jump up to: a b Guyton AC and Hall JE, eds. (2006). "Chapter 81 Female Physiology Before Pregnancy and Female Hormones". Textbook of Medical Physiology (11th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 1018ff. ISBN 9780721602400. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Franasiak, Jason M.; Scott, Richard T. (2015). "Reproductive tract microbiome in assisted reproductive technologies". Fertility and Sterility. 104 (6): 1364–1371. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.10.012. ISSN 0015-0282. PMID 26597628.
Jump up ^ Deligdisch, L. (1993). "Effects of hormone therapy on the endometrium". Modern pathology : an official journal of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology, Inc. 6 (1): 94–106. PMID 8426860.
Jump up ^ William's Gynecology, McGraw 2008, Chapter 8, Abnormal Uterine Bleeding
Jump up ^ "The human proteome in endometrium - The Human Protein Atlas". www.proteinatlas.org. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
Jump up ^ Uhlén, Mathias; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Lindskog, Cecilia; Oksvold, Per; Mardinoglu, Adil; Sivertsson, Åsa; Kampf, Caroline; Sjöstedt, Evelina (2015-01-23). "Tissue-based map of the human proteome". Science. 347 (6220): 1260419. doi:10.1126/science.1260419. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25613900.
Jump up ^ Zieba, Agata; Sjöstedt, Evelina; Olovsson, Matts; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Oskarsson, Linda; Edlund, Karolina; Tolf, Anna; Uhlen, Mathias (2015-10-21). "The Human Endometrium-Specific Proteome Defined by Transcriptomics and Antibody-Based Profiling". OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology. 19 (11): 659–668. doi:10.1089/omi.2015.0115.
Jump up ^ Arias-Stella, J. (Jan 2002). "The Arias-Stella reaction: facts and fancies four decades after". Adv Anat Pathol. 9 (1): 12–23. doi:10.1097/00125480-200201000-00003. PMID 11756756.
Jump up ^ Takasaki A, Tamura H, Miwa I, Taketani T, Shimamura K, Sugino N (April 2010). "Endometrial growth and uterine blood flow: a pilot study for improving endometrial thickness in the patients with a thin endometrium". Fertil. Steril. 93 (6): 1851–8. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.062. PMID 19200982.
Jump up ^ Tseng, L.; Chen, I.; Chen, M.; Yan, H.; Wang, C.; Lee, C. (2010). "Genome-based expression profiling as a single standardized microarray platform for the diagnosis of endometrial disorder: an array of 126-gene model". Fertility and Sterility. 94 (1): 114–119. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.01.130. PMID 19328470.
Jump up ^ Dreisler E, Poulsen LG, Antonsen SL, Ceausu I, Depypere H, Erel CT, Lambrinoudaki I, Pérez-López FR, Simoncini T, Tremollieres F, Rees M, Ulrich LG (2013). "EMAS clinical guide: Assessment of the endometrium in peri and postmenopausal women". Maturita. 75 (2): 181–90. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.03.011. PMID 23619009.
Jump up ^ Kasius, A.; Smit, J. G.; Torrance, H. L.; Eijkemans, M. J. C.; Mol, B. W.; Opmeer, B. C.; Broekmans, F. J. M. (2014). "Endometrial thickness and pregnancy rates after IVF: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Human Reproduction Update. 20 (4): 530–541. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu011. ISSN 1355-4786.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Jing; Zhang, Qiong; Li, Yanping (2012). "The effect of endometrial thickness and pattern measured by ultrasonography on pregnancy outcomes during IVF-ET cycles". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 10 (1): 100. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-10-100. ISSN 1477-7827.
Jump up ^ Baerwald, A. R.; Pierson, R. A. (2004). "Endometrial development in association with ovarian follicular waves during the menstrual cycle". Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 24 (4): 453–460. doi:10.1002/uog.1123. ISSN 0960-7692.
Jump up ^ Perez-Muñoz, Maria Elisa; Arrieta, Marie-Claire; Ramer-Tait, Amanda E.; Walter, Jens (2017). "A critical assessment of the "sterile womb" and "in utero colonization" hypotheses: implications for research on the pioneer infant icrobiome". Microbiome. 5 (1). doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0268-4. ISSN 2049-2618.
Jump up ^ Mor, Gil; Kwon, Ja-Young (2015). "Trophoblast-microbiome interaction: a new paradigm on immune regulation". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 213 (4): S131–S137. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.06.039. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 26428492.
Jump up ^ Yarbrough, V. L.; Winkle, S.; Herbst-Kralovetz, M. M. (2014). "Antimicrobial peptides in the female reproductive tract: a critical component of the mucosal immune barrier with physiological and clinical implications". Human Reproduction Update. 21 (3): 353–377. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu065. ISSN 1355-4786. PMID 25547201; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh
Jump up ^ Prince, Amanda L.; Antony, Kathleen M.; Chu, Derrick M.; Aagaard, Kjersti M. (2014). "The microbiome, parturition, and timing of birth: more questions than answers". Journal of ReproductiveImmunology. 104–105: 12–19. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2014.03.006. ISSN 0165-0378. PMC 4157949  . PMID 24793619.
External links[edit]
Anatomy figure: 43:05-15 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center - "The uterus, uterine tubes and ovary with associated structures."
Histology image: 18902loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University - "Female Reproductive System uterus, endometrium"
Swiss embryology (from UL, UB, and UF) gnidation/role02
Histology image: 20_01 at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
Histology at utah.edu. Slide is proliferative phase - click forward to see secretory phase
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Shefali Chowdhury
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Shefali Chowdhury
Native name
শেফালী চৌধুরী
Born
(1988-06-20) 20 June 1988 (age 29)
Denbigh, Denbighshire, Wales
Residence
Birmingham, West Midlands, England
Nationality
British
Alma mater
Solihull Sixth Form College
Birmingham City University
Occupation
Actress
Known for
Parvati Patil in the Harry Potter film series
Height
5 ft 4 in (1.63 m)
Shefali Chowdhury (Bengali: শেফালী চৌধুরী; born 20 June 1988) is a British actress of Bangladeshi descent best known for playing the role of Parvati Patil in the Harry Potter film series, except for Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), in which the character is played by Sitara Shah.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Filmography
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
The youngest of five siblings, Chowdhury was born in Denbigh, Wales to Bangladeshi parents who migrated to the United Kingdom in 1980. At the age of six, she moved to Birmingham, England.
Career[edit]
Chowdhury is known for her performances as Parvati Patil in four of the Harry Potter films, starting with 2005's Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. She acquired the role when she was in her last year at the Waverley School in Birmingham. She and Afshan Azad, (who played the character of Chowdhury's twin sister Padma Patil) are also good friends, according to Azad.[1]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Parvati Patil
2007 Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
2009 Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
2015 I Am the Doorway Short film
Heist: Jane Short film
See also[edit]
movie portal
Harry Potter portal
British Bangladeshi
List of British Bangladeshis
List of Harry Potter cast members
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NR chats to GOF's Patil twins". Newsround. BBC. 17 November 2005. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
External links[edit]
Shefali Chowdhury on IMDb

This article about a British film actor or actress is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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