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Russian Provisional Government
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Coordinates: 59°56′27″N 30°18′47″E / 59.9408°N 30.313°E / 59.9408; 30.313
Lvov Government

9th cabinet of Russia
Date formed
2 March [15 March, N.S.] 1917
Date dissolved
July 1917
People and organisations
Head of state
Alexis II (unproclaimed)
Michael II (conditionally)
Georgy Lvov (de facto)
Head of government
Georgy Lvov
Member party
Progressive Bloc
Status in legislature
Coalition
Opposition cabinet
Executive Committee of Petrograd Soviet
Opposition party
Socialist coalition
Opposition leader
Nikolay Chkheidze
History
Incoming formation
Golitsyn
Outgoing formation
Kerensky I
Predecessor
Nikolay Golitsyn
Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The Russian Provisional Government (Russian: Временное правительство России, tr. Vremennoye pravitel'stvo Rossii) was a provisional government of Russia established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on 2 March [15 March, New Style] 1917.[1][2] The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October [November, N.S.] 1917. According to Harold Whitmore Williams the history of eight months during which Russia was ruled by the Provisional Government was the history of the steady and systematic disorganisation of the army.[3]
For most of the life of the Provisional Government, the status of the monarchy was unresolved. This was finally clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 World recognition
2 Formation
3 Initial composition
4 April Crisis
5 July crisis and second coalition government
6 Third coalition
7 Legislative policies and problems
8 Democratization
9 Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic
10 October Revolution
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 Further reading
13.1 Primary sources
Overview[edit]
The Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was led first by Prince Georgy Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky. It replaced the institution of the Council of Ministers of Russia, members of which after the February Revolution presided in the Chief Office of Admiralty.[citation needed] At the same time the Russian Emperor Nicholas II abdicated in favor of the Grand Duke Michael who agreed that he would accept after the decision of Russian Constituent Assembly. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5] This weakness left the government open to strong challenges from both the right and the left. The Provisional Government's chief adversary on the left was the Petrograd Soviet, which tentatively cooperated with the government at first, but then gradually gained control of the army, factories, and railways.[6] The period of competition for authority ended in late October 1917, when Bolsheviks routed the ministers of the Provisional Government in the events known as the October Revolution, and placed power in the hands of the soviets, or "workers' councils," which had given their support to the Bolsheviks. The weakness of the Provisional Government is perhaps best reflected in the derisive nickname given to Kerensky: "persuader-in-chief."[7]
World recognition[edit]
country
date
United States 22 March 1917
United Kingdom 24 March 1917
France
Italy
Formation[edit]
Russian Provisional Government in March 1917
The authority of the Tsar's government began disintegrating on 1 November 1916, when Milyukov attacked the Boris Stürmer government in the Duma. Stürmer was succeeded by Alexander Trepov and Nikolai Golitsyn, both Prime Ministers for only a few weeks. During the February Revolution two rival institutions, the Imperial Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, both located in the Tauride Palace, competed for power. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March [15 March, N.S.] and Milyukov announced the committee's decision to offer the Regency to his brother, Grand Duke Michael as the next tsar.[8] Grand Duke Michael did not want to take the poisoned chalice[9] and deferred acceptance of imperial power the next day. The Provisional Government was designed to set up elections to the Assembly while maintaining essential government services, but its power was effectively limited by the Petrograd Soviet's growing authority.
Public announcement of the formation of the Provisional Government was made. It was published in Izvestia the day after its formation.[10] The announcement stated the declaration of government
Full and immediate amnesty on all issues political and religious, including: terrorist acts, military uprisings, and agrarian crimes etc.
Freedom of word, press, unions, assemblies, and strikes with spread of political freedoms to military servicemen within the restrictions allowed by military-technical conditions.
Abolition of all hereditary, religious, and national class restrictions.
Immediate preparations for the convocation on basis of universal, equal, secret, and direct vote for the Constituent Assembly which will determine the form of government and the constitution.
Replacement of the police with a public militsiya and its elected chairmanship subordinated to the local authorities.
Elections to the authorities of local self-government on basis of universal, direct, equal, and secret vote.
Non-disarmament and non-withdrawal out of Petrograd the military units participating in the revolution movement.
Under preservation of strict discipline in ranks and performing a military service - elimination of all restrictions for soldiers in the use of public rights granted to all other citizens.
It also said, "The provisional government feels obliged to add that it is not intended to take advantage of military circumstances for any delay in implementing the above reforms and measures."
Initial composition[edit]
Initial composition of the Provisional Government:

Post
Name
Party
Time of appointment
Minister-President and Minister of the Interior Georgy Lvov March 1917
Minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov Kadet March 1917
Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party April 1917
Minister of War and Navy Alexander Guchkov Octobrist March 1917
Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Transport Nikolai Nekrasov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Progressist March 1917
Minister of Justice Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party March 1917
Pavel Pereverzev Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Finance Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party March 1917
Andrei Shingarev Kadet April 1917
Minister of Education Andrei Manuilov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Agriculture Andrei Shingarev Kadet March 1917
Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik April 1917
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia) April 1917
Minister of Post and Telegraph Irakli Tsereteli Menshevik April 1917
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist March 1917
April Crisis[edit]
On 18 April [1 May, N.S.] 1917 minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov sent a note to the Allied governments, promising to continue the war to 'its glorious conclusion'. On 20–21 April 1917 massive demonstrations of workers and soldiers erupted against the continuation of war. Demonstrations demanded resignation of Milyukov. They were soon met by the counter-demonstrations organised in his support. General Lavr Kornilov, commander of the Petrograd military district, wished to suppress the disorders, but premier Georgy Lvov refused to resort to violence.
The Provisional Government accepted the resignation of Foreign Minister Milyukov and War Minister Guchkov, and made a proposal to the Petrograd Soviet to form a coalition government. As a result of negotiations, on 22 April 1917 agreement was reached and 6 socialist ministers joined the cabinet.
During this period the Provisional Government merely reflected the will of the Soviet, where left tendencies (Bolshevism) were gaining ground. The Government, however, influenced by the "bourgeois" ministers, tried to base itself on the right wing of the Soviet. Socialist ministers, coming under fire from their left wing Soviet associates, were compelled to pursue a double-faced policy. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5]
July crisis and second coalition government[edit]
Kerensky First Government

10th cabinet of Russia
Date formed
July 1917 (see July Days)
Date dissolved
1 September 1917
People and organisations
Head of state
Grand Duke Michael (conditionally)
Alexander Kerensky (de facto)
Head of government
Alexander Kerensky
Member party
Socialist-Revolutionaries
Status in legislature
Coalition
Opposition cabinet
Executive Committee of Petrograd Soviet
Opposition party
RSDLP
Opposition leader
Nikolay Chkheidze / Leon Trotsky
History
Incoming formation
Lvov
Outgoing formation
Kerensky II
Predecessor
Georgy Lvov
Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The July Days took place in Petrograd between 3–7 July [16–20 July, N.S.] 1917, when soldiers and industrial workers in the city took to the streets in opposition to the Provisional Government. After the rising was put down, the Bolsheviks were blamed for it, and their leader Vladimir Lenin went into hiding, while other leaders were arrested.[11]
The result of the events was new protracted crisis in the Provisional Government. "Bourgeois" ministers, belonging to the Constitutional Democratic Party resigned, and no cabinet could be formed to the end of the month. Finally, on 24 July [6 August, N.S.] 1917, a new coalition cabinet, composed mostly of socialists, was formed with Kerensky at its head.
Second coalition:
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President and Minister of War and Navy Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Finance Nikolai Nekrasov
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs Nikolai Avksentiev Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Transport Piotr Yurenev Kadet
Minister of Trade and Industry Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Justice Alexander Zarudny Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Education Sergey Oldenburg Kadet
Minister of Agriculture Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Health Care Ivan Efremov
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist
Third coalition[edit]
See also: Directorate (Russia)
Third Russian Provisional Government
From 25 September [8 October, N.S.] 1917.
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Kadets
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs, Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of War Alexander Verkhovsky
Minister of Navy Dmitry Verderevsky
Minister of Finance Mikhail Bernatsky
Minister of Justice Pavel Malyantovitch Menshevik
Minister of Transport Alexander Liverovsky Non-party
Minister of Education Sergei Salazkin Non-party
Minister of Agriculture Semen Maslov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Kuzma Gvozdev Menshevik
Minister of Food Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Health Care Nikolai Kishkin Kadet
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of Religion Anton Kartashev Kadet
Legislative policies and problems[edit]
Government Seal
With the 1917 February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication, and the formation of a completely new Russian state, Russia’s political spectrum dramatically altered. The tsarist leadership represented an authoritarian, conservative form of governance. The Kadet Party (see Constitutional Democratic Party), composed mostly of liberal intellectuals, formed the greatest opposition to the tsarist regime leading up to the February Revolution. The Kadets transformed from an opposition force into a role of established leadership, as the former opposition party held most of the power in the new Provisional Government, which replaced the tsarist regime. The February Revolution was also accompanied by further politicization of the masses. Politicization of working people led to the leftward shift of the political spectrum.
Many urban workers originally supported the socialist Menshevik Party (see Menshevik), while some, though a small minority in February, favored the more radical Bolshevik Party (see Bolshevik). The Mensheviks often supported the actions of the Provisional Government and believed that the existence of such a government was a necessary step to achieve Communism. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks violently opposed the Provisional Government and desired a more rapid transition to Communism. In the countryside, political ideology also shifted leftward, with many peasants supporting the Socialist Revolutionary Party (see Socialist-Revolutionary Party). The SRs advocated a form of agrarian socialism and land policy that the peasantry overwhelmingly supported. For the most part, urban workers supported the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks (with greater numbers supporting the Bolsheviks as 1917 progressed), while the peasants supported the Socialist Revolutionaries. The rapid development and popularity of these leftist parties turned moderate-liberal parties, such as the Kadets, into "new conservatives." The Provisional Government was mostly composed of "new conservatives," and the new government faced tremendous opposition from the left.
Opposition was most obvious with the development and dominance of the Petrograd Soviet, which represented the socialist views of leftist parties. A dual power structure quickly arose consisting of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. While the Provisional Government retained the formal authority to rule over Russia, the Petrograd Soviet maintained actual power. With its control over the army and the railroads, the Petrograd Soviet had the means to enforce policies.[12] The Provisional Government lacked the ability to administer its policies. In fact, local soviets, political organizations mostly of socialists, often maintained discretion when deciding whether or not to implement the Provisional Government’s laws.
Despite its short reign of power and implementation shortcomings, the Provisional Government passed very progressive legislation. The policies enacted by this moderate government (by 1917 Russian standards) represented arguably the most liberal legislation in Europe at the time.[citation needed] The independence of Church from state, the emphasis on rural self governance, and the affirmation of fundamental civil rights (such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly) that the tsarist government had periodically restricted shows the progressivism of the Provisional Government. Other policies included the abolition of capital punishment and economic redistribution in the countryside. The Provisional Government also granted more freedoms to previously suppressed regions of the Russian Empire. Poland was granted independence and Lithuania and Ukraine became more autonomous.[13]
The main obstacle and problem of the Provisional Government was its inability to enforce and administer legislative policies. Foreign policy was the one area in which the Provisional Government was able to exercise its discretion to a great extent. However, the continuation of aggressive foreign policy (for example, the Kerensky Offensive) increased opposition to the government. Domestically, the Provisional Government’s weaknesses were blatant. The dual power structure was in fact dominated by one side, the Petrograd Soviet. Minister of War Alexander Guchkov stated that "We (the Provisional Government) do not have authority, but only the appearance of authority; the real power lies with the Soviet".[14] Severe limitations existed on the Provisional Government's ability to rule.
While it was true that the Provisional Government lacked enforcement ability, prominent members within the Government encouraged bottom-up rule. Politicians such as Prime Minister Georgy Lvov favored devolution of power to decentralized organizations. The Provisional Government did not desire the complete decentralization of power, but certain members definitely advocated more political participation by the masses in the form of grassroots mobilization.
Democratization[edit]
The rise of local organizations, such as trade unions and rural institutions, and the devolution of power within Russian government gave rise to democratization. It is difficult to say that the Provisional Government desired the rise of these powerful, local institutions. As stated in the previous section, some politicians within the Provisional Government advocated the rise of these institutions. Local government bodies had discretionary authority when deciding which Provisional Government laws to implement. For example, institutions that held power in rural areas were quick to implement national laws regarding the peasantry’s use of idle land. Real enforcement power was in the hands of these local institutions and the soviets. Russian historian W.E. Mosse points out, this time period represented "the only time in modern Russian history when the Russian people were able to play a significant part in the shaping of their destinies".[15] While this quote romanticizes Russian society under the Provisional Government, the quote nonetheless shows that important democratic institutions were prominent in 1917 Russia.
Special interest groups also developed throughout 1917. Special interest groups play a large role in every society deemed "democratic" today, and such was the case of Russia in 1917. Many on the far left would argue that the presence of special interest groups represent a form of bourgeois democracy, in which the interests of an elite few are represented to a greater extent than the working masses. The rise of special interest organizations gave people the means to mobilize and play a role in the democratic process. While groups such as trade unions formed to represent the needs of the working classes, professional organizations were also prominent.[16] Professional organizations quickly developed a political side to represent member’s interests. The political involvement of these groups represents a form of democratic participation as the government listened to such groups when formulating policy. Such interest groups played a negligible role in politics before February 1917 and after October 1917.
While professional special interest groups were on the rise, so too were worker organizations, especially in the cities. Beyond the formation of trade unions, factory committees of workers rapidly developed on the plant level of industrial centers. The factory committees represented the most radical viewpoints of the time period. The Bolsheviks gained their popularity within these institutions. Nonetheless, these committees represented the most democratic element of 1917 Russia. However, this form of democracy differed from and went beyond the political democracy advocated by the liberal intellectual elites and moderate socialists of the Provisional Government. Workers established economic democracy, as employees gained managerial power and direct control over their workplace. Worker self-management became a common practice throughout industrial enterprises.[17] As workers became more militant and gained more economic power, they supported the radical Bolshevik party and lifted the Bolsheviks into power in October, 1917. However, the Bolsheviks envisioned party-led control of the economy. Therefore, worker self-management, the ultimate form of economic democracy, disappeared when the Bolsheviks gained control of Russia.
Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic[edit]
Main article: Kornilov affair
The Kornilov affair was an attempted military coup d'état by the then commander-in-chief of the Russian army, General Lavr Kornilov in September 1917 [18](August old style). Due to the extreme weakness of the government at this point, there was talk among the elites of bolstering its power by including Kornilov as a military dictator on the side of Kerensky. The extent to which this deal had indeed been accepted by all parties is still unclear. What is clear, however, is that when Kornilov's troops approached Petrograd, Kerensky branded them as counter-revolutionaries and demanded their arrest. This move can be seen as an attempt to bolster his own power by making him a defender of the revolution against a Napoleon-type figure. However, it had terrible consequences, as Kerensky's move was seen in the army as a betrayal of Kornilov, making them finally disloyal to the Provisional Government. Furthermore, as Kornilov's troops were arrested by the now armed Red Guard, it was the Soviet that was seen to have saved the country from military dictatorship. In order to defend himself and Petrograd, he provided the Bolsheviks with arms as he had little support from the army. When Kornilov did not attack Kerensky, the Bolsheviks did not return their weapons, making them a greater concern to Kerensky and the Provisional Government.
Thus far, the status of the monarchy had been unresolved. This was clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic (Российская республика, Rossiyskaya respublika) was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
The Decree read as follows:
The Coup of General Kornilov is suppressed. But the turmoil that he spread in the ranks of the army and in the country is great. Once again, a great danger threatens the fate of the country and its freedom. Considering it necessary to put an end to the uncertainty in the political system, and keeping in mind the unanimous and enthusiastic recognition of Republican ideas, which affected the Moscow State Conference, the Provisional Government announces that the state system of the Russian state is the republican system and proclaims the Russian Republic. Urgent need for immediate and decisive action to restore the shocked state system has prompted the Provisional Government to pass the power of government to five individuals from its staff, headed by the Prime Minister. The Provisional Government considers its main objective to be the restoration of public order and the fighting efficiency of the armed forces. Believing that only the concentration of all the surviving forces of the country can help the Motherland out of the difficulty in which it now finds itself, the Provisional Government will seek to expand its membership by attracting to its ranks all those who consider the eternal and general interests of the country more important than the short-term and particular needs of certain parties or classes. The Provisional Government has no doubt that it will succeed in this task in the days ahead.[4]
On 12 September [25, N.S] an All-Russian Democratic Conference was convened, and its presidium decided to create a Pre-Parliament and a Special Constituent Assembly which was to elaborate the future Constitution of Russia. This Constitutional Assembly was to be chaired by Professor N. I. Lazarev and the historian V. M. Gessen.[4] The Provisional Government was expected to continue to administer Russia until the Constituent Assembly had determined the future form of government. On 16 September 1917, the Duma was dissolved by the newly created Directorate.
October Revolution[edit]
Main articles: October Revolution and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Milrevcom proclamation about the overthrowing of the Provisional Government
On 25–26 October Red Guard forces under the leadership of Bolshevik commanders launched their final attack on the ineffectual Provisional Government. Most government offices were occupied and controlled by Bolshevik soldiers on the 25th; the last holdout of the Provisional Ministers, the Tsar's Winter Palace on the Neva River bank, was captured on the night of the 26th. Kerensky escaped the Winter Palace raid and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to retake the capital. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoe Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country. He went into exile in France and eventually emigrated to the U.S.
The Bolsheviks then replaced the government with their own. The Little Council (or Underground Provisional Government) met at the house of Sofia Panina briefly in an attempt to resist the Bolsheviks. However this initiative ended on 28 November with the arrest of Panina, Fyodor Kokoshkin, Andrei Ivanovich Shingarev and Prince Pavel Dolgorukov and Panina being the subject of a political trial.[19]
Some academics, such as Pavel Osinsky, argue that the October Revolution was as much a function of the failures of the Provisional Government as it was of the strength of the Bolsheviks. Osinsky described this as "socialism by default" as opposed to "socialism by design." [20]
Riasanovsky argued that the Provisional Government made perhaps its "worst mistake"[7] by not holding elections to the Constituent Assembly soon enough. They wasted time fine-tuning details of the election law, while Russia slipped further into anarchy and economic chaos. By the time the Assembly finally met, Riasanovsky noted, "the Bolsheviks had already gained control of Russia."[21]
See also[edit]
Diplomatic history of World War I
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Manifest of abdication (in Russian)
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 13 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919) The Spirit of the Russian Revolution, p. 14, 15. Russian Liberation Committee, no. 9, 173 Fleet Street. London
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Russian Republic Proclaimed at prlib.ru, accessed 12 June 2017
^ Jump up to: a b "Annotated chronology (notes)". University of Oregon/Alan Kimball. 2004-11-29. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kerensky, Alexander (1927). The Catastrophe— Kerensky’s Own Story of the Russian Revolu. D. Appleton and Company. p. 126. ISBN 0-527-49100-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 457. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919), p. 3
Jump up ^ M. Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 (3rd ed.), Hodder Murray, London 2005, pg. 79
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 3 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Christopher Read (2005) Lenin. London, Routledge: 160-2
Jump up ^ Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 67
Jump up ^ W. E. Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," Soviet Studies 15 (1964): 411-412
Jump up ^ Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917, 57
Jump up ^ Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," 414
Jump up ^ Matthew Rendle, "The Officer Corps, Professionalism, And Democracy In The Russian Revolution," 922
Jump up ^ Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 54-55
Jump up ^ "1917 Free History". Yandex Publishing. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Lindenmeyr, Adele (October 2001), "The First Soviet Political Trial: Countess Sofia Panina before the Petrograd Revolutionary Tribunal", The Russian Review, 60: 505–525, doi:10.1111/0036-0341.00188
Jump up ^ Osinsky, Pavel. War, State Collapse, Redistribution: Russian Revolution Revisited, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal Convention Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada August 2006
Jump up ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 458. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Further reading[edit]
Abraham, Richard (1987). Kerensky: First Love of the Revolution. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-06108-0.
Acton, Edward, et al. eds. Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921 (Indiana UP, 1997).
Hickey, Michael C. "The Provisional Government and Local Administration in Smolensk in 1917." Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 9.1 (2016): 251-274.
Lipatova, Nadezhda V. "On the Verge of the Collapse of Empire: Images of Alexander Kerensky and Mikhail Gorbachev." Europe-Asia Studies 65.2 (2013): 264-289.
Orlovsky, Daniel. "Corporatism or democracy: the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 24.1 (1997): 15-25.
Thatcher, Ian D. "Post-Soviet Russian Historians and the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." Slavonic & East European Review 93.2 (2015): 315-337. online
Thatcher, Ian D. "Memoirs of the Russian Provisional Government 1917." Revolutionary Russia 27.1 (2014): 1-21.
Primary sources[edit]
Browder, Robert P. and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds. The Russian Provisional Government 1917 (3 vols, Stanford UP, 1961).
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Name of Canada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Dauphin Map of Canada, c. 1543, showing Cartier's discoveries
The name of Canada has been in use since the founding of the French colony of Canada in the 16th century. The name originates from a Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata (or canada) for "settlement", "village", or "land". It is pronounced /ˈkænədə/ in English, [kanadɑ] in standard Quebec French.[1] In Inuktitut, one of the official languages of the territory of Nunavut, the First Nations word (pronounced [kanata]) is used, with the Inuktitut syllabics ᑲᓇᑕ.
The first French colony of Canada, which formed one of several colonies within New France, was set up along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. Later the area became two British colonies, called Upper Canada and Lower Canada until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was officially adopted for the new Dominion, which was commonly referred to as the Dominion of Canada until after World War II.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
1.1 Iberian origin theory
1.2 Minor or humorous theories
2 Canadian
3 New France
4 British North America
5 Selection of the name Canada
5.1 Other proposed names
6 Adoption of Dominion
6.1 French terms for Dominion
7 Use of Canada and Dominion of Canada
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology[edit]
A map of North America ca. 1566, one of the first to include the name "Canada" (top right).
The name Canada is now generally accepted as originating from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata or canada, meaning "village" or "settlement".[2] Related translations include "land" or "town", with subsequent terminologies meaning "cluster of dwellings" or "collection of huts".[2][3] This explanation is historically documented in Jacques Cartier's Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI.[2]
Although the Laurentian language, which was spoken by the inhabitants of St. Lawrence Valley settlements such as Stadacona (modern-day Quebec City) and Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal) in the 16th century, is now extinct, it was closely related to other dialects of the Haudonosonee/ Iroquoian languages, such as the Oneida and Mohawk languages. The word kaná:ta' still means "town" in Mohawk,[4] and related cognates include ganataje and iennekanandaa in the Onondaga and Seneca languages respectively.[2] Prior to archeological confirmation that the St. Lawrence Iroquois were a separate people from the Mohawk, most sources specifically linked the name's origin to the Mohawk word instead of the Laurentian one.[5]
A widespread perception in Canadian folklore is that Cartier misunderstood the term "Canada" as the existing proper name of the Iroquois people's entire territory rather than the generic class noun for a town or village — for instance, the Historica Foundation of Canada's Heritage Minute film devoted to Cartier's landing at Hochelaga is scripted as having Cartier believe that "Kanata" or "Canada" was the established name of the entire country.[6] This is not supported by Cartier's own writings, however — in Bref récit, Cartier fully understands the actual meaning of the word ("They call a town Canada"),[7] and his earliest name for the wider territory is "le pays des Canadas" ("country of Canadas",[8] "land of Canadas" or "land of villages").
While the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian origin for the name Canada is now widely accepted, other theories have been put forth in the past.
Iberian origin theory[edit]
The most common alternative theory suggested that the name originated when Spanish or Portuguese explorers, having explored the northern part of the continent and unable to find gold and silver, wrote el cabo de nada ("Cape Nothing"), acá nada, aqui nada or cá nada ("nothing here") on that part of their maps.[9] An alternative explanation favoured by philologist Marshall Elliott linked the name to the Spanish word cañada, meaning "glen" or "valley".[10][11]
The earliest iterations of the Spanish "nothing here" theory stated that the explorers made the declaration upon visiting the Bay of Chaleur,[12] while later versions left out any identifying geographic detail. The known Portuguese presence in modern Canadian territory, meanwhile, was located in Newfoundland and Labrador. Neither region is located anywhere near Iroquoian territory, and the name "Canada" does not appear on any Spanish or Portuguese maps of the North American coast that predate Cartier's visit.[11] No name for the Bay of Chaleur is attested at all in Spanish sources from that period, while the only name for Newfoundland attested in Portuguese sources is "Tierra de los Baccalaos", or "land of cod."
In most versions of the Iberian origin theory, the Spanish or Portuguese passed their name on to the Iroquois, who rapidly adopted it in place of their own prior word for a village;[11] however, no historical evidence for any such Iberian-Iroquoian interaction has ever actually been found.[11] Elliott's "valley" theory, conversely, was that the Spanish gave their name for the area directly to Cartier, who then entirely ignored or passed over the virtually identical Iroquoian word.[11] According to Elliott, Cartier never explicitly stated that there was a direct connection between canada or kanata as the Iroquoian word for "village" and Canada as the new name of the entire territory, and never accounted for the spelling difference between kanata and Canada—and thus the Spanish etymology had to be favoured because the spellings matched.[11] Notably, Cartier never wrote of having any awareness of any preexisting Spanish or Portuguese name for the region either, meaning that Elliott's allegation that the kanata derivation was not adequately supported by Cartier's own writing on the matter was also true of his own preferred theory.
Franciscan priest André Thevet claimed that the word derived from "segada canada", an answer reportedly given by Spaniards in the St. Lawrence Valley area when asked what their purpose was; according to Thevet, the phrase meant that they were seeking land[13] or that they were hunting.[14]
Few academics subscribe to the Iberian origin theory today, although some Spanish or Portuguese historians continue to support it over an Iroquoian root.
Minor or humorous theories[edit]
British philologist B. Davies surmised that by the same process which initially saw the First Nations mislabelled as Indians, the country came to be named for the Carnata region of India or that region's Kannada ethnic group,[15] although his theory has attracted no significant support from other academics.[2]
Additional theories have attributed the name "Canada" to a word in an unspecified aboriginal language for "mouth of the country" in reference to the Gulf of St. Lawrence,[2] to a Cree word for "neat or clean",[16] to a claimed Innu war cry of "kan-na-dun, Kunatun",[14] to a shared Cree and Innu word, "p'konata", which purportedly meant "without a plan" or "I don't know",[17] to a short-lived French colony purportedly established by a settler whose surname was Cane,[2] to Cartier's description elsewhere in his writings of Labrador as "the land God gave to Cain", or to a claim that the early French habitants demanded a "can a day" of spruce beer from the local intendant[2] (a claim easily debunked by the facts that the habitants would have been speaking French, not English, and that canning did not exist until the 19th century.)
In their 1983 book The Anglo Guide to Survival in Québec, humorists Josh Freed and Jon Kalina tied the Iberian origin theory to the phrase nada mas caca ("nothing but shit").[18] No historian or linguist has ever analyzed this explanation as anything more than an obvious joke.
Canadian[edit]
The demonym "Canadien" or "Canadian" used to refer exclusively to the aboriginal groups who were native to the territory.[11] Its use was extended over time to the French settlers of New France, and later the English settlers of Upper Canada.[11]
New France[edit]
European explorer Jacques Cartier transcribed the word as "Canada" and was the first to use the word to refer not only to the village of Stadacona but also to the neighbouring region and to the Saint Lawrence River, which he called rivière de Canada during his second voyage in 1535.[19][20] By the mid 1500s, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada. Canada became the name of a colony in New France that stretched along the St. Lawrence River.[21][22] The terms "Canada" and "New France" were often used interchangeably during the colonial period.[21]
British North America[edit]
An 1851 Province of Canada postage stamp, the 3 pence beaver ("Threepenny Beaver")
After the British conquest of New France (including ceding of the French colony, Canada) in 1763, the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec. Following the American revolution and the influx of United Empire Loyalists into Quebec, the colony was split on 26 December 1791 into Upper and Lower Canada, sometime being collectively known as "The Canadas", the first time that the name "Canada" was used officially, in the British regime.[23]
Some reports from the 1840s suggest that in that era, the word "Canada" was commonly pronounced "Kaugh-na-daugh" rather than its more contemporary pronunciation.[11]
Upper and Lower Canada were merged into one colony, the Province of Canada, in 1841, based on the recommendations of the Durham Report.[2] The former colonies were then known as Canada East and Canada West, and a single legislature was established with equal representation from each. Underpopulated Canada West opposed demands by Canada East for representation by population, but the roles reversed as Canada West's population surpassed the east's. The single colony remained governed in this way until 1 July 1867, often with coalition governments. A new capital city was being built at Ottawa, chosen in 1857 by Queen Victoria, and became a national capital.
Selection of the name Canada[edit]
Map of Canada on July 1, 1867, showing the nation's provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in the colour white
At the conferences held in London to determine the form of confederation that would unite the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), the Province of New Brunswick and the Province of Nova Scotia, a delegate from either Nova Scotia or New Brunswick proposed the name Canada in February 1867, and it was unanimously accepted by the other delegates. There appears to have been little discussion,[24] though other names were suggested.
Other proposed names[edit]
While the provinces' delegates spent little time, if any, in settling on 'Canada' as the name for the new country, others proposed a variety of other names:[25][26]
Anglia – the medieval Latin name for England
Albionoria – "Albion of the north"
Borealia – from 'borealis', the Latin word for 'northern'; compare with Australia
Cabotia – in honour of Italian explorer John Cabot, who explored the eastern coast of Canada for England
Colonia
Efisga – an acronym of "English, French, Irish, Scottish, German, Aboriginal"
Hochelaga – an old name for Montreal
Laurentia
Mesopelagia – "land between the seas"
New Albion
Norland
Superior
Tupona – derived from 'The United Provinces of North America'
Transatlantica
Ursalia – "place of bears"
Vesperia – "land of the evening star"
Victorialand – in honour of Queen Victoria
Walter Bagehot of The Economist newspaper in London argued that the new nation should be called 'Northland' or 'Anglia' instead of Canada.[27] On these names, the statesman Thomas D'Arcy McGee commented, "Now I would ask any honourable member of the House how he would feel if he woke up some fine morning and found himself, instead of a Canadian, a Tuponian or a Hochelegander?".[28]
Adoption of Dominion[edit]
Front page of a copy of the Constitution Act of 1867
See also: Dominion
During the Charlottetown Conference of 1864, John A. Macdonald, who later became the first Prime Minister of Canada, talked of "founding a great British monarchy", in connection with the British Empire. He advocated, in the fourth Canadian draft of the British North America Act, the name "Kingdom of Canada,"[29] in the text is said:
The word 'Parliament' shall mean the Legislature or Parliament of the Kingdom of Canada.
The word 'Kingdom' shall mean and comprehend the United Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.
The words 'Privy Council' shall mean such persons as may from time to time be appointed, by the Governor General, and sworn to aid and advise in the Government of the Kingdom.[30]
Canada's founders, led by Sir John A. Macdonald wished their new nation to be called the Kingdom of Canada, to "fix the monarchical basis of the constitution."[31] The governor general at the time, the Viscount Monck, supported the move to designate Canada a kingdom;[32] however, officials at the Colonial Office in London opposed this potentially "premature" and "pretentious" reference for a new country. They were also wary of antagonizing the United States, which had emerged from its Civil War as a formidable military power with unsettled grievances because British interests had sold ships to the Confederacy despite a blockade, and thus opposed the use of terms such as kingdom or empire to describe the new country.[33]
New Brunswick premier Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley suggested the term 'Dominion',[34] inspired by Psalm 72:8 (from the King James Bible): "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth."[35] This is also echoed in Canada's motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare (Latin for "from sea to sea").[36]
The term had been used for centuries to refer to the lands held by a monarch,[37] and had previously been adopted as titles for the Dominion of New England and the Dominion and Colony of Virginia. It continued to apply as a generic term for the major colonial possessions of the British Empire until well into the 20th century,[38] although Tilley and the other Fathers of Confederation broadened the meaning of the word 'dominion' to a "virtual synonym for sovereign state".[39] Its adoption as a title for Canada in 1867 served the purpose of upholding the monarchist principle in Canada; in a letter to Queen Victoria, Lord Carnarvon stated: "The North American delegates are anxious that the United Provinces should be designated as the 'Dominion of Canada.' It is a new title, but intended on their part as a tribute to the Monarchical principle which they earnestly desire to uphold.".[40]
Macdonald, however, bemoaned its adoption. In a letter to Lord Knutsford on the topic of the loss of the use of the word kingdom, Macdonald said:
A great opportunity was lost in 1867 when the Dominion was formed out of the several provinces…The declaration of all the B.N.A. provinces that they desired as one dominion to remain a portion of the Empire, showed what wise government and generous treatment would do, and should have been marked as an epoch in the history of England. This would probably have been the case had Lord Carnarvon, who, as colonial minister, had sat at the cradle of the new Dominion, remained in office. His ill-omened resignation was followed by the appointment of the late Duke of Buckingham, who had as his adviser the then Governor General, Lord Monck - both good men, certainly, but quite unable, from the constitution of their minds, to rise to the occasion. Had a different course been pursued, for instance, had united Canada been declared to be an auxiliary kingdom, as it was in the Canadian draft of the bill, I feel sure almost that the Australian colonies would, ere this, have been applying to be placed in the same rank as The Kingdom of Canada.[41][42]
He added as a postscript that it was adopted on the suggestion of British colonial ministers to avoid offending republican sensibilities in the United States:
P.S. On reading the above over I see that it will convey the impression that the change of title from Kingdom to Dominion was caused by the Duke of Buckingham. This is not so. It was made at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the first name would wound the sensibilities of the Yankees. I mentioned this incident in our history to Lord Beaconsfield at Hughenden in 1879, who said, 'I was not aware of the circumstance, but it is so like Derby, a very good fellow, but who lives in a region of perpetual funk.'[43]
Use of the term dominion was formalized in 1867 through Canadian Confederation. In the Constitution of Canada, namely the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts), the preamble of the Act indicates:
Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom....[44]
And section 2 indicates that the provinces:
... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.[44]
In J.S. Ewart's two volume work, The Kingdom Papers,[45][46] it is noted that the following names were considered for the union of British North America: "The United Colony of Canada", "the United Provinces of Canada", and "the Federated Provinces of Canada".[47] Ewart was also an ardent advocate for the formation of "the Republic of Canada", a position which was rarely expressed in those times.[48]
Canadian post card from 1905.
French terms for Dominion[edit]
The French translation of the 1867 British North America Act translated "One Dominion under the Name of Canada" as "une seule et même Puissance sous le nom de Canada" using Puissance (power) as a translation for dominion. Later the English loan-word dominion was also used in French.[49]
The Fathers of Confederation met at the Quebec Conference of 1864 to discuss the terms of this new union. One issue on the agenda was to determine the Union's "feudal rank" (see Resolution 71 of the Quebec Conference, 1864). The candidates for the classification of this new union were: "the Kingdom of Canada" (le Royaume du Canada), "the Realm of Canada" (le Royaume du Canada), "the Union of Canada" (l'Union du Canada), and "the Dominion of Canada" (le Dominion du Canada).
Use of Canada and Dominion of Canada[edit]
Crowds on Parliament Hill celebrate Dominion Day 1927, the 60th jubilee of confederation
There are numerous references in United Kingdom Acts of Parliament to "the Dominion of Canada" and the British North America Act, 1867 referred to the formation of "one Dominion under the name of Canada".[50] Nonetheless, the term "Dominion of Canada" appears in the Constitution Act, 1871 — usage of which was "sanctioned"[51] — and both appear in other texts of the period, as well as on numerous Canadian banknotes before 1935.
Until the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was commonly used to identify the country. As Canada acquired political authority and autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government began using simply Canada on state documents. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, which refers only to Canada. Later that year, the national holiday was renamed from Dominion Day to Canada Day. Section 4 of the 1867 BNA Act also declares that:
Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.
and this has been interpreted to mean that the name of the country is simply Canada. No constitutional statute amends this name, and the subsequent Canada Act 1982 does not use the term dominion. However, the Canadian constitution includes the preceding BNA Acts, where the term is used; also, the Canada Act 1982 does not state that Canada is not a dominion. Official sources of the United Nations system,[52][53] international organizations (such as the Organization of American States[54]), the European Union,[55] the United States,[56] and other polities with which Canada has official relations as a state consistently use Canada as the only official name, state that Canada has no long-form name, or that the formal name is simply Canada. While no legal document ever says that the name of the country is anything other than Canada,[57] Dominion and Dominion of Canada remain official titles of the country.[58][59][60]
In recent years, the terms Dominion of Canada and Dominion are occasionally used to distinguish modern (post-1867) Canada from either the earlier Province of Canada or from the even earlier The Canadas. The terms are also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though in this usage "federal" has replaced "dominion". The federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles, although these publications are not themselves legal or official documents.[61][62][63] For instance, in 2008 the Canadian government registered the Maple Leaf Tartan with the Scottish Tartans Authority under the name Dominion of Canada.[64]
See also[edit]
Canada portal
History of Canada portal
List of Canadian place names of Royal heritage
Canadian provincial and territorial name etymologies
Origins of names of cities in Canada
List of Canadian place names of Ukrainian origin
List of Canadian place names of Indigenous origin
List of Canadian place names of English origin
List of Canadian place names of Scottish origin
List of Canadian place names of Spanish origin
References[edit]
Jump up ^ In standard Quebec French, it is generally seen as a mistake to pronounce [kanada]. [kanadɔ] and [kanadɒ] are considered nonstandard in Quebec French.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Alan Rayburn (2001). Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names. University of Toronto Press. pp. 14–17. ISBN 978-0-8020-8293-0. Archived from the original on 2016-04-12.
Jump up ^ Hawkins, Alfred; John Charlton Fisher (1834). "7". Hawkins's Picture of Quebec: With Historical Recollections. Printed for the proprietor by Neilson and Cowan. p. 111. in the note of Charlevoix, Nouvelle France, volume the first, page nine, of the quarto edition, and repeated in "Beautés de l'Histoire du Canada" affords the real solution of the difficulty: "Quelqu'uns derivent ce nom du mot Iroquois Kannata qui se prononce Cannada, et signifie un amas de cabanes;"–"Some derive this name from the Iroquois word Kannata, pronounced Cannada, signifying a collection of huts."
Jump up ^ Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 312. ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
Jump up ^ Bruce Elliott Johansen, The Encyclopedia of Native American Economic History. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999. ISBN 978-0313306235. p. 49.
Jump up ^ "Heritage Minutes: Jacques Cartier" Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine.. Historica Foundation of Canada.
Jump up ^ R. Douglas Francis, Richard Jones and Donald B. Smith, Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson College, 2009. ISBN 978-0176442446. p. 27.
Jump up ^ Cook, Ramsay (2017). The Voyages of Jacques Cartier. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442658042. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02.
Jump up ^ John George Hodgins (1858). The Geography and History of British America, and of the Other Colonies of the Empire: To which are Added a Sketch of the Various Indian Tribes of Canada, and Brief Biographical Notices of Eminent Persons Connected with the History of Canada. Maclear & Company. p. 51. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19.
Jump up ^ "Further Conjectures as to the Origin of the Name 'Canada'". The New York Times, September 5, 1908.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Orkin, Mark M. Orkin (2010). "The Name Canada: An Etymological Enigma" in Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine.. Strathy Language Unit, Queen’s University (Kingston, Ontario). pp. 38-43.
Jump up ^ Thomas Jefferys, The Conduct of the French, with Regard to Nova Scotia. T. Jefferys (London), 1754.
Jump up ^ Gervais Carpin, Histoire d'un mot: l'ethnonyme "canadien" de 1535-1691. Les Éditions de Septentrion, 1995. ISBN 9782894480366. p. 50.
^ Jump up to: a b Olive Dickason, Le mythe du sauvage. Les Éditions de Septentrion, 1993. ISBN 9782921114967. p. 298.
Jump up ^ Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, December 1861. p. 432.
Jump up ^ John Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk: The Native Tribes of Canada. C. W. Coates, 1986.
Jump up ^ Joseph Graham, Naming the Laurentians: A History of Place Names 'up North'. Les Éditions Main Street, 2005. ISBN 9780973958607. p. 65
Jump up ^ Josh Freed and Jon Kalina, The Anglo Guide to Survival in Québec. Eden Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0920792339. p. 89.
Jump up ^ James H. Marsh (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. The Canadian Encyclopedia. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5. Archived from the original on 2017-03-25.
Jump up ^ Roger E. Riendeau (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Germaine Warkentin; Carolyn Podruchny (2001). Decentring the Renaissance: Canada and Europe in Multidisciplinary Perspective, 1500-1700. University of Toronto Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-8020-8149-0. Archived from the original on 2016-06-10.
Jump up ^ MCC. "Le territoire Archived 2008-09-20 at the Wayback Machine.", in La Nouvelle-France. Ressources françaises, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication (France), 1998, retrieved 2 August 2008
Jump up ^ "Canadian Heritage - Origin of the Name - Canada". Pch.gc.ca. 2011-04-27. Archived from the original on 2011-10-12. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
Jump up ^ Creighton, Donald. 1956. The Road to Confederation. Houghton Mifflin: Boston; p. 421.
Jump up ^ "How Canada Got Its Name — Origin of the Name Canada". Canadaonline.about.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-07. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ Rayburn, Alan (2001). Naming Canada: stories about ... ISBN 978-0-8020-8293-0. Archived from the original on 2017-09-20.
Jump up ^ Moore, Christopher. 1997. 1867: How the Fathers Made a Deal. McClelland and Stewart: Toronto; p. 214.
Jump up ^ John Robert Colombo (June 1, 2001). 1000 Questions About Canada: Places, People, Things, and Ideas : A Question-And-Answer Book on Canadian Facts and Culture. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 335. ISBN 978-0-88882-232-1. Archived from the original on March 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Farthing, John; Freedom Wears a Crown; Toronto, 1957
Jump up ^ Pope, Joseph; Confederation; pg. 177
Jump up ^ George M. Wrong; H. H. Langton (2009). The Chronicles of Canada: Volume VIII - The Growth of Nationality. Fireship Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-934757-51-2. Archived from the original on 2014-06-29. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
Jump up ^ Hubbard, R.H.; Rideau Hall; McGill-Queen's University Press; Montreal and London; 1977; p. 9
Jump up ^ R. Douglas Francis; Richard Jones, Donald B. Smith, R. D. Francis; Richard Jones; Donald B. Smith (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary: Main Entry: do·min·ion; Function: noun; Etymology: Middle English dominioun, from Middle French dominion, modification of Latin dominium, from dominus; 4 often capitalized : a self-governing nation of the Commonwealth of Nations other than the United Kingdom that acknowledges the British monarch as chief of state
Jump up ^ "Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley" Archived 2007-10-01 at the Wayback Machine. Library and Archives Canada.
Jump up ^ Reingard M. Nischik (2008). History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian. Camden House. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-57113-359-5. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19.
Jump up ^ Treaty of Utrecht 1713 "Moreover, the most Christian King promises, as well in his own name, as in that of his heirs and successors, that they will at not time whatever disturb or give any molestation to the Queen of Great Britain, her heirs and successors, descended from the aforesaid Protestant line, who possess the crown of Great Britain, and the dominions belonging therunto."
Jump up ^ "... on the 23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria ... " ( "Africa". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 343. )
Jump up ^ Delisle, Jean. "Through the Lens of History: Translating dominion as puissance". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 2013-12-24. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
Jump up ^ "The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz (Kids)". Canadian Heritage. 2009-01-09. Archived from the original on 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ Arthur Bousfield; Garry Toffoli (1991). Royal Observations: Canadians & Royalty. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-55002-076-2. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19.
Jump up ^ Joseph Pope (1894). Memoirs of the Right Honourable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, G. C. B., first Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada. E. Arnold. p. 321.
Jump up ^ "Senator Cools congratulates Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on her Forty-Seventh Anniversary of Accession to Throne, Feb 11, 1999". Senatorcools.sencanada.ca. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Dennis Ambrose O'Sullivan (1887). Government in Canada: The principles and institutions of our federal and provincial constitutions. The B. N. A. act, 1867, compared with the United States Constitution, with a sketch of the constitutional history of Canada. Carswell & co. p. 309. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19.
Jump up ^ Ewart, J.S. (1912–1917). The Kingdom Papers. I. Toronto: McClelland, Goodchild, and Stewart. p. 331. Archived from the original on 2006-02-15.
Jump up ^ Ewart 1912–1917, p. 393
Jump up ^ Ewart 1912–1917, pp. 372–393; as per "Rank and Name", pp. 374–381.
Jump up ^ Ewart 1912–1917, Imperial Projects and the Republic of Canada, pp. 262–393.
Jump up ^ Le Petit Robert 1: dictionnaire de la langue française, 1990.
Jump up ^ Commonwealth and Colonial Law by Kenneth Roberts-Wray, London, Stevens, 1966. P. 17 (direct quote, word for word)
Jump up ^ Martin, Robert. 1993. Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America. Archived 2005-10-17 at the Wayback Machine. The Machray Review. Prayer Book Society of Canada.—A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.
Jump up ^ "The UN Terminology website "which holds records for each country containing the short and formal names in the six UN official languages, is the successor to UN Terminology". United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database (UNTERM.UN.ORG), Canada page. Archived from the original on 2014-05-08.
Jump up ^ "UNITED NATIONS GROUP OF EXPERTS ON GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, Working Paper No. 16" (PDF). p. Bulletin No. 347/Rev. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Organization of American States Office of Legal Cooperation, Member Country Information Page for Canada". Oas.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-27. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ "European Union Gateway Interinstutional Style Guide, List of Countries, territories and currencies - "Note 1, 'Full name' corresponds in most cases to the official name recognized by the United Nations."". Publications.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2013-07-16. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ "United States Department of State Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Independent States of the World—Canada: "no long-form name"". State.gov. 1979-01-01. Archived from the original on 2010-06-09. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ "Government of Canada Translation Bureau, "List of Country Names"—Introduction notes that "The official name of a state (e.g. Islamic Republic of Iran), found under the common name (Iran), is taken from the United Nations Terminology Bulletin No. 347."". Btb.gc.ca. 2009-03-18. Archived from the original on 2010-01-17. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
Jump up ^ Forsey, Eugene A., in Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion Archived 2017-01-22 at the Wayback Machine." The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
Jump up ^ Rayburn, pp. 19, 21.
Jump up ^ Canadian Heritage: National Flag of Canada Day - How Did You Do? Archived 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine., Canada's Digital Collections: Confederation 1867, Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz.
Jump up ^ Canadian Heritage: National Flag of Canada Day - How Did You Do? Archived 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine., Canada's Digital Collections: Confederation 1867, Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz
Jump up ^ Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves Archived 2009-03-25 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF), 6th ed. Canada: Ottawa; pp. 8-9. The preface to the publication specifies that the opinions reflected are those of the author, and "do not necessarily reflect those of parliament."
Jump up ^ "Territorial evolution". Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on 2010-04-13. Retrieved 2007-10-09. In 1867, the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are united in a federal state, the Dominion of Canada.
Jump up ^ BRIAN LILLEY, Parliamentary Bureau (2011-03-09). "It's official, Maple Leaf Tartan is Canada's tartan | Canada | News". Toronto Sun. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
Further reading[edit]
Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
Gerald Hallowell (2004). The Oxford Companion to Canadian History. Oxford University Press Canada. ISBN 978-0-19-541559-9.
External links[edit]
Origin of the Name - Canada - Canadian Heritage
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