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Position of the Sun
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The Sun as seen from Lamlash, Scotland (55° 31′ 47.43″ N, 5° 05′ 59.77″ W) on 3 January 2010, at 8:53 a.m. local time
The position of the Sun in the sky is a function of both the time and the geographic location of observation on Earth's surface. As Earth orbits the Sun over the course of a year, the Sun appears to move with respect to the fixed stars on the celestial sphere, along a circular path called the ecliptic.
Earth's rotation about its axis causes the fixed stars to apparently move across the sky in a way that depends on the observer's geographic latitude. The time when a given fixed star transits the observer's meridian depends on the geographic longitude.
To find the Sun's position for a given location at a given time, one may therefore proceed in three steps as follows:[1][2]
calculate the Sun's position in the ecliptic coordinate system,
convert to the equatorial coordinate system, and
convert to the horizontal coordinate system, for the observer's local time and location.
This calculation is useful in astronomy, navigation, surveying, meteorology, climatology, solar energy, and sundial design.
Contents
1 Approximate position
1.1 Ecliptic coordinates
1.2 Equatorial coordinates
1.3 Horizontal coordinates
1.4 Rectangular equatorial coordinates
1.5 Obliquity of the ecliptic
2 Declination of the Sun as seen from Earth
2.1 Overview
2.2 Calculations
2.3 Atmospheric refraction
3 Equation of time
4 Analemma
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Approximate position[edit]
Ecliptic coordinates[edit]
These equations, from the Astronomical Almanac,[3][4] can be used to calculate the apparent coordinates of the Sun, mean equinox and ecliptic of date, to a precision of about 0°.01 (36″), for dates between 1950 and 2050.
Start by calculating n, the number of days (positive or negative) since Greenwich noon, Terrestrial Time, on 1 January 2000 (J2000.0). If you know the Julian date for your desired time then
n = J D − 2451545.0 {\displaystyle n=\mathrm {JD} -2451545.0}
The mean longitude of the Sun, corrected for the aberration of light, is:
L = 280.460 ∘ + 0.9856474 ∘ n {\displaystyle L=280.460^{\circ }+0.9856474^{\circ }n}
The mean anomaly of the Sun (actually, of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, but it is convenient to pretend the Sun orbits the Earth), is:
g = 357.528 ∘ + 0.9856003 ∘ n {\displaystyle g=357.528^{\circ }+0.9856003^{\circ }n}
Put L {\displaystyle L} and g {\displaystyle g} in the range 0° to 360° by adding or subtracting multiples of 360° as needed.
Finally, the ecliptic longitude of the Sun is:
λ = L + 1.915 ∘ sin  g + 0.020 ∘ sin  2 g {\displaystyle \lambda =L+1.915^{\circ }\sin g+0.020^{\circ }\sin 2g}
The ecliptic latitude of the Sun is nearly:
β = 0 {\displaystyle \beta =0} ,
as the ecliptic latitude of the Sun never exceeds 0.00033°,[5]
and the distance of the Sun from the Earth, in astronomical units, is:
R = 1.00014 − 0.01671 cos  g − 0.00014 cos  2 g {\displaystyle R=1.00014-0.01671\cos g-0.00014\cos 2g} .
Equatorial coordinates[edit]
λ {\displaystyle \lambda } , β {\displaystyle \beta } and R {\displaystyle R} form a complete position of the Sun in the ecliptic coordinate system. This can be converted to the equatorial coordinate system by calculating the obliquity of the ecliptic, ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } , and continuing:
Right ascension,
α = arctan  ( cos  ϵ tan  λ ) {\displaystyle \alpha =\arctan(\cos \epsilon \tan \lambda )} , where α {\displaystyle \alpha } is in the same quadrant as λ {\displaystyle \lambda } ,
To get RA at the right quadrant on computer programs use double argument Arctan function such as ATAN2(y,x)
α = arctan  2 ( cos  ϵ sin  λ , cos  λ ) {\displaystyle \alpha =\arctan 2(\cos \epsilon \sin \lambda ,\cos \lambda )}
and declination,
δ = arcsin  ( sin  ϵ sin  λ ) {\displaystyle \delta =\arcsin(\sin \epsilon \sin \lambda )} .
Horizontal coordinates[edit]
Further information: Horizontal coordinate system
Rectangular equatorial coordinates[edit]
In right-handed rectangular equatorial coordinates (where the X {\displaystyle X} axis is in the direction of the vernal point, and the Y {\displaystyle Y} axis is 90° to the east, in the plane of the celestial equator, and the Z {\displaystyle Z} axis is directed toward the north celestial pole[6] ), in astronomical units:
X = R cos  λ {\displaystyle X=R\cos \lambda }
Y = R cos  ϵ sin  λ {\displaystyle Y=R\cos \epsilon \sin \lambda }
Z = R sin  ϵ sin  λ {\displaystyle Z=R\sin \epsilon \sin \lambda }
Obliquity of the ecliptic[edit]
Where the obliquity of the ecliptic is not obtained elsewhere, it can be approximated:
ϵ = 23.439 ∘ − 0.0000004 ∘ n {\displaystyle \epsilon =23.439^{\circ }-0.0000004^{\circ }n}
for use with the above equations.
Declination of the Sun as seen from Earth[edit]
The path of the Sun over the celestial sphere through the course of the day for an observer at 56°N latitude. The Sun's path changes with its declination during the year. The intersections of the lines with the horizontal axis show azimuths in degrees from North where the Sun rises and sets at the summer and winter solstices.
Overview[edit]
The Sun appears to move northward during the northern spring, contacting the celestial equator on the March equinox. Its declination reaches a maximum equal to the angle of Earth's axial tilt (23.44°)[7][8] on the June solstice, then decreases until reaching its minimum (−23.44°) on the December solstice, when its value is the negative of the axial tilt. This variation produces the seasons.
A line graph of the Sun's declination during a year resembles a sine wave with an amplitude of 23.44°, but one lobe of the wave is several days longer than the other, among other differences.
The following phenomena would occur if Earth is a perfect sphere, in a circular orbit around the Sun, and if its axis is tilted 90°, so that the axis itself is on the orbital plane (similar to Uranus). At one date in the year, the Sun would be directly overhead at the North Pole, so its declination would be +90°. For the next few months, the subsolar point would move toward the South Pole at constant speed, crossing the circles of latitude at a constant rate, so that the solar declination would decrease linearly with time. Eventually, the Sun would be directly above the South Pole, with a declination of −90°; then it would start to move northward at a constant speed. Thus, the graph of solar declination, as seen from this highly tilted Earth, would resemble a triangle wave rather than a sine wave, zigzagging between plus and minus 90°, with linear segments between the maxima and minima.
If the 90° axial tilt is decreased, then the absolute maximum and minimum values of the declination would decrease, to equal the axial tilt. Also, the shapes of the maxima and minima on the graph would become less acute ("pointy"), being curved to resemble the maxima and minima of a sine wave. However, even when the axial tilt equals that of the actual Earth, the maxima and minima remain more acute than those of a sine wave.
In reality, Earth's orbit is elliptical. Earth moves more rapidly around the Sun near perihelion, in early January, than near aphelion, in early July. This makes processes like the variation of the solar declination happen faster in January than in July. On the graph, this makes the minima more acute than the maxima. Also, since perihelion and aphelion do not happen on the exact dates as the solstices, the maxima and minima are slightly asymmetrical. The rates of change before and after are not quite equal.
The graph of apparent solar declination is therefore different in several ways from a sine wave. Calculating it accurately involves some complexity, as shown below.
Calculations[edit]
The declination of the Sun, δ☉, is the angle between the rays of the Sun and the plane of the Earth's equator. The Earth's axial tilt (called the obliquity of the ecliptic by astronomers) is the angle between the Earth's axis and a line perpendicular to the Earth's orbit. The Earth's axial tilt changes slowly over thousands of years but its current value of about ε = 23°26' is nearly constant, so the change in solar declination during one year is nearly the same as during the next year.
At the solstices, the angle between the rays of the Sun and the plane of the Earth's equator reaches its maximum value of 23°26'. Therefore, δ☉ = +23°26' at the northern summer solstice and δ☉ = −23°26' at the southern summer solstice.
At the moment of each equinox, the center of the Sun appears to pass through the celestial equator, and δ☉ is 0°.
The Sun's declination at any given moment is calculated by:
δ ⊙ = arcsin  [ sin  ( − 23.44 ∘ ) ⋅ sin  ( E L ) ] {\displaystyle \delta _{\odot }=\arcsin \left[\sin \left(-23.44^{\circ }\right)\cdot \sin \left(EL\right)\right]}
where EL is the ecliptic longitude (essentially, the Earth's position in its orbit). Since the Earth's orbital eccentricity is small, its orbit can be approximated as a circle which causes up to 1° of error. The circle approximation means the EL would be 90° ahead of the solstices in Earth's orbit (at the equinoxes), so that sin(EL) can be written as sin(90+NDS)=cos(NDS) where NDS is the number of days after the December solstice. By also using the approximation that arcsin[sin(d)·cos(NDS)] is close to d·cos(NDS), the following frequently used formula is obtained:
δ ⊙ = − 23.44 ∘ ⋅ cos  [ 360 ∘ 365 ⋅ ( N + 10 ) ] {\displaystyle \delta _{\odot }=-23.44^{\circ }\cdot \cos \left[{\frac {360^{\circ }}{365}}\cdot \left(N+10\right)\right]}
where N is the day of the year beginning with N=0 at midnight Universal Time (UT) as January 1 begins (i.e. the days part of the ordinal date −1). The number 10, in (N+10), is the approximate number of days after the December solstice to January 1. This equation overestimates the declination near the September equinox by up to +1.5°. The sine function approximation by itself leads to an error of up to 0.26° and has been discouraged for use in solar energy applications.[2] The 1971 Spencer formula[9] (based on a Fourier series) is also discouraged for having an error of up to 0.28°.[10] An additional error of up to 0.5° can occur in all equations around the equinoxes if not using a decimal place when selecting N to adjust for the time after UT midnight for the beginning of that day. So the above equation can have up to 2.0° of error, about four times the Sun's angular width, depending on how it is used.
The declination can be more accurately calculated by not making the two approximations, using the parameters of the Earth's orbit to more accurately estimate EL:[11]
δ ⊙ = arcsin  [ sin  ( − 23.44 ∘ ) ⋅ cos  ( 360 ∘ 365.24 ( N + 10 ) + 360 ∘ π ⋅ 0.0167 sin  ( 360 ∘ 365.24 ( N − 2 ) ) ) ] {\displaystyle \delta _{\odot }=\arcsin \left[\sin \left(-23.44^{\circ }\right)\cdot \cos \left({\frac {360^{\circ }}{365.24}}\left(N+10\right)+{\frac {360^{\circ }}{\pi }}\cdot 0.0167\sin \left({\frac {360^{\circ }}{365.24}}\left(N-2\right)\right)\right)\right]}
which can be simplified by evaluating constants to:
δ ⊙ = − arcsin  [ 0.39779 cos  ( 0.98565 ∘ ( N + 10 ) + 1.914 ∘ sin  ( 0.98565 ∘ ( N − 2 ) ) ) ] {\displaystyle \delta _{\odot }=-\arcsin \left[0.39779\cos \left(0.98565^{\circ }\left(N+10\right)+1.914^{\circ }\sin \left(0.98565^{\circ }\left(N-2\right)\right)\right)\right]}
N is the number of days since midnight UT as January 1 begins (i.e. the days part of the ordinal date −1) and can include decimals to adjust for local times later or earlier in the day. The number 2, in (N-2), is the approximate number of days after January 1 to the Earth's perihelion. The number 0.0167 is the current value of the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. The eccentricity varies very slowly over time, but for dates fairly close to the present, it can be considered to be constant. The largest errors in this equation are less than ± 0.2°, but are less than ± 0.03° for a given year if the number 10 is adjusted up or down in fractional days as determined by how far the previous year's December solstice occurred before or after noon on December 22. These accuracies are compared to NOAA's advanced calculations[12][13] which are based on the 1999 Jean Meeus algorithm that is accurate to within 0.01°.[14]
(The above formula is related to a reasonably simple and accurate calculation of the Equation of Time, which is described here.)
More complicated algorithms[15][16] correct for changes to the ecliptic longitude by using terms in addition to the 1st-order eccentricity correction above. They also correct the 23.44° obliquity which changes very slightly with time. Corrections may also include the effects of the moon in offsetting the Earth's position from the center of the pair's orbit around the Sun. After obtaining the declination relative to the center of the Earth, a further correction for parallax is applied, which depends on the observer's distance away from the center of the Earth. This correction is less than 0.0025°. The error in calculating the position of the center of the Sun can be less than 0.00015°. For comparison, the Sun's width is about 0.5°.
Atmospheric refraction[edit]
The declination calculations described above do not include the effects of the refraction of light in the atmosphere, which causes the apparent angle of elevation of the Sun as seen by an observer to be higher than the actual angle of elevation, especially at low Sun elevations.[2] For example, when the Sun is at an elevation of 10°, it appears to be at 10.1°. The Sun's declination can be used, along with its right ascension, to calculate its azimuth and also its true elevation, which can then be corrected for refraction to give its apparent position.[2][13][17]
Equation of time[edit]
The equation of time — above the axis a sundial will appear fast relative to a clock showing local mean time, and below the axis a sundial will appear slow.
Main article: Equation of time
In addition to the annual north-south oscillation of the Sun's apparent position, corresponding to the variation of its declination described above, there is also a smaller but more complex oscillation in the east-west direction. This is caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis, and also by changes in the speed of its orbital motion around the Sun produced by the elliptical shape of the orbit. The principal effects of this east-west oscillation are variations in the timing of events such as sunrise and sunset, and in the reading of a sundial compared with a clock showing local mean time. As the graph shows, a sundial can be up to about 16 minutes fast or slow, compared with a clock. Since the Earth rotates at a mean speed of one degree every four minutes, relative to the Sun, this 16-minute displacement corresponds to a shift eastward or westward of about four degrees in the apparent position of the Sun, compared with its mean position. A westward shift causes the sundial to be ahead of the clock.
Since the main effect of this oscillation concerns time, it is called the equation of time, using the word "equation" in a somewhat archaic sense meaning "correction". The oscillation is measured in units of time, minutes and seconds, corresponding to the amount that a sundial would be ahead of a clock. The equation of time can be positive or negative. See the main article for further information.
Analemma[edit]
An analemma with solar declination and equation of time to the same scale
Main article: Analemma
An analemma is a diagram that shows the annual variation of the Sun's position on the celestial sphere, relative to its mean position, as seen from a fixed location on Earth. (The word analemma is also occasionally, but rarely, used in other contexts.) It can be considered as an image of the Sun's apparent motion during a year, which resembles a figure-8. An analemma can be pictured by superimposing photographs taken at the same time of day, a few days apart for a year.
An analemma can also be considered as a graph of the Sun's declination, usually plotted vertically, against the equation of time, plotted horizontally. Usually, the scales are chosen so that equal distances on the diagram represent equal angles in both directions on the celestial sphere. Thus 4 minutes (more precisely 3 minutes, 56 seconds), in the equation of time, are represented by the same distance as 1° in the declination, since Earth rotates at a mean speed of 1° every 4 minutes, relative to the Sun.
An analemma is drawn as it would be seen in the sky by an observer looking upward. If north is shown at the top, then west is to the right. This is usually done even when the analemma is marked on a geographical globe, on which the continents, etc., are shown with west to the left.
Some analemmas are marked to show the position of the Sun on the graph on various dates, a few days apart, throughout the year. This enables the analemma to be used to make simple analog computations of quantities such as the times and azimuths of sunrise and sunset. Analemmas without date markings are used to correct the time indicated by sundials.[18] They have little practical usefulness.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Ecliptic
Effect of Sun angle on climate
Newcomb's Tables of the Sun
Solar azimuth angle
Solar elevation angle
Solar irradiance
Solar time
Sun path
Sunrise equation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Meeus, Jean (1991). "Chapter 12: Transformation of Coordinates". Astronomical Algorithms. Richmond, VA: Willmann Bell, Inc. ISBN 0-943396-35-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jenkins, A. (2013). "The Sun's position in the sky". European Journal of Physics. 34 (3): 633. arXiv:1208.1043  . Bibcode:2013EJPh...34..633J. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/34/3/633.
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory; U.K. Hydrographic Office, H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (2008). The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010. U.S. Govt. Printing Office. p. C5. ISBN 978-0-7077-4082-9.
Jump up ^ Much the same set of equations, covering the years 1800 to 2200, can be found at Approximate Solar Coordinates, at the U.S. Naval Observatory website Archived 2016-01-31 at the Wayback Machine.. Graphs of the error of these equations, compared to an accurate ephemeris, can also be viewed.
Jump up ^ Meeus (1991), p. 152
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office (1992). P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA. p. 12. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Jump up ^ "Selected Astronomical Constants, 2015 (PDF)" (PDF). US Naval Observatory. 2014. p. K6–K7.
Jump up ^ "Selected Astronomical Constants, 2015 (TXT)". US Naval Observatory. 2014. p. K6–K7.
Jump up ^ J. W. Spencer (1971). "Fourier series representation of the position of the sun".
Jump up ^ Sproul, Alistair B. "Derivation of the solar geometric relationships using vector analysis" (PDF). Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "SunAlign". Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "NOAA Solar Calculator". Earth System Research Laboratory. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Solar Calculation Details". Earth System Research Laboratory. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Astronomical Algorithms". Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Blanco-Muriel, Manuel; Alarcón-Padilla, Diego C; López-Moratalla, Teodoro; Lara-Coira, Martín (2001). "Computing the Solar Vector" (PDF). Solar Energy. 70 (5): 431–441. Bibcode:2001SoEn...70..431B. doi:10.1016/s0038-092x(00)00156-0.
Jump up ^ Ibrahim Reda & Afshin Andreas. "Solar Position Algorithm for Solar Radiation Applications" (PDF). Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Atmospheric Refraction Approximation". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Sundial#Noon marks
External links[edit]
Solar Position Algorithm, at National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Renewable Resource Data Center website.
Sun Position Calculator, at pveducation.org. An interactive calculator showing the Sun's path in the sky.
NOAA Solar Calculator, at the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory's Global Monitoring Division website.
Sun path calculation and visualization on Android
NOAA's very accurate declination and sun position calculator (code can be viewed in the Javascript)
HORIZONS System, at the JPL website. Very accurate positions of Solar System objects based on the JPL DE series ephemerides.
General ephemerides of the solar system bodies, at the IMCCE website. Very accurate positions of Solar System objects based on the INPOP series ephemerides.
Solar position in R. Insol package.
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text:
Love to Love You Baby (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Love to Love You Baby"
A-side label of US vinyl single
Single by Donna Summer
from the album Love to Love You Baby
B-side
"Need-a-Man Blues"
Released
June 1975 (Netherlands, as "Love to Love You")
November 26, 1975 (Worldwide, as "Love to Love You Baby")
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
1974 (as "Love to Love You")
May–June 1975; Musicland Studios (Munich, West Germany)
(as "Love to Love You Baby")
Genre
Disco
funk
Length
16:49 (Full-length version)
Label
Oasis (US/Canada)
GTO (UK)
Polar (Sweden)
Ariola (Spain/Portugal)
Interfusion (Australia)
Atlantic (France/Germany)
Durium (Italy)
Songwriter(s)
Donna Summer, Giorgio Moroder, Pete Bellotte
Producer(s)
Pete Bellotte
Donna Summer singles chronology
"Little Miss Fit"
(1974) "Love to Love You Baby"
(1975) "Virgin Mary"
(1975)
"Little Miss Fit"
(1974) "Love to Love You"
(1975) "Virgin Mary"
(1975)
"Virgin Mary"
(1975) Virgin Mary1975
"Love to Love You Baby"
(1975) Love to Love You Baby1975
"Could It Be Magic"
(1976) Could It Be Magic1976
"Protection"
(1983) Protection1983
"Love to Love You Baby" (re-issue)
(1983) String Module Error: Match not found1983
"She Works Hard for the Money"
(1983) She Works Hard for the Money1983
"Love to Love You Baby" is a song by American singer Donna Summer from her second album of the same name. Produced by Pete Bellotte and written by Summer, Giorgio Moroder, and Bellotte, the song was first released as a single in the Netherlands on June 1975 as "Love to Love You" and then released worldwide on November 1975 as "Love to Love You Baby". It became one of the first disco hits to be released in an extended form.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame named it one of the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll, Summer's only selection on this list.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 International release and reception
3 Impact and legacy
4 Personnel
5 Track listing and formats
5.1 1983 re-issue
5.2 1990 re-release
5.3 2013 release
6 Charts
6.1 Weekly charts
6.2 Year-end charts
7 Certifications and sales
8 Cover versions and samples
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Background[edit]
By 1975, Summer had been living in Germany for eight years and had participated in several musical theatre shows. She had also released an album in The Netherlands entitled Lady of the Night, written by Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte and produced by Bellotte, which had given her a couple of hit singles. She was still a complete unknown in her home country when she suggested the lyric "Love to Love You Baby" to Moroder in 1975. He turned the lyric into a full disco song and asked Summer to record it. The full lyrics were somewhat explicit, and at first, Summer said she would only record it as a demo to give to someone else. However, Summer's erotic moans and groans impressed Moroder so much that he persuaded her to release it as her own song, and "Love to Love You" became a moderate hit in the Netherlands.
In an interview in 1976, Summer responded to a number of questions that she claimed she'd been asked about the process of recording the song: "Everyone's asking, 'Were you alone in the studio?' Yes, I was alone in the studio. 'Did you touch yourself?' Yes, well, actually I had my hand on my knee. 'Did you fantasize on anything?' Yes, on my handsome boyfriend Peter."[1]
International release and reception[edit]
A tape of the song was sent to Casablanca Records president Neil Bogart in the U.S., and he played it at a party at his home. Impressed with the track, Bogart continued to play it over and over all night. He later contacted Moroder and suggested that he make the track longer - possibly as long as 20 minutes. However, Summer again had reservations; she wasn't sure of all of the lyrics. Nevertheless, she imagined herself as an actress (namely Marilyn Monroe)[2] playing the part of someone in sexual ecstasy. The studio lights were dimmed so that Summer was more or less in complete darkness as she lay on the floor.
The final recording lasted over 16 minutes, and according to the BBC, contained 23 "orgasms".[2] By that point, the song was renamed "Love to Love You Baby". It took up the entire first side of the album of the same name, and edited versions were also found on 7" vinyl.
Originally released in November 1975, the song became an international disco smash. In the U.S., it became Summer's first US Top 40 hit, spending two weeks at #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in February 7 & 14 1976[3] being held off the number one spot by Paul Simon's "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover" and logged four weeks atop the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart,[4] as well number three on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.[5]
In the UK, upon release in January 1976, the song reached #4[6] on the UK Singles Chart in spite of the BBC's initial refusal to promote it. They also refused to play it. As a result of the success of the song, Summer would be named "the first lady of love," which labeled her with a sexually oriented, fantasy image from which she would struggle to free herself.
Casablanca Records became responsible for the distribution of Summer's work in the U.S. Bogart was particularly keen for Summer to portray the image of the rich, powerful, sexy fantasy figure with which this song had labeled her. Bogart and his wife Joyce (who also became Summer's manager) would become close friends with Summer once she returned to the United States. However, Bogart also began interfering with aspects of Summer's personal and professional life. She would later become a born-again Christian, leave disco, Casablanca and the Bogarts behind, and file a lawsuit against them. Thereafter, Summer decided to exclude "Love to Love You Baby" from her concert playlists. However, she reintroduced the song into her concert repertoire some 25 years later.
Impact and legacy[edit]
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame named the song one of the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll in 1995.
VH1 placed "Love to Love You Baby" at #63 in their list of 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2000.[7]
Slant Magazine ranked the song 10th in its 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2006.[8]
Personnel[edit]
Donna Summer – lead vocals
Pete Bellotte – guitars
Dave King – bass
Michael Thatcher – keyboards
Giorgio Moroder – keyboards
Martin Harrison – drums
Lucy, Betsy, Gitta – backing vocals
Track listing and formats[edit]
Original Netherlands 7" (Groovy GR 1211)
"Love to Love You" (3:20)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (?)
NB This original release (without the "Baby" in the title) ran for just over 3 minutes and 20 seconds. This version was integrated into the 16-minute version found on the album. All subsequent international releases either contained a new edit of the full album version (lasting just under five minutes) or the original version (but still adding "Baby" to the title). In some cases (for example, the United States), both versions were found on different sides of the record.
US 7" (Oasis OC 401)
"Love to Love You Baby" (4:57)
"Love to Love You Baby" (3:27)
UK 7" (GTO GT 17)
"Love to Love You Baby" (4:57)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (?)
Germany 7" (Atlantic ATL 10625)
"Love to Love You" (3:20)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (3:09)
NB The word "Baby" appears on the sleeve but not the label
Netherlands 7" (Groovy GR 1218)
"Love to Love You Baby Part I" (3:30)
"Love to Love You Baby Part II" (5:20)
NB This Dutch re-release was issued shortly after the song became a hit internationally, with "Baby" being added to the title
France 7" (Atlantic 10.693)
"Love to Love You Baby (Part 1)" (3:27)
"Love to Love You Baby" (Part 2)" (4:57)
Canada 7" (Oasis OC 401X)
"Love to Love You Baby" (3:22)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (3:12)
Sweden 7" (Polar POS 1209)
"Love to Love You Baby" (3:21)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (3:10)
Spain 7" (Ariola 16575)
"Love to Love You Baby" (3:42)
"Need-a-Man Blues" (4:30)
1983 re-issue[edit]
Following the dance chart success of the Patrick Cowley remix of Summer's "I Feel Love" in 1982, Casablanca Records/PolyGram re-issued her first hit single "Love to Love You Baby". However, the single failed to make an impact on the charts the second time around, and it would be the label's final single re-release of tracks from the Donna Summer back catalog in the 1980s. In 1984, Casablanca Records was closed by PolyGram.
UK 7" (Casablanca CAN 1014)
"Love to Love You Baby" (Part One) – 3:35
"Love to Love You Baby" (Part Two) – 4:12
UK 12" (Casablanca CANX 1014)
"Love to Love You Baby" (Come On Over to My Place Version) – 16:50
"Love to Love You Baby" (Come Dancing Version) – 8:10 (A Young and Strong mega-edit)
NB: The "Come On Over to My Place Version" is in fact the original full-length album version
1990 re-release[edit]
Germany CD single (Casablanca 874 395-2)
"Love to Love You Baby" – 4:15
"I Feel Love" – 5:39
"Bad Girls" – 3:54
"On the Radio" (long version) – 5:51
2013 release[edit]
"Love to Love You Baby" (Giorgio Moroder Remix) (featuring Chris Cox) (4:15)
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1975–76)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[9] 4
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[10] 9
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[11] 1
France (SNEP)[12] 17
Germany (Official German Charts)[13] 6
Italy (FIMI)[14] 11
Ireland (IRMA)[15] 11
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[16] 17
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[17] 13
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[18] 8
Norway (VG-lista)[19] 2
Spain Singles (Promusicae)[20] 6
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[21] 5
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[22] 6
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[23] 4
US Billboard Hot 100[24] 2
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[24] 3
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[24] 1
Chart (2012)
Peak
position
France (SNEP)[25] 77
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[17] 90
UK Singles (Official Charts Company) 138
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1976)
Rank
Australia (ARIA)[26] 50
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[27] 25
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[28] 61
US Billboard Hot 100[29] 41
Certifications and sales[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Canada (Music Canada)[30]
Gold 5,000^
United States (RIAA)[31]
Gold 1,000,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
Cover versions and samples[edit]
An excerpt of the song was featured during the first episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour and a subsequent tell-all book about the show was titled "Love to Love You Bradys."[32]
Beyoncé also sampled the refrain of the song for her hit "Naughty Girl" on her album Dangerously in Love, which she performed live for the Fashion Rocks Awards 2008 [33]
French male model and singer Baptiste Giabiconi covered it as an adaptation and heavy sampling of the hit in 2016, but with added lyrics and new EDM arrangement. His version credited to mononym Giabiconi entered the French SNEP chart at #14 in July 2016.[34]
See also[edit]
1975 in music
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cromelin, Richard (17 May 2012). "Donna Summer: 'The audience was groaning worse than I was' – a classic interview from the vaults". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Greatest Songs Ever! Love to Love You Baby" Blender.com, 21 November 2006. Retrieved 2 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, 8th Edition (Billboard Publications), page 612.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Hot Dance/Disco 1974-2003, (Record Research Inc.), page 249.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 556.
Jump up ^ UK Singles Chart info Chartstats.com. Retrieved 2 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Rock On The Net: VH1: 100 Greatest Dance Songs". www.rockonthenet.com.
Jump up ^ "100 Greatest Dance Songs". Slant Magazine. 30 January 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
Jump up ^ David Kent's "Australian Chart Book 1970-1992" Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Love to love you baby in Canadian Top Singles Chart". Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Hung Medien. "Love to love you baby in French Chart". Archived from the original on 19 March 2005. Retrieved 12 June 2013. You have to use the index at the top of the page and search "Donna Summer"
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby". GfK Entertainment Charts.
Jump up ^ "Love to love you baby in Italian Chart". HitParadeItalia (it). Retrieved 10 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Love to love you baby in Irish Chart". IRMA. Retrieved 10 July 2013. Only one result when searching "Love to love you baby"
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – Donna Summer search results" (in Dutch) Dutch Top 40.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dutchcharts.nl – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ Fernando Salaverri (September 2005). Sólo éxitos: año a año, 1959–2002 (1st ed.). Spain: Fundación Autor-SGAE. ISBN 84-8048-639-2.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby". Swiss Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "1976 Top 40 Official UK Singles Archive - 7th February 1976". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "allmusic ( Donna Summer > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles )". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Retrieved 2010-09-09.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Donna Summer – Love To Love You Baby" (in French). Les classement single.
Jump up ^ Australian-charts.com Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Top Singles – Volume 26, No. 14 & 15, January 08 1977". RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Old-Charts". Old-Charts. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
Jump up ^ Musicoutfitters.com
Jump up ^ "Canadian single certifications – Donna Summer – Love to Love You Baby". Music Canada.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Donna Summer – Love to Love You Baby". Recording Industry Association of America. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
Jump up ^ "amazon.com: Love to Love You Bradys: The Bizarre Story of the Brady Bunch Variety Hour". Retrieved June 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ Seen on April 4, 2013
Jump up ^ LesCharts.com: Baptiste Giabiconi - "Love To Love You Baby" song page
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Casanova Brown" / "(If You Want To) Do It Yourself" / "How High the Moon" by Gloria Gaynor Disco File Top 20 number-one single
October 25, 1975 - November 15, 1975 Succeeded by
"I Love Music" by The O'Jays
[show]
v
t
e
Donna Summer
Discography (Albums) (Singles)
Awards
Cover versions
Studio albums
Lady of the Night (1974)
Love to Love You Baby (1975)
A Love Trilogy (1976)
Four Seasons of Love (1976)
I Remember Yesterday (1977)
Once Upon A Time (1977)
Bad Girls (1979)
The Wanderer (1980)
I'm a Rainbow (1981/1996)
Donna Summer (1982)
She Works Hard for the Money (1983)
Cats Without Claws (1984)
All Systems Go (1987)
Another Place and Time (1989)
Mistaken Identity (1991)
Christmas Spirit (1994)
Crayons (2008)
Live albums
Live and More (1978)
Live & More Encore (1999)
Notable compilations
On the Radio: Greatest Hits Volumes I & II (1979)
The Summer Collection: Greatest Hits (1985)
The Dance Collection: A Compilation of Twelve Inch Singles (1987)
The Donna Summer Anthology (1993)
Endless Summer (1994)
The Ultimate Collection (2003)
The Journey: The Very Best of Donna Summer (2003)
Gold (2005)
Donna (2014)
Hits, Singles and More (2015)
The Ultimate Collection (2016)
U.S. Top 10
Hit singles
"Love to Love You Baby"
"I Feel Love"
"Last Dance"
"MacArthur Park"
"Heaven Knows"
"Hot Stuff"
"Bad Girls"
"Dim All the Lights"
"No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)"
"On the Radio"
"The Wanderer"
"Love Is in Control (Finger on the Trigger)"
"She Works Hard for the Money"
"This Time I Know It's for Real"
Concert tours
Once Upon a Time Tour
Bad Girls Tour
The Wanderer Tour
Hard for the Money Tour
Silver Girl Tour
All Systems Go Tour
Mid Summer Nights Dream Tour
Live & More Encore Tour
Greatest Hits Tour
Crayons Tour
Related topics
Brooklyn Dreams
Pete Bellotte
Joe "Bean" Esposito
Giorgio Moroder
Bruce Sudano
Neil Bogart
Paul Jabara
Sunshine
Theme From The Deep (Down Deep Inside)
Book:Donna Summer
[show]
v
t
e
Jimmy Somerville
Bronski Beat
The Communards
Discography
Studio albums
Bronski Beat
The Age of Consent (1984)
Rainbow Nation (1995)
The Communards
Communards (1986)
Red (1987)
Read My Lips (1989)
Dare to Love (1995)
Manage the Damage (1999)
Home Again (2004)
Suddenly Last Summer (2009)
Homage (2015)
Remix albums
Bronski Beat
Hundreds & Thousands (1985)
Root Beer (2000)
Live albums
The Communards
Storm Paris (1988)
Compilations
The Communards
Heaven (1993)
Het Beste Van The Communards (2005)
The Platinum Collection (2006)
Best (1989)
The Singles Collection 1984/1990 (1990)
Master Series (1991)
The Very Best of Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat and The Communards (2001)
The Essentials (2002)
For a Friend: The Best of Bronski Beat, The Communards & Jimmy Somerville (2009)
Dance & Desire: Rarities & Videos (2014)
Other albums
Fine Young Cannibals (1985)
(VA) Red Hot + Blue (1990)
(OST) Orlando (1993)
Plagiarism (1997)
Another Gay Soundtrack (2006)
Clubland 10 (2006)
Extended plays
Bright Thing (2010)
Momentum (2011)
Singles
Bronski Beat
"Smalltown Boy" (1984)
"Why?" (1984)
"It Ain't Necessarily So" (1984)
"I Feel Love" with Marc Almond (1985)
"Run from Love" (1985)
"Smalltown Boy ('94 Remix)" (1994)
"Why? (1995 Remix)" (1995)
The Communards
"You Are My World" (1985)
"Disenchanted" (1986)
"Don't Leave Me This Way" (1986)
"So Cold The Night" (1986)
"You Are My World ('87 Remix)" (1987)
"Tomorrow" (1987)
"Never Can Say Goodbye" (1987)
"For a Friend" (1988)
"There's More to Love" (1988)
"Suspicious Minds" with Fine Young Cannibals (1986)
"The Last Infanta" with Uno (1988)
"Comment te dire adieu" with June Miles-Kingston (1989)
"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" (1990)
"Read My Lips (Enough Is Enough)" (1990)
"To Love Somebody" (1990)
"Smalltown Boy ('91 Remix)" (1991)
"Run from Love ('91 Remix)" with Claudia Brücken
"Coming" (1993)
"Gimme Shelter" with Voice of the Beehive (1993)
"Heartbeat" (1995)
"Hurt So Good" (1995)
"By Your Side" (1995)
"Star" with The Weather Girls (1996)
"Safe" (1997)
"Dark Sky" (1997)
"The Number One Song in Heaven" with Sparks (1997)
"Something to Live for" (1999)
"Lay Down" (1999)
"Why? (Almighty Mix)" (2000)
"Can't Take My Eyes Off You" (2001)
"It's So Good" (2004)
"Come On" (2004)
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough" (2004)
"You & Me" with Blue Ray (2007)
"I Believe in Love (Remix)" with Arthur Baker (2011)
Other songs
"Love to Love You Baby" (1985)
"Johnny Remember Me" (1985}
"Lover Man" (1986)
"Do They Know It's Christmas?" with Band Aid II (1989)
"From This Moment On" (1990)
"Someday We'll Be Together" (1995)
"But Not Tonight" (2004)
"I Was Born This Way" (2006)
"Tell Me Why" (2006)
Video albums
Bronski Beat
The First Chapter (1985)
The Communards
The Video Singles (1986)
Live at Full House Rock Show (2006)
The Video Collection 1984/1990 (1990)
Filmography
Ahí Te Quiero Ver (TV series) (1987)
Looking for Langston (1989)
Orlando (1992)
Lexx: "Girltown" (TV series) (2000)
Related articles
Gay icon
London Records
Bronski Beat discography
Richard Coles
Red Wedge
Stephen Hague
DJ Tonka
Here and Now Tour
"Land of Confusion"
Category
Book
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
No Doubt singles
Discography
Songs
No Doubt
"Trapped in a Box"
The Beacon Street Collection
"Squeal"
Tragic Kingdom
"Just a Girl"
"Spiderwebs"
"Don't Speak"
"Excuse Me Mr."
"Happy Now?"
"Sunday Morning"
"Hey You!"
Return of Saturn
"New"
"Ex-Girlfriend"
"Simple Kind of Life"
"Bathwater"
Rock Steady
"Hey Baby"
"Hella Good"
"Underneath It All"
"Running"
Push and Shove
"Settle Down"
"Looking Hot"
Other singles
"It's My Life"
"Bathwater (Invincible Overlord Remix)"
Promotional singles
"Making Out"
"Stand and Deliver"
"Push and Shove"
Other songs
"Love to Love You Baby"
"Monkey Man"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Love_to_Love_You_Baby_(song)&oldid=802946658"
Categories:
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August Weismann
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the 19th-century New York politician, see Augustus Weismann.
August Weismann
Born
(1834-01-17)17 January 1834
Frankfurt am Main
Died
5 November 1914(1914-11-05) (aged 80)
Freiburg
Known for
germ plasm theory
Awards
Darwin–Wallace Medal (Silver, 1908)
August Friedrich Leopold Weismann (17 January 1834 – 5 November 1914) was a German evolutionary biologist. Ernst Mayr ranked him as the second most notable evolutionary theorist of the 19th century, after Charles Darwin. Weismann became the Director of the Zoological Institute and the first Professor of Zoology at Freiburg.
His main contribution involved germ plasm theory, at one time also known as Weismannism,[1] according to which inheritance (in a multicellular organism) only takes place by means of the germ cells—the gametes such as egg cells and sperm cells. Other cells of the body—somatic cells—do not function as agents of heredity. The effect is one-way: germ cells produce somatic cells and are not affected by anything the somatic cells learn or therefore any ability an individual acquires during its life. Genetic information cannot pass from soma to germ plasm and on to the next generation. Biologists refer to this concept as the Weismann barrier.[2] This idea, if true, rules out the inheritance of acquired characteristics as proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.[3]
The idea of the Weismann barrier is central to the modern synthesis of the early 20th century, though scholars do not express it today in the same terms. In Weismann's opinion the largely random process of mutation, which must occur in the gametes (or stem cells that make them) is the only source of change for natural selection to work on. Weismann became one of the first biologists to deny Lamarckism entirely.[4] Weismann's ideas preceded the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's work, and though Weismann was cagey about accepting Mendelism, younger workers soon made the connection.
Weismann is much admired today. Ernst Mayr judged him to be the most important evolutionary thinker between Darwin and the evolutionary synthesis around 1930–1940, and "one of the great biologists of all time".[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
1.1 Youth and studies
1.2 Professional life
2 Contributions to evolutionary biology
2.1 German work on cells
2.2 1868–1881/82
2.3 1882–1895
2.4 1896–1910
2.5 Experiments on the inheritance of mutilations
3 Awards
4 Publications by Weismann
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
Life[edit]
Youth and studies[edit]
Weismann was born a son of high school teacher Johann (Jean) Konrad Weismann (1804–1880), a graduate of ancient languages and theology, and his wife Elise (1803–1850), née Lübbren, the daughter of the county councillor and mayor of Stade, on 17 January 1834 in Frankfurt am Main. He had a typical 19th century bourgeois education, receiving music lessons from the age of four, and drafting and painting lessons from Jakob Becker (1810–1872) at the Frankfurter Städelsche Institut from the age of 14. His piano teacher was a devoted butterfly collector and introduced him to the collecting of imagos and caterpillars. But studying natural sciences was out of the question due to the cost involved and limited job prospects. A friend of the family, chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), recommended studying medicine. A foundation from the inheritance of Weismann's mother allowed him to take up studies in Göttingen. Following his graduation in 1856, he wrote his dissertation on the synthesis of hippuric acid in the human body.
Professional life[edit]
Immediately after university, Weismann took on a post as assistant at the Städtische Klinik (city clinic) in Rostock. Weismann successfully submitted two manuscripts, one about hippuric acid in herbivores, and one about the salt content of the Baltic Sea, and won two prizes. The paper about the salt content dissuaded him from becoming a chemist, since he felt himself lacking in apothecarial accuracy.
After a study visit to see Vienna's museums and clinics, he graduated as a physician and settled in Frankfurt with a medical practice in 1868. During the war between Austria, France and Italy in 1859, he became Chief Medical Officer in the military. During a leave from duty, he walked through Northern Italy and the County of Tyrol. After a sabbatical in Paris, he worked with Rudolf Leuckart at the University of Gießen. He returned to Frankfurt as personal physician to the banished Archduke Stephen of Austria at Schaumburg Castle from 1861 to 1863.
From 1863, he was privatdozent in comparative anatomy and zoology; from 1866 extraordinary professor; and from 1873 to 1912 full professor, first holder of the chair in zoology and director of the zoological institute at Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg in Breisgau. He retired in 1912.[6]
His son Julius Weismann (1879-1950) was a composer.
Contributions to evolutionary biology[edit]
At the beginning of Weismann's preoccupation with evolutionary theory was his grappling with Christian creationism as a possible alternative. In his work Über die Berechtigung der Darwin'schen Theorie (On the justification of the Darwinian theory) he compared creationism and evolutionary theory, and concluded that many biological facts can be seamlessly accommodated within evolutionary theory, but remain puzzling if considered the result of acts of creation.
After this work, Weismann accepted evolution as a fact on a par with the fundamental assumptions of astronomy (e.g. Heliocentrism). Weismann's position towards the mechanism of inheritance and its role for evolution changed during his life. Three periods can be distinguished.
German work on cells[edit]
Weismann's germ plasm theory. The hereditary material, the germ plasm, is confined to the gonads. Somatic cells (of the body) develop afresh in each generation from the germ plasm.
Weismann's work on the demarcation between germ-line and soma can scarcely be appreciated without considering the work of (mostly) German biologists during the second half of the 19th century. This was the time that the mechanisms of cell division began to be understood. Eduard Strasburger, Walther Flemming, Heinrich von Waldeyer and the Belgian Edouard Van Beneden laid the basis for the cytology and cytogenetics of the 20th century. Strasburger, the outstanding botanical physiologist of that century, coined the terms nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. He said "new cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other cell nuclei". Van Beneden discovered how chromosomes combined at meiosis, during the production of gametes, and discovered and named chromatin. Walther Flemming, the founder of cytogenetics, named mitosis, and pronounced "omnis nucleus e nucleo" (which means the same as Strasburger's dictum). The discovery of mitosis, meiosis and chromosomes is regarded as one of the 100 most important scientific discoveries of all times,[7] and one of the 10 most important discoveries in cell biology.[8]
Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Van Beneden in Ascaris eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was first described in 1890 by Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. Thus the work of the earlier cytologists laid the ground for Weismann, who turned his mind to the consequences for evolution, which was an aspect the cytologists had not addressed.[9] All this took place before the work of Mendel had been rediscovered
1868–1881/82[edit]
Weismann starts out believing, like many other 19th century scientists, among them Charles Darwin, that the observed variability of individuals of one species is due to the inheritance of sports (Darwin's term). He believed, as written in 1876, that transmutation of species is directly due to the influence of environment. He also wrote, "if every variation is regarded as a reaction of the organism to external conditions, as a deviation of the inherited line of development, it follows that no evolution can occur without a change of the environment". (this is close to the modern use of the concept that changes in the environment can mediate selective pressures on a population, so leading to evolutionary change.) Weismann also used the classic Lamarckian metaphor of use and disuse of an organ.
1882–1895[edit]
Weismann's first rejection of the inheritance of acquired traits was in a lecture in 1883, titled "On inheritance" ("Über die Vererbung"). Again, as in his treatise on creation vs. evolution, he attempts to explain individual examples with either theory. For instance, the existence of non-reproductive castes of ants, such as workers and soldiers, cannot be explained by inheritance of acquired characters. Germ plasm theory, on the other hand, does so effortlessly. Weismann used this theory to explain Lamark's original examples for "use and disuse", such as the tendency to have degenerate wings and stronger feet in domesticated waterfowl.
1896–1910[edit]
Weismann worked on the embryology of sea urchin eggs, and in the course of this observed different kinds of cell division, namely equatorial division and reductional division, terms he coined (Äquatorialteilung and Reduktionsteilung respectively).
His germ plasm theory states that multicellular organisms consist of germ cells containing heritable information, and somatic cells that carry out ordinary bodily functions. The germ cells are influenced neither by environmental influences nor by learning or morphological changes that happen during the lifetime of an organism, which information is lost after each generation. The concept as he proposed it was referred to as Weismannism in his day, for example in the book An examination of Weismannism by George Romanes[1] This idea was illuminated and explained by the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's work in the early years of the 20th century (see Mendelian inheritance).
Experiments on the inheritance of mutilations[edit]
The idea that germline cells contain information that passes to each generation unaffected by experience and independent of the somatic (body) cells, came to be referred to as the Weismann barrier, and is frequently quoted as putting a final end to the theory of Lamarck and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. What Lamarck claimed was the inheritance of characteristics acquired through effort, or will.
Weismann conducted the experiment of removing the tails of 68 white mice, repeatedly over 5 generations, and reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter tail. He stated that "901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of a rudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ."[10] Weismann was aware of the limitations of this experiment, and made it clear that he embarked on the experiment precisely because, at the time, there were many claims of animals inheriting mutilations (he refers to a claim regarding a cat that had lost its tail having numerous tail-less offspring). There were also claims of Jews born without foreskins. None of these claims, he said, were backed up by reliable evidence that the parent had in fact been mutilated, leaving the perfectly plausible possibility that the modified offspring were the result of a mutated gene. The purpose of his experiment was to lay the claims of inherited mutilation to rest. The results were consistent with Weismann's germ plasm theory.
Awards[edit]
He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908.
Publications by Weismann[edit]
1868. Über die Berechtigung der Darwin'schen Theorie: Ein akademischer Vortrag gehalten am 8. Juli 1868 in der Aula der Universität zu Freiburg im Breisgau. Engelmann, Leipzig.
1872. Über den Einfluß der Isolierung auf die Artbildung. Engelmann, Leipzig.
1875. Studien zur Descendenz-Theorie. I. Ueber den Saison-Dimorphismus der Schmetterlinge. Leipzig.
1876. Studien zur Descendenztheorie: II. Ueber die letzten Ursachen der Transmutationen. Leipzig.
1883. Die Entstehung der Sexualzellen bei den Hydromedusen: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Lebenserscheinungen dieser Gruppe. Fischer, Jena.
1885. Die Continuität des Keimplasmas als Grundlage einer Theorie der Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1887. Zur Frage nach der Vererbung erworbener Eigenschaften. In: Biol. Zbl. 6:33–48
1887. Über die Zahl der Richtungskörper und über ihre Bedeutung für die Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1889 Translations: Essays upon Heredity Oxford Clarendon Press – Full online text[11]
1892. Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1893 Translation: Germ-Plasm, a theory of Heredity Charles Scribner's Sons – Full online text
1892. Aufsätze über Vererbung und angewandet biologische Fragen. Fischer, Jena.
1893. Die Allmacht der Naturzüchtung: eine Erwiderung an Herbert Spencer. Jena.
1902. Vorträge über Deszendenztheorie: Gehalten an der Universität zu Freiburg im Breisgau. Fischer, Jena. 2 volums
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Romanes, George John. An examination of Weismannism. The Open court publishing company in Chicago 1893 [1]
Jump up ^ Germ-Plasm, a theory of heredity (1893)- Full online text. Esp.org. Retrieved on 2012-02-25.
Jump up ^ Huxley, Julian 1942. Evolution, the modern synthesis. p. 17
Jump up ^ Essays upon heredity (1889) Oxford Clarendon Press – Full online text. Esp.org. Retrieved on 2012-02-25.
Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst 1982. The growth of biological thought. Harvard. p. 698
Jump up ^ Gaup, Ernst 1917. August Weismann: sein Leben und sein Werk. Fischer, Jena.
Jump up ^ 100 Greatest Discoveries – Carnegie Institution Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. at carnegieinstitution.org
Jump up ^ The Science Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries: Biology Archived 2006-10-24 at the Wayback Machine. at science.discovery.com
Jump up ^ Although, of course, Ernst Haeckel had; but he was not a cytologist.
Jump up ^ August Weismann Essays Upon Heredity. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1889
Jump up ^ "Review of Essays upon Heredity and kindred Biological Problems by August Weismann". The Quarterly Review. 170: 370–393. April 1890.
Sources[edit]
Churchill F.B. 1968. August Weismann and a break from tradition. J. Hist. Biol. 1, 91–112.
Churchill F.B. 1970. Hertwig, Weismann, and the meaning of the reduction division, circa 1890. Isis 61, 429–457.
Löther, Rolf 1990. Wegbereiter der Genetik: Gregor Johann Mendel und August Weismann. Verlag Harri Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main. ISBN 3-8171-1130-4
Risler H. 1968. August Weismann 1834–1914. In: Berichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Freiburg im Breisgau. 77–93
Risler H. 1985. August Weismanns Leben und Wirken nach Dokumenten aus seinem Nachlass. In: Freiburger Universitätsblätter Heft 87/88, Freiburg. 23–42
Romanes, George John 1893. An Examination of Weismannism. London, Longmans.
External links[edit]
Media related to August Weismann at Wikimedia Commons
Works written by or about August Weismann at Wikisource
Works by August Weismann at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about August Weismann at Internet Archive
Biography, bibliography and access to digital sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 32059588
LCCN: n85243792
ISNI: 0000 0001 0884 9736
GND: 118766406
SUDOC: 031671276
BNF: cb122842092 (data)
MGP: 191303
NLA: 35598112
NDL: 00769033
NKC: nlk20000084951
Botanist: Weism.
IATH: w6pc35m3
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=August_Weismann&oldid=813373917"
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Mud dauber
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mud dauber
Black and yellow mud dauber
Sceliphron caementarium
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Suborder: Apocrita
Superfamily: Apoidea
Families
Some Sphecidae and Crabronidae
Mud dauber (or "mud wasp") is a name commonly applied to a number of wasps from either the family Sphecidae or Crabronidae that build their nests from mud. Mud daubers belong to different families and are variable in appearance. Most resemble long, slender wasps about 1-inch (25 mm) in length.[1] The name refers to the nests that are made by the female wasps, which consist of mud molded into place by the wasp's mandibles. Mud daubers are not normally aggressive, but can become belligerent when threatened. Stings are uncommon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nests
2 Food
3 Characteristics
3.1 Sceliphron laetum
3.2 Sceliphron formosum
4 Airplane incidents
4.1 Florida Commuter Airlines
4.2 Birgenair Flight 301
4.3 Gulfstream N450KK
5 See also
6 References
Nests[edit]
New organ pipe mud dauber wasp nest showing different muds gathered at different places.
The organ pipe mud dauber, one of many mud daubers in the family Crabronidae, builds nests in the shape of a cylindrical tube resembling an organ pipe or pan flute. Common sites include vertical or horizontal faces of walls, cliffs, bridges, overhangs and shelter caves or other structures.
The nest of the black and yellow mud dauber is a simple, one-cell, urn-shaped nest that is attached to crevices, cracks and corners. Each nest contains one egg. Usually several nests are clumped together and covered in mud.
The metallic-blue mud dauber, another sphecid, builds typically horizontal oval nests, but occasionally refurbishes the abandoned nests of other species and preys primarily on black widow spiders.[2][not in citation given] Blue mud daubers sometimes appropriate old nests of black-and-yellow mud daubers. They carry water to them and recondition them for their own purposes. The two species commonly occupy the same barns, porches, or other nest sites.
All three species may occupy the same sites year after year, creating large numbers of nests. Mud dauber nests can last many years in protected locations and are often used as nest sites by other kinds of wasps and bees, as well as other types of insects.
One disadvantage to making nests is that most, if not all, of the nest-maker’s offspring are concentrated in one place, making them highly vulnerable to predation. Once a predator finds a nest, it can plunder it cell by cell. A variety of parasitic wasps, ranging from extremely tiny chalcidoid wasps to larger, bright green chrysidid wasps attack mud dauber nests. They pirate provisions and offspring as food for their own offspring.
Food[edit]
Like most other wasps, mud daubers are predators. The females not only build the nests, but also they hunt to provision them. However, pipe-organ mud dauber males have reportedly brought spiders to the nest, and they aid in nest guarding.
Black and yellow mud daubers primarily prey on relatively small, colorful spiders, such as crab spiders (and related groups), orb weavers and some jumping spiders. They usually find them in and around vegetation. Blue mud daubers are the main predator of the black and brown widow spiders.
Adults of both sexes frequently drink flower nectar, but they stock their nests with spiders, which serve as food for their offspring. Like connoisseurs, they prefer particular kinds of spiders, and particular sizes of spiders for their larders. Instead of stocking a nest cell with one or two large spiders, mud daubers cram as many as two dozen small spiders into a nest cell. They appear to know exactly what they are hunting for, and where to find it.
To capture a spider, the wasp grabs it and stings it. The venom from the sting does not kill the spider, but paralyzes and preserves it so it can be transported and stored in the nest cell until consumed by the larva. A mud dauber usually lays its egg on the prey item and then seals it into the nest cell with a mud cap.[1] It then builds another cell or nest. Missouri’s mud daubers generally have two generations per year. The young survive the winter inside the nest.
Characteristics[edit]
There are many species of mud dauber wasp. Here are some characteristics for mud daubers of the Sceliphron genus.
Sceliphron laetum[edit]
Face covered by dense golden hair; no yellow integumental patch on lower face. Thorax dorsally with at least one yellow patch medially between wing-bases. Hind part of thorax with yellow patch just above insertion of abdominal petiole but lacking paired spots. Abdominal gaster yellow basally and apically.[3]
Sceliphron formosum[edit]
Face with a covering of golden hair, sparse ventrally; lower face with a yellow integumental patch medially. Thorax dorsally with a yellow patch between wing bases. Hind part of thorax with a yellow patch just above insertion of abdominal petiole and four other yellow spots. Abdominal gaster yellow basally and apically.[3]
Airplane incidents[edit]
Florida Commuter Airlines[edit]
On September 12, 1980, Florida Commuter Airlines flight 65 crashed en route to Freeport, Bahamas killing all 34 passengers and crew. The cause was determined to be due in part to a malfunctioning air speed indicator caused by mud dauber nests that were improperly cleared from the aircraft's pitot tubes.
Birgenair Flight 301[edit]
On February 6, 1996, Birgenair Flight 301, a 757 jet flying from Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic, crashed into the Atlantic Ocean. All 13 crew members and 176 passengers were killed. A key part of the accident was a blocked pitot tube, a component which measures outside air pressure through small tubes on the outside of the aircraft and displays this as the plane's speed. Although the tubes were never recovered from the ocean floor, it was discovered that the plane had been sitting on the tarmac for almost 3 weeks with the pitot tubes not covered as they should have been. Investigators believe a black and yellow mud dauber got into the tube and built its cylindrical nest inside, causing faulty air speed readings that were a large part of the crash.
Gulfstream N450KK[edit]
On April 10, 2015, about 1845 eastern daylight time, a Gulfstream Aerospace G-IV, N450KK, was substantially damaged during a cabin over-pressurization event over the Caribbean Sea while en route to Fort Lauderdale, Florida (FXE). An initial examination of the fuselage revealed that the outflow valve safety port, located on the outer fuselage, was completely plugged with a foreign material resembling dried dirt from a mud dauber.[4]
See also[edit]
Potter wasp
Genus Sceliphron
Tropical Hover Wasp
Online guide to Eastern North American Sphecidae Includes information on all the mud daubers and their look alikes
Asian mud-dauber in the Netherlands
Texas Cooperative Extension. Mud Daubers
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crabronidae.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sphecidae.
^ Jump up to: a b Milne, Lorus; Milne, Margery (August 2003) [Originally Published October 1st 1980]. Field Guide to Insects & Spiders. New York: Alfred A Knopf, Inc. pp. 844–845. ISBN 0-394-50763-0.
Jump up ^ "Species Chalybion californicum – Blue Mud Wasp". BugGuide. Department of Entomology, Iowa State University. 10 June 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Slender mud-dauber wasps: genus Sceliphron - Western Australian Museum".
Jump up ^ "ERA15LA328". www.ntsb.gov. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
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