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Energy in Japan
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2015)
Energy in Japan refers to energy and electricity production, consumption, import and export in Japan. The country's primary energy consumption was 477.6 Mtoe in 2011, a decrease of 5% over the previous year.[1]
The country lacks significant domestic reserves of fossil fuel, except coal, and must import substantial amounts of crude oil, natural gas, and other energy resources, including uranium. Japan relied on oil imports to meet about 84 percent of its energy needs in 2010.[2] Japan was also the first coal importer in 2010, with 187 Mt (about 20% of total world coal import), and the first natural gas importer with 99 bcm (12.1% of world total gas import).[3]
While Japan had previously relied on nuclear power to meet about 30% of its electricity needs, after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster all nuclear reactors have been progressively shut down for safety concerns.[2] Ōi Nuclear Power Plant's reactor No. 3 was eventually restarted on 2 July 2012.[4] However, in September 2013 the plant was shut down in order for Ōi Nuclear Power Plant to undergo safety inspections and pass legal checks in order to reopen.[5] On August 11, 2015 and November 1, 2015 the two reactors at the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant restarted. Following the Fukushima disaster, the general public has opposed the use of nuclear energy.[6][7]
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Energy sources
3.1 Oil
3.2 Nuclear power
3.3 Natural gas
3.4 Hydroelectricity
3.5 Solar power
3.6 Wind power
3.7 Geothermal energy
3.8 Waste and biomass energy
3.9 Ocean energy
4 Electricity
4.1 National grid
4.2 Utilities
5 Hydrogen energy
6 Carbon emissions
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Overview[edit]
GDP versus energy consumption, 1968–2012
Energy in Japan[8]
Population
(million)
Prim. energy
(TWh)
Production
(TWh)
Import
(TWh)
Electricity
(TWh)
CO2-emission
(Mt)
2004 127.7 6,201 1,125 5,126 1,031 1,215
2007 127.8 5,972 1,052 5,055 1,083 1,236
2008 127.7 5,767 1,031 4,872 1,031 1,151
2009 127.3 5,489 1,091 4,471 997 1,093
2010 127.4 5,778 1,126 4,759 1,070 1,143
2012 127.8 5,367 601 4,897 1,003 1,186
2012R 127.6 5,260 329 5,062 989 1,223
2013 127.3 5,288 325 5,082 998 1,235
Change 2004–10 -0.2% -6.8% 0.0% -7.2% 3.7% -5.9%
Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, Prim. energy includes energy losses that are 2/3 for nuclear power[9]
2012R = CO2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated
History[edit]
Electricity production in Japan by source.
Japan's rapid industrial growth since the end of World War II doubled the nation's energy consumption every five years into the 1990s. During the 1960–72 period of accelerated growth, energy consumption grew much faster than GNP, doubling Japan's consumption of world energy. By 1976, with only 3% of the world's population, Japan was consuming 6% of global energy supplies.
Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive,[10] and, since the loss of nuclear power after the earthquake and tsunami disaster at Fukushima, the cost of electricity has risen significantly.[11]
Energy sources[edit]
Japan—primary energy use[12]
Fuel 1950 1988 2001[12]
Coal 50% 18.1% 16.8%
Hydro 33% 4.6% 4.0%
Oil 17% 57.3% 50.2%
Natural gas – 10.1% 13.6%
Nuclear – 9.0% 14.4%
Other – 1.3% 1.0%
In 1950 coal supplied half of Japan's energy needs, hydroelectricity one-third, and oil the rest. By 2001 the contribution of oil had increased to 50.2% of the total, with rises also in the use of nuclear power and natural gas. Japan now depends heavily on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy demand.[13]
Japan currently produces about 10% of its electricity from renewable sources. The Fourth Strategic Energy Plan set the renewable share goal to be 24% by 2030. In the next 15 years, Japan intends on investing $700 billion into renewable energy.[14] One initiative the Japanese government has implemented in order to boost the amount of renewable energy produced and purchased in Japan is the feed-in tariff scheme. The scheme encourages companies to invest in renewable energy by providing set prices for various types of renewable energy. The initiatives appear to be working, as renewable energy generation capacity now stands at 26.2 GW, compared to 20.9 GW in 2012.[15]
Oil[edit]
In the wake of the two oil crises of the 1970s (1973 and 1979), Japan made efforts to diversify energy resources in order to increase security. Japan's domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around 5.1 million barrels (810,000 m3) of oil per day in the late 1970s to 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) per day in 1990. While the country's use of oil declined, its consumption of nuclear power and Natural gas rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, including electric power companies and steelmakers, switched from petroleum to coal, most of which is imported.
The state stockpile equals about 92 days of consumption and the privately held stockpiles equal another 77 days of consumption for a total of 169 days or 579 million barrels (92,100,000 m3).[16][17] The Japanese SPR is run by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation.[18]
Oil demand has been waning in Japan, especially leading up to and since the Tohoku earthquake in 2011. While oil consumption was over 5 million barrels per day (bpd) for decades, this had declined to 3.22 million bpd by 2017.[19] As of 2016, both India[20] and Texas[21] have overtaken Japan in oil consumption.
Nuclear power[edit]
Main article: Nuclear power in Japan
See also: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the worst nuclear accident in 25 years, displaced 50,000 households after radioactive isotopes were dispersed into the air, soil and sea.[22] Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish.[23]
Following Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace speech, the United States helped Japan develop their nuclear power program. When Japan decided to embark on the nuclear power field, it imported technology from the United States and obtained uranium from Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia. The first nuclear reactor was commissioned in 1966, from then to 2010, 54 more nuclear reactors had opened, with total generation capacity of 48,847 MW.[24] The ratio of nuclear power generation to total electricity production increased from 2% in 1973 to around 30% in March 2011.[2] During the 1980s, Japan's nuclear power program was strongly opposed by environmental groups, particularly after the Three Mile Island accident in the United States. In the 2000s, Japan had a few of the modern Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, including some of the first new advanced Generation III reactors. At Rokkasho, Aomori a facility was built to enrich nuclear fuel, deal with nuclear waste, and recycle spent nuclear fuel.
After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami some nuclear reactors were damaged, causing much uncertainty and fear about the release of radioactive material, as well as highlighting the ongoing concerns over seismic design standards (see Nuclear power in Japan §Seismicity).[25] On 5 May 2012 Japan shut down the last nuclear reactor, the first time there has been no nuclear power production since 1970.[26] On 16 June Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda ordered the restart of Ōi nuclear plant's reactors number 3 and 4, saying that people's livelihood needs to be protected.[27] Ōi nuclear plant's reactor No. 3 was restarted on 2 July,[4] and No. 4 began operation on 21 July.[28] However, in September 2013 the Ōi nuclear plant was shut down in order to have extensive safety inspections performed.[5] By late 2015, both of the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant's reactors had reopened and restarted producing nuclear energy. Other nuclear plants, such as the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant, have received permission to reopen, and other nuclear reactors are beginning the process of restarting.[29]
In June 2015, the Japanese government released an energy proposal that includes the revival of nuclear power to account for Japan's energy needs. The proposal calls for an increase of about 20% in nuclear energy by 2030.[2] This reverses a decision by the previous Democratic Party, the government will re-open nuclear plants, aiming for "a realistic and balanced energy structure".
Natural gas[edit]
Because domestic natural gas production is minimal, rising demand is met by greater imports. Japan's main LNG suppliers in 1987 were Indonesia (51.3%), Malaysia (20.4%), Brunei (17.8%), United Arab Emirates (7.3%), and the United States (3.2%).
The new Japanese LNG strategy published in May 2016 envisages the creation of a liquid market and an international LNG hub in Japan. This promises to radically change the traditional JCC (crude oil) based pricing system in Japan, but also potentially in the Pacific Basin as a whole. But the path to hub creation and hub pricing in the early 2020s envisaged by the Strategy will not be straightforward.[30]
Hydroelectricity[edit]
Main article: Hydroelectricity in Japan
The country's main renewable energy source is hydroelectricity, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW and a production of 69.2 TWh of electricity in 2009.[31] As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams. Cost per kilowatt-hour for power from smaller plants was high at ¥15–100, hindering further development of the energy source.[32]
Solar power[edit]
Main article: Solar power in Japan
Japan was the world's second largest producer of photovoltaic electricity in the early 2000s, although solar was a very minor contribution to the total at that time. The country was overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which Japan had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.[33][34] Since then, Japan had been slow to increase solar capacity compared to other countries until 2012.
On 1 July 2012, after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. The tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, were among the highest in the world.[35][36] With the incentives in place, Japan added 1,718 MW of solar power in 2012. By the end of the year, Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4 GW.[37] Japan has seen sustained growth of solar PV capacity after 2012, reaching a cumulative installed capacity of 34 GW by the end of 2015, generating 3.5% of the national electricity consumption in that year.
Wind power[edit]
Main article: Wind power in Japan
Japan had 1,807 wind turbines with a total capacity of 2440 MW as of September 2011. Lack of locations with constant wind, environmental restrictions, and emphasis by power utilities on fossil and nuclear power hinders the employment of more wind power in the country.[38] However, it has been estimated that Japan has the potential for 144 GW for onshore wind and 608 GW of offshore wind capacity.[39]
Geothermal energy[edit]
Main article: Geothermal power in Japan
Of other renewable energy sources, Japan has partially exploited geothermal energy.[40] The country had six geothermal power stations with a combined capacity of 133 megawatts in 1989. By 2011, the country had 18 geothermal plants.[41] Japan has the third largest geothermal reserves in the world, and geothermal energy in particular is being heavily focused on as a source of power following the Fukushima disaster and subsequent shut down of all nuclear reactors. The Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry is currently exploring over 40 locations to see if geothermal energy plants would be compatible.[42]
Waste and biomass energy[edit]
As of September 2011, Japan had 190 generators attached to municipal waste units and 70 independent plants using biomass fuel to produce energy. In addition, 14 other generators were used to burn both coal and biomass fuel. In 2008, Japan produced 322 million tons of biomass fuel and converted 76% of it into energy.[43]
Ocean energy[edit]
In 2012, the government announced plans to build experimental tidal power and wave power plants in coastal areas. Construction on the projects, the locations for which have not been determined, would begin in 2013.[44]
Electricity[edit]
Main article: Electricity sector in Japan
Map of Japan's electricity distribution network, showing incompatible systems between regions.
The Sakuma Frequency Converter Station
In 2014, Japan ranked fifth in the world by electricity production, after the United States, China, Russia, and India with 934 TWh produced during that year.[45]
In terms of per capita electricity consumption, the average person in Japan consumed 8,459 kWh in 2004 compared to 14,240 kWh for the average American. In that respect it ranked 18th among the countries of the world. Its per capita electricity consumption increased by 21.8% between 1990 and 2004.[46]
Japan had 282 GW of total installed electricity generating capacity in 2010, the third largest in the world behind the United States and China. However, after the damage by the 2011 earthquake, capacity is estimated to be around 243 GW in mid-2011.[13] It is one of the world's largest users of solar energy, in fourth place behind Germany, Italy, and China. With 53 active nuclear power generating reactor units in 2009, that year Japan ranked third in the world in that respect, after the United States (104 reactors) and France (59).[47] Almost one quarter (24.93%) of its electricity production was from nuclear plants, compared to 76.18% for France and 19.66% for the United States.[48] However, after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, all plants eventually shut down in May 2012 and Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted and operational between June 2012 and September 2013. On 11 August 2015[49] and 1 November 2015, the two nuclear reactor of the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant were restarted respectively.[50][51][52]
Since the generation disruption caused by the Fukushima disaster, rapid steps have been made to liberalize the electricity supply market.[53][54] One way this was done in Japan is through the feed-in-tariff scheme. This was announced in 2012 as a direct consequence of the Fukushima disaster. The feed-in-tariff scheme encourages utility operators and companies to purchase and invest in renewable energy.[55] The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry set prices for various renewable energy sources to encourage the production and consumption of renewable energy. In April 2016 domestic and small business customers became able to select from over 250 supplier companies competitively selling electricity. Also wholesale electricity trading on the Japan Electric Power Exchange has been encouraged.[56][57]
National grid[edit]
Unlike most other industrial countries, Japan doesn't have a single national grid but instead has separate eastern and western grids. The standard voltage at power outlets is 100 V, but the grids operate at different frequencies: 50 Hz in Eastern Japan and 60 Hz in Western Japan.[58] The grids are connected together by 3 frequency converter stations (Higashi-Shimizu, Shin Shinano and Sakuma), but these can only handle 1 GW.[59] A converter station also exists at Minami-Fukumitsu. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami resulted in 11 reactors being taken offline with a loss of 9.7GW.[59] The 3 converter stations did not have the capacity to transfer enough power from Japan's western power grid to significantly help the eastern grid.
The two grids were originally developed by separate companies. Tokyo Electric Light Co was established in 1883 which also established electric power in Japan. In 1885 demand had grown enough that TELCO bought generation equipment from AEG of Germany.[59] The same happened in the western parts of Japan with General Electric being the supplier to Osaka Electric Lamp.[59] GE's equipment used the US standard 60 Hz while AEG's equipment used the European standard of 50 Hz.[59]
Utilities[edit]
In Japan, the electricity market is divided up into 10 regulated companies:
Chugoku Electric Power Company (CEPCO)
Chubu Electric Power (Chuden)
Hokuriku Electric Power Company (Hokuden)
Hokkaido Electric Power Company (HEPCO)
Kyushu Electric Power (Kyuden)
Kansai Electric Power Company (KEPCO)
Okinawa Electric Power Company (Okiden)
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)
Tohoku Electric Power (Tohokuden)
Shikoku Electric Power Company (Yonden)
Tepco
Kepco
Chubu
Tohokuden
Kyuden
Hydrogen energy[edit]
In March 2016, METI set a target of 40,000 hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles on Japan's roads by 2020 and 160 fueling stations.[60]
Carbon emissions[edit]
Carbon dioxide emissions
(thousands of metric tons of CO2)
compared to 1990 level[61]
Year
CO2
Change
1990 1,072,420 0%
1991 1,094,350 2.04%
1992 1,106,500 3.18%
1993 1,081,490 0.85%
1994 1,132,560 5.61%
1995 1,138,750 9.19%
1996 1,169,550 9.06%
1997 1,170,120 9.11%
1998 1,130,600 5.43%
1999 1,165,720 8.7%
2000 1,207,980 12.64%
2001 1,191,390 11.09%
2002 1,205,480 12.41%
2003 1,233,640 15.03%
2004 1,259,659 17.46%
2005 1,238,181 15.46%
2006 1,231,298 14.81%
2007 1,251,169 16.67%
2008 1,207,686 12.61%
2009 1,101,134 2.68%
CO2 emission per capita per year by country, 2004 data
See also: Global warming and Kyoto Protocol
In 2014 Japan was the 6th largest producer of carbon emissions. In 2013 Japan ranked 28 in the list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita.
In 2007, the BBC reported that Japan was having difficulty in meeting its 6% reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol partly because Japanese businesses were already very energy efficient.[62] Despite this, in May 2007, the former Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said that world emissions should be reduced by 50% by 2050. He expected Japan to play a leading role in such an effort. "We must create a new framework which moves beyond the Kyoto Protocol, in which the entire world will participate in emissions reduction," Abe said.[62]
However, since the events of the Tohoku earthquake, carbon emissions from energy production have increased to near record levels, with 1227Mt released from energy production as opposed to the Kyoto Protocol target of 1136Mt (8% reduction from 1235Mt), just a 0.6% decrease in energy production emissions.[63] The increased use of gas and coal to make up for lost nuclear capacity increased CO2 production by over 3% despite an electrical demand drop of nearly 15%.
See also[edit]
Japan portal
Energy portal
Renewable energy portal
Sustainable development portal
Electricity sector in Japan
Energy Law (Japan)
Geothermal power in Japan
Hydroelectricity in Japan
Japan Electric Association
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
List of countries by energy consumption per capita
List of countries by total primary energy consumption and production
Renewable energy by country
Solar power in Japan
Wind power in Japan
World energy consumption
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/. – Japan
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text:
Something in the Way She Moves
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Something in the Way She Moves"
Song by James Taylor
from the album James Taylor
Released
1968
Recorded
1968 at Trident Studios, London
Genre
Soft rock
Length
2:54
Label
Apple Records
Songwriter(s)
James Taylor
Producer(s)
Peter Asher
"Something in the Way She Moves"
Single by Tom Rush
from the album The Circle Game
B-side
"Rockport Sunday"
Released
1968
Genre
Folk Rock
Length
3:25
Label
Elektra Records
Songwriter(s)
James Taylor
Producer(s)
Arthur Gorson
"Something in the Way She Moves" is a song written by James Taylor that appeared on his 1968 debut album for Apple Records, James Taylor. It has also been covered by other artists, including Tom Rush and Harry Belafonte. The opening line inspired George Harrison to write the #1 Beatles' song "Something." According to James Taylor's stage banter at The Star in Frisco July 31, 2017, this was the song he played for Paul McCartney and George Harrison as an audition before signing with Apple Records.
Contents
[hide]
1 James Taylor version
2 Inspiration for "Something"
3 Cover versions
4 References
James Taylor version[edit]
"Something in the Way She Moves" is a romantic song.[1] Rolling Stone critic Jon Landau regards the song as being about "transcendence of a sort."[2] Taylor plays the song accompanied only by acoustic guitar.[2]
Author Barry Alan Farber used "Something in the Way She Moves" as one of his favorite songs on the theme of love that "both comforts and strengthens."[3] He particularly notes the lines:
It isn't what she's got to say
But how she thinks and where she's been
To me, the words are nice, the way they sound
With these lines, Taylor shows awareness, rare in songs, that part of what is soothing about his lover is the quality of her voice.[3] Farber speculates that what is appealing is that it may remind Taylor of his mother's voice, so that Taylor is being soothed by recalling being taken care of as a youth.[3]
Farber also highlights the lines:
Every now and then the things I lean on lose their meaning
And I find myself careening
Into places where I should not let me go.
as effectively expressing a feeling many people have of "being scared of not being anchored sufficiently well in the world."[3]
Allmusic critic Linsday Planer regards "Something in the Way She Moves" as one of the "notable inclusions" on the James Taylor album.[4] Fellow Allmusic critic David R. Adler described it as "one of Taylor's finest melodies".[5] Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Mark Coleman agrees that it is a "highlight" of James Taylor, describing the song as "winsome" and predicting the path Taylor would take in future recordings.[6] Taylor biographer Timothy White describes it as being "unquestionably Taylor's finest performance" on James Taylor.[7] White described it as "spare in presentation" and "poignant on its own elegant terms."[7] Rolling Stone critic Jon Landau believes that the spare performance and Taylor's "restrained delivery" add to the song's power, as Taylor "lets the melody, lyric, guitar, and voice speak for themselves."[2] Martin Charles Strong describes it as being a "memorable original" and one that "marked Taylor out as a kind of male Joni Mitchell, if not quite as adventurous."[8]
Taylor included "Something in the Way She Moves" on his 1976 Greatest Hits but, as with "Carolina in My Mind," also from James Taylor, he had to re-record the song due to rights issues.[9] It was also included on the 2003 compilation album The Best of James Taylor.[10] A live version was included on Taylor's and Carole King's live album Live at the Troubadour.[11] A solo live version leads off Taylor's album One Man Band.[12]
Inspiration for "Something"[edit]
George Harrison liked "Something in the Way She Moves" so much that he used the beginning as the first line of his 1969 song "Something" from the Beatles album Abbey Road, which was also released as a single and reached #1.[13][14] Early in the development of "Something," Harrison had expanded the opening of this song to "Something in the way she moves / Attracts me like a pomegranate," using the word "pomegranate" simply as a place-holder until better words could be found.[14][15][16]
Taylor has stated that "I never thought for a second that George intended to do that. I don't think he intentionally ripped anything off, and all music is borrowed from other music. So completely I let it pass."[13] Taylor also acknowledged that the ending of "Something in the Way She Moves" was taken from the Beatles' song "I Feel Fine" and so "what goes around comes around."[13]
Cover versions[edit]
Tom Rush covered "Something in the Way She Moves" on his 1968 album The Circle Game.[1] Taylor had played the song for Rush when he visited the Elektra Records offices for an audition in 1967.[7] Rush's version was released as a single and become popular on New England radio stations.[13][7] Crawdaddy! reviewed the song as being the best song on The Circle Game, saying that it "flows beautifully with Bruce Langhorne's country stylings pushing it through," also acknowledging that "Rush's brand of vocalizing fits perfectly" because "he can never get excited about anything."[13]
Harry Belafonte covered the song as the opening track of his 1971 album The Warm Touch.[17] He also released it as a single. Billboard regarded "Something in the Way She Moves" as one of the "standout" tracks on The Warm Touch.[18] Billboard also called the melody "beautiful" and stated that Belafonte gives the song "his own unique treatment."[19]
Mitchel Forman recorded an acoustic piano version of "Something in the Way She Moves" for the 2001 multi-artist album Sketches of James: Selection from the James Taylor Songbook.[5]
Avonlea and Sina recorded a version on YouTube in 2017. Avonlea is from California and for her young years has been recording since the age of 10 recording a self titled album in 2014. Her voice lends to this piece beautifully and plays the ukulele during the intro. Sina is a drummer from Germany and is the daughter of professional musician Mike Wilbury who recorded her own album in 2016. Although the cover starts with a ukelele and vocals from both artists it transposes brilliantly into hard rock with Sina's drumming and a solo guitar riff that keeps calling you back to hear more.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Haney, S.M. "The Circle Game". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Landau, J. (April 19, 1969). "James Taylor". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2014-04-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Farber, B.A. (2007). Rock 'n' Roll Wisdom: What Psychologically Astute Lyrics Teach about Life and Love. Greenwood Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 9780275991647.
Jump up ^ Planer, L. "James Taylor". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-03-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Adler, D.R. "Sketches of James: Selection from the James Taylor Songbook". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
Jump up ^ Coleman, M. (1992). DeCurtis, A.; Henke, J.; George-Warren, H., eds. The Rolling Stone Album Guide (3rd ed.). Straight Arrow Publishers. p. 293. ISBN 0679737294.
^ Jump up to: a b c d White, T. (2009). Long Ago And Far Away: James Taylor - His Life And Music. Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857120069.
Jump up ^ Strong, M.C., ed. (2002). The Great Rock Discography. Canongate. ISBN 9781841953120.
Jump up ^ Ruhlmann, W. "Greatest Hits". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-05.
Jump up ^ Jurek, T. "The Best of James Taylor". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Jump up ^ Erlewine, S.T. "Live at the Troubadour". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
Jump up ^ Erlewine, S.T. "One Man Band". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thompson, D. (2012). Hearts of Darkness: James Taylor, Jackson Browne, Cat Stevens, and the Unlikely Rise of the Singer-Songwriter. Backbeat Books. ISBN 9781458471390.
^ Jump up to: a b Everett, W. (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 209, 247. ISBN 9780195129410.
Jump up ^ Cross, C. (2004). Beatles-Discography.com: Day-By-Day Song-By-Song Record-By-Record. iUniverse. p. 389. ISBN 9780595314874.
Jump up ^ Paul Du Noyer (13 March 2009). "George Harrison's Uncertain Something".
Jump up ^ Ginelli, C. "The Warm Touch". Allmusic. Retrieved 2014-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Album Reviews". Billboard. February 20, 1971. p. 54.
Jump up ^ "Special Merit Spotlight". Billboard. February 6, 1971. p. 74. Retrieved 2014-06-09.
[hide]
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"Up on the Roof"
"Her Town Too"
"Hard Times
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"It's Growing"
"Change"
Other songs
"Night Owl
"Something in the Way She Moves"
"Sunny Skies"
"Steamroller Blues"
"You Can Close Your Eyes"
"Highway Song"
"Bartender's Blues"
"Secret O' Life"
"Millworker"
"Summer's Here"
Related articles
Discography
James Taylor and the Original Flying Machine
Working
Vote for Change Tour
Troubadour Reunion Tour
Carly Simon
Ben Taylor
Sally Taylor
Kate Taylor
Livingston Taylor
Alex Taylor
Isaac M. Taylor
Two-Lane Blacktop
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text:
Grey matter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Grey matter (disambiguation).
Grey matter
The formation of the spinal nerve from the dorsal and ventral roots. (Grey matter labeled at center right.)
Micrograph showing grey matter, with the characteristic neuronal cell bodies (dark shade of pink), and white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork-like appearance (left of image - lighter shade of pink). HPS stain.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Substantia grisea
Dorlands
/Elsevier
Grey matter
TA
A14.1.00.002
FMA
67242
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter, in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts.[1] The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.
Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) and of the cerebellum (cerebellar cortex), as well as in the depths of the cerebrum (thalamus; hypothalamus; subthalamus, basal ganglia – putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens; septal nuclei), cerebellar (deep cerebellar nuclei – dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, fastigial nucleus), brainstem (substantia nigra, red nucleus, olivary nuclei, cranial nerve nuclei).
Grey matter in the spinal cord is known as the grey column which travels down the spinal cord distributed in three grey columns that are presented in an "H" shape. The forward-facing column is the anterior grey column, the rear-facing one is the posterior grey column and the interlinking one is the lateral grey column. The grey matter on the left and right side is connected by the grey commissure. The grey matter in the spinal cord consists of interneurons, as well as cell bodies.
Diagram of a spinal vertebra. The grey matter is in the central part of the spinal cord.
Cross-section of spinal cord with grey matter labelled.
Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence.[3]
Function[edit]
Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.[4]
The grey matter in the spinal cord is split into three grey columns:
The anterior grey column contains motor neurons. These synapse with interneurons and the axons of cells that have travelled down the pyramidal tract. These cells are responsible for the movement of muscles.
The posterior grey column contains the points where sensory neurons synapse. These receive sensory information from the body, including fine touch, proprioception, and vibration. This information is sent from receptors of the skin, bones, and joints through sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the dorsal root ganglion. This information is then transmitted in axons up the spinal cord in spinal tracts, including the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and the spinothalamic tract.
The lateral grey column is the third column of the spinal cord.
The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.
Interneurons present in the grey matter of the spinal cord
Rexed laminae groups the grey matter in the spinal cord according to its function.
Clinical significance[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume.[5][6] Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter.[7] However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum.[8][9][10] Long-term cannabis use also alters white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner,[11] with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood causing the greatest amount of damage.[12]
Meditation has been shown to change grey matter structure.[13][14][15][16][17]
Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction in grey matter.[18][19]
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
In the current edition[20] of the official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, substantia grisea is used for English grey matter. The adjective grisea for grey is however not attested in classical Latin.[21] The adjective grisea is derived from the French word for grey, gris.[21] Alternative designations like substantia cana [22] and substantia cinerea [23] are being used alternatively. The adjective cana, attested in classical Latin,[24] can mean grey,[21] or greyish white.[25] The classical Latin cinerea means ash-coloured.[24]
Additional images[edit]
Human brain right dissected lateral view
Schematic representation of the chief ganglionic categories (I to V).
See also[edit]
Grey matter heterotopia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Purves, Dale; George J. Augustine; David Fitzpatrick; William C. Hall; Anthony-Samuel LaMantia; James O. McNamara; Leonard E. White (2008). Neuroscience (4th ed.). Sinauer Associates. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-87893-697-7.
Jump up ^ Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003) page 49
Jump up ^ Sowell, E. R.; Thompson, P. M.; Tessner, K. D.; Toga, A. W. (2001). "Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (22): 8819–29. PMID 11698594.
Jump up ^ Miller, A. K. H.; Alston, R. L.; Corsellis, J. A. N. (1980). "Variation with Age in the Volumes of Grey and White Matter in the Cerebral Hemispheres of Man: Measurements with an Image Analyser". Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 6 (2): 119–32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2990.1980.tb00283.x. PMID 7374914.
Jump up ^ Yang, Xun; Tian, Fangfang; Zhang, Handi; Zeng, Jianguang; Chen, Taolin; Wang, Song; Jia, Zhiyun; Gong, Qiyong (2016). "Cortical and subcortical gray matter shrinkage in alcohol-use disorders: A voxel-based meta-analysis". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 66: 92–103. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.034. PMID 27108216.
Jump up ^ Xiao, Peirong; Dai, Zhenyu; Zhong, Jianguo; Zhu, Yingling; Shi, Haicun; Pan, Pinglei (2015). "Regional gray matter deficits in alcohol dependence: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 153: 22–8. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.030. PMID 26072220.
Jump up ^ Thayer, Rachel E.; YorkWilliams, Sophie; Karoly, Hollis C.; Sabbineni, Amithrupa; Ewing, Sarah Feldstein; Bryan, Angela D.; Hutchison, Kent E. "Structural Neuroimaging Correlates of Alcohol and Cannabis Use in Adolescents and Adults". Addiction: n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/add.13923. ISSN 1360-0443.
Jump up ^ Lorenzetti, Valentina; Lubman, Dan I.; Whittle, Sarah; Solowij, Nadia; Yücel, Murat (September 2010). "Structural MRI findings in long-term cannabis users: what do we know?". Substance Use & Misuse. 45 (11): 1787–1808. doi:10.3109/10826084.2010.482443. ISSN 1532-2491. PMID 20590400.
Jump up ^ Matochik, John A.; Eldreth, Dana A.; Cadet, Jean-Lud; Bolla, Karen I. (2005-01-07). "Altered brain tissue composition in heavy marijuana users". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 77 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.06.011. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 15607838.
Jump up ^ Yücel, Murat; Solowij, Nadia; Respondek, Colleen; Whittle, Sarah; Fornito, Alex; Pantelis, Christos; Lubman, Dan I. (June 2008). "Regional brain abnormalities associated with long-term heavy cannabis use". Archives of General Psychiatry. 65 (6): 694–701. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.6.694. ISSN 1538-3636. PMID 18519827.
Jump up ^ Jakabek, David; Yücel, Murat; Lorenzetti, Valentina; Solowij, Nadia (October 2016). "An MRI study of white matter tract integrity in regular cannabis users: effects of cannabis use and age". Psychopharmacology. 233 (19-20): 3627–3637. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4398-3. ISSN 1432-2072. PMID 27503373.
Jump up ^ Becker, Mary P.; Collins, Paul F.; Lim, Kelvin O.; Muetzel, R. L.; Luciana, M. (December 2015). "Longitudinal changes in white matter microstructure after heavy cannabis use". Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 16: 23–35. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.004. ISSN 1878-9307. PMC 4691379  . PMID 26602958.
Jump up ^ Black, David S.; Kurth, Florian; Luders, Eileen; Wu, Brian (2014). "Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxelbased Morphometry". Neuro. 1 (1): 23–26. doi:10.17140/NOJ-1-106. PMC 4306280  . PMID 25632405.
Jump up ^ Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Vangel, Mark; Congleton, Christina; Yerramsetti, Sita M.; Gard, Tim; Lazar, Sara W. (2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 191 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979  . PMID 21071182.
Jump up ^ Kurth, Florian; MacKenzie-Graham, Allan; Toga, Arthur W.; Luders, Eileen (2015). "Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu029. PMC 4994843  . PMID 24643652.
Jump up ^ Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.
Jump up ^ Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Evans, Karleyton C.; Hoge, Elizabeth A.; Dusek, Jeffery A.; Morgan, Lucas; Pitman, Roger K.; Lazar, Sara W. (2010). "Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 5 (1): 11–7. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp034. PMC 2840837  . PMID 19776221.
Jump up ^ https://www.news-medical.net/news/20170808/Habitual-players-of-action-video-games-have-less-grey-matter-in-their-brain-study-reveals.aspx
Jump up ^ http://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/en/article/2017/08/07/playing-action-video-games-can-actually-harm-your-brain/
Jump up ^ Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) (1998). Terminologia Anatomica. Stuttgart: Thieme
^ Jump up to: a b c Triepel, H. (1910). Die anatomischen Namen. Ihre Ableitung und Aussprache. Mit einem Anhang: Biographische Notizen.(Dritte Auflage). Wiesbaden: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.
Jump up ^ Triepel, H. (1910). Nomina Anatomica. Mit Unterstützung von Fachphilologen. Wiesbaden: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.
Jump up ^ Schreger, C.H.Th.(1805). Synonymia anatomica. Synonymik der anatomischen Nomenclatur. Fürth: im Bureau für Literatur.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewis, C.T. & Short, C. (1879). A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Jump up ^ Stearn, W.T. (1983). Botanical Latin. History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary. (3rd edition). Newton Abbot London: David Charles.
External links[edit]
Why Gray Matter is Gray
[show]
v
t
e
Nervous tissue
CNS
Tissue Types
Grey matter
White matter
Projection fibers
Association fiber
Commissural fiber
Lemniscus
Funiculus
Fasciculus
Nerve tract
Decussation
Commissure
Neuropil
Meninges
Cell Types
Neuronal
Pyramidal
Purkinje
Granule
Glial
insulating:
Myelination: Oligodendrocyte
other
Astrocyte
Radial glial cell
Ependymal cells
Tanycyte
Microglia
PNS
General
Dorsal
Root
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Ramus
Ventral
Root
Ramus
Ramus communicans
Gray
White
Autonomic ganglion (Preganglionic nerve fibers
Postganglionic nerve fibers)
Connective tissues
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
Nerve fascicle
Neuroglia
Myelination: Schwann cell
Neurolemma
Myelin incisure
Node of Ranvier
Internodal segment
Satellite glial cell
Neurons/
nerve fibers
Parts
Soma
Axon hillock
Axon
Telodendron
Axon terminals
Axoplasm
Axolemma
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Dendrite
Nissl body
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Unipolar
Pseudounipolar
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Renshaw
Afferent nerve fiber/
Sensory neuron
GSA
GVA
SSA
SVA
fibers
Ia or Aα
Ib or Golgi or Aα
II or Aβ and Aγ
III or Aδ or fast pain
IV or C or slow pain
Efferent nerve fiber/
Motor neuron
GSE
GVE
SVE
Upper motor neuron
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α motorneuron
β motorneuron
γ motorneuron
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Synapse
Electrical synapse/Gap junction
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Synaptic vesicle
Active zone
Postsynaptic density
Autapse
Ribbon synapse
Neuromuscular junction
Sensory receptors
Meissner's corpuscle
Merkel nerve ending
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini ending
Muscle spindle
Free nerve ending
Nociceptor
Olfactory receptor neuron
Photoreceptor cell
Hair cell
Taste bud
[show]
v
t
e
The spinal cord
General features
Cervical enlargement
Lumbar enlargement
Conus medullaris
Filum terminale
Cauda equina
Meninges
Grey matter
Posterior grey column
Marginal nucleus
Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
Nucleus proprius
Spinal lamina V
Spinal lamina VI
Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
Posterior thoracic nucleus
Anterior grey column
Interneuron
Alpha motor neuron
Onuf's nucleus
Gamma motor neuron
Other
Rexed laminae
Central gelatinous substance
Gray commissure
Central canal
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White matter
Sensory
Posterior
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Gracile
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Lateral:
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ventral
Spinothalamic
lateral
anterior
Posterolateral
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Anterior
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Anterior
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Vestibulospinal
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Tectospinal
Both
Anterior white commissure
External features
Ventral
Anterior median fissure
Anterolateral sulcus
Dorsal
Posterior median sulcus
Posterolateral sulcus
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
Medial frontal gyrus
8
9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
Collateral (temporal+occipital)
Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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Spinal lamina VI

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Terminal ventricle

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Spinotectal tract

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Paraolfactory area

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Parietal operculum

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Brodmann area 1

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Brodmann area 2

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Occipital pole of cerebrum

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Brodmann area 17

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Brodmann area 41

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Brodmann area 42

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Medial temporal lobe

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Cingulate gyrus

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Subgenual area 25

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Retrosplenial region

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Poles of cerebral hemispheres

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