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Mount Mitchell
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This article is about the North Carolina mountain. For other uses, see Mount Mitchell (disambiguation).
Mount Mitchell
Mount Mitchell, viewed from Mount Craig
Highest point
Elevation
6,684 ft (2,037 m) [1]
Prominence
6,089 ft (1,856 m) [1]
Isolation
1,189 miles (1,914 km)
Listing
World most isolated peaks 31st
North America isolated peaks 4th
US most prominent peaks 62nd
U.S. state high points 16th
Coordinates
35°45′53″N 82°15′54″W / 35.764839°N 82.2651221°W / 35.764839; -82.2651221Coordinates: 35°45′53″N 82°15′54″W / 35.764839°N 82.2651221°W / 35.764839; -82.2651221 [2]
Geography
Mount Mitchell
North Carolina, U.S.
Location
Yancey County, North Carolina, United States
Parent range
Appalachian Mountains
Topo map
USGS Mount Mitchell
Climbing
Easiest route
Hike
Mount Mitchell is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland eastern North America. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina, in the Black Mountain subrange of the Appalachians, and about 19 miles (31 km) northeast of Asheville. It is protected by Mount Mitchell State Park and surrounded by the Pisgah National Forest. Mount Mitchell's elevation is 6,684 feet (2,037 m) above sea level.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 History
3 Environment
3.1 Climate
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Geography[edit]
Surveyor's mark embedded in the observation tower notes the elevation of 6684 feet above sea level
The peak is the highest mountain in the United States east of the Mississippi River, and the highest in all of eastern North America south of the Arctic Cordillera. The nearest higher peaks are in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the highland foothills of Colorado.
History[edit]
The mountain, previously known as Black Dome for its rounded shape, was named after Elisha Mitchell, a professor at the University of North Carolina, who first explored the Black Mountain region in 1835, and determined that the height of the range exceeded by several hundred feet that of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, commonly thought at the time to be the highest point east of the Rocky Mountains. Mitchell fell to his death at nearby Mitchell Falls in 1857, having returned to verify his earlier measurements.
A 4.6-mile (7.4 km) road (NC 128) connects the scenic Blue Ridge Parkway to a parking lot where a steep paved 980-foot (300 m) trail leads through a conifer forest to the summit. The 40-foot (12 m) stone observation tower on the summit was torn down in late 2006. A new observation deck was constructed and opened to visitors in January 2009.[3] Also on the summit is the tomb of Dr. Mitchell.
Mount Mitchell was formed during the Precambrian when marine deposits were metamorphosed into gneiss and schist. These metasedimentary rocks were later uplifted during the Alleghenian orogeny.[4] The soils are well drained, dark brown and stony with fine-earth material ranging in texture from sandy clay loam to loam or sandy loam; Burton and Craggey are the most common series around the summit.[5]
Environment[edit]
Mount Mitchell
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
6.5
33
17
5.9
35
18
7.1
41
24
5.7
49
31
5.3
57
41
5.7
63
49
5.8
66
52
7.2
65
52
7.5
60
46
5.1
53
37
6.7
45
28
6.2
36
21
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Source: NOAA[6]
[show]Metric conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
166
1
−8
149
2
−8
179
5
−5
145
9
0
135
14
5
146
17
9
148
19
11
182
18
11
190
16
8
129
12
3
170
7
−2
158
2
−6
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
The mountain's summit is coated in a dense stand of Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest, which consists primarily of two evergreen species— the red spruce and the Fraser fir. Most of the mature Fraser firs, however, were killed off by the non-native Balsam woolly adelgid in the latter half of the 20th century. The high elevations also expose plant life to high levels of pollution, including acid precipitation in the form of rain, snow, and fog. These acids damage the red spruce trees in part by releasing natural metals from the soil like aluminum, and by leaching important minerals. To what extent this pollution harms the high-altitude ecosystem is debatable.[7]
While the mountain is still mostly lush and green in the summer, many dead Fraser fir trunks can be seen due to these serious problems. Repairing the damage is a difficult issue, as the pollutants are often carried in from long distances. Sources can be local or hundreds of miles or kilometers away, requiring cooperation from as far away as the Midwest.
Wildflowers are abundant all summer long. Young fir and spruce trees do well in the subalpine climate, and their pine cones feed the birds along with wild blueberry and blackberry shrubs.
The second highest point in eastern North America, Mount Craig at 6,647 feet (2,026 m), is roughly a mile to the north of Mount Mitchell.
Climate[edit]
Mount Mitchell Fall Foliage.
The summit area of Mount Mitchell is marked by a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) bordering extremely close to a subalpine climate (köppen climate classification Dfc), with mild summers and long, moderately cold winters, being more similar to southeastern Canada than the southeastern U.S.. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 25.2 °F (−3.8 °C) in January to 59.1 °F (15.1 °C) in July. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the state occurred there on January 21, 1985 when it fell to −34 °F (−37 °C), during a severe cold spell that brought freezing temperatures as far south as Miami. It is also the coldest average reporting station in the state at 43.8 °F (6.6 °C) (based on data collected from 1971 to 2000) which is well below any other station.[8] Unlike the lower elevations in the surrounding regions, heavy snows often fall from December to March, with 50 inches (127 cm) accumulating in the Great Blizzard of 1993 and 66 inches (168 cm) in the January 2016 blizzard.[9][8] Snow flurries have been reported on the summit even in the summer months of June, July, and August. Due to the high elevation, precipitation is heavy and reliable year-round, averaging 74.7 inches (1,900 mm) for the year, with no month receiving less than 5 in (127 mm) of average precipitation. The summit is often windy, with gusts that can blow up to 178 mph (286 km/h).[10]
[hide]Climate data for Mount Mitchell (1981–2010 normals, records 1980-present)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
61
(16) 62
(17) 71
(22) 73
(23) 78
(26) 79
(26) 80
(27) 81
(27) 77
(25) 72
(22) 67
(19) 64
(18) 81
(27)
Average high °F (°C)
33.4
(0.8) 35.3
(1.8) 40.7
(4.8) 49.0
(9.4) 57.0
(13.9) 63.1
(17.3) 65.9
(18.8) 65.1
(18.4) 60.4
(15.8) 53.1
(11.7) 45.0
(7.2) 36.4
(2.4) 50.4
(10.2)
Average low °F (°C)
17.0
(−8.3) 18.2
(−7.7) 23.7
(−4.6) 31.3
(−0.4) 41.2
(5.1) 49.0
(9.4) 52.3
(11.3) 51.7
(10.9) 46.0
(7.8) 36.7
(2.6) 28.3
(−2.1) 20.6
(−6.3) 34.7
(1.5)
Record low °F (°C)
−34
(−37) −31
(−35) −29
(−34) −10
(−23) 14
(−10) 22
(−6) 30
(−1) 29
(−2) 23
(−5) 8
(−13) −22
(−30) −33
(−36) −34
(−37)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
6.54
(166.1) 5.86
(148.8) 7.05
(179.1) 5.70
(144.8) 5.32
(135.1) 5.74
(145.8) 5.81
(147.6) 7.16
(181.9) 7.49
(190.2) 5.09
(129.3) 6.68
(169.7) 6.23
(158.2) 74.66
(1,896.4)
Average snowfall inches (cm)
21.5
(54.6) 22.3
(56.6) 15.5
(39.4) 10.4
(26.4) 1.2
(3) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 0
(0) 1.0
(2.5) 3.7
(9.4) 15.1
(38.4) 91
(231)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
13.4 11.9 13.5 12.1 13.9 14.9 16.0 15.4 11.4 10.1 10.7 12.8 156.0
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
6.6 6.2 4.1 3.1 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.4 2.0 4.9 27.5
Source: NOAA[6]
Gallery[edit]
Sign atop Mt. Mitchell
Mount Mitchell; View From the Top.
Mount Gibbes, Clingman's Peak, and Potato Knob from the southwest on the Blue Ridge Parkway
Black Mountains from the Blue Ridge Parkway
Forest floor high on Mount Mitchell
Example of the spruce-fir forest near the top of Mount Mitchell
360-degree panorama from the summit of Mount Mitchell
See also[edit]
North America portal
United States portal
North Carolina portal
Mountains portal
List of mountain peaks of North America
List of mountain peaks of the United States
List of mountains in North Carolina
List of U.S. states by elevation
List of Ultras of the United States
Mountains-to-Sea Trail
The Assault on Mount Mitchell, bicycling endurance
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mount Mitchell, North Carolina". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
Jump up ^ "Mount Mitchell". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
Jump up ^ "Mount Mitchell State Park". North Carolina State Parks. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
Jump up ^ Timothy Silver (2003). Mount Mitchell and the Black Mountains: An Environmental History of the Highest Peaks in Eastern America. Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-5423-5.
Jump up ^ SoilWeb, University of California-Davis California Soil Resource Lab, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Accessed: 11 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "NOWData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ Steve Nash, Blue Ridge 2020: An Owner's Manual (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 25-28, 61-63.
^ Jump up to: a b "Extreme Weather Records". State Climate Office of North Carolina. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Jump up ^ Dale Neal, "Mount Mitchell Digs Out From Record 66 Inches of Snow," USA Today, 25 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Mount Mitchell Webcam Activated" (PDF). The Steward. North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation. August 2003. p. 3. Retrieved 2010-01-06.
External links[edit]
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Fear the Walking Dead (season 4)
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Fear the Walking Dead (season 4)
Promotional poster
Starring
Kim Dickens
Frank Dillane
Alycia Debnam-Carey
Maggie Grace
Colman Domingo
Danay García
Garret Dillahunt
Lennie James
Jenna Elfman
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
8
Release
Original network
AMC
Original release
April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15) – present (present)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 3
List of Fear the Walking Dead episodes
The fourth season of Fear the Walking Dead, an American horror-drama television series on AMC, premiered on April 15, 2018, and will comprise 16 episodes split into two eight-episode parts.[1] The second half of the season will premiere on August 12, 2018.[2] It is a companion series to The Walking Dead, and the season premiere contained the first crossover between the two series. The season features new showrunners Andrew Chambliss and Ian B. Goldberg, as well as several new cast members including The Walking Dead's Lennie James, who portrays Morgan Jones. The series also moved to a new filming location, Austin, Texas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Supporting cast
1.3 Guest cast
2 Episodes
3 Production and writing
4 Release
5 Reception
5.1 Critical response
5.2 Ratings
6 References
7 External links
Cast[edit]
Main cast[edit]
Kim Dickens as Madison Clark: An intelligent and domineering high school guidance counselor and the mother of Nick and Alicia
Frank Dillane as Nick Clark: A brave and selfless recovering heroin addict, Madison's son, and Alicia's brother.
Alycia Debnam-Carey as Alicia Clark: The fiery yet compassionate daughter of Madison, and the sister of Nick.
Maggie Grace as Althea: A curious and tactical journalist who encounters Morgan and John.[3]
Colman Domingo as Victor Strand: A smart and sophisticated conman-turned-businessman, who forms friendships with Nick and Madison.
Danay García as Luciana Galvez: A strong and cautious former member of the La Colonia community in Tijuana, Mexico, and Nick's girlfriend.
Garret Dillahunt as John Dorie: A lonesome and friendly police officer whom Morgan encounters.[3]
Lennie James as Morgan Jones: A mentally unstable and ruthlessly pragmatic man, formerly a part of Rick Grimes' group on The Walking Dead, who encounters the core group of survivors.[3]
Jenna Elfman as June / Naomi / Laura: A kind and mysterious nurse whom Madison encounters.[3]
Supporting cast[edit]
Kevin Zegers as Mel: The antagonistic leader of the Vultures.[4]
Evan Gamble as Ennis: A member of the Vultures.[5]
Sebastian Sozzi as Cole: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium.[6]
Rhoda Griffis as Viv: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium.
Alexa Nisenson as Charlie: A young girl who is a spy for the Vultures.
Kenneth Wayne Bradley as Douglas: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium.
Guest cast[edit]
Andrew Lincoln as Rick Grimes: The main protagonist of The Walking Dead, Morgan's friend, and the leader of Alexandria, a Safe-Zone in Virginia.
Melissa McBride as Carol Peletier: Morgan's friend from Virginia who resides in the Kingdom.
Tom Payne as Paul "Jesus" Rovia: Morgan's friend from Virginia who resides in the Hilltop.
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Fear the Walking Dead episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
38
1 "What's Your Story?" John Polson Scott M. Gimple & Andrew Chambliss & Ian B. Goldberg April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15) 4.09[7]
Morgan Jones leaves his community in Virginia, despite being urged to stay by his various friends, including Rick Grimes. Morgan makes his way to the Texas border where he meets a man named John Dorie. The next day, Morgan and John are held captive by a group of survivors, but they are saved by a woman named Althea, who drives a SWAT vehicle. Althea tells Morgan and John that she is a journalist and wants to get their stories on camera. John tells Althea that he is on a mission to find his girlfriend, Laura. Morgan eventually opens up and tells Althea about his past in Atlanta and Virginia. The group stops their vehicle when they see a woman crawling on the ground, which turns out to be Alicia Clark. Morgan, John and Althea are then surrounded at gunpoint by Nick Clark, Victor Strand and Luciana Galvez.
39
2 "Another Day in the Diamond" Michael E. Satrazemis Andrew Chambliss & Ian B. Goldberg April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22) 3.07[8]
Madison, Nick, Alicia, Strand, and Luciana are a part of a community living in a baseball stadium. Nick is farming vegetables, but weevils are destroying them. Madison and others, excluding Nick, set out to find Charlie's family, a young girl in the community. Madison's group reaches a deserted town and they split up to search. Madison and Alicia find a burned down camp near giant oil tanks, which has a white flag with the number "457". Madison comes across a woman named Naomi and Madison invites her to their community. At night, a large convoy of trucks approach the stadium. Mel, the leader of the group known as the Vultures, rounds up walkers outside the stadium and into a truck; it's then labeled "12". Madison goes out to talk with Mel, and he tells Madison he knows of their weevil problem, thanks to Charlie who is revealed as a spy. Mel orders Madison to give them all their supplies or they'll die from their lack of resources. Madison refuses and walks away. Catching up to the events of the previous episode: Luciana finds a flag marked "51" in Althea's SWAT vehicle, and Alicia orders them to take them to where they found the flag.
40
3 "Good Out Here" Dan Liu Shintaro Shimosawa April 29, 2018 (2018-04-29) 2.71[9]
In flashbacks, Nick and Madison go on a supply run, however when arrive, they discover that Mel's brother Ennis has already looted it. Charlie eavesdropped on Madison and obtained the location, giving it to Ennis. Nick pleads with Charlie to not listen to the Vultures. Nick then attacks Ennis with his knife, but Madison stops him from killing Ennis. Charlie goes with Ennis in his blue El Camino and they drove off. In the present, the SWAT vehicle swerves off the road and crashes after a commotion inside the vehicle between the two groups. Nick spots the blue El Camino and chases after it. The others find a service station which has a truck with wire cable, that they can use to tow the SWAT vehicle from the mud. Returning to the SWAT truck, they fight off various infected and successfully tow it. Nick finds Ennis at a farm and they fight inside a silo. Nick impales Ennis on a deer antler display, killing him. Nick is then shot by Charlie. The rest of the group arrives, where they try to revive him, but he dies. Alicia sobs and is left devastated.
41
4 "Buried" Magnus Martens Alex Delyle May 6, 2018 (2018-05-06) 2.49[10]
Alicia, Strand, and Luciana tell Althea their stories about they ended up in their current situation, which led to Nick's death. In flashbacks, various groups go on supply runs; Strand and Cole search a nursery for plants; Nick and Luciana search a library; and Alicia and Naomi go to a water park. At the library, there's no food, but Nick insists on finding books because he argues people need more than just food. At the water park, Alicia and Naomi find various medical supplies and a machine gun. Strand shows Cole a secret car that is filled with supplies just for himself. At the stadium, Madison tells Mel she's willing to build a community together, but Mel scoffs at the idea. Nick suggests to Madison they should venture farther north to find seeds and fertilizer to bring back, instead of moving to a new location. In the present, the group tells Althea that they should have left the stadium. They stop the SWAT van, where they dig up a cache of weapons—to kill the Vultures with. The group then buries Nick. John recognizes a backpack, which belongs to Naomi, revealing that she is Laura. Alicia tells John that Laura died at the stadium. Everyone leaves in the van, except Morgan and John, who go off alone.
42
5 "Laura" Michael E. Satrazemis Anna Fishko May 13, 2018 (2018-05-13) 2.46[11]
In flashbacks, John finds Naomi unconscious in the water outside his cabin. John brings her inside, dresses her wound and lets her rest. Because she refuses to tell her name, John calls her Laura. John notices that more infected have been washing up on the creek surrounding his cabin, so he and Naomi canoe upstream to discover a broken guardrail on a bridge. They then patch the guardrail with a piece of metal. During the night, Naomi reveals to John that she lost a child. The next day, John teaches Naomi how to fish and they play Scrabble. The infected have still been floating downstream, so they investigate the bridge again. This time, they block the gap with a Jeep. During a scuffle with the infected, John refuses to use his pistols, but instead stabs them. He explains his refusal to use firearms is because of an incident from when he was a police officer. The infected eventually knock the Jeep into the river and float towards John's cabin. John and Naomi fight off the infected, where John uses his weapons to save Naomi. Later, John tells Naomi he loves her and they kiss. The next day, John discovers Naomi has left, but leaves a note with Scrabble tiles: "I love you too I'm sorry."
43
6 "Just in Case" Daisy von Scherler Mayer Richard Naing May 20, 2018 (2018-05-20) 2.31[12]
In flashbacks, Madison and Strand join Naomi on a supply run to a FEMA shelter that may have seeds and fertilizer. They rest for the night at a motel, but when Madison wakes in the morning, she discovers Naomi is missing. Naomi goes to the shelter, which is filled with infected, and retrieves a set of keys marked "JIC" written. She is eventually surrounded by infected and takes refuge at the top of scaffolding. Madison and Strand arrive and are able to save her. Naomi explains that she and her daughter, Rose, had stayed at the shelter. When Rose caught pneumonia, she left to find antibiotics. But when she returned, she discovered that Rose had died, turned and infected everyone else. Naomi then takes Madison and Strand to a truck stocked with supplies. They return to the stadium with plants and fertilizer, and the Vultures decide to vacate the parking lot. In the present, Alicia, Strand and Luciana face off with Mel and the Vulture's at the meeting spot. Morgan and John are also present. A woman pulls up in a vehicle, revealed to be Naomi. Alicia then shoots at Naomi but accidentally hits John when he steps in the way.
44
7 "The Wrong Side of Where You Are Now" Sarah Boyd Melissa Scrivner Love June 3, 2018 (2018-06-03) 1.97[13]
In the present, the two groups engage in gunfire. Naomi tries to get medical supplies for John from the ambulance, but Mel drives off in it. Alicia fires at the ambulance with a grenade launcher and accuses Naomi of betraying her trust. Althea rides up in her SWAT vehicle, where Naomi and Morgan carry John inside, and Charlie joins them at Morgan's request. Alicia finds Mel crawling from the ambulance and asks him how long Naomi had been colluding with them. He doesn't answer and Alicia then stabs him. In flashbacks, Charlie goes to the stadium and asks Madison if she can help Mel, who is injured from a car accident. Charlie claims she and Mel have left the Vultures after a fight with Ennis. Mel tells Madison that Ennis is planning on destroying the stadium. After patching up Mel, Madison gives him a truck with supplies and forces him to leave by himself. Charlie begs the others to bring back Mel. Alicia and Nick leave the stadium to find Mel. Ennis and the Vultures arrive at the stadium and unleash several trucks filled with the infected. Back in the present, everyone in the SWAT vehicle arrives at the stadium, revealed to be filled with the infected.
45
8 "No One's Gone" Michael E. Satrazemis Ian B. Goldberg & Andrew Chambliss June 10, 2018 (2018-06-10) 2.32[14]
Sometime after the destruction of the Gonzalez Dam, Madison meets Al whom she tries to rob without success. Madison eventually gives Al a story from when her children were little and explains how she is trying to protect their innocence. Upon their departure, Al gives Madison some food, a radio and a map, allowing her to find her children. Al's kindness inspires Madison to form the stadium community, but Al never learns Madison's name. In the present, Naomi and Morgan struggle to get supplies to save John Dorie's life while Al and Charlie struggle against an attack from Alicia's group. The subsequent revelation that Al met Madison and Morgan's intervention convinces Alicia to stop her path of vengeance. At night, Alicia's group finishes telling their story about the fall of the stadium, including how everyone else died when they tried to flee and were overrun. Madison is revealed to have led the infected into the stadium to contain the herd and give her children, Strand and Luciana a chance to survive. Madison ultimately sets the herd ablaze within the stadium, sacrificing herself in a successful attempt to save the others. In honor of Madison's memory, Al names the story after her and the group shares the same noodles Al gave to Madison when they first met.
Production and writing[edit]
On April 14, 2017, AMC renewed the series for a 16-episode fourth season and announced that Andrew Chambliss and Ian Goldberg would replace the departing Dave Erickson as showrunners.[15] Production began in November 2017 in Austin, Texas.[16] Michael E. Satrazemis, a director of photography for The Walking Dead and director of 12 episodes, joined Fear the Walking Dead as a directing-producer.[17]
Lennie James joined the cast this season as Morgan Jones, his character from The Walking Dead.
New cast members Maggie Grace, Garret Dillahunt and Jenna Elfman.
In November 2017, it was reported that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones on The Walking Dead would crossover and join the main cast in the fourth season.[18] The fourth season also sees the additions of several new series regulars, played by Garret Dillahunt,[19] Jenna Elfman,[20] and Maggie Grace.[21]
On April 21, 2018, Colman Domingo revealed that he would be directing the twelfth episode of this season.[22]
The fourth season features a redesigned title sequence with new theme music. Each episode of the season has a different title card, and tells a story which will become apparent once the season is completed.[23] The Hollywood Reporter reflected on the new intro, calling the new season, "a Western with zombies, very much by design."[24]
Goldberg spoke of the season's narrative structure, which features multiple timelines:
"We're playing with the structure, depending on which story we're telling in the episode. What we find so exciting about telling stories across time is it allows for mystery and for finding characters in an emotional place and exploring how they came to be that way, and finding them in a very different emotional place in the flashback storyline — not only from a plot perspective of piecing it together, but also showing how people became who they are by charting them in the present and comparing it to where they've been in the past."[24]
New showrunners Andrew Chambliss (left) and Ian B. Goldberg (right).
The new showrunners also were inspired by Westerns; Chambliss stated, "It all started with the themes we set out at the beginning: isolation and community. Those themes run through a lot of classic Western stories." Visually, the season is inspired by John Ford and Sergio Leone's Westerns, using Once Upon a Time in the West as a template for directors. Chambliss said, "it's all about having wide shots, not moving the characters, but moving the characters within the frame. When we get to the editing room, it's really about slowing down the cutting pattern, and harkening back to that style of filmmaking. It does infuse the show with a different feel than what we've seen before. It's something that we're very excited for people to see."[24]
The third episode of the season features the death of Nick Clark, played by Frank Dillane. In an interview after the episode had aired, Dillane revealed he asked to leave the show prior to the fourth season. The actor explained:
"I had been doing it for three or four years, the show has undergone many changes in terms of different people in charge, all of this stuff, and I just felt like the beginning of this season kind of felt like the end of an era with this show. And television is hard work, and you have to shoot a lot. I also missed Europe very much. I'm not American, so after a while I get quite homesick and all of those things. I also felt like we had achieved what needed to be achieved in the first few seasons, so I thought it was time to keep moving."[25]
Release[edit]
On March 15, 2018, it was announced that the season premiere and the season eight finale of The Walking Dead would be screened at AMC, Regal, and Cinemark theaters across the United States on April 15, the same day as the televised airing, for "Survival Sunday: The Walking Dead & Fear the Walking Dead". The episodes marked the first crossover between the two series. The cinema screening also included an extra half-hour of exclusive bonus content.[26]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes, the fourth season has an approval rating of 86% based on 73 reviews, with an average rating of 7.94/10.[27] TVLine reevaluated the series for its fourth season, giving it a grade of a "B+". Reviewer Charlie Mason wrote, "it's gone from being an adequate stopgap between seasons of The Walking Dead to a show that's as good or arguably even better than the one from which it was spun off." He also praised the addition of Jenna Elfman and Garret Dillahunt and that season 4 has had several genuine surprises in its storytelling.[28]
Fear the Walking Dead (season 4): Critical reception by episode
Season 4 (2018): Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes[27]
Ratings[edit]
No.
Title
Air date
Rating
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)
1 "What's Your Story?" April 15, 2018 1.6 4.09[7] 0.9 2.01 2.5 6.11[29]
2 "Another Day in the Diamond" April 22, 2018 1.1 3.07[8] 0.5 1.18 1.6 4.25[30][a]
3 "Good Out Here" April 29, 2018 1.0 2.71[9] 0.6 1.50 1.6 4.21[31]
4 "Buried" May 6, 2018 0.9 2.49[10] N/A N/A N/A N/A
5 "Laura" May 13, 2018 0.9 2.46[11] 0.6 1.47 1.5 3.94[32]
6 "Just in Case" May 20, 2018 0.8 2.31[12] N/A N/A N/A N/A
7 "The Wrong Side of Where You Are Now" June 3, 2018 0.6 1.97[13] 0.5 1.19 1.1 3.16[33][a]
8 "No One's Gone" June 10, 2018 0.7 2.32[14] 0.5 1.16 1.2 3.48[34][a]
^ Jump up to: a b c Live +7 ratings were not available, so Live +3 ratings have been used instead.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (January 13, 2018). "'Fear The Walking Dead' Crossover Season Premiere Date Announced". Comicbook.com. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (June 11, 2018). "'Fear The Walking Dead' Sets August Return As Series Bids Farewell To Original Cast Member In Midseason Finale". Deadline. Retrieved June 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ross, Dalton (January 11, 2018). "Fear the Walking Dead: Meet the new characters". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (December 5, 2017). "'Fear The Walking Dead': Kevin Zegers Digs Up Role In Season 4". Deadline. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (January 26, 2018). "'Fear The Walking Dead' Casts Evan Gamble; Monique Green In 'One Day She'll Darken'". Deadline. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tomasi, Rollo (March 18, 2018). "FEAR THE WALKING DEAD: Season 4 TV Teaser Trailers: 'A New World to Fear' & 'After the Fall' [AMC]". film-book.com. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (April 17, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Fear the Walking Dead' opens higher". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (April 24, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Westworld' Season 2 opens on par with series debut". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 1, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Westworld' and 'Fear the Walking Dead' dip". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 8, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Westworld,' 'Silicon Valley,' 'Fear the Walking Dead' all dip". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 15, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: Lifetime's 'Harry & Meghan' movie performs well". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 22, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Fear the Walking Dead' dips opposite NBA Playoffs". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (June 5, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Westworld' rebounds a little, 'Pose' and 'Succession' start slowly". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (June 12, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Fear the Walking Dead' rises, 'Claws' premieres well". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (April 14, 2017). "'Fear The Walking Dead' Renewed For Season 4 By AMC With New Showrunners". Deadline. Retrieved April 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (November 16, 2017). "'Fear The Walking Dead' Season 4 Moves Production To Texas". Comicbook.com. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (March 14, 2018). "Fear the Walking Dead's other key crossover". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (November 26, 2017). "The Walking Dead: Lennie James will cross over to Fear The Walking Dead". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (November 14, 2017). "Garret Dillahunt Joins Fear TWD as Series Regular in Season 4". TVLine. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mason, Charlie (November 15, 2017). "Jenna Elfman Joins Fear TWD Season 4". TVLine. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (November 29, 2017). "'Fear the Walking Dead': Maggie Grace Joins Season 4 As Series Regular". Deadline. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Domingo, Colman (April 21, 2018). "A whirlwind of a week. With great comrades...you can do anything you ever dreamed of. And I know a secret...You are only as good as the company you keep. Our crew is the best crew. #feartwd". Instagram. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ Dwilson, Stephanie Dube (April 30, 2018). "'Fear the Walking Dead' Title Cards: Season 4 Intro Videos & Clues". Heavy.com. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wigler, Josh; Goldberg, Lesley (April 13, 2018). "'Fear the Walking Dead': Inside the Massive Season 4 Reboot". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (April 30, 2018). "Fear the Walking Dead actor explains why he asked off the show". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nyren, Erin (March 15, 2018). "'The Walking Dead' Finale and 'Fear' Premiere to Screen in Theaters". Variety. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fear the Walking Dead: Season 4". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Manson, Charlie (May 21, 2018). "Fear the Walking Dead Review: Why the AMC Drama Deserves a Reevaluation". TVLine. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 26, 2018). "'The Last O.G.' scores for TBS in cable Live +7 ratings for April 9-15". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 30, 2018). "'Jersey Shore,' 'Fear the Walking Dead' get the biggest bumps in cable Live +3 ratings for April 16-22". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (May 10, 2018). "'Suits' finale gets solid bump in cable Live +7 ratings for April 23-29". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (May 24, 2018). "'Atlanta' finale gets a good boost in cable Live +7 ratings for May 7-13". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (June 9, 2018). "'Fear the Walking Dead' stays down in cable Live +3 ratings for May 28-June 3". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (June 15, 2018). "'Fear the Walking Dead,' 'Jersey Shore Family Vacation' jump in cable Live +3 ratings for June 4-10". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
List of Fear the Walking Dead episodes on IMDb
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p–n junction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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See also: p–n diode and Diode § Semiconductor diodes
A p–n junction. The circuit symbol is shown: the triangle corresponds to the p side.
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This allows electrical current to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.[citation needed]
p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p; while a diode can be made from a single p-n junction. A Schottky junction is a special case of a p–n junction, where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Properties
1.1 Equilibrium (zero bias)
1.2 Forward bias
1.3 Reverse bias
2 Governing equations
2.1 Size of depletion region
2.2 Current across depletion region
3 Non-rectifying junctions
4 Manufacture
5 History
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Properties[edit]
Image silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x.
The p–n junction possesses essential properties for modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. Bias is the application of a voltage across a p–n junction; forward bias is in the direction of easy current flow, and reverse bias is in the direction of little or no current flow.
The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n junction diode allows electric charges to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction; negative charges (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for holes. When the p–n junction is forward-biased, electric charge flows freely due to reduced resistance of the p–n junction. When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and charge flow is minimal.
Equilibrium (zero bias)[edit]
In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential V b i {\displaystyle V_{\rm {bi}}} .
After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, electrons from the n region near the p–n interface tend to diffuse into the p region leaving behind positively charged ions in the n region and being recombined with holes, forming negatively charged ions in the p region. Likewise, holes from the p-type region near the p–n interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving behind negatively charged ions in the p region and recombining with electrons, forming positive ions in the n region[further explanation needed]. The regions near the p–n interface lose their neutrality and most of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A).
Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope varying with field strength.)
The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.
Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.)
The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and B).
Forward bias[edit]
In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal.
PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. The panels show energy band diagram, electric field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 (0.00016C/cm3) doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias. Observe the different quasi-fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red curves)
With a battery connected this way, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.
Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the p-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of micrometers.[1]
Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed).
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.
The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.
Reverse bias[edit]
A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.
Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at the anode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the adjacent diagram.
Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode (although there is a slight rise with current), because the diode will break down – and therefore conduct – if the voltage gets any higher. This in effect limits the voltage over the diode.
Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode.
Governing equations[edit]
Size of depletion region[edit]
See also: Band bending
For a p–n junction, letting C A ( x ) {\displaystyle C_{A}(x)} and C D ( x ) {\displaystyle C_{D}(x)} be the concentrations of acceptor and donor atoms respectively, and letting N 0 ( x ) {\displaystyle N_{0}(x)} and P 0 ( x ) {\displaystyle P_{0}(x)} be the equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes respectively, yields, by Poisson's equation:
− d 2 V d x 2 = ρ ε = q ε [ ( N 0 − P 0 ) + ( C D − C A ) ] {\displaystyle -{\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}V}{\mathrm {d} x^{2}}}={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon }}={\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left[(N_{0}-P_{0})+(C_{D}-C_{A})\right]}
where V {\displaystyle V} is the electric potential, ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the charge density, ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } is permittivity and q {\displaystyle q} is the magnitude of the electron charge. Letting d p {\displaystyle d_{p}} be the width of the depletion region within the p-side, and letting d n {\displaystyle d_{n}} be the width of the depletion region within the n-side, it must be that
d p C A = d n C D {\displaystyle d_{p}C_{A}=d_{n}C_{D}}
because the total charge on either side of the depletion region must cancel out. Therefore, letting D {\displaystyle D} and Δ V {\displaystyle \Delta V} represent the entire depletion region and the potential difference across it,
Δ V = ∫ D ∫ q ε [ ( N 0 − P 0 ) + ( C D − C A ) ] d x d x {\displaystyle \Delta V=\int _{D}\int {\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left[(N_{0}-P_{0})+(C_{D}-C_{A})\right]\,\mathrm {d} x\,\mathrm {d} x}
= C A C D C A + C D q 2 ε ( d p + d n ) 2 {\displaystyle ={\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{C_{A}+C_{D}}}{\frac {q}{2\varepsilon }}(d_{p}+d_{n})^{2}}
where P 0 = N 0 = 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}=N_{0}=0} , because we are in the depletion region. And thus, letting d {\displaystyle d} be the total width of the depletion region, we get
d = 2 ε q C A + C D C A C D Δ V {\displaystyle d={\sqrt {{\frac {2\varepsilon }{q}}{\frac {C_{A}+C_{D}}{C_{A}C_{D}}}\Delta V}}}
Δ V {\displaystyle \Delta V} can be written as Δ V 0 + Δ V ext {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}+\Delta V_{\text{ext}}} , where we have broken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus external components. The equilibrium potential results from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate Δ V 0 {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}} by implementing the Einstein relation and assuming the semiconductor is nondegenerate (i.e. the product P 0 N 0 {\displaystyle {{P}_{0}}{{N}_{0}}} is independent of the Fermi energy):
Δ V 0 = k T q ln  ( C A C D P 0 N 0 ) {\displaystyle \Delta {{V}_{0}}={\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {{{C}_{A}}{{C}_{D}}}{{{P}_{0}}{{N}_{0}}}}\right)}
where T is the temperature of the semiconductor and k is Boltzmann constant.[2]
Current across depletion region[edit]
The Shockley ideal diode equation characterizes the current across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the diode's built-in potential gradient at equilibrium.
Forward Current ( J F {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{F}} )
Diffusion Current: current due to local imbalances in carrier concentration n {\displaystyle n} , via the equation J D ∝ − q ∇ n {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{D}\propto -q\nabla n}
Reverse Current ( J R {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{R}} )
Field Current
Generation Current
Non-rectifying junctions[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the above diagrams, contact between the metal wires and the semiconductor material also creates metal–semiconductor junctions called Schottky diodes. In a simplified ideal situation a semiconductor diode would never function, since it would be composed of several diodes connected back-to-front in series. But, in practice, surface impurities within the part of the semiconductor that touches the metal terminals will greatly reduce the width of those depletion layers to such an extent that the metal-semiconductor junctions do not act as diodes. These non-rectifying junctions behave as ohmic contacts regardless of applied voltage polarity.
Manufacture[edit]
The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.[citation needed]
History[edit]
The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories in 1939.[3] Two years later (1941), Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p–n junctions in Cu2O and silver sulphide photocells and selenium rectifiers.[4][5]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to PN-junction diagrams.
Alloy-junction transistor
Capacitance–voltage profiling
Deep-level transient spectroscopy
Delocalized electron
Diode modelling
Field-effect transistor
n–p–n transistor
p–n–p transistor
Semiconductor detector
Semiconductor device
Transistor–transistor logic
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall (2001). Solid State Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-92805-4.
Jump up ^ Luque, Antonio; Steven Hegedus (29 March 2011). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-97612-8.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1988). Crystal fire: the invention of the transistor and the birth of the information age. USA: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 88–97. ISBN 0-393-31851-6.
Jump up ^ Lashkaryov, V. E. (1941). "Исследование запирающих слоев методом термозонда" [Investigation of a barrier layer by the thermoprobe method]. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Fiz. (in Russian). 5 (4–5): 442–446.
Jump up ^ Lashkaryov, V. E. (2008) [1941]. "Investigation of a barrier layer by the thermoprobe method" (PDF). Ukr. J. Phys. 53 (special edition): 53–56. ISSN 2071-0194.
Further reading[edit]
Shockley, William (1949). "The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.
External links[edit]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q Educational video on the P-N junction.
"P-N Junction" – PowerGuru, August, 2012.
Olav Torheim, Elementary Physics of P-N Junctions, 2007.
PN Junction Properties Calculator
PN Junction Lab free to use on nanoHUB.org allows simulation and study of a p–n junction diode with different doping and materials. Users can calculate current-voltage (I-V) & capacitance-voltage (C-V) outputs, as well.
Understanding the PN Junction – Explains PN junction in a very easy to understand language.
Authority control
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values: -\frac{\mathrm{d}^2 V}{\mathrm{d}x^2}=\frac{\rho }{\varepsilon }=\frac{q}{\varepsilon }\left[ (N_0-P_0)+(C_D-C_A)\right]

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values: \Delta V=\int_D \int\frac{q}{\varepsilon }\left[ (N_0-P_0)+(C_D-C_A)\right]\,\mathrm{d} x\,\mathrm{d}x

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values: {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}+\Delta V_{\text{ext}}}

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Shockley ideal diode equation

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values: {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{D}\propto -q\nabla n}

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