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Robert E. Lee Monument (New Orleans, Louisiana)
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Robert E. Lee Monument
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
The monument in 2015
Show map of Louisiana Show map of the US Show all
Location
Lee Circle (900–1000 blocks St. Charles Avenue), New Orleans, Louisiana
Coordinates
29°56′35″N 90°4′20″W / 29.94306°N 90.07222°W / 29.94306; -90.07222Coordinates: 29°56′35″N 90°4′20″W / 29.94306°N 90.07222°W / 29.94306; -90.07222
Built
1884
Built by
Roy, John
Sculptor
Alexander Doyle
NRHP reference #
91000254[1]
Added to NRHP
March 19, 1991
The Robert E. Lee Monument formerly in New Orleans, Louisiana, is a historic statue dedicated to Confederate General Robert E. Lee. It was removed intact by official order from that location on May 19, 2017 to one unknown and any future display is uncertain.[2] The monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.[1][3] It was included by New Orleans magazine in June 2011 as one of the city's "11 important statues".[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Removal of the monument
2.1 2016–17 legal developments
2.2 Dismantling
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
History[edit]
Robert E. Lee Monument, close up
The monument was dedicated in 1884, at Tivoli Circle (since commonly called Lee Circle) on St. Charles Avenue. Dignitaries present at the dedication on February 22—George Washington's birthday—included former Confederate President Jefferson Davis, two daughters of General Lee, and Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard.[5] Efforts raise funds to build the statue began after Lee's death in 1870 by the Robert E. Lee Monument Association, which by 1876 had raised the $36,400 needed. The association's president was Louisiana Supreme Court Justice Charles E. Fenner.[6] New York sculptor Alexander Doyle was hired to sculpt the statue, which was installed in 1884. Base and pedestal designed and built by John Ray [Roy], architect; contract dated 1877. Cost $26,474. John Hagan, a builder, was contracted to "furnish and set" the column. Cost $9,350.[7]
The statue itself rises 16'6" tall, with an 8'4" base, standing on a 60' column with an interior staircase, according to a schematic released by the City of New Orleans on the day of the removal of the statue and its base, May 19, 2017.[8] The Lee statue faced "north where, as local lore has it, he can always look in the direction of his military adversaries."[9]
In January of 1953, the statue of General Lee was lifted from atop the column for repairs to the monument's foundation. The statue was returned to its perch in January the following year. [10]
A racial confrontation occurred at the monument on January 19, 1972, the birthday of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Addison Roswell Thompson, a perennial segregationist candidate for governor of Louisiana and mayor of New Orleans, and his friend and mentor, Rene LaCoste (not to be confused with the French tennis player René Lacoste), clashed with a group of Black Panthers. Then eighty-nine years of age and a former opera performer in New York City, LaCoste was described as "dapper in seersucker slacks and navy sports jacket" and with a "white mustache and goatee" resembling Colonel Sanders of Kentucky Fried Chicken. LaCoste and Thompson dressed in Klan robes for the occasion and placed a Confederate flag at the monument. The Black Panthers began throwing bricks at the pair, but police arrived in time to prevent serious injury. At the time of the Thompson/LaCoste confrontation, David Duke, then an active Klansman who served from 1989 to 1992 in the Louisiana House of Representatives, had been among those jailed in New Orleans for "inciting to riot".[11]
Removal of the monument[edit]
On June 24, 2015, New Orleans Mayor Mitch Landrieu acknowledged the impact of the June 2015 Charleston church shooting, but credited a 2014 conversation with New Orleans jazz ambassador Wynton Marsalis for his decision to call for the removal of the Lee statue and renaming of Lee Circle and other city memorials to Confederate slaveholders.[12]
As part of a sixty-day period for public input, two city commissions called for the removal of four monuments associated with the Confederacy: the Lee statue, statues of Jefferson Davis and P.G.T. Beauregard, and an obelisk commemorating the Battle of Liberty Place. Governor Bobby Jindal opposed the removals.[13]
On December 15, 2015, Wynton Marsalis explained his reasons for advocating removal in The Times-Picayune: "When one surveys the accomplishments of our local heroes across time from Iberville and Bienville, to Andrew Jackson, from Mahalia Jackson, to Anne Rice and Fats Domino, from Wendell Pierce, to John Besh and Jonathan Batiste, what did Robert E. Lee do to merit his distinguished position? He fought for the enslavement of a people against our national army fighting for their freedom; killed more Americans than any opposing general in history; made no attempt to defend or protect this city; and even more absurdly, he never even set foot in Louisiana. In the heart of the most progressive and creative cultural city in America, why should we continue to commemorate this legacy?"[14][15]
Contrary to assertions that Robert E. Lee never set foot in New Orleans, he visited or passed through the city in 1846, 1848, 1860 and 1861, while serving in the United States Army.[16][17] While in New Orleans, Lee was quartered at the military post of Jackson Barracks.[18]
On December 17, 2015, the New Orleans City Council voted to relocate four statues from public display, among them the statue of Robert E. Lee located in Lee Circle.[19][20] Four organizations immediately filed a lawsuit[21] in federal court the day of the decision and the city administration agreed that no monument removals would take place before a court hearing scheduled for January 14, 2016.[22]
In January 2016, David Mahler, a contractor who had been hired by the City of New Orleans to remove the four statues including the statue of Robert E. Lee located in Lee Circle backed out of his contract with the city after he, his family, and employees began receiving death threats.[23][24] According to authorities in Baton Rouge, early on the morning of January 19, 2016 the Fire Department found a 2014 Lamborghini Huracan ablaze in a parking lot behind David Mahler's company, H&O Investments, LLC. The car, belonging to Mahler and valued at $200,000, was completely destroyed.[25][26]
On March 4, 2016, State Senator Beth Mizell, of Franklinton in Washington Parish, filed a bill in the Legislature seeking to block local governments in Louisiana from removing Confederate monuments and other commemorative statues without State permission.[27] The Mizell bill was unexpectedly assigned by Senate President John Alario, a Democrat from Westwego in Jefferson Parish, to the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, rather than to the Senate Education Committee. This doomed the bill; five of the nine members of the Governmental Affairs Committee are African-American Democrats and it is chaired by Karen Carter Peterson of New Orleans. The Education Committee is composed of six Republicans and two Democrats.[28]
2016–17 legal developments[edit]
On March 25, 2016 a three-judge panel of the U. S. 5th Circuit Court of Appeals unanimously issued an injunction for that suit brought in federal district court by the Monumental Task Committee and other groups opposed to the removal of the Robert E. Lee Monument, and statues of Confederate President Jefferson Davis and Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard prohibiting the City of New Orleans from proceeding forward with the removal of the Lee Monument and statues of Davis and Beauregard. The Court of Appeals set a hearing date of September 28, 2016 for oral argument for whether its injunction should be maintained pending a final judgment on the merits of the district court suit.[29] The decision of the Court of Appeals superseded that ruling of United States District Court Judge Carl Barbier rendered January 26, 2016 denying the motion of the plaintiffs for a preliminary injunction against the City of New Orleans pending a final judgment on the merits of their suit.[30][31]
On April 6, 2016 Senate Bill 276 by State Sen. Beth Mizell, R-Franklinton to block local governments in Louisiana from removing Confederate monuments and other commemorative statues without State permission[32] was rejected by the Governmental Affairs Committee on a straight 5-4 racial and party line vote.[33] On August 14, 2016 pro-monuments House Bill 944 by Rep. Thomas Carmody, R-Shreveport to create a state board with the power to grant or deny proposals to remove or relocate a statue, monument, memorial or plaque that has been on public property for more than 30 years died in the Municipal Affairs Committee after a 7-7 tie vote.[34][35][36]
Following oral argument before United States 5th Circuit Court of Appeals on September 28, 2016 for whether its injunction should be maintained pending a final judgment of the district court on the merits of the suit brought by the Monumental Task Committee and other groups opposed to the removal of the Robert E. Lee Monument, and monuments to Confederate President Jefferson Davis and Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard, on March 6, 2017 the three-judge panel of the Court of Appeals unanimously held the City of New Orleans should be enjoined no further and could proceed forward with the removal of the three Confederate monuments. In support of its ruling the three-judge panel found, "we have exhaustively reviewed the record and can find no evidence in the record suggesting that any party other than the city has ownership” and the plaintiffs failed to show any irreparable harm would occur to the monuments for the City of New Orleans proceeding forward with their removal, even assuming such evidence would constitute harm to the groups bringing the suit.[37] The decision of the Court of Appeals affirmed that ruling of United States District Court Judge Carl Barbier rendered January 26, 2016, denying the motion of the plaintiffs for a preliminary injunction against the City of New Orleans pending a final judgment on the merits of their suit.[38]
Dismantling[edit]
Spectators watching the Lee statue lifted from its column
On May 18, 2017 the City of New Orleans announced the statue of General Robert E. Lee would be removed the following day.[39][40] On May 19, 2017 just after 6 p.m. following a day-long effort the statue of Lee was finally detached and removed from its column pedestal.[41][42][43]
While crews were working on removing the statue, New Orleans mayor Mitch Landrieu gave a speech at Gallier Hall discussing the historical context of the Lee and other monuments, and the reasons for and meaning of their removal.[44]
The removal prompted Mississippi lawmaker Karl Oliver to post on Facebook that those supporting the take-down of the Confederate monuments "should be LYNCHED". He later apologized for this statement.[45][46]
See also[edit]
Lee Circle
List of memorials to Robert E. Lee
National Register of Historic Places listings in Orleans Parish, Louisiana
Jefferson Davis Monument
General Beauregard Equestrian Statue
Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service (2008-04-15). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ McConnaughey, Janet; Santana, Rebecca (May 19, 2017). "Robert E. Lee statue is last Confederate monument moved in New Orleans". Chicago Tribune. Associated Press. Retrieved May 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Robert E. Lee Monument". National Register of Historic Places Database (Louisiana). State of Louisiana, Office of Cultural Development, Division of Historic Preservation. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 12 July 2015. . Listing includes 3 photographs, map, and details of site's historic significance as exemplar of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, as conveyed in NRHP nomination
Jump up ^ "The New Orleans Art Trail: 11 Important Statues". New Orleans. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Chatelain, Neil. "Lee's Circle". New Orleans Historical. University of New Orleans History Department; Tulane University Communication Department. Retrieved 11 July 2015. <--Broken link, May 2017.
Jump up ^ Charles Erasmus Fenner (1834-1911) in the Louisiana Historical Association's Dictionary of Louisiana Biography, retrieved 10 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Jr., Samuel; Lemann, Bernard (1971). "Architectural Inventory". New Orleans Architecture, Volume I: The Lower Garden District. Gretna, LA: Friends of the Cabildo and Pelican Publishing Company. p. 145. Lee Monument, Lee Circle.
Jump up ^ Rainey, Richard (May 19, 2017). "There's a staircase under the Robert E. Lee statue?". The Times-Picayune. New Orleans, LA. Retrieved 19 May 2017. Schematic of site
Jump up ^ "Louisiana's Civil War Museum". New Orleans Official Guide. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Karst, James (14 May 2017). "The leaning tower of Lee: statue of Confederate general was encircled in controversy in 1953". The Times-Picayune. New Orleans, LA. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Sims, Patsy (1996). "The Klan" (2nd ed.). Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 152–153. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ McClendon, Robert (June 24, 2015). "Mitch Landrieu on Confederate landmarks: 'That's what museums are for'". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 9 July 2015. Landrieu recalled Marsalis saying. When the mayor asked why, Marsalis responded, "Let me help you see it through my eyes. Who is he? What does he represent? And in that most prominent space in the city of New Orleans, does that space reflect who we were, who we want to be or who we are?"
Jump up ^ Schachar, Natalie (August 15, 2015). "Jindal seeks to block removal of Confederate monuments in New Orleans". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Why New Orleans should take down Robert E. Lee's statue: Wynton Marsalis". The Times-Picayune. December 15, 2015. Retrieved December 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Debra Cassans. "Removal of Confederate monuments violates free-speech right to preserve history, suit says". abajournal. American Bar Association. Retrieved December 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Encyclopediavirginia.org
Jump up ^ Thomas, Emory M. (1997) Robert E. Lee: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. p. 426.
Jump up ^ Geauxguardmuseums.com
Jump up ^ Rainey, Richard (December 17, 2015). "Lee Circle no more: New Orleans to remove 4 Confederate statues". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Adelson, Jeff (December 17, 2015). "New Orleans City Council votes 6-1 to remove Confederate monuments". The New Orleans Advocate. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "No. 2:15-cv-06905-CJB-DEK" (PDF). E.D. La. December 17, 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 18, 2015. Plaintiffs: Monumental Task Committee, Inc., Louisiana Landmarks Society, Foundation for Historical Louisiana, Inc., and Beauregard Camp, No. 130, Inc.
Jump up ^ Katherine, Sayre (December 18, 2015). "New Orleans won't remove Confederate statues before court hearing". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Baton Rouge contractor receives death threats, backs out of NOLA monument removal". WAFB. January 14, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Williams, Jessica (January 15, 2017). "'Death threats,' 'threatening calls' prompt firm tasked with removing Confederate monuments to quit". The Advocate. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Man Hired To Remove Confederate Monuments In New Orleans Has $200,000 Lamborghini Torched". The Huffington Post. 2016-01-20. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ Ng, Alfred (January 20, 2017). "Louisiana contractor's $200,000 Lamborghini burned down after backing out of bid to remove Confederate monuments from New Orleans". New York Daily News. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bill filed in Legislature to prevent takedowns of Confederate monuments | State Politics". Theadvocate.com. 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Looks Like Beth Mizell's Monument-Protection Bill Is Dead, For Now". thehayride.com. Retrieved April 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "City must leave Confederate monuments in place while case is appealed, 5th U.S. Circuit Court rules | State Politics". Theadvocate.com. 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Federal judge allows New Orleans to proceed with Confederate monument removal". Nola.com. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ Monumental Task Committiee, Inc. v. Foxx, 157 F.Supp.3d 573 (E.D.La., 2016)
Jump up ^ Julia O'Donoghue (2016-03-30). "Confederate monuments debate delayed in Louisiana Legislature". NOLA.com. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ Trimble, Megan (2016-04-06). "Bill to block removal of Confederate monuments rejected". Bigstory.ap.org. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Bill to stop removal Confederate monuments dies in state House". Wwltv.com. 2016-04-14. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Bill to block removal of New Orleans Confederate monuments fails in House panel; now what? | Legislature". Theadvocate.com. 2016-04-19. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Tie vote stalls bill to protect Confederate monuments". SunHerald. 2016-04-14. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ Monumental Task Committiee, Inc. v. Chao, No. 16-30107. (5th Cir., 2017)
Jump up ^ "Likely last hurdle cleared, New Orleans expected to move quickly to remove Confederate monuments | Courts". Theadvocate.com. 2017-03-06. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
Jump up ^ http://www.theadvocate.com/new_orleans/news/article_cc3b196e-3c28-11e7-97aa-ef4297dddb6a.html
Jump up ^ MacCash, Doug (18 May 2017). "Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee statue coming down Friday morning, city announces". The Times-Picayune. New Orleans, LA. Retrieved 19 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Nola.com
Jump up ^ The Advocate
Jump up ^ Robertson, Campbell (19 May 2017). "From Lofty Perch, New Orleans Monument to Confederacy Comes Down". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Sayre, Katherine (22 May 2017). "Read Mayor Mitch Landrieu's speech on removing New Orleans' Confederate monuments". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Pilkington, Ed (May 22, 2017). "Mississippi lawmaker calls for lynchings after removal of Confederate symbols". The Guardian. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Pettus, Emily Wagster (May 22, 2017). "Mississippi lawmaker apologizes for calling for lynching". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
Further reading[edit]
"The Lee Monument. An Account of the Labors, etc.". New Orleans, Louisiana: The Daily Picayune. February 22, 1884. Retrieved July 12, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.
"The Lee Monument. The Inauguration, etc.". New Orleans, Louisiana: The Daily Picayune. February 23, 1884. Retrieved July 13, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.
Brock, R. A., ed. (1886). "Ceremonies Connected with the Unveiling of the Statue of General Robert E. Lee at Lee Circle, New Orleans, February 22, 1884". Southern Historical Society Papers. 14. Southern Historical Society. pp. 62–96.
Brock, R. A., ed. (1886). "Historical Sketch of the R.E. Lee Monumental Association of New Orleans". Southern Historical Society Papers. 14. Southern Historical Society. pp. 96–99.
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Louisiana Purchase
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Louisiana Purchase (disambiguation).
Louisiana Purchase
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• Established July 4, 1803
• Disestablished October 1, 1804
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The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana") was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km²) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000 USD) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000 USD) for a total of sixty-eight million francs ($15,000,000 USD, or around $250 million in 2016 dollars). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.[1]
The Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, then the First Consul of the French Republic, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France's failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the bargain. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition; they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
1804 map of "Louisiana", edged on the west by the Rocky Mountains
Flag raising in the Place d'Armes of New Orleans, marking the transfer of sovereignty over French Louisiana to the United States, December 20, 1803, as depicted by Thure de Thulstrup
Contents
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1 Background
2 Negotiation
3 Domestic opposition and constitutionality
4 Treaty signing
5 Formal transfers and initial organization
6 Boundaries
7 Slavery
8 Asserting U.S. possession
9 Financing
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Footnotes
11.2 Works cited
12 Further reading
13 External links
Background
Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics.[2] It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory of Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.[3]
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece." The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration" of this policy necessary.[2] New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.[3]
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.[4] The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on 30 November 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on 20 December 1803.[5] A further ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later partially due to winter conditions impeding the arrival of news, Upper Louisiana, regarding the New Orleans formalities. The 9–10 March 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.[6][7]
James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.[8]
The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish didn't want the Americans to settle in their territory.[9]
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States.[10] On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:
The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I cannot forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans." Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France's history, for it would seal America's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.[11]
Negotiation
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[12] Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction.[12] In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801[13] after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.[14]
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.[15] In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.[16]
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.[17]
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.[citation needed]
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two.[citation needed] Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.
Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.
As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.[18]
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million, equivalent to about $233 million in 2011 dollars,[19] which averages to less than three cents per acre.[20][21]
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.[22]
The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington, D.C.. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.
Domestic opposition and constitutionality
Transfer of Louisiana by Ford P. Kaiser for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904)
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase.[23] This argument goes as follows:
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.[citation needed]
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.[24]
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.[25]
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.[26]
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[27] The sale of course was not "worthless"—the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests." Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.[28]
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy as follows:
Countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.[29]
Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction" if the Congress approved the treaty.[30]
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.[31][32]
The original treaty of the Louisiana Purchase
The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.[31][33]
When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.[34]
Treaty signing
Issue of 1953, commemorating the 150th Anniversary of signing
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on 30 April by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives...From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."[35]
The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty-four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[36][citation needed]
Formal transfers and initial organization
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.[citation needed]
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805–1812).[citation needed]
New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.[citation needed]
Boundaries
The Purchase was one of several territorial additions to the U.S.
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.[37]
The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida.[38] Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.[39] The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.[citation needed]
The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.[40]
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.[citation needed]
The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.[citation needed]
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Plan of Fort Madison, built in 1808 to establish U.S. control over the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase; drawn 1810
Slavery
See also: History of slavery in Louisiana, History of slavery in Missouri, and Slavery in the United States
Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present-day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French-speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.[41]
The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African-Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over).[42] In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836.[42] The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later.[41] As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states."
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.[citation needed]
Asserting U.S. possession
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.[43] In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present-day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.[44] With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[44]
Financing
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations.[45] Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France.[45] Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.[46]
See also
Louisiana portal
History portal
Alaska Purchase
Florida Purchase
Corps of Discovery
Franco-American alliance
List of French possessions and colonies
New France
Historic regions of the United States
Louisiana Purchase Historic State Park
Territorial evolution of the United States
Territories of the United States on stamps
References
Footnotes
Jump up ^ "Congressional series of United States public documents". U.S. Government Printing Office. January 1, 1864 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 99
^ Jump up to: a b Meinig (1995)[page needed]
Jump up ^ Warren, Rebecca (1976). "The Role of American Diplomacy in the Louisiana Purchase". pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase | History, Facts, & Map". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Three Flags Day - Naked History". Naked History. 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "Reliving Lewis and Clark: Louisiana Purchase Ceremony". news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "8 Things You May Not Know About the Louisiana Purchase". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2006), pp. 4–48
Jump up ^ Cerami (2003), pp. 57-58
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 100
Jump up ^ "Milestones: 1801–1829 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2017-02-19.
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1995), p. 221
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1995), p. 209
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1996), pp. 22–23
Jump up ^ Duke (1977), pp. 77–83
Jump up ^ Herring (2008), p. 101
Jump up ^ Kuepper, Justin (October 8, 2012). "3 Of The Most Lucrative Land Deals In History".
Jump up ^ Burgan (2002), p. 36.
Jump up ^ "Primary Documents of American History: Louisiana Purchase". Web Guides. Library of Congress. March 29, 2011. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Malone, Roeder & Lang (1991), p. 30
Jump up ^ Rodriguez (2002), pp. 139–40
Jump up ^ Fleming (2003), pp. 149ff
Jump up ^ Nugent (2009), pp. 65–68.
Jump up ^ Gayarre (1867), p. 544.
Jump up ^ Adams (2011), pp. 56–57
Jump up ^ Nugent (2009), pp. 66–67
Jump up ^ Lawson & Seidman (2008), pp. 20–22
Jump up ^ Banning (1995), pp. 7–9, 178, 326–7, 330–3, 345–6, 360–1, 371, 384.
^ Jump up to: a b Ketcham (2003), pp. 420–2.
Jump up ^ The fledgling United States did not have $15 million in its treasury; it borrowed the sum from Great Britain, at an annual interest rate of six percent. [1]
Jump up ^ Lewis (2003), p. 79
Jump up ^ Peterson, Merrill D. (1974). "James Madison: A Biography in his Own Words". Newsweek. pp. 237–46. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ "America's Louisiana Purchase: Noble Bargain, Difficult Journey". Lpb.org. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello". www.monticello.org. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ Schoultz (1998), pp. 15–16
Jump up ^ Haynes (2010), pp. 115–16
Jump up ^ Hämäläinen (2008), p. 183
Jump up ^ Weber (1994), pp. 223, 293
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 104
^ Jump up to: a b Foley, William E. (October 1984). "Slave Freedom Suits before Dred Scott: The Case of Marie Jean Scypion's Descendants". Missouri Historical Review. 79 (1): 1. Retrieved February 18, 2011 – via The State Historical Society of Missouri.
Jump up ^ Luttig (1920).[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Prucha (1969).[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Ziegler (1988).[page needed]
Jump up ^ Fleming (2003), pp. 129ff.
Works cited
Adams, Henry (2011) [1889]. History of the United States of America (1801–1817). vol.2: During the First Administration of Thomas Jefferson. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108033039.
Banning, Lance (1995). The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Burgan, Michael (2002). The Louisiana Purchase. Capstone. ISBN 9780756502102.
Cerami, Charles A. (2003). Jefferson's Great Gamble. Sourcebooks. ISBN 9781402234354.
Duke, Marc (1977). The du Ponts: Portrait of a Dynasty. Saturday Review Press. ISBN 0-8415-0429-6.
Fleming, Thomas J. (2003). The Louisiana Purchase. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-26738-6.
Gayarre, Charles (1867). History of Louisiana.
Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12654-9.
Haynes, Robert V. (2010). The Mississippi Territory and the Southwest Frontier, 1795–1817. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2577-0.
Herring, George (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-976553-7.
Ketcham, Ralph (2003). James Madison: A Biography. Newtown CT: American Political Biography Press. ISBN 9780813912653.
Kennedy, David M.; Cohen, Lizabeth & Bailey, Thomas Andrew (2008). The American Pageant: A History of the American People. Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-547-16654-4.
Lawson, Gary & Seidman, Guy (2008). The Constitution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300128967.
Lewis, James E., Jr. (2003). The Louisiana Purchase: Jefferson's Noble Bargain?. UNC Press Books.
Luttig, John C. (1920). Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812–1813. Kansas City MO: The Missouri Historical Society.
Malone, Michael P.; Roeder, Richard B. & Lang, William L. (1991). Montana: A History of Two Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97129-0.
Meinig, D.W. (1995). The Shaping of America: Volume 2. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300062908.
Matthewson, Tim (May 1995). "Jefferson and Haiti". The Journal of Southern History. 61 (2): 209–48. JSTOR 2211576.
Matthewson, Tim (March 1996). "Jefferson and the Non-Recognition of Haiti". American Philosophical Society. 140 (1): 22–48. JSTOR 987274.
Nugent, Walter (2009). Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansionism. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-7818-9.
Prucha, Francis P. (1969). The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. New York: Macmillan.
Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071885.
Schoultz, Lars (1998). Beneath the United States. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92276-1.
Thompson, Linda (2006). The Louisiana Purchase. Rourke Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59515-513-9.
Weber, David J. (1994). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05917-5.
Ziegler, Philip (1988). The Sixth Great Power: Barings 1762–1929. London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-217508-8.
Further reading
Hermann (1900). The Louisiana Purchase and our title west of the Rocky Mountains: with a review of annexation by the United States.
Hosmer, James Kendall (1902). Louisiana Purchase. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
Marshall (1914). A History of the Western Boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, 1819-1841.
U.S. Dept. of State (1903). State papers and correspondence bearing upon the purchase of the territory of Louisiana.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Louisiana Purchase.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Text of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Library of Congress: Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Teaching about the Louisiana Purchase
Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial 1803–2003*Lewis and Clark Trail
Louisiana Purchase and Lewis & Clark student and teacher guide: dates, people, analysis, multimedia
New Orleans/Louisiana Purchase 1803
The Haitian Revolution and the Louisiana Purchase
Case and Controversies in U.S. History, Page 42 Senator Pickering explains his opposition to the Louisiana Purchase, 1803.
Booknotes interview with Jon Kukla on A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America, July 6, 2003.
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values: صفقة لويزيانا – Arabic

values: Luiziananın satın alınması – Azerbaijani

values: Луізіянская купля – Belarusian

values: Покупка на Луизиана – Bulgarian

values: Луизианăна сутăн илни – Chuvash

values: Αγορά της Λουιζιάνας – Greek

values: خرید لوئیزیانا – Persian

values: 루이지애나 매입 – Korean

values: רכישת לואיזיאנה – Hebrew

values: Луизиананы сатыб алыу – Karachay-Balkar

values: ルイジアナ買収 – Japanese

values: Луизианская покупка – Russian

values: Куповина Луизијане – Serbian

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values: லூசியானா வாங்கல் – Tamil

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values: Купівля Луїзіани – Ukrainian

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values: 路易斯安那購地 – Chinese

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