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List of Prime Ministers of India
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Narendra Modi is the current (14th) Prime Minister of India, since 26 May 2014.
The Prime Minister of India is the chief executive of the Government of India. In India's parliamentary system, the Constitution names the President as head of state de jure, but his or her de facto executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Appointed and sworn-in by the President, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party or alliance that has a majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India's Parliament.[1]
Since 1947, India has had fourteen Prime Ministers, fifteen including Gulzarilal Nanda who twice acted in the role. The first was Jawaharlal Nehru of the Indian National Congress party, who was sworn-in on 15 August 1947, when India gained independence from the British. Serving until his death in May 1964, Nehru remains India's longest-serving prime minister. He was succeeded by fellow Congressman Lal Bahadur Shastri, whose 19-month term also ended in death. Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter, succeeded Shastri in 1966 to become the country's first woman premier. Eleven years later, she was voted out of power in favour of the Janata Party, whose leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister. After he resigned in 1979, his former deputy Charan Singh briefly held office until Indira Gandhi was voted back six months later. Indira Gandhi's second stint as Prime Minister ended five years later on the morning of 31 October 1984, when she was gunned down by her own bodyguards. That evening, her son Rajiv Gandhi was sworn-in as India's youngest premier, and the third from his family. Thus far, members of Nehru–Gandhi dynasty have been Prime Minister for a total of 37 years and 303 days.[2]
Rajiv's five-year term ended with his former cabinet colleague, V. P. Singh of the Janata Dal, forming the year-long National Front coalition government in 1989. A six-month interlude under Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar followed, after which the Congress party returned to power, forming the government under P. V. Narasimha Rao in June 1991. Rao's five-year term was succeeded by four short-lived governments—the Bharatiya Janata Party's Atal Bihari Vajpayee for 13 days in 1996, a year each under United Front prime ministers H. D. Deve Gowda and I. K. Gujral, and Vajpayee again for 19 months in 1998–99. After Vajpayee was sworn-in for the third time, in 1999, he managed to lead his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government to a full five-year term, the first non-Congressman to do so. Vajpayee was succeeded by Congressman Manmohan Singh, the first Sikh premier, whose United Progressive Alliance government was in office for 10 years between 2004 and 2014.
The incumbent Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi who has headed the BJP-led NDA government since 26 May 2014 which is India's first non-Congress single party majority government.[3]
Prime Ministers of India (by state of birth)
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 Prime Ministers of India
3 See also
4 References
4.1 General
4.2 Specific
Key[edit]
Colour key for party of the prime ministers
Bharatiya Janata Party
Indian National Congress
designated Indian National Congress (I) 1977–1996[4]
Janata Dal
Janata Party
Janata Party (Secular)
Samajwadi Janata Party
Other key
№: Incumbent number
† Assassinated or died in office
§ Returned to office after a previous term
RES Resigned
NC Resigned following a no-confidence motion
Prime Ministers of India[edit]
№
Name
(birth–death)
Portrait
Prior Office
Party
(Alliance)
Elected constituency
Term of office[5]
Appointed by
1
Jawaharlal Nehru
(1889–1964) Indian freedom fighter Indian National Congress Phulpur, Uttar Pradesh 15 August
1947 27 May
1964[†] 7003613000000000000♠16 years, 286 days Lord Mountbatten
Rajendra Prasad
–
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
(1898–1998) Minister of Labour and Employment Indian National Congress Sabarkantha, Gujarat 27 May
1964 9 June
1964 13 days Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
2
Lal Bahadur Shastri
(1904–1966) Minister of Home Affairs Indian National Congress Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh 9 June
1964 11 January
1966[†] 7002581000000000000♠1 year, 216 days Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
–
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
(1898–1998) Minister of Home Affairs Indian National Congress Sabarkantha, Gujarat 11 January
1966 24 January
1966 13 days Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
3
Indira Gandhi
(1917–1984) Minister of Information and Broadcasting
Prime Minister (Re-elected)
Indian National Congress Rajya Sabha MP for Uttar Pradesh 24 January
1966 24 March
1977 7003407700000000000♠11 years, 59 days V. V. Giri
4
Morarji Desai
(1896–1995) Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of India before he resigned in 1969 Janata Party Surat, Gujarat 24 March
1977 28 July
1979[RES] 7002856000000000000♠2 years, 126 days B. D. Jatti
(acting President)
5
Charan Singh
(1902–1987) Minister of Finance Janata Party (Secular)
with INC Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh 28 July
1979 14 January
1980[RES] 170 days Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
6
Indira Gandhi
(1917–1984) Former Prime Minister Indian National Congress (I) Medak, Andhra Pradesh 14 January
1980[§] 31 October
1984[†] 7003175200000000000♠4 years, 291 days Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
7
Rajiv Gandhi
(1944–1991) MP for Amethi Indian National Congress (I) Amethi, Uttar Pradesh 31 October
1984 2 December
1989 7003185800000000000♠5 years, 32 days Zail Singh
8
Vishwanath Pratap Singh
(1931–2008) Minister of Defence Janata Dal
(National Front) Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh 2 December
1989 10 November
1990[NC] 343 days R. Venkataraman
9
Chandra Shekhar
(1927–2007) MP for Ballia Samajwadi Janata Party
with INC Ballia, Uttar Pradesh 10 November
1990 21 June
1991[a] 223 days R. Venkataraman
10
Pamulaparti Venkata Narasimha Rao
(1921–2004) Minister of External Affairs Indian National Congress (I) Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh 21 June
1991 16 May
1996 7003179100000000000♠4 years, 330 days R. Venkataraman
11
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(born 1924) Minister of External Affairs Bharatiya Janata Party Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 16 May
1996 1 June
1996[RES] 16 days Shankar Dayal Sharma
12
Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda
(born 1933) Chief Minister of Karnataka Janata Dal
(United Front) Rajya Sabha MP for Karnataka 1 June
1996 21 April
1997[RES] 324 days Shankar Dayal Sharma
13
Inder Kumar Gujral
(1919–2012) Minister of External Affairs Janata Dal
(United Front) Rajya Sabha MP for Bihar 21 April
1997 19 March
1998 332 days Shankar Dayal Sharma
14
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(born 1924) Former Prime Minister Bharatiya Janata Party
(NDA) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 19 March
1998[§] 22 May
2004 7003225600000000000♠6 years, 64 days K. R. Narayanan
15
Manmohan Singh
(born 1932) Minister of Finance Indian National Congress
(UPA) Rajya Sabha MP for Assam 22 May
2004 26 May
2014 7003365600000000000♠10 years, 4 days A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
Pratibha Patil
16
Narendra Modi
(born 1950) Chief Minister of Gujarat Bharatiya Janata Party
(NDA) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 26 May
2014[6] Incumbent 7003131700000000000♠3 years, 221 days Pranab Mukherjee
Jump up ^ Chandra Shekhar officially resigned as Prime Minister on 13 March 1991, but he and his ministers continued in office until Rao succeeded him.
Timeline
See also[edit]
Government of India portal
India portal
Prime Minister's Office
List of Prime Ministers of India by longevity
List of Presidents of India
References[edit]
General[edit]
"Former Prime Minister's of India". Prime Minister's Office (PMO). Retrieved 22 November 2017.
"Gallery of Prime Ministers". Press Information Burea. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
Guha, Ramachandra (2011). India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 9780330540209.
Brass, Paul R. (1994). The Politics of India Since Independence. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521459709.
Specific[edit]
Jump up ^ Constitutional Government in India. S. Chand Publishing. 2003. ISBN 9788121922036.
Jump up ^ "In India, next generation of Gandhi dynasty". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ Diplomat, Ankit Panda, The. "BJP, Modi Win Landslide Victory in Indian Elections". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Indian National Congress". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Former Prime Ministers". PM India. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Narendra Modi appointed Prime Minister, swearing in on May 26". The Times of India. 20 May 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
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Jawaharlal Nehru
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
Lal Bahadur Shastri
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
Indira Gandhi
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Charan Singh
Rajiv Gandhi
V. P. Singh
Chandra Shekhar
P. V. Narasimha Rao
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
H. D. Deve Gowda
I. K. Gujral
Manmohan Singh
Narendra Modi
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text:
List of construction trades
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of trades in construction.
Boilermaker, works in nuclear and fossil power plants, shipyards, refineries and chemical plants, on boilers, pressure vessels, and similar equipment.
Carpenter, a craftsperson who performs carpentry, building mainly with wood.[1] Among carpentry's subsidiary trades are those of cabinet maker and millworker, cladder, framer, joiner, and roofer. Carpenters unions usually include drywall installer/lather, flooring installer, pile driver, millwright, diver, and diver tender.
Carpet layer, one who specializes in laying carpet
Dredger, may include Lead Dredgeman, Operator, Leverman, Licensed Tug Operator, Derrick Operator, Spider/Spill Barge Operator, Engineer, Electrician, Chief Welder, Chief Mate, Fill Placer, Operator II, Maintenance Engineer, Licensed Boat Operator, Certified Welder, Mate, Drag Barge Operator, Steward, Assistant Fill Placer, Welder, Boat Operator, Shoreman, Deckhand, Rodman, Scowman, Cook, Messman, Porter/Janitor, and Oiler.
Electrician, specializing in electrical wiring of buildings and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the construction of new buildings or maintenance of existing electrical infrastructure, they can also install A/C and Telecommunications systems.[2][3]
Linemen, high voltage line and substation construction and maintenance trade, trade titles under power line technicians: electricians, Digger Machine Operator, Groundsman (laborer waiting for apprenticeship).
Elevator mechanic installs vertical lift and transporting equipment
Fencer, a tradesperson who builds fences
Glazier, installs glass. May be included with Painters
Heavy equipment operator, a driver and operator of heavy equipment used in engineering and construction projects.[4] There may be many special function titles, such as Bargeman, Brakeman, Compressor operator, Elevator operator, Engineer Oiler, Forklift operator, Generator, pump or compressor plant operator, Signalman, Switchman, Conveyor operator, Fireman, Skiploader operator, Helicopter radioman, Boring machine operator, Boxman or mixerman, Asphalt plant engineer, Batch plant operator, Bit sharpener, Micro tunnel system operator, Pavement breaker operator, Drill Doctor, Drilling machine operator, Rotary drill operator, Canal liner operator, Canal trimmer operator, Concrete boom pump operator, etc.
Insulation installer. Includes application of all insulating materials, protective coverings, coatings and finishes to all types of mechanical systems. Also Hazardous Material Handler
Ironworker (or steel erector), erects or dismantles structural steel frames. Structural steel installation is usually crane-assisted. Workers rely on mobile, elevated platforms or scissor lifts. Ironworkers bolt the steelwork together using various tools, power tools and manual tools.[5][6] Metallic Lathers may be included in this category.
Laborer, a skilled worker proficient with pneumatic tools, hand tools, blasting, smaller heavy equipment. Laborers may also assist other tradespeople.
Landscaper, a tradesperson who specializes in landscaping
Mason, a tradesperson skilled variously in brick and blocklaying, concrete finishing (the placement, finishing, protecting and repairing of concrete in construction projects).[7] Also stonemason, marble setter and Polisher, tile setter and polisher, terrazzo worker and finisher. Hod carrier is a subsidiary trade.
Millwright installs various industrial equipment
House painter and decorator, a tradesperson responsible for the painting and decorating of buildings, and is also known as a decorator or house painter.[8] Also includes Paper Hanger, and may include Glazier
Pile driver, a tradesperson who installs piles, drills shafts, and constructs certain foundation support elements
Plasterer, a tradesperson who works with plaster, such as forming a layer of plaster on an interior wall or plaster decorative moldings on ceilings or walls.[9]
Plumber, a tradesperson who specialises in installing and maintaining systems used for plumbing, heating, drainage, fire fighting, potable (drinking) water or small-sized industrial process plant piping.[10]
Pipefitter (or steamfitter), a person who lays out, assembles, fabricates, maintains, and repairs large-sized piping systems capable of enabling high-pressure flow.[11]
Sheet metal worker installs HVAC ductwork and related work
Safety officer
Site manager
Steel fixer ("ironworker" USA, also "rodbuster" USA/Australia), a tradesperson who positions and secures reinforcing bars and mesh used to reinforce concrete on construction projects.[12][13] This trade is usually included with Ironworkers.
Waterproofer
Welder, a tradesperson who specialises in welding[14][15]
See also[edit]
Construction
Construction worker
Civil engineering
Common Arrangement of Work Sections (CAWS)
Dirty, Dangerous and Demeaning
Index of construction articles
Outline of construction
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Byron W. Maguire (1988). Carpentry in Commercial Construction. Craftsman Book Company. ISBN 0-934041-33-4.
Jump up ^ Roger Jones (2004). Electrician. Trotman Publishing. ISBN 0-85660-997-8.
Jump up ^ "UEE30811 - Certificate III in Electrotechnology Electrician | Victoria University | Melbourne Australia". www.vu.edu.au. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
Jump up ^ V. J. Davies; Ken Tomasin (1996). Construction Safety Handbook. Thomas Telford. ISBN 0-7277-2519-X.
Jump up ^ Len F. Webster (1997). "Steel+erector"#v=onepage&q=%22Steel%20erector%22 The Wiley Dictionary of Civil Engineering and Construction. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-18115-3.
Jump up ^ M.Y.H. Bangash (2000). Structural Detailing in Steel. Thomas Telford. ISBN 0-7277-2850-4.
Jump up ^ Richard T. Kreh (2003). Masonry Skills. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 0-7668-5936-3.
Jump up ^ Alf Fulcher (2005). Painting and Decorating. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1254-9.
Jump up ^ Brian F. Pegg; William D. Stagg (2007). Plastering. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-5604-X.
Jump up ^ Howard C. Massey (1998). Plumber's Handbook. Craftsman Book Company. ISBN 1-57218-056-0.
Jump up ^ Calin M. Popescu; Kan Phaobunjong; Nuntapong Ovararin (2003). Estimating Building Costs. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-4086-6.
Jump up ^ Alan Charles Twort; Gordon J. Rees (2003). Civil Engineering Project Management. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-5731-6.
Jump up ^ Arthur Horace (1988). Reinforced Concrete Design to Bs8110: Simply Explained. Spon Press. ISBN 0-419-14550-8.
Jump up ^ Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN 99949-25-82-2.
Jump up ^ Weman, Klas (2003). Welding processes handbook. New York: CRC Press LLC. ISBN 0-8493-1773-8.
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Soviet atomic bomb project
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Sjö (talk | contribs) at 19:16, 24 August 2017 (Reverted edits by 166.216.159.70 (talk) to last version by CoolieCoolster). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.
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Soviet atomic bomb project
Russian physicists Andrei Sakharov (left) and Igor Kurchatov, who led the program to success.
Operational scope
Operational R&D
Location
Atomgrad, Semipalatinsk, Chagan Lake
Planned by
NKVD, NKGB
GRU, MGB, PGU
Date
1940–49
Executed by
Soviet Union
Outcome
The successful development of nuclear weapons.
The Soviet atomic bomb project[1] (Russian: Советский проект атомной бомбы, Sovetskiy proyekt atomnoy bomby) was the classified research and development program that was authorized by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union to develop nuclear weapons during World War II.[2][3]
Although the Soviet scientific community discussed the possibility of an atomic bomb throughout 1930s[4][5], going as far as to making a concrete proposal to develop such weapon in 1940[6][7][8], the full-scale program was initiated only in response to the intelligence reports collected by Soviet intelligence through their spy ring in the United States on the secretive Manhattan Project.
Because of the conspicuous silence of the scientific publications on the subject of fission by German, American, and British scientists, Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov suspected that the Allied powers had secretly been developing a "superweapon"[3] since 1939. Flyorov wrote a letter to Stalin urging him to start this program in 1942.[9]:78-79 Initial efforts were slowed due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union and remained largely composed of the intelligence knowledge gained from the spy rings working in the U.S.' Manhattan Project in 1943.[2]
After learning of the atomic bombings of Japanese cities that officially ended World War II in 1945, the program was aggressively pursued, mainly through effective intelligence gathering about the German weapon project and the American Manhattan Project.[10] The Russian efforts also rounded up captured German scientists to join their program, and relied heavily on knowledge passed by the spy ring to the Russian intelligence agencies .[11]:242-243
On 29 August 1949, the Soviet Union secretly conducted its first successful weapon test (First Lightning), based on the U.S. design at the Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early efforts
1.1 Background origins and roots
1.2 World War II and accelerated feasibility
2 Organization and administration
3 Espionage
3.1 Soviet atomic ring
3.2 Soviet intelligence management in Manhattan Project
4 Initial thermonuclear bomb designs
5 Logistical problems
6 Important Soviet nuclear tests
6.1 RDS-1
6.2 RDS-2
6.3 RDS-3
6.4 RDS-4
6.5 RDS-5
6.6 RDS-6
6.7 RDS-9
6.8 RDS-37
6.9 Tsar Bomba (RDS-220)
6.10 Chagan
7 Secret cities
8 Environmental and public health effects
9 See also
10 References
10.1 Bibliography
11 External links
Early efforts[edit]
Background origins and roots[edit]
Main articles: Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records and History of the periodic table
I.V. Kurchatov at the Radium Institute, ca. 1930s.
As early as 1910 in Russia, independent research was being conducted on radioactive elements by several Russian scientists.:44[12]:24-25[13] Despite the hardship faced by the Russian academy of sciences during the national revolution in 1917, followed by the violent civil war in 1922, the Russian scientists had made remarkable efforts towards the advancement of physics research in the Soviet Union in the 1930s.[14]:35-36 Before the first revolution in 1905, the mineralogist Vladimir Vernadsky had made a number of public calls for a survey of Russia's uranium deposits but none were heeded.[14]:37
However, such early efforts were independently and privately funded by various organizations until 1922 when the Radium Institute in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) opened and industrialized the research.:44[12]
From the 1920s until the late 1930s, Russian physicists had been conducting joint research with their European counterparts on the advancement of atomic physics at the Cavendish Laboratory run by a British physicist, Ernest Rutherford, where Georgi Gamov and Pyotr Kapitsa had studied and researched.[14]:36
Influential research towards the advancement of nuclear physics was guided by Abram Ioffe, who was the director at the Leningrad Physical-Technical Institute (LPTI), having sponsored various research program at various technical schools in the Soviet Union.[14]:36 The discovery of the neutron by the British physicist James Chadwick further provided promising expansion of the LPTI's program, with the operation of the first cyclotron to energies of over 1 MeV, and the first "splitting" of the atomic nucleus by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton.[14]:36-37 Russian physicists began pushing the government, lobbying in the interest of the development of science in the Soviet Union, which had received little interest due to the upheavals created during the Russian revolution and the February Revolution.[14]:36-37 Earlier research was directed towards the medical and scientific exploration of radium, that could be retrieved from borehole water from the Ukhta oilfields.[14]:37
In 1939, German chemist Otto Hahn reported his discovery of fission, achieved by the splitting of uranium with neutrons that produced the much lighter element barium. This eventually led to the realization among Russian scientists, and their American counterparts, that such reaction could have military significance.:20[15] The discovery excited the Russian physicists, and they began conducting their independent investigations on nuclear fission, mainly aiming towards power generation, as many were skeptical of possibility of creating an atomic bomb anytime soon.:25[16] Early efforts were led by Yakov Frenkel (a physicist specialised on condensed matter), who did the first theoretical calculations on continuum mechanics directly relating the kinematics of binding energy in fission process in 1940.:99[15] Georgy Flyorov's and Lev Rusinov's collaborative work on thermal reactions concluded that 3-1 neutrons were emitted per fission only days after similar conclusions had been reached by the team of Frédéric Joliot-Curie.:63[15]:200[17]
World War II and accelerated feasibility[edit]
Main articles: Eastern Front (World War II) and Russo-German War
After a strong lobbying of Russian scientists, the Soviet government did initially set up a commission that was to address the "uranium problem" and investigate the possibility of chain reaction and Isotope separation.:33[18] The Uranium Problem Commission was ineffective due to the German invasion of Soviet Union that eventually limited the focus on research as Russia became engaged in a bloody conflict along the Eastern Front for next four years.:114-115[19]:200[20] The Soviet atomic weapons program had no significance and most work was unclassified as the papers were continuously published as public domain on academic journals.:33[18]
Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader, had mostly disregarded the atomic knowledge possessed by the Russian scientists and had most of the scientists working in the metallurgy and mining industry or serving in the Soviet Armed Forces technical branches during the World War II's eastern front in 1940–42.:xx[21]
In 1940–42, Georgy Flyorov, a Russian physicist serving as an officer in the Soviet Air Force, suspected that despite of the progress made in advancement of physics, the German, British, and American scientists, had ceased publishing papers on nuclear science.:230[22]
In April 1942, Flyorov directed two classified letters to Stalin, citing that lack of response he had himself encountered trying to generate interest in similar research, and warned Stalin of the consequences of the development of atomic weapons: "...the results will be so overriding [that] it won't be necessary to determine who is to blame for the fact that this work has been neglected in our country.":xxx[23] The second letter, by Flyorov and Konstantin Petrzhak, highly emphasized the making of a "uranium bomb": "it is [sic] essential to manufacture [sic] a uranium bomb without a delay.":230[22]
Upon reading the Flyorov letters, Stalin immediately pulled out the Russian physicists from their respective military services and authorized an atomic bomb project set-up under Anatoly Alexandrov, an engineering physicist, and Igor V. Kurchatov, a nuclear physicist.:230[22]:xx[21] For this purpose, the Laboratory No. 2 near Moscow was established under Kurchatov.:230[22] During the same time, Flyorov was moved to Dubna where he established the Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, which focused on researching synthetic elements and thermal reactions.:xx[21] In late 1942, the State Defense Committee officially delegated the program to the Soviet Army, with major war time logistical efforts later being supervised by Lavrentiy Beria, the head of NKVD.:115:114-115[19]
In 1945, the Arzamas 16 site near Moscow was established under Yakov Zel'dovich and Yuli Khariton who performed calculations on nuclear combustion theory, alongside Isaak Pomeranchuk.:117-118[24] Despite early and accelerated efforts, it was reported by historians that efforts on building a bomb using weapon-grade uranium seemed hopeless to Russian scientists.:117-118[24] Igor Kurchatov had harboured doubts working towards the uranium bomb, made progress on a bomb using weapon-grade plutonium after British data was provided by the NKVD.:117-118[24]
The situation dramatically changed when the Soviet Union learned of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, which eventually led to the unilateral surrender of Japan to the United States, ending the war in Asia.:2-5[25]
Immediately after the atomic bombing, the Soviet Politburo took control of the atomic bomb project by establishing a special committee to oversee the development of nuclear weapons as soon as possible.:2-5[25] On 9 April 1946, the Council of Ministers created the KB–11 Design Bureau that worked towards mapping the first nuclear weapon design, primarily based on American approach and detonated with weapon-grade plutonium.:2-5[25] From this point, the work on the program was carried out quickly, resulting in the first nuclear reactor near Moscow on 25 October 1946.:2-5[25]
Organization and administration[edit]
From 1941–46, the Soviet Union's Ministry of Foreign Affairs handled the logistics matters relating to the atomic bomb project with Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov controlling the direction of the program.:33[26] However, Molotov was seen as weak administrator, and the program stagnated through its completion.[27] Contrary to American military administration in their atomic bomb project, the Russians had their program's direction ran political dignitaries such as Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria, Georgii Malenkov, and Mikhail Pervukhin, there were no military members..[28]
After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the program's leadership changed when Stalin appointed Lavrentiy Beria on 22 August 1945.[27] Beria is noted for leadership that helped the program to its final implementation.[27]
Beria understood the necessary scope and dynamics of research. This man, who was the personification of evil modern Russian history, also possessed the great energy and capacity to work. The scientists who met him could not fail to recognize his intelligence, his will power, and his purposefullness. They found him first-class administrator who could carry a job through to completion...
— Yulii Khariton, The First War of Physics: The Secret History of the Atom Bomb, 1939-1949[27]
The new Committee, under Beria, had retained Georgii Malenkov while also including Nikolai Voznesensky and Boris Vannikov, People's Commissar for Armament.[27] Under the administration of Beria, the NKVD aided atomic spies of the Soviet Atomic Spy Ring and infiltrated the German nuclear program.[27]
Espionage[edit]
Soviet atomic ring[edit]
Main articles: Nuclear espionage and Atomic spies
The atomic and industrial espionages in the United States by American sympathisers of communism who were controlled by their rezident Russian officials in North America greatly aided the speed of the Soviet atomic project from 1942–54.:105-106[29]:287-305[30] Willingness of sharing classified information to Soviet Union by recruited American communist sympathizers increased when the Soviet Union faced possible defeat during the German invasion in World War II.:287-289[30] The Russian intelligence network in the United Kingdom also played a vital role in setting up the spy rings in the United States when the Russian State Defense Committee approved resolution 2352[clarification needed], in September of 1942.:105-106[29]
For this purpose, the spy Harry Gold, controlled by Semyon Semyonov, was used for a wide range of espionage that included industrial espionage in the American chemical industry and obtaining sensitive atomic information that were handed over to him by the British physicist Klaus Fuchs.:289-290[30] Knowledge and further technical information that were passed by the American Theodore Hall, a theoretical physicist, and Klaus Fuchs had a significant impact on the direction of Russian development of nuclear weapons.:105[29]
Leonid Kvasnikov, a Russian chemical engineer turned KGB officer, was assigned for this special purpose and moved to New York City to coordinate such activities.[31] Anatoli Yatzkov, another NKVD official in New York, was also involved in obtaining sensitive information gathered by Sergei Kournakov from Saville Sax.[31]
The existence of Russian spies were exposed by the U.S. Army's secretive Venona project in 1943.:54[32]
For example, Soviet work on methods of uranium isotope separation was altered when it was reported, to Kurchatov's surprise, that the Americans had opted for the Gaseous diffusion method. While research on other separation methods continued throughout the war years, the emphasis was placed on replicating U.S. success with gaseous diffusion. Another important breakthrough, attributed to intelligence, was the possibility of using plutonium instead of uranium in a fission weapon. Extraction of plutonium in the so-called "uranium pile" allowed bypassing of the difficult process of uranium separation altogether, something that Kurchatov had learned from intelligence from the Manhattan project.[citation needed]
Soviet intelligence management in Manhattan Project[edit]
Main articles: History of Soviet and Russian espionage in the United States and History of Soviet espionage
In 1945, the Soviet intelligence obtained rough blueprints of the first U.S. atomic device.[33][34] Alexei Kojevnikov has estimated, based on newly released Soviet documents, that the primary way in which the espionage may have sped up the Soviet project was that it allowed Khariton to avoid dangerous tests to determine the size of the critical mass: "tickling the dragon's tail," as it was called in the U.S., consumed a good deal of time and claimed at least two lives; see Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin.
The published Smyth Report of 1945 on the Manhattan Project was translated into Russian, and the translators noted that a sentence on the effect of "poisoning" of Plutonium-239 in the first (lithograph) edition had been deleted from the next (Princeton) edition by Groves. This change was noted by the Russian translators, and alerted the Soviet Union to the problem (which had meant that reactor-bred plutonium could not be used in a simple gun-type bomb like the proposed Thin Man).
One of the key pieces of information, which Soviet intelligence obtained from Fuchs, was a cross-section for D-T fusion. This data was available to top Soviet officials roughly three years before it was openly published in the Physical Review in 1949. However, this data was not forwarded to Vitaly Ginzburg or Andrei Sakharov until very late, practically months before publication.[citation needed] Initially both Ginzburg and Sakharov estimated such a cross-section to be similar to the D-D reaction. Once the actual cross-section become known to Ginzburg and Sakharov, the Sloika design become a priority, which resulted in a successful test in 1953.
In the 1990s, with the declassification of Soviet intelligence materials, which showed the extent and the type of the information obtained by the Soviets from US sources, a heated debate ensued in Russia and abroad as to the relative importance of espionage, as opposed to the Soviet scientists' own efforts, in the making of the Soviet bomb. The vast majority of scholars[Like whom?] agree that whereas the Soviet atomic project was first and foremost a product of local expertise and scientific talent, it is clear that espionage efforts contributed to the project in various ways and most certainly shortened the time needed to develop the atomic bomb.[citation needed]
Comparing the timelines of H-bomb development, some researchers came to the conclusion that the Soviets had a gap in access to classified information regarding the H-bomb at least between late 1950 and some time in 1953. Earlier, e.g., in 1948, Fuchs gave the Soviets a detailed update of the classical super progress[clarification needed], including an idea to use lithium, but did not explain it was specifically lithium-6. Teller accepted the fact that "classical super" scheme was infeasible by 1951, following results obtained by various researchers (including Stanislaw Ulam) and calculations performed by John von Neumann in late 1950.
Yet the research for the Soviet analogue of "classical super" continued until December 1953, when the researchers were reallocated to a new project working on what later became a true H-bomb design, based on radiation implosion. It remains an open topic for research, whether the Soviet intelligence was able to obtain any specific data on Teller-Ulam design in 1953 or early 1954. Yet, Soviet officials directed the scientists to work on a new scheme, and the entire process took less than two years, commencing around January 1954 and producing a successful test in November 1955. It also took just several months before the idea of radiation implosion was conceived, and there is no documented evidence claiming priority. It is also possible that Soviets were able to obtain a document lost by John Wheeler on a train in 1953, which reportedly contained key information about thermonuclear weapon design.
Initial thermonuclear bomb designs[edit]
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Early ideas of the fusion bomb came from espionage and internal Soviet studies. Though the espionage did help Soviet studies, the early American H-bomb concepts had substantial flaws, so it may have confused, rather than assisted, the Soviet effort for a nuclear bomb.[35] The designers of early thermonuclear bombs envisioned using an atomic bomb as a trigger to provide the needed heat and compression to initiate the thermonuclear reaction in a layer of liquid deuterium between the fissile material and the surrounding chemical high explosive.[36] The group would realize that a lack of sufficient heat and compression of the deuterium would result in an insignificant fusion of the deuterium fuel.[36]
Andrei Sakharov’s study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept which was adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika, or layered cake.[36] It was also known as the RDS-6S, or Second Idea Bomb.[37] This second bomb idea was not a fully evolved thermonuclear bomb in the contemporary sense, but a crucial step between pure fission bombs and the thermonuclear “supers.”[38] Due to the three-year lag in making the key breakthrough of radiation compression from the United States the Soviet Union’s development efforts followed a different course of action. In the United States they decided to skip the single-stage fusion bomb and make a two-stage fusion bomb as their main effort.[36][39] Unlike the Soviet Union, the analog RDS-7 advanced fission bomb was not further developed, and instead, the single-stage 400-kiloton RDS-6S was the Soviet’s bomb of choice.[36] The RDS-6S Layer Cake design was detonated on 12 August 1953, producing a yield of 400 kilotons, about ten times more powerful than any previous Soviet test. Around this time the United States detonated its first super using radiation compression on 1 November 1952, code-named Mike. Though the Mike was about twenty times greater than the RDS-6S it was not a design that was practical to use, unlike the RDS-6S.[36]
Following the successful launching of the RDS-6S Sakharov proposed an upgraded version called RDS-6SD.[36] This bomb was proved to be faulty, and it was neither built nor tested. The Soviet team had been working on the RDS-6T concept, but it also proved to be a dead end. In 1954, Sakharov worked on a third concept, a two-stage thermonuclear bomb.[36] The third idea used the radiation wave of a fission bomb, not simply heat and compression, to ignite the fusion reaction, and paralleled the discovery made by Ulam and Teller. Unlike the RDS-6S boosted bomb, which placed the fusion fuel inside the primary A-bomb trigger, the thermonuclear super placed the fusion fuel in a secondary structure a small distance from the A-bomb trigger, where it was compressed and ignited by the A-bomb’s x-ray radiation.[36] The KB-11 Scientific-Technical Council approved plans to proceed with the design on 24 December 1954. Technical specifications for the new bomb were completed on 3 February 1955, and it was designated the RDS-37.[36]
The RDS-37 was successfully tested on 22 November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 megaton. The yield was almost a hundred times greater than the first Soviet atomic bomb six years before, showing that the Soviet Union could compete with the United States.[36][40]
Logistical problems[edit]
The single largest problem during the early Soviet project was the procurement of uranium ore, as the USSR had no known domestic sources at the beginning of the project. The Soviet F-1 reactor, which began operation in December 1946, was fueled using uranium confiscated from the remains of the German atomic bomb project. This uranium had been mined in the Belgian Congo, and the ore in Belgium fell into the hands of the Germans after their invasion and occupation of Belgium in 1940 (although Edgar Sengier sold the rich Shinkolobwe ore from the Congo, some of which was held in America, to America). Further sources of uranium in the early years of the program were mines in East Germany (SAG Wismut), Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania (near Stei) and Poland. Boris Pregel sold 0.23 tonnes of uranium oxide to the Soviet Union during the war, with the authorisation of the U.S. Government.[41][42][43]
Eventually large domestic sources were discovered in the Soviet Union (including those now in Kazakhstan).
The uranium for the Soviet nuclear weapons program came from mine production in the following countries,[44]
Year
USSR
Germany
Czechoslovakia
Bulgaria
Poland
1945 14.6 t
1946 50.0 t 15 t 18 t 26.6 t
1947 129.3 t 150 t 49.1 t 7.6 t 2.3 t
1948 182.5 t 321.2 t 103.2 t 18.2 t 9.3 t
1949 278.6 t 767.8 t 147.3 t 30.3 t 43.3 t
1950 416.9 t 1,224 t 281.4 t 70.9 t 63.6 t
Important Soviet nuclear tests[edit]
See also: List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union
RDS-1[edit]
RDS-1, the first Soviet atomic test was internally code-named First Lightning (Первая молния, or Pervaya Molniya) August 29, 1949, and was code-named by the Americans as Joe 1. The design was very similar to the first US "Fat Man" plutonium bomb, using a TNT/hexogen implosion lens design.
RDS-2[edit]
On September 24, 1951, the 38.3 kiloton device RDS-2 was tested based on a tritium "boosted" uranium implosion device with a levitated core.[45] This test was code named Joe 2 by the CIA.
RDS-3[edit]
The mushroom cloud from the first air-dropped bomb test in 1951. This picture is confused with RDS-27 and RDS-37 tests.
RDS-3 was the third Soviet atomic bomb. On October 18, 1951, the 41.2 kiloton device was detonated - a boosted weapon using a composite construction of levitated plutonium core and a uranium-235 shell. Code named Joe 3 in the USA, this was the first Soviet air-dropped bomb test. Released at an altitude of 10 km, it detonated 400 meters above the ground.
RDS-4[edit]
RDS-4 represented a branch of research on small tactical weapons. It was a boosted fission device using plutonium in a "levitated" core design. The first test was an air drop on August 23, 1953, yielding 28 kilotons. In 1954, the bomb was also used during Snowball exercise in Totskoye, dropped by Tu-4 bomber on the simulated battlefield, in the presence of 40,000 infantry, tanks, and jet fighters. The RDS-4 comprised the warhead of the R-5M, the first medium-range ballistic missile in the world, which was tested with a live warhead for the first and only time on February 5, 1956
RDS-5[edit]
RDS-5 was a similar levitated core design as RDS-4, but with a composite plutonium core and uranium 235 shells.
RDS-6[edit]
RDS-6, the first Soviet test of a hydrogen bomb, took place on August 12, 1953, and was nicknamed Joe 4 by the Americans. It used a layer-cake design of fission and fusion fuels (uranium 235 and lithium-6 deuteride) and produced a yield of 400 kilotons. This yield was about ten times more powerful than any previous Soviet test.[36] When developing higher level bombs the Soviets proceeded with the RDS-6 as their main effort instead of the analog RDS-7 advanced fission bomb. This led to the third idea bomb which is the RDS-37.[36]
RDS-9[edit]
A much lower-power version of the RDS-4 with a 3-10 kiloton yield, the RDS-9 was developed for the T-5 nuclear torpedo. A 3.5 kiloton underwater test was performed with the torpedo on September 21, 1955.
RDS-37[edit]
The first Soviet test of a "true" hydrogen bomb in the megaton range was conducted on November 22, 1955. It was dubbed RDS-37 by the Soviets. It was of the multi-staged, radiation implosion thermonuclear design called Sakharov's "Third Idea" in the USSR and the Teller-Ulam design in the USA.[46]
Joe 1, Joe 4, and RDS-37 were all tested at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan.
Tsar Bomba (RDS-220)[edit]
The Tsar Bomba (Царь-бомба) was the largest, most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. It was a three-stage hydrogen bomb with a yield of about 50 megatons.[47] This is equivalent to ten times the amount of all the explosives used in World War II combined.[48] It was detonated on October 30, 1961, in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, and was capable of approximately 100 megatons, but was purposely reduced shortly before the launch. Although weaponized, it was not entered into service; it was simply a demonstrative testing of the capabilities of the Soviet Union's military technology at that time. The heat of the explosion was estimated to potentially inflict third degree burns at 100 km distance of clear air.[49]
Chagan[edit]
Chagan was a shot in the Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy or Project 7, the Soviet equivalent of the US Operation Plowshare to investigate peaceful uses of nuclear weapons. It was a subsurface detonation. It was fired on January 15, 1965. The site was a dry bed of the Chagan River at the edge of the Semipalatinsk Test Site, and was chosen such that the lip of the crater would dam the river during its high spring flow. The resultant crater had a diameter of 408 meters and was 100 meters deep. A major lake (10,000 m3) soon formed behind the 20–35 m high upraised lip, known as Chagan Lake or Balapan Lake.[citation needed]
The photo is sometimes confused with RDS-1 in literature.
Secret cities[edit]
Main article: Atomgrads
During the Cold War the Soviet Union created at least nine closed cities, known as Atomgrads[citation needed], in which nuclear weapons-related research and development took place. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, all of the cities changed their names (most of the original code-names were simply the oblast and a number). All are still legally "closed", though some have parts of them accessible to foreign visitors with special permits (Sarov, Snezhinsk, and Zheleznogorsk).
Cold War name
Current name
Established
Primary function(s)
Arzamas-16 Sarov 1946 Weapons design and research, warhead assembly
Sverdlovsk-44 Novouralsk 1946 Uranium enrichment
Chelyabinsk-40 and later 65 Ozyorsk 1947 Plutonium production, component manufacturing
Sverdlovsk-45 Lesnoy 1947 Uranium enrichment, warhead assembly
Tomsk-7 Seversk 1949 Uranium enrichment, component manufacturing
Krasnoyarsk-26 Zheleznogorsk 1950 Plutonium production
Zlatoust-36 Tryokhgorny 1952 Warhead assembly
Penza-19 Zarechny 1955 Warhead assembly
Krasnoyarsk-45 Zelenogorsk 1956 Uranium enrichment
Chelyabinsk-70 Snezhinsk 1957 Weapons design and research
Environmental and public health effects[edit]
The Soviets started experimenting with nuclear technology in 1943, and first tested a nuclear weapon in August 1949. Many of the fission based devices left behind radioactive isotopes which have contaminated air, water and soil in the areas immediately surrounding, downwind and downstream of the blast site. According to the records that the Russian government released in 1991, the Soviet Union tested 969 nuclear devices between 1949 and 1990.[50]:1 Soviet scientists conducted the tests with little regard for environmental and public health consequences. The detrimental effects that the toxic waste generated by weapons testing and processing of radioactive materials are still felt to this day. Even decades later, the risk of developing various types of cancer, especially that of the thyroid and the lungs, continues to be elevated far above national averages for people in affected areas.[51]:1385 Iodine-131, a radioactive isotope that is a major byproduct of fission-based weapons, is retained in the thyroid gland, and so poisoning of this kind is commonplace in impacted populations.[51]:1386
The Soviets set off 214 nuclear bombs in the open air between 1949 and 1962, when the United Nations banned atmospheric tests worldwide.[50]:6 The billions of radioactive particles released into the air exposed countless people to extremely mutagenic and carcinogenic materials, resulting in a myriad of deleterious genetic maladies and deformities. The majority of these tests took place at the Semipalatinsk Test Site, or STS, located in northeast Kazakhstan.[50]:61 The testing at STS alone exposed hundreds of thousands of Kazakh citizens to the harmful effects, and the site continues to be one of the most highly irradiated places on the planet.[52]:A167 When the earliest tests were being conducted, even the scientists had only a poor understanding of the medium- and long-term effects of radiation exposure. In fact, the STS was chosen as the primary site for open-air testing precisely because the Soviets were curious about the potential for lasting harm that their weapons held.[51]:1389
Contamination of air and soil due to atmospheric testing is only part of a wider issue. Water contamination due to improper disposal of spent uranium and decay of sunken nuclear-powered submarines is a major problem in the Kola Peninsula in northwest Russia. Although the Russian government states that the radioactive power cores are stable, various scientists have come forth with serious concerns about the 32,000 spent nuclear fuel elements that remain in the sunken vessels.[52]:A166 There have been no major incidents other than the explosion and sinking of a nuclear-powered submarine in August 2000, but many international scientists are still uneasy at the prospect of the hulls eroding, releasing uranium into the sea and causing considerable contamination.[52]:A166 Although the submarines pose an environmental risk, they have yet to cause serious harm to public health. However, water contamination in the area of the Mayak test site, especially at Lake Karachay, is extreme, and has gotten to the point where radioactive byproducts have found their way into drinking water supplies. It has been an area of concern since the early 1950s, when the Soviets began disposing of tens of millions of cubic meters of radioactive waste by pumping it into the small lake.[52]:A165 Half a century later, in the 1990s, there are still hundreds of millions of curies of waste in the Lake, and at points contamination has been so severe that a mere half-hour of exposure to certain regions would deliver a dose of radiation sufficient to kill 50% of humans.[52]:A165 Although the area immediately surrounding the lake is devoid of population, the lake has the potential to dry up in times of drought. Most significantly, in 1967, it dried up and winds carried radioactive dust over thousands of square kilometers, exposing at least 500,000 citizens to a range of health risks.[52]:A165 To control dust, Soviet scientists piled concrete on top of the lake. Although this was effective in helping mediate the amount of dust, the weight of the concrete pushed radioactive materials into closer contact with standing underground groundwater.[52]:A166 It is difficult to gauge the overall health and environmental effects of the water contamination at Lake Karachay because figures on civilian exposure are unavailable, making it hard to show causation between elevated cancer rates and radioactive pollution specifically from the lake.
Contemporary efforts to manage radioactive contamination in the Soviet Union are few and far between. Public awareness of the past and present dangers, as well as the Russian government's investment in current cleanup efforts, are likely dampened by the lack of media attention STS and other sites have gotten in comparison to isolated nuclear incidents such as Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Chernobyl and Three-Mile Island.[53] The domestic government's investment in cleanup measures seems to be driven by economic concerns rather than care for public health. The most significant political legislation in this area is a bill agreeing to turn the already contaminated former weapons complex Mayak into an international radioactive waste dump, accepting cash from other countries in exchange for taking their radioactive byproducts of nuclear industry.[52]:A167 Although the bill stipulates that the revenue go towards decontaminating other test sites such as Semipalatinsk and the Kona Peninsula, experts doubt whether this will actually happen given the current political and economic climate in Russia.[52]:A168
See also[edit]
Andrei Sakharov
Igor Kurchatov
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
Arzamas-16
Chelyabinsk-70
History of nuclear weapons
History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)
Manhattan Project
Military history of the Soviet Union
Nuclear warfare
Nuclear weapon
Tsar Bomba
Semipalatinsk Test Site
Yuli Khariton
Yakov Zeldovich
Pavel Sudoplatov
Klaus Fuchs
Theodore Hall
Russian Alsos
Project-706
Environmental racism in Europe
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c Sublette, Carey. "The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program". nuclearweaponarchive.org. nuclearweaponarchive, part I. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Swift, John. "The Soviet-American Arms Race". www.historytoday.com. History Today. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ http://engine.aviaport.ru/issues/63/page58.html
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Jump up ^ http://www.kipt.kharkov.ua/ru/bhr.html
Jump up ^ http://www.ilt.kharkov.ua/bvi/general/phys_k_r.html
Jump up ^ https://day.kyiv.ua/ru/article/panorama-dnya/harkov-1940-atomnaya-prelyudiya
Jump up ^ Holloway, [by] David (1994). Stalin and the bomb : the Soviet Union and atomic energy (1 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 421. ISBN 0300066643. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ US DOE. "Manhattan Project: Espionage and the Manhattan Project, 1940-1945". www.osti.gov. US DOE. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Strickland, Jeffrey (2011). Weird Scientists: the Creators of Quantum Physics. New York: Lulu.com. p. 549. ISBN 9781257976249. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Schmid, Sonja D. (2015). "Dual Origins". Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (googlebooks) (1 ed.). [S.l.]: MIT Press. p. 315. ISBN 9780262028271. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Lente, Dick van (2012). "A Conspicuous Silence". The Nuclear Age in Popular Media: A Transnational History, 1945–1965 (googlebooks). New York: Springer. p. 270. ISBN 9781137086181. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Johnson, Paul R. (1987). Early years of Soviet nuclear physics (2 ed.). U.S.: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. p. 60. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Richelson, Jeffrey (2007). "A Terrifying Prospect". Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (googlebooks). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 600. ISBN 9780393329827. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Burns, Richard Dean; Siracusa, Joseph M. (2013). "Soviet scientists began Quest". A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics [2 volumes]: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics (googlebooks). ABC-CLIO. p. 641. ISBN 9781440800955. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Ponomarev, L. I.; Kurchatov, I. V. (1993). "Quantumalia". The Quantum Dice (googlebooks). Bristol: CRC Press. p. 250. ISBN 9780750302517. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Kelly, Peter (8 May 1986). "How the USSR Broke in the Nuclear Club" (googlebooks). New Scientist. Reed Business Information (1507). Retrieved 12 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Allen, Thomas B.; Polmar, Norman (2012). "Atomic Bomb: Soviet Union". World War II : the encyclopedia of the war years 1941-1945 (googlebooks) (Dover ed. ed.). Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. p. 941. ISBN 9780486479620. Retrieved 14 June 2017. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Higham, R. (2010). "The Stalin Years: 194653". The Military History of the Soviet Union (googlebooks). Springer. p. 400. ISBN 9780230108219. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kean, Sam (2010). The disappearing spoon and other true tales of madness, love, and the history of the world from the periodic table of the elements (googlebooks) (Sony eReader ed. ed.). New York: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 9780316089081. Retrieved 13 June 2017. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d West, Nigel; Tsarev, Oleg (1999). "Atom Secrets". The Crown Jewels: The British Secrets at the Heart of the KGB Archives (googlebooks). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300078064. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, William H.; Sasser, Charles W. (2016). Night Fighter: An Insider's Story of Special Ops from Korea to SEAL Team 6. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781628726831. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005). "I.V. Kurchatov". Science in the early twentieth century : an encyclopedia (googlebooks). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 400. ISBN 9781851096657. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bukharin, Oleg; Hippel, Frank Von (2004). "Making the First Nuclear Weapons". Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces (googlebooks). MIT Press. p. 695. ISBN 9780262661812. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Burns, Richard Dean; Coyle III, Philip E. (2015). "Seeking to Prevent Nuclear Proliferation". The Challenges of Nuclear Non-Proliferation (googlebooks) (1 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 237. ISBN 9781442223769. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Baggott, Jim (2011). The First War of Physics: The Secret History of the Atom Bomb, 1939-1949. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781605987699. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Baggott, Jim (2011). The First War of Physics: The Secret History of the Atom Bomb, 1939-1949. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781605987699. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schwartz, Michael I. (1996). "The Russian-A(merican) Bomb: The Role of Espionage in the Soviet Atomic Bomb Project" (PDF). J. Undgrad.Sci. Harvard University: Harvard University press. 3: 108. Retrieved 20 June 2017. There was no “Russian” atomic bomb. There only was an American one, masterfully discovered by Soviet spies.”
^ Jump up to: a b c Haynes, John Earl (2000). "Industrial and Atomic Espionage". Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (googlebooks). Yale University, TX: Yale University Press. p. 400. ISBN 0300129874. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Romerstein, Herbert; Breindel, Eric (2000). The Venona secrets exposing Soviet espionage and America's traitors. Washington, DC: Regnery Pub. ISBN 9781596987326. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Powers, Daniel Patrcik Moynihan (1999). Gid, Richard, ed. Secrecy : the American experience. (New preface. ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300080794.
Jump up ^ http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~jus/0302/schwartz.pdf
Jump up ^ The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union by Martin Mccauley
Jump up ^ Goncharov. Beginnings of the Soviet H-Bomb Program.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Zaloga, Steve (17 February 2002). The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces. Smithsonian Books. pp. 32–35.
Jump up ^ The American counterpart to this idea was Edward Teller's Alarm Clock design of August 1946. In August 1990 the Soviet science journal Priroda published a special issue devoted to Andrei Sakharov, which contained more detailed notes on the early fusion bomb than Sakharov's own memoirs, especially the articles by V.E. Ritus and Yu A. Romanov
Jump up ^ Goncharov. Beginnings. pp. 50–54.
Jump up ^ The Super Oralloy bomb was developed in Los Alamos and tested on 15 November 1952
Jump up ^ Details of Soviet weapons designs after 1956-57 are generally lacking. A certain amount can be inferred from data about missile warheads, and in recent histories, the two nuclear-warhead development bureaus have begun to cautiously reveal which weapons they designed.
Jump up ^ "Time Magazine" March 13, 1950
Jump up ^ Zoellner, Tom (2009). Uranium. London: Penguin Books. p. 45,55,151-158. ISBN 9780143116721.
Jump up ^ Williams, Susan (2016). Spies in the Congo. New York: Public Affairs. pp. 186–187,217,233. ISBN 9781610396547.
Jump up ^ Chronik der Wismut, Wismut GmbH 1999
Jump up ^ Andryushin et al, "Taming the Nucleus"
Jump up ^ "RDS-37 nuclear test, 1955". johnstonsarchive.net. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Jump up ^ The yield of the test has been estimated between 50 and 57.23 megatons by different sources over time. Today all Russian sources use 50 megatons as the official figure. See the section "Was it 50 Megatons or 57?" at "The Tsar Bomba ("King of Bombs")". Retrieved 11 May 2006.
Jump up ^ DeGroot, Gerard J. The Bomb: A Life. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 254.
Jump up ^ "The Soviet Weapons Program — The Tsar Bomba". NuclearWeaponArchive.org. The Nuclear Weapon Archive. 3 September 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Norris, Robert S., and Thomas B. Cochran. "Nuclear Weapons Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions by the Soviet Union: August 29, 1949 to October 24, 1990." Natural Resource Defense Council. Web. 19 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Goldman, Marvin. “The Russian Radiation Legacy: Its Integrated Impact and Lessons.” Environmental Health Perspectives 105.6 (1997): 1385-91. JSTOR. Web. 22 Apr. 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Clay, Rebecca. "Cold War Hot Nukes: Legacy of an Era." Environmental Health Perspectives 109.4 (2001): A162-169. JSTOR. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Jerome (10 Sep 2009), "The World's Worst Radiation Hotspot", The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media .
Bibliography[edit]
Holloway, David (1994), Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-06056-4 .
Kojevnikov, Alexei (2004), Stalin's Great Science: The Times and Adventures of Soviet Physicists, Imperial College Press, ISBN 1-86094-420-5 .
Rhodes, Richard (1995), Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-80400-X .
External links[edit]
Collection of Archival Documents on the Soviet Nuclear Program, Wilson Center Digital Archive
Ilkaev, RI (2013), "Major stages of the Atomic Project", Phys. Usp., 56 (5): 502–509, Bibcode:2013PhyU...56..502I, doi:10.3367/UFNe.0183.201305h.0528 ,
Video archive of Soviet Nuclear Testing at sonicbomb.com
Kurchatov institute (official website)
Citizen Kurchatov, PBS .
Soviet and Nuclear Weapons History
German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project
Russian Nuclear Weapons Museum (in English)
Images of Soviet bombs (in Russian) — RDS-1, RDS-6, Tsar Bomba, and an ICBM warhead
Cold War: A Brief History
Annotated bibliography on the Russian nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library
On the Soviet Nuclear Scent- CIA Library
[hide]
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Soviet atomic bomb project
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Semipalatinsk
Novaya Zemlya
Semey
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See also: Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
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