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Miracle on Ice
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Miracle on Ice
1
2
3
Total
Soviet Union 2 1 0 3
United States 2 0 2 4
Date
February 22, 1980
Arena
Olympic Center
City
Lake Placid, New York, U.S.
Attendance
8,500
The Herb Brooks Arena in the Olympic Center at Lake Placid, New York hosted the match
The "Miracle on Ice" refers to a medal-round game during the men's ice hockey tournament at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, played between the hosting United States, and the defending gold medalists, the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team—led by head coach Herb Brooks—consisted exclusively of amateur players, and was the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history. In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were undefeated; the U.S. achieved several notable results, including a 2–2 draw against Sweden, and a 7–3 upset victory over second-place favorites Czechoslovakia.
For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2–2, and the Soviets leading 3–2 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead during the third and final period, winning the game 4–3 in a major upset against the Cold War rival. Following the game, the U.S. went on to clinch the gold medal by beating Finland in their final match of the tournament. Likewise, the Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden.
The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he famously declared in the final seconds, "Do you believe in miracles?! YES!" In 1999, Sports Illustrated named the "Miracle on Ice" the top sports moment of the 20th century.[1] As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the "Miracle on Ice" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 The Soviet and American teams
1.2 Exhibitions
1.3 Olympic group play
1.4 Preparing for the medal round
2 Game summary
2.1 First period
2.2 Second period
2.3 Third period
3 American aftermath
3.1 Gold medal
3.2 After 1980 Winter Olympics
3.3 Later careers
4 Soviet aftermath
4.1 Silver medal
4.2 After 1980 Winter Olympics
4.3 NHL careers
5 Notable rematches
6 Film, television and music
7 Team rosters
7.1 United States
7.2 Soviet Union
8 Box score
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
The Soviet and American teams[edit]
The Soviet team's Vladislav Tretiak (pictured here in 2008) was considered the best goaltender in ice hockey in 1980. The Americans scored two goals against him before he was pulled from the game at the end of the first period.
The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won the previous four ice hockey gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze medal finish with two losses and one tie at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27–1–1 (wins-losses-ties) and outscored their opponents 175–44.[3] In head-to-head match-ups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28–7.[4]
Until 1977, professional players were not able to participate in the World Championship, and it was not until 1988 that they could play in the Winter Olympics. The Soviet team was populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society hockey team for their workers.[5][6] Soviet Championship League was on par with the National Hockey League at the time.[7] Soviets were led by legendary players in world ice hockey, such as Boris Mikhailov (a top line right winger and team captain), Vladislav Tretiak (the consensus best goaltender in the world at the time), the speedy and skilled Valeri Kharlamov, as well as talented, young, and dynamic players such as defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov and forwards Vladimir Krutov and Sergei Makarov. From that team, Tretiak, Kharlamov, Makarov, and Fetisov would eventually be enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Many of the Soviet players had gained attention in the Summit Series eight years before and, in contrast to the American players, were de facto seasoned professionals with long histories of international play.[8]
U.S. head coach Herb Brooks had tryouts in Colorado Springs in the summer of 1979. Of the 20 players who eventually made the final Olympic roster, Buzz Schneider was the only one returning from the 1976 Olympic team.[9] Nine players had played under Brooks at the University of Minnesota, which included Rob McClanahan, Mike Ramsey, and Phil Verchota; while four more were from Boston University: Dave Silk, Jack O'Callahan, goalie Jim Craig, and team captain Mike Eruzione.[10] Boston University and Minnesota were perennial rivals in college hockey and the hostility carried over from some of the players on the Olympic team for the first few months. But part of Brooks' selection process was a 300-question psychological test that would give him insight on how every player would react under stress. Anyone who refused to take the test would be flunked. Brooks had to select from 68 players who started the tryout.[11]
The average age of the U.S. team was 21 years old, making it the youngest team in U.S. team history to play in the Olympics. It would be the youngest team in the Olympic tournament. But Brooks had selected carefully and knew the limits of every player. As forward John Harrington said, "He knew exactly where to quit. He'd push you right to the limit where you were ready to say, 'I've had it, I'm throwing it in'—and then he'd back off." Brooks continued the organization by campaigning for the players' selection of Eruzione as the captain, and Craig had been the goalie for him in the 1979 World Championship tournament.[11] Assistant coach Craig Patrick had played with Brooks on the 1967 U.S. national team.[12]
The Soviet and American teams were natural rivals due to the decades-old Cold War. In addition, President Jimmy Carter was at the time considering a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, to be held in Moscow, in protest of the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On February 9, the same day the American and Soviet teams met in an exhibition game in New York City, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance denounced the impending Moscow games at a meeting of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).[13] President Carter eventually decided in favor of the boycott.
Exhibitions[edit]
Mark Johnson's goal in the last second of the first period tied the game
In exhibitions that year, Soviet club teams went 5–3–1 against National Hockey League (NHL) teams, and a year earlier, the Soviet national team had routed the NHL All-Stars 6–0 to win the Challenge Cup.[14] In 1979–80, virtually all the top North American players were Canadians, although the number of U.S.-born professional players had been on the rise throughout the 1970s. The 1980 U.S. Olympic team featured several young players who were regarded as highly promising, and some had signed contracts to play in the NHL immediately after the tournament.
In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and America.[15] Through these games, Herb Brooks instilled a European style of play in the American team, emphasizing wide open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets.[16] From the start of the exhibitions, he conducted the team through skating windsprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these Herbies.[11] On September 17, 1979, the team played to a 3-3 tie in Norway.[17] Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game, and after a while, the lights were turned off by custodians and the practice continued in the dark. Near the end of the exhibition season, although he had supported them throughout, Brooks threatened because of subpar play to cut Eruzione (the captain) and replace Craig as the starting goalie with Steve Janaszak.[11]
In the last exhibition game against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on February 9, 1980, the Soviets crushed the Americans 10–3.[18] Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory "turned out to be a very big problem" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team.[19] The game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster which meant virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan would eventually return for the game against the Soviets playing limited minutes.
Olympic group play[edit]
In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2–2 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Had Team USA not scored this goal and all other results remained the same, the Soviet Union would have emerged with the gold medal on goal differential over the U.S. in the medal round. Then came a stunning 7–3 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5–1, Romania 7–2, and West Germany 4–2 to go 4–0–1 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with Sweden.
In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16–0, the Netherlands 17–4, Poland 8–1, Finland 4–2, and Canada 6–4 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group.[20]
Preparing for the medal round[edit]
The U.S. and Soviet teams prepared for the medal round in different ways. Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov rested most of his best players, preferring to let them study plays rather than actually skate. U.S. coach Herb Brooks, however, continued with his tough, confrontational style, skating hard practices and berating his players for perceived weaknesses and to build stamina. Brooks' goal was to have his team be able to keep up with the Soviets through all three periods.[citation needed]
The day before the match, columnist Dave Anderson wrote in The New York Times, "Unless the ice melts, or unless the United States team or another team performs a miracle, as did the American squad in 1960, the Russians are expected to easily win the Olympic gold medal for the sixth time in the last seven tournaments."[21]
Game summary[edit]
Prior to the game, ABC requested that it be rescheduled from 5:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, so that it could be broadcast live in primetime hours. However, the request was declined by the IIHF, after the Soviets complained that it would cause the game to air at 4 a.m. Moscow Time, as opposed to 1 a.m. Moscow Time. As a result, ABC decided not to broadcast the game live for the U.S. audience, and tape delayed it for broadcast during its primetime block of Olympics coverage instead.[22] Before the game aired, ABC's Olympics host Jim McKay openly stated that the game had already occurred, but that they had promised not to spoil its results. In order to accommodate coverage of the men's slalom competition, portions of the game were also edited for time.[23] To this day some of the people that watched the game on television still believe that it was live.[24]
With a capacity of 8,500, the Field House was packed.[25] The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as "God Bless America".[14] Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that "You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours."[26] Brooks believed they could win and later said, "The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again....' But I believed it."[11]
First period[edit]
As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1–0 lead, and after Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left boards at 14:03 to tie the game,[11] the Soviets struck again with a Sergei Makarov goal with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2–1, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal (the Soviet team had 39 shots on goal in the game, the Americans 16).
In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from 100 feet (30 m) away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some 20 feet (6.1 m) in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. This would be an important judgment call by the officials, as an official announcement confirming the goal did not come until many Soviet players were off the ice and heading to the locker room for intermission.[27] The first period ended with the game tied 2–2.[28]
Second period[edit]
Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's tying goal,[29] a move which shocked players on both teams.[14] Tikhonov later identified this as the "turning point of the game",[30] and called it "the biggest mistake of my career".[31] Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with "Coach crazy".[32] Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12–2, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led 3–2.
Third period[edit]
Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27 minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson.[33] Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3.[34] Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin.[35] This goal gave Team USA a 4–3 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play.
The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post.[36] As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, "Play your game. Play your game."[37] Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal.[38] The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that "we were panicking". As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide.[39] The Soviets never pulled Myshkin for an extra attacker, much to the Americans' disbelief. Starikov later explained that "We never did six-on-five", not even in practice, because "Tikhonov just didn't believe in it".[40] Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33 seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20 seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow.[40] As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:[41]
11 seconds, you've got 10 seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? YES!
The March 3, 1980 cover of Sports Illustrated ran without any accompanying captions or headlines.
As his team ran all over the ice in celebration, Herb Brooks sprinted back to the locker room and cried.[42] In the locker room afterwards, players spontaneously broke into a chorus of "God Bless America" [43] and received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter.[44]
During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty).
American aftermath[edit]
Gold medal[edit]
Jim Craig's gear from 1980, at the Hockey Hall of Fame
The United States did not immediately win the gold medal upon defeating the USSR. In 1980, the medal round was a round-robin, not a single elimination format as it is today. Under Olympic rules at the time, the group game with Sweden was counted along with the medal round games versus the Soviet Union and Finland so it was mathematically possible for the United States to finish anywhere from first to fourth.[45]
Needing to win to secure the gold medal, Team USA came back from a 2–1 third period deficit to defeat Finland 4–2.[20] According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room in the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them and said, "If you lose this game, you'll take it to your fucking graves. He then walked towards the locker room door, paused and looked over his shoulder and said to us again "Your fucking graves"."
At the time, the players ascended a podium to receive their medals and then lined up on the ice for the playing of the national anthem, as the podium was only meant to accommodate one person. Only the team captains remained on the podium for the duration. After the completion of the anthem, Eruzione motioned for his teammates to join him on the podium.[46] Today, podiums are not used for ice hockey; the teams line up on their respective bluelines after the final game.
The cover of the March 3, 1980, issue of Sports Illustrated was a photograph by Heinz Kluetmeier of the American players celebrating and waving an American flag; it did not feature any explanatory captions or headlines, because, as Kluetmeier put it, "It didn't need it. Everyone in America knew what happened".[47] The U.S. team also received the magazine's "Sportsmen of the Year" award,[11] as well as being named as Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press and ABC's Wide World of Sports. In 2004, ESPN, as part of its 25th anniversary, declared the Miracle on Ice to be the top sports headline moment, and game of the period 1979–2004. The victory was voted the greatest sports moment of the 20th century by Sports Illustrated.[48]
The U.S. team had the honor of lighting the Olympic cauldron at the 2002 Winter Olympics.
After 1980 Winter Olympics[edit]
At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4–1 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8–4.
Later careers[edit]
Of the 20 players on Team USA, 13 eventually played in the NHL.[49] Five of them went on to play over 500 NHL games, and three would play over 1,000 NHL games.
Neal Broten played one more season for the Golden Gophers before moving on to the NHL, and appeared in 1,099 NHL games over 17 seasons, with 992 of them being with the Minnesota North Stars/Dallas Stars franchise. He captained the Stars before being traded midway through the 1994–95 season to the New Jersey Devils. A two-time All-Star, he tallied 923 career points (289 goals, 634 assists), became the first American player to record 100 points in a season, and won a Stanley Cup as a member of the Devils in 1995.[50] Broten had already won the NCAA championship in 1979 at the University of Minnesota; this, combined with the Olympic gold medal in 1980 and the 1995 Cup win (Broten scored the Cup-winning goal in Game 4 as Viacheslav Fetisov, playing for the Red Wings, fell down), made him the first player in the history of the sport to win a championship at the collegiate, professional, and Olympic levels. The Dallas Stars have since retired number 7 for Broten.
Ken Morrow won the Stanley Cup in 1980 as a member of the New York Islanders, becoming the first hockey player to win an Olympic gold medal and the Cup in the same year.[51] He went on to play 550 NHL games and win three more Cups, all with the Islanders.[52] Morrow later worked for the Islanders as Director of Pro Scouting.[53]
Mike Ramsey played in 1,070 games over 18 years. Fourteen of those years were spent with the Buffalo Sabres, with whom he played 911 games and was a five-time All-Star, captaining the team from 1990 to 1992. In 1995, he played in the Stanley Cup Finals while with the Detroit Red Wings, but got swept by Neal Broten and the New Jersey Devils. In 2000, Ramsey became an assistant coach for the Minnesota Wild.[54]
Dave Christian spent 14 years in the NHL, the bulk of them for the original Winnipeg Jets (for whom he served as team captain) and Washington Capitals.[55] In 1990, Christian played in the Stanley Cup Finals while on the Boston Bruins, but lost in five games to the Edmonton Oilers. He ended his career with 783 points (340 goals, 443 assists) in 1,009 games and made the All-Star team in 1991.[56]
Mark Johnson played for several teams in the NHL before finding a home in New Jersey, tallying 508 career points (203 goals, 305 assists) in 669 games over 11 seasons.[57] Like Christian, Ramsey, and Broten, he became an NHL All-Star (in 1984) and served as team captain with the Hartford Whalers. In 2002 Johnson became the coach of the University of Wisconsin–Madison women's team, leading the Badgers to National Championships in 2006, 2007 (won in the same Lake Placid arena), 2009 and 2011. Johnson also served as head coach of the women's ice hockey team that won the silver medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Jack O'Callahan played 390 NHL regular season games between 1982 and 1989 for the Chicago Blackhawks and New Jersey Devils.
Mark Pavelich played 355 NHL regular season games in the NHL for the New York Rangers, Minnesota North Stars and San Jose Sharks between 1981 and 1992.
Dave Silk played 249 NHL regular season games for the Boston Bruins, Winnipeg Jets, Detroit Red Wings and New York Rangers between 1980 and 1985.
The Miracle on Ice launched the professional careers of several players, and made broadcaster Al Michaels famous.
Jim Craig appeared in 30 NHL games for the Atlanta Flames, Boston Bruins and Minnesota North Stars between 1980 and 1984.[58]
Team captain Mike Eruzione did not play any high-level ice hockey after the 1980 Olympics, as he felt that he had accomplished all of his hockey goals with the gold medal win.[59] He did work as a hockey television analyst in the 1980s and 1990s.
Craig Patrick, Brooks' assistant coach and assistant general manager, went on to both manage and coach the New York Rangers and Pittsburgh Penguins of the NHL. As a result of his success with the Penguins, who won two Stanley Cups while Patrick was the GM, he was enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2002. During that same year, he also served as GM to the Brooks-coached 2002 US Hockey team that won the silver medal at the Salt Lake City games.
Herb Brooks, the team coach, coached several NHL teams following the Olympics, with mixed results. He returned to the Olympics as coach of the French team in 1998, the first Olympics in which NHL professionals competed. Brooks then led Team USA to the silver medal in 2002, which included a 2–2 round robin draw and a 3–2 semi-final victory over Russia (the successor to the Soviet Union), the semi-final match coming 22 years to the day after the "Miracle on Ice" game.[60] Brooks died in a car crash near Forest Lake, Minnesota on August 11, 2003 at the age of 66.[61] In 2005, the Olympic Center ice arena in Lake Placid where the Miracle on Ice took place was renamed in his honor.
Al Michaels got the job as play-by-play man for ice hockey at Lake Placid because he was the only member of ABC's announcing team who had previously called the sport (at the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Japan).[62] Michaels was named "Sportscaster of the Year" in 1980 for his coverage of the event.
Soviet aftermath[edit]
Silver medal[edit]
In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, "This is your loss!"[63] Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9–2, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom.[64] The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media.
After 1980 Winter Olympics[edit]
Despite the loss, the USSR remained the pre-eminent power in Olympic hockey until its 1991 break-up. The Soviet team did not lose a World Championship game until 1985 and did not lose to the United States again until 1991.[65] Throughout the 1980s, NHL teams continued to draft Soviet players in hopes of enticing them to eventually play in North America. Soviet emigrant Victor Nechayev made a brief appearance with the Los Angeles Kings in the 1982–83 season, and during the 1988–89 season, the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation agreed to let veteran Sergei Pryakhin join the Calgary Flames.[66]
NHL careers[edit]
Former Soviet National team player, Helmuts Balderis pictured in 2014. Balderis played a season late in his career with the Minnesota North Stars of the NHL
In the 1989/90 season, six 1980 Soviet Olympians joined NHL clubs: Helmuts Balderis, Viacheslav Fetisov, Alexei Kasatonov, Vladimir Krutov, Sergei Makarov and Sergei Starikov. Fetisov was a teammate of Mike Ramsey on the 1995 Detroit Red Wings team that lost the Stanley Cup Final. Fetisov completed his career by winning Cups with the Red Wings in 1997 and 1998; the first Cup win also made Fetisov a member of the Triple Gold Club, consisting of individuals who have won a Stanley Cup plus gold medals at the Olympics and World Championships.[67] Makarov won the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL Rookie of the Year in 1989/90, becoming the oldest player to win that award.[68] That same season, younger Soviet star Alexander Mogilny defected to play for the Buffalo Sabres, followed the next year by Sergei Fedorov who defected to play for the Detroit Red Wings. Then, with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, a flood of ex-Soviet stars joined the NHL, including Pavel Bure and Vladimir Konstantinov. Since then, many of the NHL's top players have come from the post-Soviet states.
Notable rematches[edit]
The U.S. and the Soviet Union next met at the Olympics at the 1988 games. The Soviets won the first round encounter 7–5. The Soviets went on to win the gold medal, while the U.S. placed seventh.
The two teams met again at the 1992 Olympics in a semi-final. There, the Unified Team (the successor to the Soviet Union) won 5–2. The Unified Team eventually won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed fourth.
The U.S. and Russia met twice at the 1996 World Cup of Hockey, Americans won both games 5-2 en route to the gold medal.
The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Slava Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2–2 round robin draw and a 3–2 semi-final in favor of USA, with the semi-final match coming 22 years to the day after the "Miracle on Ice" game.[60]
The two teams met at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. The U.S. obtained a decisive victory 5-3 in the quarterfinal.
The U.S. and Russia played each other in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The round robin game was tied 2–2 after overtime and was won by the Americans in an 8-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the USA. The match has been dubbed by some as the "Marathon on Ice".[69]
Film, television and music[edit]
A made-for-TV movie Miracle on Ice, starring Karl Malden as Brooks and Steve Guttenberg as Craig, aired on ABC television in March 1981.[70] It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games.
Miami punk band Principles recorded their lone cash-in single, 'USA 423,' on Grey Dome Records in 1980 in celebration of the United States victory.
The documentary film Do You Believe in Miracles?, narrated by Liev Schreiber, premiered on HBO in February 2001 and was subsequently released on home video.[71]
In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film Miracle, starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his "Do you believe in miracles? YES!" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Herb Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography was completed. The movie was released by Walt Disney Pictures, by that point a sister company to ABC.
The documentary Of Miracles And Men, which was directed by Jonathan Hock, premiered on ESPN on February 8, 2015 as part of the channel's 30 for 30 series. The story of the 1980 matchup is told from the Soviet perspective while also branching out to include what happened in the years that immediately followed. Slava Fetisov's return to Lake Placid was focused on heavily, as he takes his daughter Anastasia on the trip to reminisce.[72]
Team rosters[edit]
Paraguayan stamp featuring Robert McClanahan
Herb Brooks Arena in 2005
United States[edit]
No.
Pos.
Name
Age
Hometown
College
30 G *Jim Craig 21 North Easton, MA Boston U.
3 D *Ken Morrow 22 Flint, MI Bowling Green
5 D *Mike Ramsey 19 Minneapolis, MN Minnesota
10 C *Mark Johnson 22 Madison, WI Wisconsin
24 LW *Rob McClanahan 22 Saint Paul, MN Minnesota
8 RW *Dave Silk 21 Scituate, MA Boston U.
6 D Bill Baker (A) 22 Grand Rapids, MN Minnesota
9 C Neal Broten 20 Roseau, MN Minnesota
23 D Dave Christian 20 Warroad, MN North Dakota
11 RW Steve Christoff 21 Richfield, MN Minnesota
21 LW Mike Eruzione (C) 25 Winthrop, MA Boston U.
28 RW John Harrington 22 Virginia, MN Minnesota-Duluth
1 G Steve Janaszak 22 Saint Paul, MN Minnesota
17 D Jack O'Callahan 22 Charlestown, MA Boston U.
16 C Mark Pavelich 21 Eveleth, MN Minnesota-Duluth
25 LW Buzz Schneider 25 Grand Rapids, MN Minnesota
19 RW Eric Strobel 21 Rochester, MN Minnesota
20 D Bob Suter 22 Madison, WI Wisconsin
27 LW Phil Verchota 22 Duluth, MN Minnesota
15 C Mark Wells 21 St. Clair Shores, MI Bowling Green
Soviet Union[edit]
No.
Pos.
Name
Age
Hometown
20 G *Vladislav Tretiak 27 Orudyevo, Moscow Oblast, Russia
2 D *Viacheslav Fetisov 21 Moscow, Russia
7 D *Alexei Kasatonov 20 Leningrad, Russia
16 C *Vladimir Petrov 32 Krasnogorsk, Moscow Oblast, Russia
17 LW *Valeri Kharlamov 32 Moscow, Russia
13 RW *Boris Mikhailov (C) 35 Moscow, Russia
19 RW Helmuts Balderis 27 Riga, Latvia
14 D Zinetula Bilyaletdinov 24 Moscow, Russia
23 RW Aleksandr Golikov 27 Penza, Russia
25 C Vladimir Golikov 25 Penza, Russia
9 LW Vladimir Krutov 19 Moscow, Russia
11 RW Yuri Lebedev 28 Moscow, Russia
24 RW Sergei Makarov 21 Chelyabinsk, Russia
10 C/RW Aleksandr Maltsev 30 Kirovo-Chepetsk, Russia
1 G Vladimir Myshkin 24 Kirovo-Chepetsk, Russia
5 D Vasili Pervukhin 24 Penza, Russia
26 LW Aleksandr Skvortsov 25 Gorky, Russia
12 D Sergei Starikov 21 Chelyabinsk, Russia
6 D Valeri Vasiliev (A) 30 Gorky, Russia
22 C Viktor Zhluktov 26 Inta, Russia
* Starting line up
Box score[edit]
February 22, 1980 (1980-02-22)
17:00 EST United States 4–3
(2–2, 0–1, 2–0) Soviet Union Olympic Center
Attendance: 8,500
[show]Game reference
Jim Craig Goalies Vladislav Tretiak, Vladimir Myshkin Referee:
Karl-Gustav Kaisla
Linesmen:
Nico Toemen
François Larochelle
0 – 1 9:12 – Krutov (Kasatonov)
Schneider (Pavelich) – 14:03 1 – 1
1 – 2 17:34 – Makarov (Golikov)
Johnson (Christian, Silk) – 19:59 2 – 2
2 – 3 22:18 – Maltsev (Krutov) (PP)
Johnson (Silk) (PP) – 48:39 3 – 3
Eruzione (Pavelich, Harrington) – 50:00 4 – 3
6 min Penalties 6 min
16 Shots 39
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 20th Century Awards: Sports Illustrated honors world's greatest athletes". Sports Illustrated. December 3, 1999. Retrieved June 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Top Story of the Century". International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 35
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 17
Jump up ^ IIHF (2008). "PROTESTING AMATEUR RULES, CANADA LEAVES INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY". IIHF.com. Retrieved 2017-08-25.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 59
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 59
Jump up ^ Podnieks, Andrew: Team Canada 1972: The Official 40th Anniversary Celebration of the Summit Series ISBN 978-0771071195 p.212
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 19–20
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 21
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "A Reminder Of What We Can Be". si.com.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 25
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 159–160
^ Jump up to: a b c Allen, Kevin (December 23, 1997). "College kids perform Olympic miracle". ESPN. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 26
Jump up ^ Ted, Green (2 February 1980). "'We Aren't Awed' Please...Nobody Tell the U.S. Hockey Team It Has No Chance". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "1980 Pre Olympic Tour Schedule". Vintage Minnesota Hockey.
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 46–48
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 51
^ Jump up to: a b Lake Placid Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (1985). Official Results of the XIII Olympic Winter Games—Lake Placid 1980 (PDF). Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles. pp. 105–111.
Jump up ^ Kuzmiak, Eric (June 11, 2008). "Open-Mic: Greatest Sports Achievements – Do You Believe in Miracles?". Bleacher Report. Retrieved August 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ Shepard, Richard F. (Feb 23, 1980). "ABC-TV Unable To Offer Key Hockey Playoff Live: Federation Rejected Request". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "TV SPORTS; 'Miracle on Ice' of 1980 Looks Different Today". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Posnanski, Joe (February 22, 2010). "10 interesting facts you may not know about the Miracle on Ice". Sports Illustrated.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 68
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 45
Jump up ^ Posnanski, Joe (February 22, 2010). "10 interesting facts you may not know about the Miracle on Ice". Sports Illustrated.
Jump up ^ Swift, E.M. (March 3, 1980). "The Golden Goal". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 150
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Jamie. "The Miracle Unfolds". About.com. The New York Times Co. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 152
Jump up ^ "Pro Hockey About.com".
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 350–52
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 358
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 374
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 377
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 379
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 381
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 383
^ Jump up to: a b Coffey, p. 384
Jump up ^ HBO Sports (2001). Do You Believe in Miracles? : The Story of the 1980 U.S. Hockey Team (Video). New York: HBO Home Video. ISBN 9780783119953.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 387
Jump up ^ Bacon, John U. (February 20, 2010). "Oh, Say Can You See a New Anthem?". Ann Arbor Chronicle. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "President Carter phones U.S. Olympic hockey team". YouTube.
Jump up ^ Swift, E.M. (March 3, 1980). "The Golden Goal". Sports Illustrated.
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 412–13
Jump up ^ Deitsch, Richard (August 19, 2008). "Heinz Q&A". Sports Illustrated.
Jump up ^ "The anniversary of a Miracle". St. Petersburg Times. February 22, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 318
Jump up ^ "Neal Broten". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 200
Jump up ^ "Ken Morrow". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Ken Morrow, Director of Pro Scouting". Retrieved February 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mike Ramsey". Hockey Database. Hockeydb.com. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Dave Christian". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dave Christian". Hockey Database. Hockeydb.com. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Mark Johnson (ice hockey)". Hockey Database. Hockeydb.com. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Jim Craig". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Eruzione Won't Go Pro". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. Associated Press. March 1, 1980. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "USA holds off Russia 3–2 to advance to gold medal game". CNN. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Herb Brooks killed in car accident". Sports Illustrated. August 11, 2003. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ Sandomir, Richard (February 22, 2010). "'Miracle on Ice' announcer Al Michaels is back in the Olympic studio". The Plain Dealer. Cleveland, OH. Associated Press.
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 389
Jump up ^ Coffey, p. 413
Jump up ^ Coffey, pp. 396–97
Jump up ^ "Sweeping changes: Russian hockey looked different after '72 Summit Series". Sports Illustrated. September 27, 2002. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Viacheslav Fetisov". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sergei Makarov". Hockey Reference. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Miracle on Ice on IMDb Retrieved May 3, 2008
Jump up ^ Miracle on Ice on IMDb Retrieved May 23, 2008
Jump up ^ Lowry, Brian. "TV Review: ESPN's 'Of Miracles and Men'". Variety. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
Coffey, Wayne (2005). The Boys of Winter (E ed.). New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-307-23731-1.
Jacobson, Zachary Jonathan (2013). "Parable on Ice: Hockey, Capitalism and American Decadence at the Lake Placid Olympics," UCLA Historical Journal, 24, 61–75.
Soares, John. "The Cold War on Ice." The Cold War on Ice XIV.2 (2008): 77-87. Brown.edu. The Brown Journal of World Affairs. Web. 13 Feb. 2017.
External links[edit]
Eskenazi, Gerald (February 23, 1980). "U.S. Defeats Soviet Squad In Olympic Hockey by 4–3". The New York Times.
Johnson, Mark (October 2, 2007). "UW Women's Hockey Coach Mark Johnson". Be More Tuned In (Interview). Wisconsin Public Television. Archived from the original on March 5, 2010.
Kindred, Dave (February 23, 1980). "Born to Be Players, Born to the Moment". Washington Post.
Shapiro, Leonard (February 23, 1980). "U.S. Shocks Soviets in Ice Hockey, 4–3". Washington Post.
Miracle on Ice team to reunite for the 35 year anniversary
Miracle on Ice in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
President Carter phones U.S Hockey Team
[show]
Links to related articles
Olympic Games
Preceded by
Cathy Freeman Final Olympic Torchbearer (U.S. Team only)
Salt Lake City 2002 Succeeded by
Nikolaos Kaklamanakis
Preceded by
Midori Ito Final Winter Olympic Torchbearer (U.S. Team only)
Salt Lake City 2002 Succeeded by
Stefania Belmondo
[show]
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1980 USA Men's Olympic Hockey Team
1 Steve Janaszak
3 Ken Morrow
5 Mike Ramsey
6 Bill Baker (A)
8 Dave Silk
9 Neal Broten
10 Mark Johnson
11 Steve Christoff
15 Mark Wells
16 Mark Pavelich
17 Jack O'Callahan
19 Eric Strobel
20 Bob Suter
21 Mike Eruzione (C)
23 Dave Christian
24 Rob McClanahan
25 Buzz Schneider
27 Phil Verchota
28 John Harrington
30 Jim Craig
Head Coach: Herb Brooks
Assistant Coach: Craig Patrick
Goalie Coach: Warren Strelow
Team Physician George Nagobads
Trainer: Gary Smith
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1931: Pepper Martin
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1980: U.S. Olympic Hockey Team
1981: John McEnroe
1982: Wayne Gretzky
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1989: Joe Montana
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1997: Tiger Woods
1998: Mark McGwire
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2000: Tiger Woods
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2005: Lance Armstrong
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2007: Tom Brady
2008: Michael Phelps
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2013: LeBron James
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2017: José Altuve
[show]
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Sand tiger shark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with sand shark, tiger shark, or nurse shark.
Sand tiger shark
Conservation status

Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Order: Lamniformes
Family: Odontaspididae
Genus: Carcharias
Species: C. taurus
Binomial name
Carcharias taurus
Rafinesque, 1810
Range of the sand tiger shark
Synonyms
Carcharias tricuspidatus Day, 1878
The sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus), grey nurse shark, spotted ragged-tooth shark, or blue-nurse sand tiger is a species of shark that inhabits subtropical and temperate waters worldwide. It inhabits the continental shelf, from sandy shorelines (hence the name sand tiger shark) and submerged reefs to a depth of around 191 m (627 ft).[2] They dwell in the waters of Japan, Australia, South Africa, the Mediterranean and the east coasts of North and South America. Despite its name, it is not related to the tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier; however, it is a cousin of the great white shark Carcharodon carcharias.
Despite its fearsome appearance and strong swimming ability, it is a relatively placid and slow-moving shark with no confirmed human fatalities. This species has a sharp, pointy head, and a bulky body. The sand tiger's length can reach 3.2 m (10.5 ft).[3] They are grey with reddish-brown spots on their backs. Shivers (groups) have been observed to hunt large schools of fish. Their diet consists of bony fish, crustaceans, squid, skates and other sharks. Unlike other sharks, the sand tiger can gulp air from the surface, allowing it to be suspended in the water column with minimal effort. During pregnancy, the most developed embryo will feed on its siblings, a reproductive strategy known as intrauterine cannibalism i.e. "embryophagy" or, more colorfully, adelphophagy — literally "eating one's brother". The sand tiger is categorized as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. It is the most widely kept large shark in public aquariums owing to its tolerance for captivity.
Contents
1 Taxonomy
2 Common names
3 Identification
4 Description
5 Habitat and range
5.1 Geographical range
5.2 Annual migration
6 Behavior
6.1 Hunting
6.2 Diet
6.3 Courtship and mating
7 Reproduction and growth
7.1 Reproduction
7.2 Growth
8 Interaction with humans
8.1 Attacks on humans
8.2 Nets around swimming beaches
8.3 Competition for food with humans
8.4 Effects of scuba divers
8.5 In captivity
9 Threats and conservation status
9.1 Threats
9.2 Conservation status
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
The sand tiger shark's description as Carcharias taurus by Constantine Rafinesque came from a specimen caught off the coast of Sicily. Carcharias taurus means "bull shark". This taxonomic classification has been long disputed. Twenty-seven years after Rafinesque's original description the German biologists Müller and Henle changed the genus name from C. taurus to Triglochis taurus. The following year, Swiss-American naturalist Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz reclassified the shark as Odontaspis cuspidata based on examples of fossilized teeth. Agassiz's name was used until 1961 when three palaeontologists and ichthyologists, W. Tucker, E. I. White, and N. B. Marshall, requested that the shark be returned to the genus Carcharias. This request was rejected and Odontaspis was approved by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). When experts concluded that taurus belongs after Odontaspis, the name was changed to Odontaspis taurus. In 1977, Compagno and Follet challenged the Odontaspis taurus name and substituted Eugomphodus, a somewhat unknown classification, for Odontaspis. Many taxonomists questioned his change, arguing that there was no significant difference between Odontaspis and Carcharias. After changing the name to Eugomphodus taurus, Compagno successfully advocated in establishing the shark's current scientific name as Carcharias taurus. The ICZN approved this name, and today it is used among biologists.[2]
Common names[edit]
Because the sand tiger shark is worldwide in distribution, it has many common names. The term "sand tiger shark" actually refers to four different sand tiger shark species in the family Odontaspididae. Furthermore, the name creates confusion with the tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier, which is not related to the sand tiger. The grey nurse shark, the name used in Australia and the United Kingdom, is the second-most-used name for the shark, and in India it is known as blue-nurse sand tiger. However, there are unrelated nurse sharks in the family Ginglymostomatidae. The most unambiguous and descriptive English name is probably the South African one, spotted ragged-tooth shark.[2][4]
Identification[edit]
There are four species of sand tiger sharks[2]
The sand tiger shark Carcharias taurus
The Indian sand tiger shark Carcharias tricuspidatus. Very little is known about this species which, described before 1900, is probably the same as (a synonym of) the sand tiger C. taurus[2]
The small-toothed sand tiger shark Odontaspis ferox. This species has a worldwide distribution, is seldom seen but normally inhabits deeper water than does C. taurus.
The large-eyed sand tiger shark Odontaspis noronhai, a deep water shark of the Americas, of which little is known.
Diagram indicating the differences between C. taurus and O. ferox
The most likely problem when identifying the sand tiger shark is when in the presence of either of the two species of Odontaspis. Firstly, the sand tiger is usually spotted, especially on the hind half of the body. However, there are several other differences that are probably more reliable:
The bottom part of the caudal fin (tail fin) of the sand tiger is smaller;
The second (i.e. hind) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is almost as large as the first (i.e. front) dorsal fin.
The first (i.e. front) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is relatively non-symmetric;
The first (i.e. front) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is closer to the pelvic fin than to the pectoral fin (i.e. the first dorsal fin is positioned further backwards in the case of the sand tiger);
Description[edit]
Adult sand tigers range from 2 m (6.6 ft) to 3.2 m (10.5 ft) in length and 91 kg (200.6 lb) to 159 kg (350.5 lb) in weight.[5] The head is pointy, as opposed to round, while the snout is flattened with a conical shape. Its body is stout and bulky and its mouth extends beyond the eyes. The eyes of the sand tiger shark are small, lacking eyelids.[2] A sand tiger usually swims with its mouth open displaying three rows of protruding, smooth-edged, sharp-pointed teeth.[6] The males have grey claspers with white tips located on the underside of their body. The caudal fin is elongated with a long upper lobe (i.e. strongly heterocercal). They have two large, broad-based grey dorsal fins set back beyond the pectoral fins.[2] The sand tiger shark has a grey-brown back and pale underside. Adults tend to have reddish-brown spots scattered, mostly on the hind part of the body.[6] In August 2007, an albino specimen was photographed off South West Rocks, Australia.[7] The teeth of these sharks have no transverse serrations (as have many other sharks) but they have a large, smooth main cusp with a tiny cusplet on each side of the main cusp.[2] The upper front teeth are separated from the teeth on the side of the mouth by small intermediate teeth.
Snout and mouth of sand tiger shark, showing protruding teeth and small eyes
Eye
Jaws
Central teeth
Individual teeth
Habitat and range[edit]
Geographical range[edit]
Sand tiger sharks roam the epipelagic and mesopelagic regions of the ocean,[8] sandy coastal waters, estuaries, shallow bays, and rocky or tropical reefs, at depths of up to 190 metres (623 ft).
The sand tiger shark can be found in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, and in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. In the Western Atlantic Ocean, it is found in coastal waters around from the Gulf of Maine to Florida, in the northern Gulf of Mexico around the Bahamas and Bermuda, and from southern Brazil to northern Argentina. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the Mediterranean Sea to the Canary Islands, at the Cape Verde Islands, along the coasts of Senegal and Ghana, and from southern Nigeria to Cameroon. In the western Indian Ocean, the shark ranges from South Africa to southern Mozambique, but excluding Madagascar. The sand tiger shark has also been sighted in the Red Sea and may be found as far east as India. In the western Pacific, it has been sighted in the waters around the coasts of Japan and Australia, but not around New Zealand.[1]
Annual movements of sand tiger sharks off South Africa and Australia
Annual migration[edit]
Sand tigers in South Africa and Australia undertake an annual migration that may cover more than 1,000 km (620 mi).[8] They pup during the summer in relatively cold water (temperature ca. 16 °C). After parturition, they swim northwards toward sites where there are suitable rocks or caves, often at a water depth ca. 20 m (66 ft), where they mate during and just after the winter.[9] Mating normally takes place at night. After mating, they swim further north to even warmer water where gestation takes place. In the Autumn they return southwards to give birth in cooler water. This round trip may encompass as much as 3,000 km (1,900 mi). The young sharks do not take part in this migration, but they are absent from the normal birth grounds during winter: it is thought that they move deeper into the ocean.[8] At Cape Cod (USA), juveniles move away from coastal areas when water temperatures decreases below 16 °C (61 °F) and day length decreases to less than 12 h.[10] Juveniles, however, return to their usual summer haunts and as they become mature they start larger migratory movements.
Behavior[edit]
Hunting[edit]
The sand tiger shark is a nocturnal feeder. During the day, they take shelter near rocks, overhangs, caves and reefs often at relatively shallow depths (<20 m). This is the typical environment where divers encounter sand tigers, hovering just above the bottom in large sandy gutters and caves.[11] However, at night they leave the shelter and hunt over the ocean bottom, often ranging far from their shelter.[12] Sand tigers hunt by stealth. It is the only shark known to gulp air and store it in the shark's stomach, allowing the shark to maintain near-neutral buoyancy which helps it to hunt motionlessly and quietly.[2] Aquarium observations indicate that when it comes close enough to a prey item, it grabs with a quick sideways snap of the prey. The sand tiger shark has been observed to gather in hunting groups when preying upon large schools of fish.[2]
Diet[edit]
A bottom-living smooth-hound shark, one of the important prey items of sand tiger sharks
The majority of prey items of sand tigers are demersal (i.e. from the sea bottom), suggesting that they hunt extensively on the sea bottom as far out as the continental shelf. Bony fish (Teleosts) form about 60% of sand tigers food, the remaining prey comprising sharks and skates. In Argentina, the prey includes mostly demersal fishes, e.g. the striped weakfish (Cynoscion guatucupa). The most important elasmobranch prey is the bottom-living smooth-hound shark (Mustelus sp.). Benthic (i.e. free-swimming) rays and skates are also taken.[13] Stomach content analysis indicates that smaller sand tigers mainly focus on the sea bottom and as they grow larger they start to take more benthic prey. This perspective of the diet of sand tigers is consistent with similar observations in the north west Atlantic[14] and in South Africa where large sand tigers capture a wider range of shark and skate species as prey, from the surf zone to the continental shelf, indicating the opportunistic nature of sand tiger feeding.[12] Off South Africa, sand tigers less than 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length prey on fish about a quarter of their own length; however, large sand tigers capture prey up to about half of their own length.[12] The prey items are usually swallowed as three or four chunks.[13]
Courtship and mating[edit]
Mating occurs around the months of March and April in the northern hemisphere and during August–October in the southern hemisphere. The courtship and mating of sand tigers has been best documented from observations in large aquaria. In Oceanworld, Sydney, the females tended to hover just above the sandy bottom ("shielding") when they were receptive.[15] This prevented males from approaching from underneath towards their cloaca. Often there is more than one male close by with the dominant one remaining close to the female, intimidating others with an aggressive display in which the dominant shark closely follows the tail of the subordinate, forcing the subordinate to accelerate and swim away. The dominant male snaps at smaller fish of other species. The male approaches the female and the two sharks protect the sandy bottom over which they interact. Strong interest of the male is indicated by superficial bites in the anal and pectoral fin areas of the female. The female responds with superficial biting of the male. This behaviour continues for several days during which the male patrols the area around the female. The male regularly approaches the female in "nosing" behaviour to "smell" the cloaca of the female. If she is ready, she swims off with the male, while both partners contort their bodies so that the right clasper of the male enters the cloaca of the female. The male bites the base of her right pectoral fin, leaving scars that are easily visible afterwards. After one or two minutes, mating is complete and the two separate. Females often mate with more than one male.[16] Females mate only every second or third year.[17] After mating, the females remain behind, while the males move off to seek other areas to feed,[17] resulting in many observations of sand tiger populations comprising almost exclusively females.
Reproduction and growth[edit]
Growth curve for sand tiger sharks in the north Atlantic
Reproduction[edit]
The reproductive pattern is similar to that of many of the Lamnidae, the shark family to which sand tigers belong. Female sand tigers have two uterine horns that, during early embryonic development, may have as many as 50 embryos that obtain nutrients from their yolk sacs and possibly consume uterine fluids. When one of the embryos reaches some 10 cm (4 in) in length, it eats all the smaller embryos so that only one large embryo remains in each uterine horn, a process called intrauterine cannibalism i.e. "embryophagy" or, more colorfully, adelphophagy — literally "eating one's brother."[2][16] While multiple male sand tigers commonly fertilize a single female, adelphophagy sometimes excludes all but one of them from gaining offspring. These surviving embryos continue to feed on a steady supply of unfertilised eggs.[18] After a lengthy labour, the female gives birth to 1 m (3 ft) long, fully independent offspring. The gestation period is approximately eight to twelve months. These sharks give birth only every second or third year,[17] resulting in an overall mean reproductive rate of less than one pup per year, one of the lowest reproductive rates for sharks.
Growth[edit]
In the north Atlantic, sand tiger sharks are born about 1 m in length. During the first year, they grow about 27 cm to reach 1.3 m. After that, the growth rate decreases by about 2.5 cm each year until it stabilises at about 7 cm/y.[19] Males reach sexual maturity at an age of five to seven years and approximately 1.9 m (6 ft) in length. Females reach maturity when approximately 2.2 m (7 ft) long at about seven to ten years of age.[19] They are normally not expected to reach lengths much over 3 m. In the informal media, such as YouTube, there have been several reports of sand tigers around 5 m long, but none of these have been verified scientifically.
Interaction with humans[edit]
Attacks on humans[edit]
The sand tiger is often associated with being vicious or deadly, due to its relatively large size and sharp, protruding teeth that point outward from its jaws; however, these sharks are quite docile, and are not a threat to humans. Their mouths are not large enough to cause a human fatality. Sand tigers roam the surf, sometimes in close proximity to humans, and there have been only a few instances of unprovoked sand tiger shark attacks on humans, usually associated with spear fishing, line fishing, or shark feeding.[5] As of 2013, the database of Shark Attack Survivors does not list any fatalities due to sand tiger sharks.[20] When the sharks become aggressive, they tend to steal fish or bait from fishing lines rather than attack humans. Owing to its large size and docile temperament, the sand tiger is commonly displayed in aquariums around the world.[5]
Nets around swimming beaches[edit]
In Australia and South Africa, one of the common practices in beach holiday areas is to erect shark nets around the beaches frequently used by swimmers. These nets are erected some 400 m (1,300 ft) from the shore and act as gill nets that trap incoming sharks:[21] this was the norm until about 2005. In South Africa, the mortality of sand tiger sharks caused a significant decrease in the length of these animals and it was concluded that the shark nets pose a significant threat to this species that has a very low reproductive rate[22] Before 2000, these nets snagged about 200 sand tiger sharks per year in South Africa, of which only about 40% survived and were released alive.[23] The efficiency of shark nets for the prevention of unprovoked shark attacks on bathers has been questioned, and since 2000 there has been a reduced use of these nets and alternative approaches are being developed.
Sand shark in the Newport Aquarium
Competition for food with humans[edit]
In Argentina, the prey items of sand tigers largely coincided with important commercial fisheries targets.[13] Humans affect sand tiger food availability and the sharks, in turn, compete with humans for food that, in turn, has already been heavily exploited by the fisheries industry. The same applies to the bottom-living sea catfish (Galeichthys feliceps), a fisheries resource off the South African coast.[12]
Effects of scuba divers[edit]
Sand tiger sharks are often the targets of scuba divers who wish to observe or photograph these animals. A study near Sydney in Australia found that the behaviour of the sharks is affected by the proximity of scuba divers.[24] Diver activity affects the aggregation, swimming and respiratory behaviour of sharks, but only at short time scales. The group size of scuba divers was less important in affecting sand tiger behaviour than the distance within which they approached the sharks. Divers approaching to within 3 m of sharks affected their behaviour but after the divers had retreated, the sharks resumed normal behaviour. Other studies indicate Sand Tigers can be indifferent to divers.[25] Scuba divers are normally compliant when it comes to observing the Australian regulations for shark diving.[26] In North America World War II shipwrecks off the coast of North Carolina provide both a habitat for the sharks and the opportunity for close encounters between sharks and divers.[27]
In captivity[edit]
Its large and menacing appearance, combined with its relative placidity, has made the sand tiger shark among the most popular shark species to be displayed in public aquaria.[28] However, as with all large sharks, keeping them in captivity is not without its difficulties. Sand tiger sharks have been found to be highly susceptible to developing spinal deformities, with as many as one in every three captive sharks being affected, giving them a hunched appearance.[29] These deformities have been hypothesized to be correlated to both the size and shape of their tank.[30] If the tank is too small, the sharks have to spend more time actively swimming than they would in the wild, where they have space to glide. Also, sharks in small, circular tanks often spend most of their time circling along the edges in only one direction, causing asymmetrical stress on their bodies.
Threats and conservation status[edit]
Threats[edit]
There are several factors contributing to the decline in the population of the sand tigers. Sand tigers reproduce at an unusually low rate, due to the fact that they do not have more than two pups at a time and because they breed only every second or third year. This shark is a highly prized food item in the western northern Pacific, off Ghana and off India and Pakistan where they are caught by fishing trawlers, although they are more commonly caught with a fishing line.[2] Sand tigers' fins are a popular trade item in Japan.[1] Off North America, it is fished for its hide and fins. Shark liver oil is a popular product in cosmetic products such as lipstick.[6] It is sought by anglers in fishing competitions in South Africa and some other countries. In Australia it has been reduced in numbers by spear fishers using poison and where it is now protected.[2] It is also prized as an aquarium exhibit in the United States, Europe, Australia and South Africa because of its docile and hardy nature.[2] Thus, overfishing is a major contributor to the population decline. All indications show that the world population in sand tigers has been reduced significantly in size since 1980.[2] Many sand tigers are caught in shark nets, and then either strangled or taken by fishermen.[1] Estuaries along the United States of America's eastern Atlantic coast houses many of the young sand tiger sharks. These estuaries are susceptible to non-point source pollution that is harmful to the pups.[6]
Conservation status[edit]
This species is therefore listed as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List,[1] and as endangered under Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992. It is a U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service [Species of Concern], which are those species that the U.S. Government’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), has some concerns regarding status and threats, but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. According to the National Marine Fisheries Service, any shark caught must be released immediately with minimal harm, and is considered a prohibited species, making it illegal to harvest any part of the sand tiger shark on the United States' Atlantic coast.[6]
A recent report from the PEW Charitable Trusts suggests that a new management approach used for large mammals that have suffered population declines could hold promise for sharks. Because of the life-history characteristics of sharks, conventional fisheries management approaches, such as reaching maximum sustainable yield, may not be sufficient to rebuild depleted shark populations. Some of the more stringent approaches used to reverse declines in large mammals may be appropriate for sharks, including prohibitions on the retention of the most vulnerable species and regulation of international trade.[31]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pollard, D. & Smith, A. (2009). "Carcharias taurus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2009: e.T3854A10132481. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T3854A10132481.en. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Compagno, L. J. V. (1984). FA0 Species Catalogue, Vol. 4. Sharks of the World. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 1, "Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes", FAO Fisheries Synopsis, No. 125, ISBN 92-5-101384-5.
Jump up ^ "FLMNH Ichthyology Department: Sandtiger Shark". ufl.edu.
Jump up ^ "Common names of Carcharias taurus". FishBase. 2011. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Sand Tiger Shark". National Geographic Society. 2009. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Sand tiger shark" (PDF). NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Williams, Samantha (8 August 2007). "Rare albino shark rules deep". thetelegraph.com.au.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dicken, M. L.; Booth, A. J.; Smale, M. J.; Cliff, G. (2007). "Spatial and seasonal distribution patterns of juvenile and adult raggedtooth sharks (Carcharias taurus) tagged off the east coast of South Africa" (PDF). Marine and Freshwater Research. 58: 127. doi:10.1071/MF06018. [permanent dead link]
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Jump up ^ Kneebone, J.; Chisholm, J.; Skomal, G. B. (2012). "Seasonal residency, habitat use, and site fidelity of juvenile sand tiger sharks Carcharias taurus in a Massachusetts estuary". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 471: 165. doi:10.3354/meps09989.
Jump up ^ Bray, Dianne J. (2011) "Greynurse Shark, Carcharias taurus", in Fishes of Australia, accessed 26 Aug 2014, http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/3285
^ Jump up to: a b c d Smale, M. J. (2005). "The diet of the ragged-tooth shark Carcharias taurus Rafinesque 1810 in the Eastern Cape, South Africa" (PDF). African Journal of Marine Science. 27: 331–335. doi:10.2989/18142320509504091. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lucifora, L. O.; García, V. B.; Escalante, A. H. (2009). "How can the feeding habits of the sand tiger shark influence the success of conservation programs?". Animal Conservation. 12 (4): 291. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00247.x.
Jump up ^ Gelsleichter, J.; Musick, J. A.; Nichols, S. (1999). "Food habits of the smooth dogfish, Mustelus canis, dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, Atlantic sharpnose shark, Rhizoprionodon terraenovae, and the sand tiger, Carcharias taurus, from the northwest Atlantic Ocean". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 54 (2): 205. doi:10.1023/A:1007527111292.
Jump up ^ Gordon, I. (1993). "Pre-copulatory behaviour of captive sandtiger sharks, Carcharias taurus". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 38: 159–164. doi:10.1007/BF00842912.
^ Jump up to: a b Chapman, D. D.; Wintner, S. P.; Abercrombie, D. L.; Ashe, J.; Bernard, A. M.; Shivji, M. S.; Feldheim, K. A. (2013). "The behavioural and genetic mating system of the sand tiger shark, Carcharias taurus, an intrauterine cannibal". Biology Letters. 9 (3): 20130003. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0003. PMC 3645029. PMID 23637391.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bansemer, C. S.; Bennett, M. B. (2009). "Reproductive periodicity, localised movements and behavioural segregation of pregnant Carcharias taurus at Wolf Rock, southeast Queensland, Australia". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 374: 215. doi:10.3354/meps07741.
Jump up ^ Gilmore, R.G.; Dodrill, J.W. & Linley, P. (1983). "Reproduction and embryonic development of the sand tiger shark, Odontaspis taurus (Rafinesque)" (PDF). Fishery Bulletin. 81 (2): 201–225.
^ Jump up to: a b Branstetter, Steven; Musick, John A. (1994). "Age and Growth Estimates for the Sand Tiger in the Northwestern Atlantic Ocean". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 123 (2): 242. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1994)123<0242:AAGEFT>2.3.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Shark Attack Survivors. sharkattacksurvivors.com
Jump up ^ Dudley, S. F. J. (1997). "A comparison of the shark control programs of New South Wales and Queensland (Australia) and KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa)". Ocean & Coastal Management. 34: 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0964-5691(96)00061-0.
Jump up ^ Dudley, S. F. J.; Simpfendorfer, C. A. (2006). "Population status of 14 shark species caught in the protective gillnets off KwaZulu–Natal beaches, South Africa, 1978–2003". Marine and Freshwater Research. 57 (2): 225. doi:10.1071/MF05156.
Jump up ^ Brazier, W.; Nel, R.; Cliff, G.; Dudley, S. (2012). "Impact of protective shark nets on sea turtles in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 1981–2008". African Journal of Marine Science. 34 (2): 249. doi:10.2989/1814232X.2012.709967.
Jump up ^ Barker, S. M.; Peddemors, V. M.; Williamson, J. E. (2011). "A video and photographic study of aggregation, swimming and respiratory behaviour changes in the Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) in response to the presence of SCUBA divers". Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology. 44 (2): 75. doi:10.1080/10236244.2011.569991.
Jump up ^ Viegas, Jennifer. "Sand Tiger Sharks Are Curious About People". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Smith, K.; Scarr, M.; Scarpaci, C. (2010). "Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) Diving Tourism: Tourist Compliance and Shark Behaviour at Fish Rock, Australia". Environmental Management. 46 (5): 699–710. doi:10.1007/s00267-010-9561-8. PMID 20872140.
Jump up ^ Decker, Robert. "Ghosts in the Graveyard: N.C. Shark Diving". ScubaDiving.com. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sand Tiger Shark". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ "The Campus : A Mystery in Captivity". alleghenycampus.com.
Jump up ^ Tate, Erin E. (2013). "Correlations of Swimming Patterns with Spinal Deformities in the Sand Tiger Shark, Carcharias taurus" (PDF). International Journal of Comparative Psychology. 26: 75–82. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-27.
Jump up ^ "Considering Shark Biology in Management". pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Parker, Steve; Parker, Jane (2002). "Design for Living". The Encyclopedia of Sharks. Firefly Books. p. 100.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carcharias taurus.
Wikispecies has information related to Carcharias taurus
The tangled taxonomic history of the sand tiger shark – Additional taxonomy information
Carcharias taurus, Sand tiger shark from FishBase
Sand Tiger Shark School
Species Description of Carcharias taurus at www.shark-references.com
Sand Tigers Sharks
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Extant mackerel shark species
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Chondrichthyes
Subclass Elasmobranchii
Subdivision Selachii
Alopiidae
Alopias
Pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus)
Bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus)
Common thresher (A. vulpinus)
Cetorhinidae
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Lamnidae
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Great white shark (C. carcharias)
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Mitsukurina
Goblin shark (M. owstoni)
Odontaspididae
Carcharias
Sand tiger shark (C. taurus)
Indian sand tiger (C. tricuspidatus)
Odontaspis
Smalltooth sand tiger (O. ferox)
Bigeye sand tiger (O. noronhai)
Pseudocarchariidae
Pseudocarcharias
Crocodile shark (P. kamoharai)
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q625161
Wikispecies: Carcharias taurus
ADW: Carcharias_taurus
ARKive: carcharias-taurus
EoL: 206680
EPPO: KRCHTA
FishBase: 747
Fossilworks: 83130
GBIF: 2420766
iNaturalist: 96768
IRMNG: 10580371
ITIS: 159888
IUCN: 3854
NCBI: 30501
Plazi: 1B5D2279-087C-51B3-73F5-F751380BEE52
SPRAT: 68752
WoRMS: 105843
ZooBank: 11AE4813-8F8F-47EC-B5C2-7DD71C973251
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