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List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe
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States entirely within conventional Europe
Transcontinental territory most often considered to be within Europe
Transcontinental territory most often considered to be outside Europe
Geographically Asian states (including Armenia and Cyprus)
The list below includes all entities falling even partially under any of the various common definitions of Europe, geographical or political. Fifty-six sovereign states, six of which have limited recognition, are listed with territory in Europe and/or membership in international European organisations. There are eight areas that are not integral parts of a European state or have special political status.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographical boundaries of Europe
2 Sovereign states
2.1 Recognised states
2.2 States with limited recognition
3 Dependent territories
4 Special areas of internal sovereignty
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Geographical boundaries of Europe[edit]
Main articles: Europe and Boundaries between the continents of Earth
Under the commonly used geographic definition, the border between Asia and Europe stretches along the Ural Mountains,[1] Ural River, and Caspian Sea in the east,[2] the Greater Caucasus range[3] and the Black Sea, with its outlets, the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, in the south.[4][5][5] Based on that division, transcontinental states Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkey have territory both in Europe and Asia.
The island of Cyprus in Western Asia is proximate to Anatolia (or Asia Minor) and is on the Anatolian Plate [6] but is often considered part of Europe and is a current member of the European Union (EU). Armenia is also entirely in Western Asia but is a member of certain European organisations.[7]
Although the Mediterranean Sea provides a clearer divide between Africa and Europe, some traditionally European islands such as Malta, Sicily, Pantelleria and the Pelagian Islands are located on the African continental plate.[8] The island of Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, straddling the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate.[9]
Some territories geographically outside Europe have strong connections with European states. Greenland has socio-political connections with Europe and is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but closer to the continent of North America and usually grouped with it.[10] Sometimes Israel is considered as part of geopolitical Europe as well.[citation needed]
Other territories are part of European countries but are geographically located in other continents, such as the French overseas departments,[11] the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the coast of Africa,[12] and the Dutch Caribbean territories of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius.[13]
Political map of Europe and the surrounding region
Sovereign states[edit]
A sovereign state is a political association with effective sovereignty over a population for whom it makes decisions in the national interest.[14] According to the Montevideo convention, a state must have a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.[15]
Recognised states[edit]
There are 50 internationally recognised sovereign states with territory located within the common definition of Europe and/or membership in international European organisations, of which 44 have their capital city within Europe. All except the Vatican City are members of the United Nations (UN),[16] and all except Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City are members of the Council of Europe.[17] 28 of these countries have also been member states of the EU since 2013, which means they are highly integrated with each other and share their sovereignty with EU institutions.
Each entry in the list below has a map of its location in Europe. Territory in Europe is shown in dark-green; territory not geographically in Europe is shown in a lighter shade of green. The lightest shade of green represents states in the EU and is shown on the maps of all territories within the EU.
* = Member of the EU[18]
Flag
Map
English short form and formal names
[19][20][21]
Domestic short and formal names
[19][20]
Capital
[21][22][23]
Population
[a][24]
Area
[a][25]
Albania[i]

Republic of Albania Albanian: Shqipëri / Shqipëria — Republika e Shqipërisë Tirana

Albanian: Tiranë 3,020,209 00028748 !28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi)
Andorra

Principality of Andorra Catalan: Andorra — Principat d'Andorra Andorra la Vella

Catalan: Andorra la Vella 85,458 00000468 !468 km2 (181 sq mi)
Armenia[b]

Republic of Armenia Armenian: Հայաստան — Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն (Hayastan — Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun) Yerevan

Armenian: Երևան (Yerevan) 3,060,631 00029743 !29,743 km2 (11,484 sq mi)
Austria*

Republic of Austria German: Österreich — Republik Österreich Vienna

German: Wien 8,223,062 00083874 !83,871 km2 (32,383 sq mi)
Azerbaijan[b]

Republic of Azerbaijan Azerbaijani: Azǝrbaycan — Azǝrbaycan Respublikası Baku

Azerbaijani: Bakı 9,686,210 00086600 !86,600 km2 (33,436 sq mi)
Belarus

Republic of Belarus Belarusian: Беларусь — Рэспубліка Беларусь (Bielaruś — Respublika Bielaruś)

Russian: Беларусь — Республика Беларусь (Belarus' — Respublika Belarus') Minsk

Belarusian: Мінск (Minsk) 9,608,058 00207600 !207,600 km2 (80,155 sq mi)
Belgium*

Kingdom of Belgium Dutch: België — Koninkrijk België

French: Belgique — Royaume de Belgique

German: Belgien — Königreich Belgien Brussels

Dutch: Brussel

French: Bruxelles

German: Brüssel 11,239,755 00030528 !30,528 km2 (11,787 sq mi)
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian (Latin): Bosna i Hercegovina

Bosnian, Serbian Serbian (Cyrillic): Босна и Херцеговина Sarajevo

Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian (Latin)]: Sarajevo

Bosnian, Serbian (Cyrillic): Сарајево 3,871,643 00051197 !51,197 km2 (19,767 sq mi)
Bulgaria*

Republic of Bulgaria Bulgarian: България — Република България (Bǎlgarija — Republika Bǎlgarija) Sofia

Bulgarian: София (Sofia) 6,924,716 00110879 !110,879 km2 (42,811 sq mi)
Croatia*

Republic of Croatia Croatian: Hrvatska — Republika Hrvatska Zagreb

Croatian: Zagreb 4,470,534 00056594 !56,594 km2 (21,851 sq mi)
Cyprus*[c]

Republic of Cyprus Greek: Κύπρος — Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία (Kýpros — Kypriakí Dimokratía)

Turkish: Kıbrıs — Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti Nicosia

Greek: Λευκωσία (Lefkosía)

Turkish: Lefkoşa 1,172,458 00009251 !9,251 km2 (3,572 sq mi)
Czechia

Czech Republic*[j] Czech: Česko — Česká republika Prague

Czech: Praha 10,538,275 00078867 !78,867 km2 (30,451 sq mi)
Denmark*[f]

Kingdom of Denmark Danish: Danmark — Kongeriget Danmark Copenhagen

Danish: København 5,569,077 00043094 !2,210,000 km2 (853,286 sq mi)
Estonia*

Republic of Estonia Estonian: Eesti — Eesti Vabariik Tallinn

Estonian: Tallinn 1,257,921 00045228 !45,228 km2 (17,463 sq mi)
Finland*

Republic of Finland Finnish: Suomi — Suomen tasavalta

Swedish: Finland — Republiken Finland Helsinki

Finnish: Helsinki

Swedish: Helsingfors 5,268,799 00338145 !338,145 km2 (130,559 sq mi)
France*

French Republic French: France — République française Paris

French: Paris 66,259,012 00643427 !643,427 km2 (248,429 sq mi)
Georgia[b] Georgian: საქართველო (Sak'art'velo) Tbilisi / T'bilisi

Georgian: თბილისი (T'bilisi) 4,935,880 00069700 !69,700 km2 (26,911 sq mi)
Germany*

Federal Republic of Germany German: Deutschland — Bundesrepublik Deutschland Berlin

German: Berlin 80,996,685 00357022 !357,022 km2 (137,847 sq mi)
Greece*

Hellenic Republic Greek: Ελλάς — Ελληνική Δημοκρατία (Ellás — Ellinikí Dimokratía) Athens

Greek: Αθήνα (Athína) 10,816,286 00131957 !131,957 km2 (50,949 sq mi)
Hungary* Hungarian: Magyarország Budapest

Hungarian: Budapest 9,919,128 00093028 !93,028 km2 (35,918 sq mi)
Iceland

Republic of Iceland Icelandic: Ísland — Lýðveldið Ísland Reykjavík

Icelandic: Reykjavík 317,351 00103000 !103,000 km2 (39,769 sq mi)
Ireland*[d][26] Ireland

Irish: Éire Dublin

Irish: Baile Átha Cliath 4,832,765 00070273 !70,273 km2 (27,133 sq mi)
Italy*

Italian Republic Italian: Italia — Repubblica Italiana Rome

Italian: Roma 61,680,122 00301340 !301,340 km2 (116,348 sq mi)
Kazakhstan[e]

Republic of Kazakhstan Kazakh: Қазақстан — Қазақстан Республикасы (Qazaqstan — Qazaqstan Respūblīkasy)

Russian: Казахстан — Республика Казахстан (Kazahstan — Respublika Kazahstan) Astana

Kazakh: Астана

Russian: Астана (Astana) 17,948,816 02724900 !2,724,900 km2 (1,052,090 sq mi)
Latvia*

Republic of Latvia Latvian: Latvija — Latvijas Republika Riga

Latvian: Rīga 2,165,165 00064589 !64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi)
Liechtenstein

Principality of Liechtenstein German: Liechtenstein — Fürstentum Liechtenstein Vaduz

German: Vaduz 37,313 00000160 !160 km2 (62 sq mi)
Lithuania*

Republic of Lithuania Lithuanian: Lietuva — Lietuvos Respublika Vilnius

Lithuanian: Vilnius 2,943,472 00065300 !65,300 km2 (25,212 sq mi)
Luxembourg*

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg German: Luxemburg — Großherzogtum Luxemburg

French: Luxembourg — Grand-Duché de Luxembourg

Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Luxembourg

German: Luxemburg

French: Luxembourg

Luxembourgish: Lëtzebuerg 520,672 00002586 !2,586 km2 (998 sq mi)
Macedonia[i]

Republic of Macedonia Macedonian: Македонија — Република Македонија (Makedonija — Republika Makedonija) Skopje

Macedonian: Скопје (Skopje) 2,091,719 00025713 !25,713 km2 (9,928 sq mi)
Malta*

Republic of Malta Malta — Republic of Malta

Maltese: Malta — Repubblika ta' Malta Valletta

Maltese: Valletta 412,655 00000316 !316 km2 (122 sq mi)
Moldova

Republic of Moldova Romanian: Moldova — Republica Moldova Chișinău

Romanian: Chișinău 3,583,288 00033851 !33,851 km2 (13,070 sq mi)
Monaco

Principality of Monaco French: Monaco — Principauté de Monaco Monaco

French: Monaco 30,508 00000002 !2 km2 (0.8 sq mi)
Montenegro[i] Montenegrin: Црна Гора, Crna Gora Podgorica

Montenegrin: Подгорица, Podgorica 650,036 00013812 !13,812 km2 (5,333 sq mi)
Netherlands*[f][g][13]

Kingdom of the Netherlands Dutch: Nederland — Koninkrijk der Nederlanden

West Frisian: Nederlân — Keninkryk fan de Nederlannen

Papiamento: Hulandu — Reino di Hulanda Amsterdam (capital)

The Hague (seat of government)

Dutch: Amsterdam

West Frisian: Amsterdam

Papiamento: Amsterdam

Dutch: 's-Gravenhage / Den Haag

West Frisian: De Haach

Papiamento: Den Haag 16,877,351 00041543 !41,543 km2 (16,040 sq mi)
Norway

Kingdom of Norway Bokmål: Norge — Kongeriket Norge

Nynorsk: Noreg — Kongeriket Noreg

Northern Sami: Norga — Norgga gonagasriika Oslo

Norwegian: Oslo 5,147,792 00323802 !323,802 km2 (125,021 sq mi)
Poland*

Republic of Poland Polish: Polska — Rzeczpospolita Polska Warsaw

Polish: Warszawa 38,346,279 00312685 !312,685 km2 (120,728 sq mi)
Portugal*

Portuguese Republic Portuguese: Portugal — República Portuguesa Lisbon

Portuguese: Lisboa 10,427,301 00092090 !92,090 km2 (35,556 sq mi)
Romania* Romanian: România Bucharest

Romanian: București 21,729,871 00238391 !238,391 km2 (92,043 sq mi)
Russia[e]

Russian Federation Russian: Росси́я — Российская Федерация (Rossija — Rossijskaja Federacija) Moscow

Russian: Москва (Moskva) 146,267,288 17098242 !17,098,242 km2 (6,601,668 sq mi)
San Marino

Republic of San Marino Italian: San Marino — Repubblica di San Marino San Marino

Italian: San Marino 32,742 00000061 !61 km2 (24 sq mi)
Serbia[i]

Republic of Serbia Serbian: Србија — Република Србија, Srbija — Republika Srbija Belgrade

Serbian: Београд, Beograd 7,209,764 00088361 !88,361 km2 (34,116 sq mi)
Slovakia*

Slovak Republic Slovak: Slovensko — Slovenská republika Bratislava

Slovak: Bratislava 5,443,583 00049035 !49,035 km2 (18,933 sq mi)
Slovenia*

Republic of Slovenia Slovene: Slovenija — Republika Slovenija Ljubljana

Slovene: Ljubljana 1,988,292 00020273 !20,273 km2 (7,827 sq mi)
Spain*

Kingdom of Spain Spanish: España — Reino de España Madrid

Spanish: Madrid 47,737,941 00505370 !505,370 km2 (195,124 sq mi)
Sweden*

Kingdom of Sweden Swedish: Sverige — Konungariket Sverige Stockholm

Swedish: Stockholm 9,723,809 00450295 !450,295 km2 (173,860 sq mi)
Switzerland

Swiss Confederation German: Schweiz — Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft

French: Suisse — Confédération suisse

Italian: Svizzera — Confederazione Svizzera

Romansh: Svizra — Confederaziun svizra Bern / Berne

German: Bern

French: Berne

Italian: Berna 8,061,516 00041277 !41,277 km2 (15,937 sq mi)
Turkey[e][i]

Republic of Turkey Turkish: Türkiye — Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Ankara

Turkish: Ankara 79,814,871[27] 00783562 !783,562 km2 (302,535 sq mi)
Ukraine Ukrainian: Украïна (Ukraina) Kiev

Ukrainian: Київ (Kyiv) 44,291,413 00602550 !603,550 km2 (233,032 sq mi)
United Kingdom*[h]

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland United Kingdom — United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland London 63,742,977 00243610 !243,610 km2 (94,058 sq mi)
Vatican City

Vatican City State

Holy See Italian: Città del Vaticano — Stato della Città del Vaticano

Latin: Sancta Sedes[28] Vatican City

Italian: Città del Vaticano 842 00000000.44 !0.44 km2 (0.17 sq mi)
States with limited recognition[edit]
The following six entities in Europe have partial diplomatic recognition by one or more UN member states (and therefore are defined as states by the constitutive theory of statehood) or have no diplomatic recognition by any UN member state but are defined as states by the declarative theory of statehood and are recognised by one or more Non-UN member states. None are members of the UN, Council of Europe or EU.
Flag
Map
English common and formal names
Status
Domestic short and formal names
Capital
Population[a]
Area[a]
Abkhazia[b]

Republic of Abkhazia Claimed as an autonomous republic of Georgia. Recognised by four UN states.[29] Abkhazian: Аҧсны (Apsny)

Russian: Абха́зия (Abhazia) Sukhumi

Abkhazian: Аҟəа (Akwa)

Russian: Сухуми 250,000 [30] 8,660 km2 (3,344 sq mi)[31]
Artsakh[b]

Republic of Artsakh Claimed as part of Azerbaijan. De facto independent state,[32] recognised by 3 non-UN states. Armenian: Արցախի Հանրապետություն (Arts'akhi Hanrapetut'yun)[33] Stepanakert

Armenian: Ստեփանակերտ (Khankendi) 141,400[34] 7,000 km2 (2,703 sq mi)[35]
Kosovo

Republic of Kosovo[19] Recognised by 111 UN member states;[36] Serbia does not recognise the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence, and considers it an autonomous province. Albanian: Kosova / Kosovë — Republika e Kosovës

Serbian: Косово — Република Косово, Kosovo – Republika Kosovo Pristina[22]

Albanian: Prishtina, Prishtinë

Serbian: Приштина, Priština 1,836,529[24] 10,887 km2 (4,203 sq mi)[25]
Northern Cyprus[c]

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Claimed as part of the Republic of Cyprus. Recognised by Turkey.[37] Turkish: Kuzey Kıbrıs — Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti North Nicosia

Turkish: Lefkoşa 294,906[38] 3,355 km2 (1,295 sq mi)[25]
South Ossetia[b]

Republic of South Ossetia Claimed as part of Georgia. Recognised by four UN states.[29] Ossetian: Хуссар Ирыстон — Республикæ Хуссар Ирыстон (Khussar Iryston — Respublikæ Khussar Iryston)

Russian: Южная Осетия — Республика Южная Осетия (Yuzhnaya Osetiya — Respublika Yuzhnaya Osetiya) Tskhinvali

Ossetian: Цхинвал or Чъреба (Chreba) 70,000[39] 3,900 km2 (1,506 sq mi)[40]
Transnistria / Trans-Dniester

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic Claimed as a territorial unit of Moldova. De facto independent state,[32] recognised by 3 non-UN states. Romanian: Nistreană — Republica Moldovenească Nistreană (Nistreană — Republica Moldovenească Nistreană)

Russian: Приднестровье — Приднестровская Молдавская Республика (Pridnestrov'ye — Pridnestrovskaya Moldavskaya Respublika)

Ukrainian: Придністров'я — Придністровська Молдавська Республіка (Prydnistrov'ya — Pridnistrovs'ka Moldavs'ka Respublika) Tiraspol

Romanian: Tiraspol

Russian: Тира́споль

Ukrainian: Тирасполь 530,000[41] 3,500 km2 (1,351 sq mi)[42]
Dependent territories[edit]
The following six European entities are dependent territories.[43]
* = Part of the EU, although there may be special arrangements
Flag
Map
English common and formal names[19][21]
Legal status
Domestic short and formal names
Capital[22]
Population[24]
Area[25]
Akrotiri and Dhekelia[c]

Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Overseas Territory English: Akrotiri and Dhekelia — Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia Episkopi Cantonment

English: Episkopi Cantonment 15,700 254 km2 (98 sq mi)
Faroe Islands / Faeroe Islands Constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark Faroese: Føroyar

Danish: Færøerne Tórshavn

Faroese: Tórshavn

Danish: Thorshavn 49,947 1,393 km2 (538 sq mi)
Gibraltar*[44] British Overseas Territory English: Gibraltar Gibraltar

English: Gibraltar 29,185 6.5 km2 (2.5 sq mi)
Guernsey[h]

Bailiwick of Guernsey Crown dependency in right of Guernsey[45][46][47] English: Guernsey — Bailiwick of Guernsey

French: Guernesey — Bailliage de Guernesey

Guernésiais: Guernési — Bailliage de Guernési Saint Peter Port

English: Saint Peter Port

French: Saint Pierre Port

Guernésiais: Saint Pierre Port 65,849 78 km2 (30 sq mi)
Isle of Man[h] Crown dependency in right of Man[47][48][49] English: Isle of Man

Manx: Mannin — Ellan Vannin Douglas

English: Douglas

Manx: Doolish 86,866 572 km2 (221 sq mi)
Jersey[h]

Bailiwick of Jersey Crown dependency in right of Jersey[45][46][47] English: Jersey — Bailiwick of Jersey

French: Jersey — Bailliage de Jersey

Jèrriais: Jèrri — Bailliage de Jèrri Saint Helier

English: Saint Helier

French: Saint-Hélier

Jèrriais: Saint Hélyi 96,513 118 km2 (46 sq mi)
Special areas of internal sovereignty[edit]
The following places are considered integral parts of their controlling state, but have a political arrangement which was decided through an international agreement.
* = Part of the EU, although there may be special arrangements
Flag
Map
English common and formal names
Legal status
Domestic short and formal names
Capital
Population
Area
Åland*[50]

Åland Islands[21] Self-governing area of Finland, significant autonomy as the result of the Åland crisis[51] Swedish: Åland — Landskapet Åland Mariehamn[21]

Swedish: Mariehamn 27,500[52] 6,787 km2 (2,620 sq mi)[52]
Northern Ireland* Part of the United Kingdom, devolved government determined by the Good Friday Agreement[53] Irish: Tuaisceart Éireann

Scots: Norlin Airlann Belfast[54] 1,810,863 [55] 14,130 km2 (5,456 sq mi)[54]
Svalbard[19] Special territory of Norway, determined by the Svalbard Treaty[56] Norwegian: Svalbard Longyearbyen[21][22]

Norwegian: Longyearbyen 2,019[24] 62,045 km2 (23,956 sq mi)[25]
See also[edit]
International organisations in Europe
Lists of European countries:
by area
by date of formation
by GDP
by GDP per capita
by GDP PPP
by population
List of former sovereign states in Europe
Predecessors of sovereign states in Europe
Regions of Europe
Timeline of European nations
Notes[edit]
^ a b c d e f Area and population numbers include integral areas located outside of Europe. The area and population of states with separatist regions includes that of the separatist regions.
^ a b c d e f Part of the Transcaucasian Region, at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Physiographically, Armenia falls entirely in Western Asia, while Georgia and Azerbaijan are mostly in Asia with small portions north of the Caucasus Mountains divide in Europe.
^ a b c The island of Cyprus is located on the Cyprian arc on the edge of the Anatolian Plate and is physiographically associated with Asia, but it is part of European organisations such as the EU.
^ The terms Republic of Ireland and Poblacht na hÉireann are not official long names and are used only as a legal description meant to differentiate the state from the island.
^ a b c Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey have territory in both Europe (dark green) and Asia (light green).
^ a b Denmark and the Netherlands are constituent countries of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands respectively. Both are members of the EU; however, the other constituent countries of their kingdoms are not. In international organisations, the terms Denmark and the Netherlands are often used as short forms of their respective kingdoms as a whole.
^ The Netherlands is also known as "Holland", but this name properly refers only to a region of the country. See Netherlands (terminology).
^ a b c d The United Kingdom consists of the countries of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The UK is responsible for the foreign relations and ultimate good governance of the Crown dependencies of Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Jersey, which are otherwise separate. England, Scotland and Wales make up the island of Great Britain (or simply Britain), which is sometimes used synonymously with the United Kingdom.
^ a b c d e f EU candidate country.
^ A simpler official short-form name has been encouraged by the Czech government: the English variant Czechia remains uncommon, but variants in Czech (Česko) and some other languages are more popular. See Name of the Czech Republic.
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Jump up ^ "Holy See (Vatican City)". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tuvalu Retracts Recognition Of Abkhazia, South Ossetia". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ "Regions and territories: Abkhazia". BBC News. 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Jump up ^ "Abkhazia (autonomous republic, Georgia)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Ker-Lindsay, James (2012). The Foreign Policy of Counter Secession: Preventing the Recognition of Contested States. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ...there are three other territories that have unilaterally declared independence and are generally regarded as having met the Montevideo criteria for statehood but have not been recognised by any states: Transnistria, Nagorny Karabakh, and Somaliland. .
Jump up ^ "Country Overview". nkrusa.org. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
Jump up ^ "Official website of the President of the Artsakh Republic". President.nkr.am. 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Jump up ^ "Nagorno-Karabakh (region, Azerbaijan)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Countries that have recognised the Republic of Kosova". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kosovo.
Jump up ^ "Cyprus". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Turkish Cyprus announces population as 294,906". World Bulletin. 2011-12-09. Retrieved 2014-01-09.
Jump up ^ "Regions and territories: South Ossetia". BBC News. 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Jump up ^ "South Ossetia". Hartford-hwp.com. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
Jump up ^ "Trans-Dniester profile". BBC News. 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Jump up ^ "Transdniestria (separatist enclave, Moldova)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
Jump up ^ "CIA - The World Factbook - Field Listing :: Dependency status". Cia.gov. 1920-02-09. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
Jump up ^ Mark Oliver; Sally Bolton; Jon Dennis; Matthew Tempest (2004-08-04). "Gibraltar; Politics". Guardian. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Supreme Court decision
^ Jump up to: a b Queen and Crown dependencies page of the official website of the British Monarchy Archived 21 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ministry of Justice's fact sheet on the UK’s relationship with the Crown Dependencies
Jump up ^ Supreme Court decision "The Channel Islands, like the Isle of Man (although it has a rather different history), are not part of the United Kingdom. Nor have they ever been British colonies, or British Overseas Territories as the few remaining colonies are now termed. They are Crown Dependencies, enjoying a unique relationship with the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Commonwealth through the Crown, in the person of the Sovereign."
Jump up ^ Queen and Crown dependencies page of the official website of the British Monarchy
Jump up ^ European Commission for Democracy through Law (1996). Local self-government, territorial integrity, and protection of minorities: proceedings of the UniDem Seminar organised in Lausanne on 25–27 April 1996, in co-operation with the Swiss Institute of Comparative Law. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. pp. 32–35. ISBN 92-871-3173-2.
Jump up ^ "Independence". Visitaland.com. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Åland Official Tourist Gateway - Facts". Visitaland.com. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Good Friday Agreement". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Countries of the UK". Office for National Statistics. Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom). Retrieved 7 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Northern Ireland Statistics & Research Agency (December 2012). "Census 2011 Key Statistics for Northern Ireland" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Svalbard Treaty". Governor of Svalbard. 2008-04-09. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
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Red Scare
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A "Red Scare" is promotion of widespread fear by a society or state about a potential rise of communism, anarchism, or radical leftism. The term is most often used to refer to two periods in the history of the United States with this name. The First Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War I, revolved around a perceived threat from the American labor movement, anarchist revolution and political radicalism. The Second Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War II, was preoccupied with national or foreign communists infiltrating or subverting U.S. society or the federal government.
Contents
[hide]
1 First Red Scare (1917–1920)
2 Second Red Scare (1947–57)
2.1 Internal causes of communist fear
2.2 History
3 See also
4 Footnotes
5 References and further reading
6 External links
First Red Scare (1917–1920)[edit]
Main article: First Red Scare
Political cartoon from 1919 depicting the Russian revolution's impact on the Paris peace talks
The first Red Scare began following the Bolshevik Russian Revolution of 1917 and the intensely patriotic years of World War I as anarchist and left-wing social agitation aggravated national, social, and political tensions. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party Murray B. Levin wrote that the Red Scare was "a nationwide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik revolution in America was imminent—a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life."[1] Newspapers exacerbated those political fears into anti-foreign sentiment because varieties of radical anarchism were becoming popular as possible solutions to poverty, often by recent European immigrants (cf. hyphenated-Americans). When the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) backed several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917, the press portrayed them as "radical threats to American society" inspired by "left-wing, foreign agents provocateurs." Those on the side of the IWW claim that the press "misrepresented legitimate labor strikes" as "crimes against society," "conspiracies against the government," and "plots to establish communism."[2] Opponents, on the other hand, saw these as an extension of the radical, anarchist foundations of the IWW, which contends that all workers should be united as a social class and that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished.[3]
A "European Anarchist" attempts to destroy the Statue of Liberty in this 1919 political cartoon.
A bomb blast badly damaged the residence of Attorney General Mitchell Palmer in the spring of 1919.
In April 1919, authorities discovered a plot for mailing 36 bombs to prominent members of the U.S. political and economic establishment: J. P. Morgan Jr., John D. Rockefeller, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, and immigration officials. On June 2, 1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded. One target was the Washington, D.C., house of U.S. Attorney General Palmer, where the explosion killed the bomber, who evidence indicated was an Italian-American radical from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Afterwards, Palmer ordered the U.S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids (1919–21).[4]
Yet, in 1918, before the bombings, President Woodrow Wilson had pressured the Congress to legislate the anti-anarchist Sedition Act of 1918 to protect wartime morale by deporting putatively undesirable political people. Law professor David D. Cole reports that President Wilson’s "federal government consistently targeted alien radicals, deporting them ... for their speech or associations, making little effort to distinguish terrorists from ideological dissidents.”[4]
Initially, the press praised the raids; The Washington Post said, "There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over [the] infringement of liberty", and The New York Times said the injuries inflicted upon the arrested were "souvenirs of the new attitude of aggressiveness which had been assumed by the Federal agents against Reds and suspected-Reds."[5] In the event, the Palmer Raids were criticized as unconstitutional by twelve publicly prominent lawyers, including (future Supreme Court Justice) Felix Frankfurter, who published A Report on the Illegal Practices of The United States Department of Justice, documenting systematic violations of the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution via Palmer-authorized “illegal acts” and “wanton violence”. Defensively, Palmer then warned that a government-deposing left-wing revolution would begin on 1 May 1920 — May Day, the International Workers’ Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much credibility. Strengthening the legal criticism of Palmer was that fewer than 600 deportations were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident aliens arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmer’s once-promising Democratic Party bid for the U.S. presidency failed.[6] Wall Street was bombed on September 2, 1920, near Federal Hall National Memorial and the JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no individuals were indicted for the bombing in which 38 died and 141 were injured.[7]
In 1919–20, several states enacted "criminal syndicalism" laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations.[8] Passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left-wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy.[9]
Second Red Scare (1947–57)[edit]
Main article: McCarthyism
Senator Joseph McCarthy, namesake of McCarthyism
The second Red Scare occurred after World War II (1939–45), and was popularly known as "McCarthyism" after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthyism coincided with increased popular fear of communist espionage consequent to a Soviet Eastern Europe, the Berlin Blockade (1948–49), the Chinese Civil War, the confessions of spying for the Soviet Union given by several high-ranking U.S. government officials, and the Korean War.
Internal causes of communist fear[edit]
The events of the late 1940s, early 1950s - the trial of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1953), the trial of Alger Hiss, the Iron Curtain (1945–1991) around Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon test in 1949 (RDS-1) - surprised the American public, influencing popular opinion about U.S. National Security, that, in turn, connected to fear of the Soviet Union hydrogen-bombing the United States, and fear of the Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA).
In Canada, the 1946 Kellock–Taschereau Commission investigated espionage after top secret documents concerning RDX, radar and other weapons were handed over to the Soviets by a domestic spy-ring.[10]
At the House Un-American Activities Committee, former CPUSA members and NKVD spies, Elizabeth Bentley and Whittaker Chambers, testified that Soviet spies and communist sympathizers had penetrated the U.S. government before, during and after World War II. Other U.S. citizen spies confessed to their acts of espionage in situations where the statute of limitations on prosecuting them had run out. In 1949, anti–communist fear, and fear of American traitors, was aggravated by the Chinese Communists winning the Chinese Civil War against the Western-sponsored Kuomintang, their founding of the People's Republic of China, and later Chinese intervention in the Korean War (1950–53) against U.S. ally South Korea.
A few of the events during the Red Scare were also due to a power struggle between director of FBI J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency. Hoover had instigated and aided some of the investigations of members of the CIA with "leftist" history, like Cord Meyer.[11] This conflict could also be traced back to the conflict between Hoover and William J. Donovan, going back to the first Red Scare, but especially during World War II. Donovan ran the OSS (CIA's predecessor). They had differing opinions on the nature of the alliance with the Soviet Union, conflicts over jurisdiction, conflicts of personality, the OSS hiring of communists and criminals as agents, etc.[12]
History[edit]
See also: Smith Act trials of communist party leaders
By the 1930s, communism had become an attractive economic ideology, particularly among labor leaders and intellectual elites. By 1939, the CPUSA had some 50,000 members.[13] In 1940, soon after World War II began in Europe, the U.S. Congress legislated the Alien Registration Act (aka the Smith Act, 18 USC § 2385) making it a crime to "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the duty, necessity, desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association"—and required Federal registration of all foreign nationals. Although principally deployed against communists, the Smith Act was also used against right-wing political threats such as the German-American Bund, and the perceived racial disloyalty of the Japanese-American population, (cf. hyphenated-Americans).
In 1941, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, the CPUSA's official position became pro-war, opposing labor strikes in the weapons industry and supporting the U.S. war effort against the Axis Powers. With the slogan "Communism is Twentieth-Century Americanism", the chairman, Earl Browder, advertised the CPUSA's integration to the political mainstream.[14] In contrast, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party opposed U.S. participation in the war and supported labor strikes, even in the war-effort industry. For this reason, James P. Cannon and other SWP leaders were convicted per the Smith Act.
In March 1947, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9835, creating the "Federal Employees Loyalty Program" establishing political-loyalty review boards who determined the "Americanism" of Federal Government employees, and recommended termination of those who had confessed to spying for the Soviet Union, as well as some suspected of being "Un-American". It also was the template for several state legislatures' loyalty acts, such as California's Levering Act. The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) and the committees of Senator Joseph McCarthy (R., Wisc.) conducted character investigations of "American communists" (actual and alleged), and their roles in (real and imaginary) espionage, propaganda, and subversion favoring the Soviet Union—in the process revealing the extraordinary breadth of the Soviet spy network in infiltrating the federal government; the process also launched the successful political career of Richard Nixon, and Robert F. Kennedy,[15] as well as that of Joseph McCarthy. [McCarthy died in 1957] Senator McCarran introduced the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 that was passed by the U.S. Congress and which modified a great deal of law to restrict civil liberties in the name of security. President Truman declared the act a "mockery of the Bill of Rights" and a "long step toward totalitarianism" because it represented a government restriction on the freedom of opinion. He vetoed the act but his veto was overridden by Congress.[16] Much of the bill eventually was repealed.
The Second Red Scare profoundly altered the temper of American society. Its later characterizations may be seen as contributory to the popularity of anti-communist espionage (My Son John, 1952) and science fiction movies (The Thing From Another World, 1951) with stories and themes of the infiltration, subversion, invasion, and destruction of American society by un–American thought and inhuman beings. Even a baseball team, the Cincinnati Reds, temporarily renamed themselves the "Cincinnati Redlegs" to avoid the money-losing and career-ruining connotations inherent in being ball-playing "Reds" (communists).
In 1995, the American government revealed details of the Venona Project, which when combined with the opening of the USSR ComIntern archives, provided substantial validation of intelligence gathering, outright spying, and policy influencing, by Americans on behalf of the Soviet Union, from 1940 through 1980.[17][18]
See also[edit]
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American social policy during the Second Red Scare
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Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Levin, Murray B. (1971). Political Hysteria in America: The Democratic Capacity for Repression. Basic Books. p. 29. ISBN 0-465-05898-1. OCLC 257349.
Jump up ^ Political Hysteria in America: The Democratic Capacity for Repression (1971), p. 31
Jump up ^ "Preamble to the IWW Constitution". Industrial Workers of the World. Retrieved 2009-08-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Cole, David D. (2003). "Enemy Aliens" (PDF). Stanford Law Review. Stanford Law Review, Vol. 54, No. 5. 54 (5): 953–1004. doi:10.2307/1229690. ISSN 0038-9765. JSTOR 1229690. OCLC 95029839. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ Farquhar, Michael (2003). A Treasury of Great American Scandals. Penguin Books. p. 199. ISBN 0-14-200192-9. OCLC 51810711.
Jump up ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). War, Peace, and All That Jazz. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 34–36. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
Jump up ^ Gage, Beverly (2009). The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 160–161. ISBN 978-0-19-514824-4. OCLC 149137353.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, David M.; Lizabeth Cohen; Thomas A. Bailey (2001). The American Pageant. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-669-39728-4. OCLC 48675667.
Jump up ^ O. Dickerson, Mark (2006). An Introduction to Government and Politics, Seventh Edition. Toronto: Nelson. ISBN 0-17-641676-5.
Jump up ^ Canada. The report of the Royal Commission appointed under Order in Council P. C. 411 of February 5, 1946 to investigate the facts relating to and the circumstances surrounding the communication, by public officials and other persons in positions of trust, of secret and confidential information to agents of a foreign power, June 27, 1946. Ottawa: E. Cloutier, Printer to the King, 1946.[verification needed]
Jump up ^ Mocking Bird Archived 2006-06-19 at the Wayback Machine., John Simkin, Spartacus Schoolnet
Jump up ^ See for example Wedge: The Secret War between the FBI and CIA, by Mark Riebling
Jump up ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. (1994). A Documentary History of the Communist Party of the United States: Volume III Unite and Fight, 1934–1935. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. xv. ISBN 978-0-313-28506-6. OCLC 27976811.
Jump up ^ Countryman, Edward (2010). "Communism". In Kazin, Michael; Edwards, Rebecca; Rothman, Adam. The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-691-12971-1. OCLC 320801248. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Hiss Case in History". The Hiss Case in Story. Harvard, NYU. 2009. Archived from the original on May 4, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-28.
Jump up ^ Lane, Frederick S. (2009). American Privacy: The 400-year History of Our Most Contested Right. Boston: Beacon Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-8070-4441-5. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Venona and the Russian Files". The Hiss Case in Story. Harvard, NYU. 2010. Archived from the original on May 4, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-28.
Jump up ^ Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy. "A Brief Account of the American Experience" (PDF). Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy. VI; Appendix A. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. A–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 4, 2011. Retrieved 2006-06-26.
References and further reading[edit]
This article's further reading may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
K.A. Cuordileone, "The Torment of Secrecy: Reckoning With Communism and Anti-Communism After Venona," Diplomatic History, vol. 35, no. 4 (Sept. 2001), pp. 615–642.
Albert Fried, McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Joy Hakim, War, Peace, and All That Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
John Earl Haynes, Red Scare or Red Menace?: American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era. Ivan R. Dee, 2000.
John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Cambridge, MA: Yale University Press, 2000.
Regin Schmidt (2000). Red Scare: FBI and the Origins of Anticommunism in the United States, 1919-1943. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 1–391. ISBN 978-8772895819. OCLC 963460662.
Murray B. Levin, Political Hysteria in America: The Democratic Capacity for Repression. New York: Basic Books, 1972.
Rodger McDaniel, Dying for Joe McCarthy's Sins. Cody, Wyo.: WordsWorth, 2013. ISBN 978-0983027591
Ted Morgan, Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America. New York: Random House, 2004.
Robert K. Murray, Red Scare a Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 1964.
Richard Gid Powers, Not Without Honor: A History of American Anti-Communism. New York: Free Press, 1997.
Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998.
Landon R.Y. Storrs, The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
William M. Wiecek, "The Legal Foundations of Domestic Anticommunism: The Background of Dennis v. United States," Supreme Court Review, vol. 2001 (2001), pp. 375–434. In JSTOR
External links[edit]
"Political Tests for Professors: Academic Freedom during the McCarthy Years" by Ellen Schrecker, The University Loyalty Oath, October 7, 1999.
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