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London Bridge
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Not to be confused with Tower Bridge. For other uses, see London Bridge (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 51°30′29″N 0°05′16″W / 51.50806°N 0.08778°W / 51.50806; -0.08778
London Bridge
London Bridge in 2006
Coordinates
51°30′29″N 0°05′16″W / 51.50806°N 0.08778°W / 51.50806; -0.08778
Carries
Five lanes of the A3
Crosses
River Thames
Locale
Central London
Maintained by
Bridge House Estates,
City of London Corporation
Preceded by
Cannon Street Railway Bridge
Followed by
Tower Bridge
Characteristics
Design
Prestressed concrete box girder bridge
Total length
269 m (882.5 ft)
Width
32 m (105.0 ft)
Longest span
104 m (341.2 ft)
Clearance below
8.9 m (29.2 ft)
Design life
Modern bridge (1971–present)
Victorian stone arch (1832–1968)
Medieval stone arch (1176–1832)
Various wooden bridges (AD 50–1176)
History
Opened
17 March 1973; 44 years ago (1973-03-17)
Throughout history, a number of bridges named London Bridge have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and steel. This replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of timber bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London.
The current bridge stands at the western end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres (98 ft) upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the medieval bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank and Southwark Cathedral on the southern shore. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston upon Thames. Its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme "London Bridge Is Falling Down" and its inclusion within art and literature.
The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, an independent charity of medieval origin overseen by the City of London Corporation. It carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority.[1] The crossing also delineates an area along the southern bank of the River Thames, between London Bridge and Tower Bridge, that has been designated as a business improvement district.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Location
1.2 Roman bridges
1.3 Early medieval bridges
1.4 "Old" London Bridge (1209–1831)
1.5 "New" London Bridge (1831–1967)
1.5.1 Sale to Robert McCulloch
1.6 Modern London Bridge
2 Transport
3 London Bridge in literature and popular culture
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Location[edit]
The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand and clay. From the late Neolithic era the southern embankment formed a natural causeway above the surrounding swamp and marsh of the river's estuary; the northern ascended to higher ground at the present site of Cornhill. Between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. Both embankments, particularly the northern, would have offered stable backheads for boat traffic up and downstream – the Thames and its estuary were a major inland and Continental trade route from at least the 9th century BC.[3] There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, but until a bridge was built there, London did not exist.[4] Two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the river's upper tidal reach. It seems that the course of Watling Street was aligned with them and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, who at the time of Caesar's invasion of 54 BC were Britain's most powerful tribe. Some time before Claudius's conquest of AD 43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames Estuary from a capital at Camulodunum, nowadays Colchester in Essex. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the capital city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Romans as part of their road-building programme, to help consolidate their conquest.[5]
Roman bridges [edit]
The first bridge was probably a Roman military pontoon type, giving a rapid overland shortcut to Camulodunum from the southern and Kentish ports, along the Roman roads of Stane Street and Watling Street (now the A2). Around 55 AD, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the northern end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root, and grew into the town of Londinium.[6] A smaller settlement developed at the southern end of the bridge, in the area now known as Southwark. The bridge was probably destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt (60 AD), but both were rebuilt and Londinium became the administrative and mercantile capital of Roman Britain. The upstream fords and ferries remained in use but the bridge offered uninterrupted, mass movement of foot, horse, and wheeled traffic across the Thames, linking four major arterial road systems north of the Thames with four to the south. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire.[7][8]
Early medieval bridges [edit]
With the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the river became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex. By the late 9th century, Danish invasions prompted at least a partial reoccupation of the site by the Saxons. The bridge may have been rebuilt by Alfred the Great soon after the Battle of Edington as part of Alfred's redevelopment of the area in his system of burhs,[9] or it may have been rebuilt around 990 under the Saxon king Æthelred the Unready to hasten his troop movements against Sweyn Forkbeard, father of Cnut the Great. A skaldic tradition describes the bridge's destruction in 1014 by Æthelred's ally Olaf,[10] to divide the Danish forces who held both the walled City of London and Southwark. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is c.1016 when chroniclers mention how Cnut's ships bypassed the crossing, during his war to regain the throne from Edmund Ironside (see Battle of Brentford (1016)).
Following the Norman conquest in 1066, King William I rebuilt the bridge. The London tornado of 1091 destroyed it, also damaging St Mary-le-Bow.[11] It was repaired or replaced by King William II, destroyed by fire in 1136, and rebuilt in the reign of Stephen. Henry II created a monastic guild, the "Brethren of the Bridge", to oversee all work on London Bridge. In 1163 Peter of Colechurch, chaplain and Warden of the bridge and its Brethren, supervised the bridge's last rebuilding in timber.[12]
"Old" London Bridge (1209–1831)[edit]
An engraving by Claes Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse.
After the murder of his erstwhile friend and later opponent Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, the penitent King Henry II commissioned a new stone bridge in place of the old, with a chapel at its centre dedicated to Becket as martyr. The archbishop had been a native Londoner and a popular figure. The Chapel of St Thomas on the Bridge became the official start of pilgrimage to his Canterbury shrine; it was grander than some town parish churches, and had an additional river-level entrance for fishermen and ferrymen. Building work began in 1176, supervised by Peter of Colechurch.[12] The costs would have been enormous; Henry's attempt to meet them with taxes on wool and sheepskins probably gave rise to a later legend that London Bridge was built on wool packs.[12] It was finished by 1209 during the reign of King John; it had taken 33 years to complete. John tried to recoup the cost of building and maintenance by licensing out building plots on the bridge but this was never enough. In 1284, in exchange for loans to Edward I, the City of London acquired the Charter for the maintenance of the bridge, based on the duties and toll-rights of the former "Brethren of the Bridge".
The bridge was some 26 feet (8 m) wide, and about 800–900 feet (240–270 m) long, supported by 19 irregularly spaced arches, founded on starlings set into the river-bed. It had a drawbridge to allow for the passage of tall ships, and defensive gatehouses at both ends. By 1358, it was already crowded, with 138 shops. At least one two-entranced, multi-seated public latrine overhung the bridge parapets and discharged into the river below; so did an unknown number of private latrines reserved for Bridge householders or shopkeepers and bridge officials. In 1382–83 a new latrine was made (or an old one replaced) at considerable cost, at the northern end of the bridge.[13]
The buildings on London Bridge were a major fire hazard and increased the load on its arches, several of which had to be rebuilt over the centuries. In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the early fires of London broke out on both ends of the bridge simultaneously, trapping many people in the middle. Houses on the bridge were burnt during Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and during Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450. A major fire of 1633 that destroyed the northern third of the bridge formed a firebreak that prevented further damage to the bridge during the Great Fire of London (1666).
Detail of Old London Bridge on the 1632 oil painting "View of London Bridge" by Claude de Jongh
By the Tudor era there were some 200 buildings on the bridge. Some stood up to seven storeys high, some overhung the river by seven feet, and some overhung the road, to form a dark tunnel through which all traffic had to pass, including (from 1577) the palatial Nonsuch House. The roadway was just 12 feet (4 m) wide, divided into two lanes, so that in each direction, carts, wagons, coaches and pedestrians shared a single file lane six feet wide. When the bridge was congested, crossing it could take up to an hour. Those who could afford the fare might prefer to cross by ferry, but the bridge structure had several undesirable effects on river traffic. The narrow arches and wide pier bases restricted the river's tidal ebb and flow, so that in hard winters, the river upstream of the bridge became more susceptible to freezing and impassable by boat. The flow was further obstructed in the 16th century by waterwheels (designed by Peter Morice) installed under the two north arches to drive water pumps, and under the two south arches to power grain mills; the difference in water levels on the two sides of the bridge could be as much as 6 feet (2 m), producing ferocious rapids between the piers resembling a weir.[14] Only the brave or foolhardy attempted to "shoot the bridge"—steer a boat between the starlings when in flood—and some were drowned in the attempt. The bridge was "for wise men to pass over, and for fools to pass under."[15]
This pedestrian alcove, now in Victoria Park, Tower Hamlets, is one of the surviving fragments of the old London Bridge that was demolished in 1831. A similar alcove from the same source can be seen at the Guy's Campus of King's College London.
The southern gatehouse became the scene of one of London's most notorious sights — a display of the severed heads of traitors, impaled on pikes[16] and dipped in tar and boiled to preserve them against the elements. The head of William Wallace was the first to appear on the gate, in 1305, starting a tradition that was to continue for another 355 years. Other famous heads on pikes included those of Jack Cade in 1450, Thomas More in 1535, Bishop John Fisher in the same year, and Thomas Cromwell in 1540. In 1598, a German visitor to London, Paul Hentzner, counted over 30 heads on the bridge:[17]
On the south is a bridge of stone eight hundred feet in length, of wonderful work; it is supported upon twenty piers of square stone, sixty feet high and thirty broad, joined by arches of about twenty feet diameter. The whole is covered on each side with houses so disposed as to have the appearance of a continued street, not at all of a bridge. Upon this is built a tower, on whose top the heads of such as have been executed for high treason are placed on iron spikes: we counted above thirty.
Evelyn's Diary noted that the practice stopped in 1660, following the Restoration of King Charles II,[18] but heads were reported at the site as late as 1772.[19]
By 1722 congestion was becoming so serious that the Lord Mayor decreed that "all carts, coaches and other carriages coming out of Southwark into this City do keep all along the west side of the said bridge: and all carts and coaches going out of the City do keep along the east side of the said bridge." This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain driving on the left.[20]
From 1758 to 1762, all houses and shops on the bridge were demolished through Act of Parliament. The two centre arches were replaced by a single wider span to improve navigation on the river.
Drawing of London Bridge from a 1682 panorama
"New" London Bridge (1831–1967) [edit]
The Demolition of Old London Bridge, 1832, Guildhall Gallery, London.
New London Bridge in the late 19th century.
By the end of the 18th century, it was apparent that the old London Bridge — by then over 600 years old — needed to be replaced. It was narrow and decrepit, and blocked river traffic. In 1799, a competition for designs to replace the old bridge was held. Entrants included Thomas Telford, whose proposal of a single iron arch spanning 600 feet (180 m) was rejected as unfeasible and impractical. John Rennie won the competition with a more conventional design of five stone arches. It was built 100 feet (30 m) west (upstream) of the original site by Jolliffe and Banks of Merstham, Surrey,[21] under the supervision of Rennie's son. Work began in 1824 and the foundation stone was laid, in the southern coffer dam, on 15 June 1825.[citation needed]
Spare corbels for London bridge left behind at Swelltor Quarry on Dartmoor, Devon. They lie beside the former narrow gauge Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway.
The old bridge continued in use while the new bridge was being built, and was demolished after the latter opened in 1831. New approach roads had to be built, which cost three times as much as the bridge itself. The total costs, around £2.5 million (£208 million in 2016),[22] were shared by the British Government and the Corporation of London.
Rennie's bridge was 928 feet (283 m) long and 49 feet (15 m) wide, constructed from Haytor granite. The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; King William IV and Queen Adelaide attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge.
In 1896 the bridge was the busiest point in London, and one of its most congested; 8,000 pedestrians and 900 vehicles crossed every hour.[16] It was widened by 13 feet (4.0 m), using granite corbels.[23] Subsequent surveys showed that the bridge was sinking an inch (about 2.5 cm) every eight years, and by 1924 the east side had sunk some three to four inches (about 9 cm) lower than the west side. The bridge would have to be removed and replaced.
Sale to Robert McCulloch[edit]
Main article: London Bridge (Lake Havasu City)
Rennie's "New" London Bridge during its reconstruction at Lake Havasu City, Arizona, March 1971.
Rennie's "New" London Bridge rebuilt, Lake Havasu City, 2003.
In 1967, the Common Council of the City of London placed the bridge on the market and began to look for potential buyers. Council member Ivan Luckin had put forward the idea of selling the bridge, and recalled: "They all thought I was completely crazy when I suggested we should sell London Bridge when it needed replacing." On 18 April 1968, Rennie's bridge was sold to an American. It was purchased by the Missourian entrepreneur Robert P. McCulloch of McCulloch Oil for US$2,460,000. The claim that McCulloch believed mistakenly that he was buying the more impressive Tower Bridge was denied by Luckin in a newspaper interview.[24] As the bridge was taken apart, each piece was meticulously numbered. The blocks were then shipped overseas through the Panama Canal to California and trucked from Long Beach to Arizona. The bridge was reconstructed by Sundt Construction at Lake Havasu City, Arizona, and re-dedicated on 10 October 1971. The reconstruction of Rennie's London Bridge spans the Bridgewater Channel canal that leads from the Uptown area of Lake Havasu City and follows McCulloch Boulevard onto an island that has yet to be named.
The London Bridge that was rebuilt at Lake Havasu City consists of a frame with stones from Rennie's London Bridge used as cladding. The cladding stones used are 150 to 200 millimetres (6 to 8 inches) thick. Some of the stones from the bridge were left behind at Merrivale Quarry at Princetown in Devon.[25] When Merrivale Quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003, some of the remaining stones were sold in an online auction.[26]
Modern London Bridge [edit]
The current London Bridge was designed by architect Lord Holford and engineers Mott, Hay and Anderson.[27] It was constructed by contractors John Mowlem and Co from 1967 to 1972,[27] and opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 March 1973.[28] It comprises three spans of prestressed-concrete box girders, a total of 928 feet (283 m) long. The cost of £4 million (£51.9 million in 2016),[22] was met entirely by the Bridge House Estates charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added.[29]
The current London Bridge, pictured in January 1987. The skyscraper in the background is the National Westminster Tower (Tower 42), opened six years prior.
In 1984, the British warship HMS Jupiter collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both the ship and the bridge.
On Remembrance Day 2004, several bridges in London were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are regularly switched on at night.
The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into the City from London Bridge Station (south to north). An example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film About a Boy.
On 11 July 2009, as part of the annual Lord Mayor's charity Appeal and to mark the 800th anniversary of Old London Bridge's completion in the reign of King John, the Lord Mayor and Freemen of the City drove a flock of sheep across the bridge, supposedly by ancient right.[30]
London Bridge with new barriers installed in 2017
On 3 June 2017, London Bridge was the target of a terrorist attack. Three Islamist terrorists used a rented van to ram pedestrians walking across the bridge, killing three. The attackers then drove their vehicle to nearby Borough Market, where they stabbed multiple people, five of whom died. Armed police arrived on scene and shot the three suspects dead. In addition to the eight innocent people killed in the attack, 48 were injured.[31]
Transport[edit]
The nearest London Underground stations are Monument, at the northern end of the bridge, and London Bridge at the southern end. London Bridge station is also served by National Rail.
London Bridge in literature and popular culture[edit]
The nursery rhyme "London Bridge Is Falling Down" has been speculatively connected to several of the bridge's historic collapses.
Rennie's Old London Bridge is a prominent landmark in T.S. Eliot's masterpiece "The Waste Land", wherein he compares the shuffling commuters across London Bridge to the hell-bound souls of Dante's Limbo.
Gary P. Nunn's song "London Homesick Blues" includes the lyrics, "Even London Bridge has fallen down, and moved to Arizona, now I know why." [32]
London Bridge is named in the World War II song "The King is Still in London" by Roma Campbell-Hunter & Hugh Charles. [33]
See also[edit]
Bridge (ward)
List of Roman bridges
Roman bridge
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Statutory Instrument 2000 No. 1117 – The GLA Roads Designation Order 2000". Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "About us". TeamLondonBridge. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Merrifield, Ralph, London, City of the Romans, University of California Press, 1983, pp. 1 – 4. The terraces were formed by glacial sediment towards the end of the last Ice Age.
Jump up ^ D. Riley, in Burland, J.B., Standing, J.R., Jardine, F.M., Building Response to Tunnelling: Case Studies from Construction of the Jubilee line Extension, London, Volume 1, Thomas Telford, 2001, pp. 103 – 104.
Jump up ^ The site of the new bridge determined the location of London itself. The alignment of Watling Street with the ford at Westminster (crossed via Thorney Island) is basis for a mooted earlier Roman "London", sited in the vicinity of Park Lane. See Margary, Ivan D., Roman Roads in Britain, Vol. 1, South of the Foss Way – Bristol Channel, Phoenix House Lts, London, 1955, pp. 46 – 47.
Jump up ^ Margary, Ivan D., Roman Roads in Britain, Vol. 1, South of the Foss Way – Bristol Channel, Phoenix House Lts, London, 1955, pp. 46 – 48.
Jump up ^ Jones, B., and Mattingly, D., An Atlas of Roman Britain, Blackwell, 1990, pp.168 – 172.
Jump up ^ Merrifield, Ralph, London, City of the Romans, University of California Press, 1983, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Jeremy Haslam, 'The Development of London of London by King Alfred: A Reassessment'; Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, 61 (2010), 109–44:http://jeremyhaslam.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/alfred-and-london-a-reassessment.pdf Retrieved 2 August 2014
Jump up ^ Snorri Sturluson (c. 1230), Heimskringla . There is no reference to this event in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. See: Hagland, Jan Ragnar; Watson, Bruce (Spring 2005). "Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge" (PDF). London Archaeologist. 12: 328–33.
Jump up ^ "Tornado extremes". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 14 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thornbury, Walter, Old and New London, 1872, vol.2, p.10
Jump up ^ Sabine, Ernest L., "Latrines and Cesspools of Mediaeval London," Speculum, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jul. 1934), pp. 305–306, 315. Earliest evidence for the multi-seated public latrine is from a court case of 1306.
Jump up ^ Pierce, p.45 and Jackson, p.77
Jump up ^ Rev. John Ray, "Book of Proverbs", 1670, cited in Jackson, p.77
^ Jump up to: a b Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 23.
Jump up ^ "Vision of Britain - Paul Hentzner - Arrival and London". www.visionofbritain.org.uk.
Jump up ^ Evelyn, John. Evelyn's Diary. Entry: 10 April 1696
Jump up ^ Timbs, John. Curiosities of London. p.705, 1885. Available: books.google.com. Accessed: 29 September 2013
Jump up ^ Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them, M. G. Lay & James E. Vance, Rutgers University Press 1992, p. 199.
Jump up ^ A fragment from the old bridge is set into the tower arch inside St Katharine's Church, Merstham.
^ Jump up to: a b UK Consumer Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ A dozen granite corbels prepared for this widening went unused, and still lie near Swelltor Quarry on the disused railway track a couple of miles south of Princetown on Dartmoor.
Jump up ^ How London Bridge Was Sold To The States (from This Is Local London)
Jump up ^ "London Bridge is still here! – 21/12/1995 – Contract Journal".
Jump up ^ "Merrivale Quarry, Whitchurch, Tavistock District, Devon, England, UK". www.mindat.org.
^ Jump up to: a b "Carillion accepts award for London Bridge project". Building talk. 14 November 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Where Thames Smooth Waters Glide".
Jump up ^ Yee, plate 65 and others
Jump up ^ The Lord Mayor's Appeal
Jump up ^ "'Van hits pedestrians' on London Bridge in 'major incident'". BBC. 3 June 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "London Homesick Blues". International Lyrics Playground. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Huntley, Bill. "The King is Still in London". International Lyrics Playground. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
References[edit]
Jackson, Peter, London Bridge – A Visual History, Historical Publications, revised edition, 2002, ISBN 0-948667-82-6.
Murray, Peter & Stevens, Mary Anne, Living Bridges – The inhabited bridge, past, present and future, Royal Academy of Arts, London, 1996, ISBN 3-7913-1734-2.
Pierce, Patricia, Old London Bridge – The Story of the Longest Inhabited Bridge in Europe, Headline Books, 2001, ISBN 0-7472-3493-0.
Watson, Bruce, Brigham, Trevor and Dyson, Tony, London Bridge: 2000 years of a river crossing, Museum of London Archaeology Service, ISBN 1-901992-18-7.
Yee, Albert, London Bridge – Progress Drawings, no publisher, 1974, ISBN 978-0-904742-04-6.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Bridge.
The London Bridge Museum and Educational Trust
Views of Old London Bridge ca. 1440, BBC London
Southwark Council page with more info about the bridge
Virtual reality tour of Old London Bridge
Old London Bridge, Mechanics Magazine No. 318, September 1829
The London Bridge Experience
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Mamma Mia! (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mamma Mia!
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Phyllida Lloyd
Produced by
Judy Craymer
Gary Goetzman
Screenplay by
Catherine Johnson
Based on
Mamma Mia!
by Catherine Johnson
Starring
Meryl Streep
Pierce Brosnan
Colin Firth
Stellan Skarsgård
Julie Walters
Dominic Cooper
Amanda Seyfried
Christine Baranski
Music by
Benny Andersson
Björn Ulvaeus
Cinematography
Haris Zambarloukos
Edited by
Lesley Walker
Production
company
Relativity Media
Littlestar Productions
Playtone
Distributed by
Universal Pictures
Release date
June 30, 2008 (2008-06-30) (Leicester Square)
July 10, 2008 (2008-07-10) (United Kingdom)
July 17, 2008 (2008-07-17) (Germany)
July 18, 2008 (2008-07-18) (United States)
Running time
109 minutes
Country
Germany
United Kingdom
United States[1]
Language
English
Budget
$52 million[2]
Box office
$615.7 million[2]
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a 2008 jukebox musical romantic comedy film directed by Phyllida Lloyd and written by Catherine Johnson based on the 1999 musical of the same name, also written by Johnson, which itself is based on the songs of pop group ABBA, including the title song, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film features an ensemble cast, including Meryl Streep, Pierce Brosnan, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Julie Walters, Dominic Cooper, Amanda Seyfried and Christine Baranski. The plot follows a young bride-to-be who invites three men to her upcoming wedding, each one with the possibility of being her father. The film was an international co-production between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and was co-produced by Relativity Media, Playtone and Littlestar Productions.
Principal photography primarily took place on the island of Skopelos, Greece from August to September 2007. The film was distributed by Universal Pictures. Mamma Mia! held its world premiere on June 30, 2008 at Leicester Square in London and premiered on July 4, 2008 in Stockholm, Sweden, with Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog in attendance. The film was released theatrically on July 10 in the United Kingdom, on July 17 in Germany and on July 18 in the United States. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the musical numbers and production values, but criticized the plot and casting of inexperienced singers, in particular Brosnan and Skarsgård. Nonetheless, the film grossed $615 million worldwide on a $52 million budget, becoming the fifth highest-grossing film of 2008. A sequel, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was released on July 20, 2018, with much of the main cast returning.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Musical numbers
4 Production
5 Release
5.1 Home media
6 Reception
6.1 Box office
6.2 Critical response
6.3 Accolades
7 Sequel
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Plot[edit]
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20-year-old bride-to-be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids, Ali and Lisa, that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna. They are the men that her mother's diary reveals could have been her father: Irish-American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson, and British banker Harry Bright. She dreams of being given away by her father at her wedding, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father.
Sophie's mother Donna, who owns a villa and runs it not very successfully as a hotel, is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham-Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie smuggles them to their room. She doesn't reveal that she believes one of them is her father, but does explain that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She begs them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often" favorably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie's secret.
Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers, demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie that she truly does not know which of the three fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with an all female ensemble of staff and islanders. Sophie finds the men aboard Bill's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna's carefree youth. Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie sing to each other, but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party.
At Sophie's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform. When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her girlfriends dance with the men, Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great-aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie's happiness is short-lived as Sam and Harry each pull her aside to tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie, overwhelmed by the consequences of raising the hopes of all three "fathers", faints.
In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to tell each other what they learned the previous night, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other. Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night. Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie's childhood. Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant. Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him.
Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie and all gathered that her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man. The men do not want paternity confirmed, each agreeing to be one-third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna and Rosie makes a play for Bill. The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
Cast[edit]
ABBA appeared together with the film's cast in 2008. (Left to right: Benny Andersson, Pierce Brosnan, Amanda Seyfried, Meryl Streep, Agnetha Fältskog, Anni-Frid Lyngstad, Christine Baranski, Colin Firth, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Judy Craymer, Björn Ulvaeus and Dominic Cooper)
Meryl Streep as Donna Sheridan, Sophie's mother, owner of the hotel Villa Donna.
Amanda Seyfried as Sophie Sheridan, Donna's 20-year-old daughter, Sky's fiancée.
Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael, Sophie's possible father and an Irish-American architect.
Colin Firth as Harry Bright, Sophie's possible father and a British banker.
Stellan Skarsgård as Bill Andersson, Sophie's possible father, a Swedish sailor and travel writer.
Dominic Cooper as Sky, Sophie's fiancé who is designing a website for the hotel.
Julie Walters as Rosie Mulligan, one of Donna's former bandmates in Donna and the Dynamos; an unmarried fun-loving author.
Christine Baranski as Tanya Chesham-Leigh, Donna's other former bandmate; a rich three-time divorcee.
Philip Michael as Pepper, Sky's best man who likes Tanya; a bartender
Juan Pablo Di Pace as Petros
Ashley Lilley as Ali, close friend of Sophie and her bridesmaid.
Rachel McDowall as Lisa, close friend of Sophie and her bridesmaid.
Enzo Squillino as Gregoris, one of Donna's employees.
Niall Buggy as Father Alex, the wedding priest.
Chris Jarvis as Eddie, a friend of Sky and Pepper.
Cameo appearances and uncredited roles
Benny Andersson as "Dancing Queen" piano player
Björn Ulvaeus as Greek god
Rita Wilson as Greek goddess
Musical numbers[edit]
See also: Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack
A soundtrack album was released on July 7, 2008 by Decca and Polydor in the United States and internationally, respectively. The recording was produced by Benny Andersson. The album features sixteen musical numbers within the film, including a hidden track. The album was nominated at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The deluxe edition of the soundtrack album was released on November 25, 2008.
"I Have a Dream" – Sophie
"Honey, Honey" – Sophie, Ali and Lisa
"Money, Money, Money" – Donna, Tanya and Rosie
"Mamma Mia" – Donna
"Chiquitita – Rosie, Tanya and Donna†
"Dancing Queen" – Tanya, Rosie and Donna
"Our Last Summer" – Harry, Bill, Sam, Sophie and Donna
"Lay All Your Love on Me" – Sky and Sophie
"Super Trouper" – Donna, Tanya and Rosie
"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" – Sophie, Ali and Lisa
"Voulez-Vous" – Donna, Sam, Tanya, Rosie, Harry, Bill, Sky, Ali, Lisa and Pepper
"The Name of the Game" – Sophie‡
"SOS" – Sam and Donna
"Does Your Mother Know" – Tanya and Pepper
"Slipping Through My Fingers" – Donna and Sophie
"The Winner Takes It All" – Donna
"I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" – Sam and Donna†
"When All Is Said and Done" – Sam and Donna
"Take a Chance on Me" – Rosie, Bill, Tanya, Pepper and Harry
"Waterloo" – Donna, Rosie, Tanya, Sam, Bill, Harry, Sky and Sophie†
"Thank You for the Music" – Sophie§
† Featured in the film, but omitted from the soundtrack album.
‡ Included in the soundtrack album, but omitted from the film.
§ Included on the soundtrack album as a hidden track.
Production[edit]
The Agios Ioannis chapel during filming of the wedding scene for Mamma Mia!.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos (during August/September 2007),[3] and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film's main location site.[3] The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped.[3] A complete set for Donna's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing.
The part of the film where Brosnan's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd's Building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte-cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity.[4]
The movie was filmed in the Greek island of Skopelos
The Fernando, Bill Anderson's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai-Mo-Shan built in 1934 by H. S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards.[5][6]
Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion.[7] She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9/11.[8]
Release[edit]
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.[9]
Home media[edit]
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest-selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold).[10] The record was previously held by Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl with sales of 4.7 million copies.
In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release.[11] By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best-selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.[12]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
Mamma Mia! grossed $144.1 million in the United States and $471.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $615.7 million, against a production budget of $52 million.[2] It became the highest grossing live-action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest-grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins' Wonder Woman in 2017.[13] It is the third highest-grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest-grossing film of all time at the UK box office.[14] The film opened at #1 in the U.K, taking £6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar's WALL-E from reaching #1 in its second week.[citation needed]
When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking #1 at the Greek box office.[15]
The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking #2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight.[16] At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record-holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.[17]
Critical response[edit]
Pierce Brosnan's singing was heavily panned by critics
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 54% based on 179 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "This jukebox musical is full of fluffy fun but rough singing voices and a campy tone might not make you feel like 'You Can Dance' the whole 90 minutes."[18] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[19] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[citation needed]
BBC Radio 5 Live's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as 'the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke'.[20] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, and expressed a "need to vomit".[21] Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it's amazing it wasn't made for men".[22] The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together: "Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I'll go to see it again anyway."[23][dead link] Angie Errigo of Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers."[24]
The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård."[25] Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo" (New York Magazine),[26] "a donkey braying" (The Philadelphia Inquirer)[27] and "a wounded raccoon" (The Miami Herald),[28] and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera's eye."[29]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
ACE Eddie Awards February 15, 2009 Best Edited Feature Film – Comedy or Musical Lesley Walker Nominated [30]
British Academy Film Awards February 8, 2009 Outstanding British Film Mamma Mia! Nominated [31]
Best Film Music Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus Nominated
Carl Foreman Award for Special Achievement by a British Director, Writer or Producer for their First Feature Film Judy Craymer Nominated
Costume Designers Guild Awards February 17, 2009 Excellence in Contemporary Film Ann Roth Nominated [32]
Empire Awards March 29, 2009 Best Soundtrack Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus Won [33]
Golden Globe Awards January 11, 2009 Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy Mamma Mia! Nominated [34]
Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical Meryl Streep Nominated
Golden Raspberry Awards February 21, 2009 Worst Supporting Actor Pierce Brosnan Won [35]
Golden Reel Awards February 21, 2009 Best Sound Editing – Music in a Musical Feature Film Tony Lewis, Martin Lowe, Robert Houston Won [36]
Grammy Awards February 8, 2009 Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media Various Artists Nominated [37]
Irish Film and Television Awards February 14, 2009 Best International Actress Meryl Streep Won [38]
MTV Movie Awards May 31, 2009 Best Breakthrough Female Performance Amanda Seyfried Nominated [39]
National Movie Awards September 8, 2008 Best Musical[40] Mamma Mia! Won [40]
Best Female Performance Meryl Streep Won
Best Male Performance Pierce Brosnan Nominated
Colin Firth Nominated
People's Choice Awards January 7, 2009 Favorite Movie Comedy Mamma Mia! Nominated [41]
Favorite Cast Mamma Mia! Nominated
Favorite Song from a Soundtrack "Mamma Mia" Won
Rembrandt Awards March 9, 2009 Best Female Actress Meryl Streep Won [42]
Best International Actress Won
Best International Film Phyllida Lloyd Won
Satellite Awards December 14, 2008 Best Actress in a Motion Picture, Comedy or Musical Meryl Streep Nominated [43]
Sequel[edit]
Main article: Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again
Because of the film's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Studios, said that it would take a while, but there would be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there were still plenty of ABBA songs to use.[44] Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018.[45] It was written and directed by Ol Parker.[46] It was announced that Seyfried,[47] Cooper, Streep, Firth and Brosnan would be returning.[48] In July 2017, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna.[49]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mamma Mia! (2008) | BFI". British Film Institute. Retrieved May 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mamma Mia! (2008)". The Numbers. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mansfield, Paul (2008-07-15). "Mamma Mia! – Unfazed by the fuss in Skopelos". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ "FLAMIN - Page not found". 16 August 2011. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "45' Teak Ketch 1933. Yacht for sale from classic yacht broker in Poole". Sandeman Yacht brokerage Poole. Sandeman Yacht Company. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ "Tai-Mo-Shan". Coburg Yacht Brokers website. Coburg Yacht Brokers. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ Hiscock, John (2008-07-04). "Meryl Streep the singing and dancing queen". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Meryl Streep, speaking on 'Abba: The Mamma Mia Story', ITV
Jump up ^ Sandra Wejbro (2008-07-04). "ABBA återförenades på röda mattan (Swedish)". Aftonbladet. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
Jump up ^ Sutherland, Mark (2008-12-31). "'Mamma Mia!' breaks U.K. DVD record". Archived from the original on 2009-01-15. Retrieved 2017-07-13.
Jump up ^ BWW News Desk. "MAMMA MIA! DVD Takes In 30 Million In First Day Of Sales". Broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ "Nyheterna - tv4.se". nyheterna.se. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Williams, Trey (2017-06-24). "'Wonder Woman' passes 'Mamma Mia!' as highest-grossing film by female director". MarketWatch. Retrieved 2017-07-05.
Jump up ^ "UK all time top grossing films". 25thframe.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
Jump up ^ "Greece Box Office Index". Box Office Mojo. June 10, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Box Office Mojo". Box Office Mojo. July 19, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-19.
Jump up ^ Michael Gioia, Vichet Chum (December 30, 2014). ""Into the Woods" Slides Into Second Place in Domestic Box-Office Totals, Beating "Unbroken"". Playbill. Retrieved 2012-01-05. As previously reported, the Rob Marshall-directed film has become the biggest launch of a Broadway adaptation since "Mamma Mia!" ($27.8 million). CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Mamma Mia! Reviews". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Mama Mia reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Mark Kermode Reviews Mamma Mia". BBC Radio 5 live. 2008-07-11. Retrieved 2016-12-19 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Peter Bradshaw. "Mamma Mia! | Culture". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ "MOVIEBOB: Mama Mia". YouTube. 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ "Telegraph review". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Angie Errigo (3 July 2008). "Mamma Mia! Review | Movie". gb: Empireonline.com. Retrieved 2017-01-27.
Jump up ^ Jordan Mintzer (2008-07-05). "Mamma Mia!". Variety. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ "The Dark Knight – Mamma Mia! – The Exiles". Nymag.com. New York Magazine Movie Review. 2008-07-21. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ Rickey, Carrie (2008-07-17). "'Mamma Mia,' here we go again – this time on screen". Philly.com. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Rene. "Mamma Mia! (PG-13) **Â½ | Singing! And dancing! Not much of a story! Who cares!?! | MiamiHerald.com". Archived from the original on 2008-10-10. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
Jump up ^ Brunson, Matt (2008-07-23). "Out of tune | Reviews". Charlotte.creativeloafing.com. Creative Loafing Charlotte. Archived from the original on 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
Jump up ^ Knegt, Peter (12 January 2009). "ACE Eddie Noms Announced". IndieWire. Retrieved July 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Film Nominations in 2009". Film Awards – BAFTA. 2009-01-17. Archived from the original on 2009-01-17. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
Jump up ^ "10th Annual Awards 2008". Costume Designers Guild. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Simon (March 30, 2009). "Empire Awards 2009: The Winners". Digital Spy. Hearst Magazines. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "66th Annual Golden Globe Award Winners". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Archived from the original on July 25, 2013. Retrieved July 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Wilson, John (2009). "29th Annual Golden Raspberry (Razzie) Award "Winners"". Home of the Golden Raspberry Award Foundation. Golden Raspberry Award Foundation. Retrieved 2009-05-01.
Jump up ^ "2009 Golden Reel Award Nominees: Feature Films". Motion Picture Sound Editors. Archived from the original on June 30, 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "51st Annual Grammy Awards – 2008". grammy.com. Archived from the original on January 23, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Winners 2009 | IFTA | Irish Film & Television Academy | Irish Film & Television Awards". Irish Film & Television Academy. Retrieved July 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sciretta, Peter (May 31, 2009). "2009 MTV Movie Awards Winners". SlashFilm. Archived from the original on April 11, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Schmidt, Veronica (9 September 2008). "Mamma Mia wins at National Movie Awards". The Times. London: Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 6 September 2010. More than one of |website= and |work= specified (help)
Jump up ^ "People's Choice Awards Past Nominees & Winners: 2009". PCAvote.com. Sycamore Productions. Retrieved 2008-12-31.
Jump up ^ van Oosten, Jasper (10 March 2009). "Oorlogswinter en Mamma Mia! winnen Film1 Rembrandt Awards". Film1. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Nominees and Winners; 2008 13th Annual SATELLITE Awards". The International Press Academy. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Baz Bamigboye (2008-10-17). "Baz Bamigboye on a possible Mamma Mia sequel, Kate Winslet, Leonardo DiCaprio and much more". Mail Online. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
Jump up ^ Bryan Alexander (2017-05-19). "'Mamma Mia' sequel 'Here We Go Again' coming next summer". US Today. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
Jump up ^ Anita Busch (May 19, 2017). "'Mamma Mia: Here We Go Again!' On Universal Pictures' 2018 Schedule". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved May 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mike Fleming Jr (June 1, 2017). "Amanda Seyfried Set For 'Mamma Mia!' Reprise". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Zach Seemayer (June 22, 2017). "Dominic Cooper Dishes on Returning for 'Mamma Mia 2': It's 'a Phone Call I've Been Waiting For'". Entertainment Tonight. Retrieved June 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jenna Busch (July 12, 2017). "Mamma Mia Sequel Casts Baby Driver's Lily James". Comingsoon.net. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Louise FitzGerald, Melanie Williams: Mamma Mia! The Movie: Exploring a Cultural Phenomenon. I.B. Tauris, 2013, ISBN 9781848859425
External links[edit]
Official website
Mamma Mia! on IMDb
Mamma Mia! at AllMovie
Mamma Mia! at Box Office Mojo
Mamma Mia! at Rotten Tomatoes
Mamma Mia! at Metacritic
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Spermaceti
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A spermaceti wax candle and bottle of sperm oil.
Spermaceti (from Greek sperma meaning "seed", and ceti, the genitive form of "whale"[1]) is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale (and, in smaller quantities, in the oils of other whales). Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale's head. This organ may contain as much as 1,900 litres (500 US gal) of spermaceti.[2]
Two theories for the spermaceti organ's biological function suggest it either controls buoyancy, or acts as a focusing apparatus for the whale's sense of echolocation. There has been concrete evidence to support both theories. The buoyancy theory holds that the sperm whale is capable of heating the spermaceti, lowering its density and thus allowing the whale to float; in order for the whale to sink again, it must take water into its blowhole which cools the spermaceti into a denser solid. This claim has been called into question by recent research which indicates a lack of biological structures to support this heat exchange, as well as the fact that the change in density is too small to be meaningful until the organ grows to huge size.[3]
The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale: 38–51% in calves, 58–87% in adult females, and 71–94% in adult males.[4] Spermaceti wax is extracted from sperm oil by crystallisation at 6 °C (43 °F), when treated by pressure and a chemical solution of caustic alkali. Spermaceti forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch, and are devoid of taste or smell, making it very useful as an ingredient in cosmetics, leatherworking, and lubricants. The substance was also used in making candles of a standard photometric value, in the dressing of fabrics, and as a pharmaceutical excipient, especially in cerates and ointments. Candlepower, a photometric unit defined in the United Kingdom Act of Parliament Metropolitan Gas Act 1860 and adopted at the International Electrotechnical Conference of 1883, was based on the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle.
Contents
1 Properties
2 Biological function
3 Spermaceti processing
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Properties[edit]
Spermaceti is taken from the spermaceti organ (yellow) and junk (orange) within the sperm whale's head.
Raw spermaceti is liquid within the head of the sperm whale, and is said to have a smell similar to raw milk.[5] It is composed mostly of wax esters (chiefly cetyl palmitate) and a smaller proportion of triglycerides.[6] Unlike other toothed whales, most of the carbon chains in the wax esters are relatively long (C10–C22).[4] The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale: 38–51% in calves, 58–87% in adult females, and 71–94% in adult males. The blubber oil of the whale is about 66% wax.[4] When it cools to 30 °C or below, the waxes begin to solidify.[7] The speed of sound in spermaceti is 2,684 m/s (at 40 kHz, 36 °C), making it nearly twice as good a conductor of sounds as the oil in a dolphin's melon.[8]
Spermaceti is insoluble in water, very slightly soluble in cold ethanol, but easily dissolved in ether, chloroform, carbon disulfide, and boiling ethanol. Spermaceti consists principally of cetyl palmitate (the ester of cetyl alcohol and palmitic acid), C15H31COO-C16H33.
A botanical alternative to spermaceti is a derivative of jojoba oil, jojoba esters, C19H41COO-C20H41, a solid wax which is chemically and physically very similar to spermaceti and may be used in many of the same applications.
Biological function[edit]
Currently there is disagreement on what biological purpose or purposes spermaceti serves. It might be used as a means of altering the whale's buoyancy, since the density of the spermaceti alters with its phase.[9] Another hypothesis has been that it is used as a cushion to protect the sperm whale's delicate snout while diving.[10][11]
The most likely primary function of the spermaceti organ is to add internal echo or resonator clicks to the sonar echo location clicks emitted by the respiratory organs. This makes it possible for the whale to sense the motion of its prey as well as its position. The changing distance to the prey affects the time interval between the returning clicks reflected by the prey (doppler effect). This would explain the low density and high compressibility of the spermaceti, which enhance the resonance by the contrast of the acoustic properties of the sea water and of the hard tissue surrounding the spermaceti.
Spermaceti processing[edit]
Further information: Sperm whaling
After killing a sperm whale, the whalers would pull the carcass alongside the ship, cut off the head and pull it on deck, whereupon they would cut a hole in it and bail out the matter inside with a bucket. The harvested matter, raw spermaceti, was stored in casks to be processed back on land. A large whale could yield as much as 500 gallons. The spermaceti was boiled and strained of impurities to prevent it from going rancid. On land, the casks were allowed to chill during the winter, causing the spermaceti to congeal into a spongy and viscous mass. The congealed matter was then loaded into wool sacks and placed in a press to squeeze out the liquid. This liquid was bottled and sold as "winter-strained sperm oil". This was the most valuable product: an oil that remained liquid in freezing winter temperatures.
Later, during the warmer seasons, the leftover solid was allowed to partially melt, and the liquid was strained off to leave a fully solid wax. This wax, brown in color, was then bleached and sold as "spermaceti wax".[12][13] Spermaceti wax is white and translucent. It melts at about 50 °C (122 °F) and congeals at 45 °C (113 °F).[14]
Gallery[edit]
Processing of Spermaceti
1864 illustration captioned: "Removing the spermaceti from the head of the cachelot, or sperm whale"
A whaler bailing spermaceti from the severed head of a sperm whale (1874 illustration).
A jar of raw spermaceti.
Play media
A sperm whale is killed, its spermaceti bailed out, its blubber stripped and boiled in this excerpt from the 1922 movie Down to the Sea in Ships.
See also[edit]
Whale oil
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Spermaceti (n.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720017437.pdf
Jump up ^ Whitehead, Hal (2003-08-15). "Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean". ISBN 9780226895185.
^ Jump up to: a b c William F. Perrin, Bernd Würsig, J. G. M. Thewissen (2002). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. p. 1164
Jump up ^ William M Davis (1874). Nimrod of the Sea. Chapter 6
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2012-10-29.
Jump up ^ Malcolm R. Clarke (1978). Physical Properties of Spermaceti Oil in the Sperm Whale. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kenneth S. Norris, George W. Harvey (1972). A Theory for the Function of the Spermaceti Organ of the Sperm Whale
Jump up ^ Clarke, M.R. (November 1970). "Function of the Spermaceti Organ of the Sperm Whale". Nature. 228 (5274): 873–874. doi:10.1038/228873a0. PMID 16058732.
Jump up ^ Christopher Grayce, NEWTON, Sperm whales' name, "[1]", Last accessed October 2, 2010
Jump up ^ Doug Lennox, Dundurn Press, 2006, Now You Know: The Book of Answers, "[2]", Last accessed October 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ ""Beginning with Candle Making A History of the Whaling Museum " Historic Nantucket article from the Nantucket Historical Association". Nha.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Jump up ^ Wilson Heflin (2004). Herman Melville's Whaling Years. pg 232
Jump up ^ https://archive.org/details/practicaltreatis00dietuoft
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Spermaceti". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Further reading[edit]
Carrier, David R.; Deban, Stephen M.; Otterstrom, Jason (2002). "The face that sank the Essex: potential function of the spermaceti organ in aggression" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 205: 1755–1763.
Dolin, Eric Jay (2007). Leviathan, The History of Whaling in America. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06057-7.
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