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Prairie dog
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This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Prairie dog (disambiguation).
Prairie dogs
Temporal range: Late Pliocene-Holocene
Black-tailed prairie dog at the Smithsonian National Zoo Park in Washington, D.C.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
Tribe: Marmotini
Genus: Cynomys
Rafinesque, 1817
Species
Cynomys gunnisoni
Cynomys leucurus
Cynomys ludovicianus
Cynomys mexicanus
Cynomys parvidens
Prairie dogs (genus Cynomys) are herbivorous burrowing rodents native to the grasslands of North America. The five species are: black-tailed, white-tailed, Gunnison's, Utah, and Mexican prairie dogs. They are a type of ground squirrel, found in the United States, Canada and Mexico. In Mexico, prairie dogs are found primarily in the northern states, which lie at the southern end of the Great Plains: northeastern Sonora, north and northeastern Chihuahua, northern Coahuila, northern Nuevo León, and northern Tamaulipas. In the United States, they range primarily to the west of the Mississippi River, though they have also been introduced in a few eastern locales. Despite the name, they are not actually canines.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the term
2 Classification and first identification
3 Description
4 Ecology and behavior
4.1 Diet
4.2 Habitat and burrowing
4.3 Social organization and spacing
4.4 Reproduction and parenting
4.5 Antipredator calls
5 Conservation status
6 In captivity
7 Literary descriptions
8 In culture
9 References
10 External links
Origin of the term[edit]
Prairie dogs raise their heads from their burrows in response to disturbances.
Prairie dogs are named for their habitat and warning call, which sounds similar to a dog's bark. The name was in use at least as early as 1774.[1] The 1804 journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition note that in September 1804, they "discovered a Village of an animal the French Call the Prairie Dog".[2] Its genus, Cynomys, derives from the Greek for "dog mouse" (κυων kuōn, κυνος kunos – dog; μυς mus, μυός muos – mouse).[3]
Classification and first identification[edit]
The black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) was first described by Lewis and Clark in 1804.[2] Lewis described it in more detail in 1806, calling it the "barking squirrel".[4]
Order Rodentia
Suborder Sciuromorpha
Family Sciuridae (squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, and prairie dogs)
Subfamily Xerinae
Genus Cynomys
Gunnison's prairie dog, Cynomys gunnisoni
White-tailed prairie dog, Cynomys leucurus
Black-tailed prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus
Mexican prairie dog, Cynomys mexicanus
Utah prairie dog, Cynomys parvidens
About 14 other genera in subfamily
Description[edit]
Full view of a prairie dog
On average, these stout-bodied rodents will grow to be between 30 and 40 cm (12 and 16 in) long, including the short tail, and weigh between 0.5 and 1.5 kilograms (1 and 3 lb). Sexual dimorphism in body mass in the prairie dog varies 105 to 136% between the sexes.[5] Among the species, black-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the least sexually dimorphic, and white-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the most sexually dimorphic. Sexual dimorphism peaks during weaning, when the females lose weight and the males start eating more, and is at its lowest when the females are pregnant, which is also when the males are tired from breeding.
Ecology and behavior[edit]
Diet[edit]
Prairie dogs are chiefly herbivorous, though they eat some insects. They feed primarily on grasses and small seeds. In the fall, they eat broadleaf forbs. In the winter, lactating and pregnant females supplement their diets with snow for extra water.[6] They also will eat roots, seeds, fruit, and buds. Grasses of various species are eaten. Black-tailed prairie dogs in South Dakota eat western bluegrass, blue grama, buffalo grass, six weeks fescue, and tumblegrass,[6] while Gunnison’s prairie dogs eat rabbit brush, tumbleweeds, dandelions, saltbush, and cacti in addition to buffalo grass and blue grama. White-tailed prairie dogs have been observed to kill ground squirrels, a competing herbivore.[7][8]
Habitat and burrowing[edit]
Prairie dogs at a burrow entrance
Prairie dogs live mainly at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 ft above sea level.[9] The areas where they live can get as warm as 38 °C (100 °F) in the summer and as cold as −37 °C (−35 °F) in the winter.[9] As prairie dogs live in areas prone to environmental threats, including hailstorms, blizzards, and floods, as well as drought and prairie fires, burrows provide important protection. Burrows help prairie dogs control their body temperature (Thermoregulation) as they are 5–10 °C during the winter and 15–25 °C in the summer. Prairie dog tunnel systems channel rainwater into the water table which prevents runoff and erosion, and can also change the composition of the soil in a region by reversing soil compaction that can result from cattle grazing.
Prairie dog burrows are 5–10 m (16–33 ft) long and 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) below the ground.[10] The entrance holes are generally 10–30 cm (3.9–11.8 in) in diameter.[10] Prairie dog burrows can have up to six entrances. Sometimes the entrances are simply flat holes in the ground, while at other times they are surrounded by mounds of soil either left as piles or hard packed.[10] Some mounds, known as dome craters, can be as high as 20–30 cm (7.9–11.8 in) high. Other mounds, known as rim craters, can be as high as 1 m.[10] Dome craters and rim craters serve as observation posts used by the animals to watch for predators. They also protect the burrows from flooding. The holes also possibly provide ventilation as the air enters through the dome crater and leaves through the rim crater, causing a breeze though the burrow.[10] Prairie dog burrows contain chambers to provide certain functions. They have nursery chambers for their young, chambers for night, and chambers for the winter. They also contain air chambers that may function to protect the burrow from flooding[9] and a listening post for predators. When hiding from predators, prairie dogs use less-deep chambers that are usually a meter below the surface.[10] Nursery chambers tend to be deeper, being two to three meters below the surface.[10]
Social organization and spacing[edit]
Prairie dog family
Highly social, prairie dogs live in large colonies or "towns", and collections of prairie dog families that can span hundreds of acres. The prairie dog family groups are the most basic units of its society.[10] Members of a family group inhabit the same territory.[5] Family groups of black-tailed and Mexican prairie dogs are called "coteries", while "clans" are used to describe family groups of white-tailed, Gunnison’s, and Utah prairie dogs.[5] Although these two family groups are similar, coteries tend to be more closely knit than clans.[11] Members of a family group interact through oral contact or "kissing" and grooming one another.[9][10] They do not perform these behaviors with prairie dogs from other family groups.[10]
A pair of prairie dogs
A prairie dog town may contain 15–26 family groups.[10] There may also be subgroups within a town, called "wards", which are separated by a physical barrier. Family groups exist within these wards. Most prairie dog family groups are made up of one adult breeding male, two to three adult females and one to two male offspring and one to two female offspring. Females remain in their natal groups for life and are thus the source of stability in the groups.[10] Males leave their natal groups when they mature to find another family group to defend and breed in. Some family groups contain more breeding females than one male can control, so have more than one breeding adult male in them. Among these multiple-male groups, some may contain males that have friendly relationships, but the majority contain males that have largely antagonistic relationships. In the former, the males tend to be related, while in the latter, they tend to not be related. Two to three groups of females may be controlled by one male. However, among these female groups, there are no friendly relations.[10]
The average prairie dog territory takes up 0.05–1.01 hectares. Territories have well-established borders that coincide with physical barriers such as rocks and trees.[10] The resident male of a territory defends it and antagonistic behavior will occur between two males of different families to defend their territories. These interactions may happen 20 times per day and last five minutes. When two prairie dogs encounter each other at the edges of their territories, they will start staring, make bluff charges, flare their tails, chatter their teeth, and sniff each other's perianal scent glands. When fighting, prairie dogs will bite, kick and ram each other.[10] If their competitor is around their size or smaller, the females will participate in fighting. Otherwise, if a competitor is sighted, the females signal for the resident male.
Reproduction and parenting[edit]
Female with juvenile
Prairie dog copulation occurs in the burrows, and this reduces the risk of interruption by a competing male. They are also at less risk of predation. Behaviors that signal that a female is in estrus include underground consorting, self-licking of genitals, dust-bathing, and late entrances into the burrow at night.[12] The licking of genitals may protect against sexually transmitted diseases and genital infections,[12] while dust-bathing may protect against fleas and other parasites. Prairie dogs also have a mating call which consists of a set of 2 to 25 barks with a 3- to 15-second pause between each one.[12] Females may try to increase their reproduction success by mating with males outside their family groups. When copulation is over, the male is no longer interested in the female sexually, but will prevent other males from mating with her by inserting copulatory plugs.[12]
Juvenile prairie dogs
For black-tailed prairie dogs, the resident male of the family group fathers all the offspring.[13] Multiple paternity in litters seems to be more common in Utah and Gunnison’s prairie dogs.[11] Mother prairie dogs do most of the care for the young. In addition to nursing the young, the mother also defends the nursery chamber and collects grass for the nest. Males play their part by defending the territories and maintaining the burrows.[10] The young spend their first six weeks below the ground being nursed.[9] They are then weaned and begin to surface from the burrow. By five months, they are fully grown.[9] The subject of cooperative breeding in prairie dogs has been debated among biologists. Some argue prairie dogs will defend and feed young that are not theirs,[14] and it seems young will sleep in a nursery chamber with other mothers; since most nursing occurs at night, this may be a case of communal nursing.[10] In the case of the latter, others suggest communal nursing occurs only when mothers mistake another female's young for their own. Infanticide is known to occur in prairie dogs. Males which take over a family group will kill the offspring of the previous male.[10] This causes the mother to go into estrus sooner.[10] However, most infanticide is done by close relatives.[10] Lactating females will kill the offspring of a related female both to decrease competition for the female’s offspring and for increased foraging area due to a decrease in territorial defense by the victimized mother. Supporters of the theory that prairie dogs are communal breeders state that another reason for this type of infanticide is so that the female can get a possible helper. With their own offspring gone, the victimized mother may help raise the young of other females.
Antipredator calls[edit]
Prairie dog calling
The prairie dog is well adapted to predators. Using its dichromatic color vision, it can detect predators from a great distance; it then alerts other prairie dogs of the danger with a special, high-pitched call. Constantine Slobodchikoff and others assert that prairie dogs use a sophisticated system of vocal communication to describe specific predators.[15] According to them, prairie dog calls contain specific information as to what the predator is, how big it is and how fast it is approaching. These have been described as a form of grammar. According to Slobodchikoff, these calls, with their individuality in response to a specific predator, imply that prairie dogs have highly developed cognitive abilities.[15] He also writes that prairie dogs have calls for things that are not predators to them. This is cited as evidence that the animals have a very descriptive language and have calls for any potential threat.[15]
Alarm response behavior varies according to the type of predator announced. If the alarm indicates a hawk diving toward the colony, all the prairie dogs in its flight path dive into their holes, while those outside the flight path stand and watch. If the alarm is for a human, all members of the colony immediately rush inside the burrows. For coyotes, the prairie dogs move to the entrance of a burrow and stand outside the entrance, observing the coyote, while those prairie dogs that were inside the burrows will come out to stand and watch as well. For domestic dogs, the response is to observe, standing in place where they were when the alarm was sounded, again with the underground prairie dogs emerging to watch.[15]
There is debate over whether the alarm calling of prairie dogs is selfish or altruistic. It is possible that prairie dogs alert others to the presence of a predator so they can protect themselves. However, it is also possible that the calls are meant to cause confusion and panic in the groups and cause the others to be more conspicuous to the predator than the caller. Studies of black-tailed prairie dogs suggest that alarm-calling is a form of kin selection, as a prairie dog’s call alerts both offspring and nondescended kin, such as cousins, nephews and nieces.[10] Prairie dogs with kin close by called more often than those that did not have kin nearby. In addition, the caller may be trying to make itself more noticeable to the predator.[10] Predators, though, seem to have difficulty determining which prairie dog is making the call due to its "ventriloquistic" nature.[10]
Perhaps the most striking of prairie dog communications is the territorial call or "jump-yip" display of the black-tailed prairie dog.[16] A black-tailed prairie dog will stretch the length of its body vertically and throw its forefeet into the air while making a call. A jump-yip from one prairie dog causes others nearby to do the same.[17]
Conservation status[edit]
A prairie dog and his hole
Ecologists consider this rodent to be a keystone species. They are an important prey species, being the primary diet in prairie species such as the black-footed ferret, swift fox, golden eagle, red tailed hawk, American badger, coyote and ferruginous hawk. Other species, such as the golden-mantled ground squirrel, mountain plover, and the burrowing owl, also rely on prairie dog burrows for nesting areas. Even grazing species, such as plains bison, pronghorn, and mule deer have shown a proclivity for grazing on the same land used by prairie dogs.[18]
Nevertheless, prairie dogs are often identified as pests and exterminated from agricultural properties because they are capable of damaging crops, as they clear the immediate area around their burrows of most vegetation.[19]
A black-tailed prairie dog forages above ground for grasses and leaves.
As a result, prairie dog habitat has been affected by direct removal by farmers, as well as the more obvious encroachment of urban development, which has greatly reduced their populations. The removal of prairie dogs "causes undesirable spread of brush", the costs of which to livestock range may outweigh the benefits of removal.[20] Black-tailed prairie dogs comprise the largest remaining community.[21] In spite of human encroachment, prairie dogs have adapted, continuing to dig burrows in open areas of western cities.[22]
One common concern which led to the widespread extermination of prairie dog colonies was that their digging activities could injure horses[23] by fracturing their limbs. However, according to writer Fred Durso, Jr., of E Magazine, "after years of asking ranchers this question, we have found not one example."[24] Another concern is their susceptibility to bubonic plague.[25] As of July 2016[update] the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service plans to distribute an oral vaccine it had developed by unmanned aircraft or drones.[26]
In captivity[edit]
Prairie dogs are gaining popularity as zoo animals.
Play media
South-central Wisconsin, U.S.
Pet prairie dogs can be leash trained
Until 2003, primarily black-tailed prairie dogs were collected from the wild for the exotic pet trade in Canada, the United States, Japan, and Europe. They were removed from their underground burrows each spring, as young pups, with a large vacuum device.[27] They can be difficult to breed in captivity,[28] but breed well in zoos. Removing them from the wild was a far more common method of supplying the market demand.[29]
They can be difficult pets to care for, requiring regular attention and a very specific diet of grasses and hay. Each year, they go into a period called rut that can last for several months, in which their personalities can drastically change, often becoming defensive or even aggressive. Despite their needs, prairie dogs are very social animals and come to seem as though they treat humans as members of their colony, answering barks and chirps, and even coming when called by name.[citation needed]
In mid-2003, due to cross-contamination at a Madison, Wisconsin-area pet swap from an unquarantined Gambian pouched rat imported from Ghana, several prairie dogs in captivity acquired monkeypox, and subsequently a few humans were also infected. This led the CDC and FDA to issue a joint order banning the sale, trade, and transport within the United States of prairie dogs (with a few exceptions).[30] The disease was never introduced to any wild populations. The European Union also banned importation of prairie dogs in response.[31] While largely seen by exotic pet owners[who?] and vendors[who?] as unfair, the monkeypox scare was not the only zoonosis incident associated with prairie dogs.[citation needed]
All Cynomys species are classed as a "prohibited new organism" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing it from being imported into the country.[32]
Prairie dogs are also very susceptible to bubonic plague, and many wild colonies have been wiped out by it.[33][34][35][36] Also, in 2002, a large group of prairie dogs in captivity in Texas were found to have contracted tularemia.[37] The prairie dog ban is frequently cited by the CDC as a successful response to the threat of zoonosis.[38]
Prairie dogs that were in captivity at the time of the ban in 2003 were allowed to be kept under a grandfather clause, but were not to be bought, traded, or sold, and transport was permitted only to and from a veterinarian under quarantine procedures.[39]
On 8 September 2008, the FDA and CDC rescinded the ban, making it once again legal to capture, sell, and transport prairie dogs.[40] Although the federal ban has been lifted, several states still have in place their own ban on prairie dogs.[41]
The European Union has not lifted its ban on imports from the U.S. of animals captured in the wild. Major European Prairie Dog Associations, such as the Italian Associazione Italiana Cani della Prateria (AICDP), remain against import from the United States, due to the high death rate of wild captures.[42][43] Several zoos in Europe have stable prairie dog colonies that generate enough surplus pups to saturate the EU internal demand, and several associations help owners to give adoption to captive-born animals.[44]
Prairie dogs in captivity may live up to ten years.[45]
Literary descriptions[edit]
From George Wilkins Kendall's account of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition: "In their habits, they are clannish, social, and extremely convivial, never living alone like other animals, but, on the contrary, always found in villages or large settlements. They are a wild, frolicsome, madcap set of fellows when undisturbed, uneasy and ever on the move, and appear to take especial delight in chattering away the time, and visiting from hole to hole to gossip and talk over each other's affairs—at least so their actions would indicate. On several occasions I crept close to their villages, without being observed, to watch their movements. Directly in the centre of one of them I particularly noticed a very large dog, sitting in front of the door or entrance to his burrow, and by his own actions and those of his neighbors it really seemed as though he was the president, mayor, or chief—at all events, he was the 'big dog' of the place. For at least an hour I secretly watched the operations in this community. During that time the large dog I have mentioned received at least a dozen visits from his fellow-dogs, which would stop and chat with him a few moments, and then run off to their domiciles. All this while he never left his post for a moment, and I thought I could discover a gravity in his deportment not discernible in those by which he was surrounded. Far is it from me to say that the visits he received were upon business, or had anything to do with the local government of the village; but it certainly appeared so. If any animal has a system of laws regulating the body politic, it is certainly the prairie dog."[46]
"Dog Town" or settlement of prairie dogs
From Josiah Gregg's journal, Commerce of the Prairies: "Of all the prairie animals, by far the most curious, and by no means the least celebrated, is the little prairie dog. ...The flesh, though often eaten by travelers, is not esteemed savory. It was denominated the 'barking squirrel', the 'prairie ground-squirrel', etc., by early explorers, with much more apparent propriety than the present established name. Its yelp, which resembles that of the little toy-dog, seems its only canine attribute. It rather appears to occupy a middle ground betwixt the rabbit and squirrel—like the former in feeding and burrowing — like the latter in frisking, flirting, sitting erect, and somewhat so in its barking. The prairie dog has been reckoned by some naturalists a species of the marmot (arctomys ludoviciana); yet it seems to possess scarce any other quality in common with this animal except that of burrowing. ...I have the concurrent testimony of several persons, who have been upon the Prairies in winter, that, like rabbits and squirrels, they issue from their holes every soft day; and therefore lay up no doubt a hoard of 'hay' (as there is rarely anything else to be found in the vicinity of their towns) for winter's use. A collection of their burrows has been termed by travelers a 'dog town,' which comprises from a dozen or so, to some thousands in the same vicinity; often covering an area of several square miles. They generally locate upon firm dry plains, coated with fine short grass, upon which they feed; for they are no doubt exclusively herbivorous. But even when tall coarse grass surrounds, they seem commonly to destroy this within their 'streets,' which are nearly always found 'paved' with a fine species suited to their palates. They must need but little water, if any at all, as their 'towns' are often, indeed generally, found in the midst of the most arid plains—unless we suppose they dig down to subterranean fountains. At least they evidently burrow remarkably deep. Attempts either to dig or drown them out of their holes have generally proved unsuccessful. Approaching a 'village,' the little dogs may be observed frisking about the 'streets'—passing from dwelling to dwelling apparently on visits—sometimes a few clustered together as though in council—here feeding upon the tender herbage—there cleansing their 'houses,' or brushing the little hillock about the door—yet all quiet. Upon seeing a stranger, however, each streaks it to its home, but is apt to stop at the entrance, and spread the general alarm by a succession of shrill yelps, usually sitting erect. Yet at the report of a gun or the too near approach of the visitor, they dart down and are seen no more till the cause of alarm seems to have disappeared.[47]
In culture[edit]
In companies that use large numbers of cubicles in a common space, employees sometimes use the term "prairie dogging" to refer to the action of several people simultaneously looking over the walls of their cubicles in response to a noise or other distraction. This action is thought to resemble the startled response of a group of prairie dogs.[48]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Kendall, Texan Santa Fé Expedition, i, p. 192.
Jump up ^ Gregg, Josiah." Gregg's Commerce of the prairies: or, The journal of a Santa Fé trader, 1831. A. H. Clark, 1905. Vol.2, p. 277.
Jump up ^ Deck, Annie. "Revolt of the Cube-Berts", Business First of Buffalo. 14 January 2000.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Cynomys
(Prairie dogs).
Desert USA: Prairie Dogs
Prairie dog
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Prairie Dog Management, Kansas State University
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v
t
e
Living species of tribe Marmotini (ground squirrels)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Suborder: Sciuromorpha
Family: Sciuridae
Subfamily: Xerinae
Ammospermophilus
(antelope squirrels)
Harris's antelope squirrel (A. harrisii)
Espíritu Santo antelope squirrel (A. insularis)
Texas antelope squirrel (A. interpres)
White-tailed antelope squirrel (A. leucurus)
San Joaquin antelope squirrel (A. nelsoni)
Callospermophilus
(golden-mantled ground squirrels)
Golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. lateralis)
Sierra Madre ground squirrel (C. madrensis)
Cascade golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. saturatus)
Cynomys
(prairie dogs)
Gunnison's prairie dog (C. gunnisoni)
White-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus)
Black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus)
Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus)
Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens)
Eutamias
Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus)
Ictidomys
(little ground squirrels)
Mexican ground squirrel (I. mexicanus)
I. parvidens
Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (I. tridecemlineatus)
Marmota
(marmots)
Subgenus Marmota: Gray marmot (M. baibacina)
Bobak marmot (M. bobak)
Alaska marmot (M. broweri)
Black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica)
Long-tailed marmot (M. caudata)
Himalayan marmot (M. himalayana)
Alpine marmot (M. marmota)
Menzbier's marmot (M. menzbieri)
Groundhog or woodchuck (M. monax)
Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica)
Subgenus Petromarmota: Hoary marmot (M. caligata)
Yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris)
Olympic marmot (M. olympus)
Vancouver Island marmot (M. vancouverensis)
Neotamias
(western chipmunks)
Alpine chipmunk (N. alpinus)
Yellow-pine chipmunk (N. amoenus)
Buller's chipmunk (N. bulleri)
Gray-footed chipmunk (N. canipes)
Gray-collared chipmunk (N. cinereicollis)
Cliff chipmunk (N. dorsalis)
Durango chipmunk (N. durangae)
Merriam's chipmunk (N. merriami)
Least chipmunk (N. minimus)
California chipmunk (N. obscurus)
Yellow-cheeked chipmunk (N. ochrogenys)
Palmer's chipmunk (N. palmeri)
Panamint chipmunk (N. panamintinus)
Long-eared chipmunk (N. quadrimaculatus)
Colorado chipmunk (N. quadrivittatus)
Red-tailed chipmunk (N. ruficaudus)
Hopi chipmunk (N. rufus)
Allen's chipmunk (N. senex)
Siskiyou chipmunk (N. siskiyou)
Sonoma chipmunk (N. sonomae)
Lodgepole chipmunk (N. speciosus)
Townsend's chipmunk (N. townsendii)
Uinta chipmunk (N. umbrinus)
Notocitellus
Tropical ground squirrel (N. adocetus)
Ring-tailed ground squirrel (N. annulatus)
Otospermophilus
(rock squirrels)
Baja California rock squirrel (O. atricapillus)
California ground squirrel (O. beecheyi)
Rock squirrel (O. variegatus)
Poliocitellus
Franklin's ground squirrel (P. franklinii)
Sciurotamias
(Asian rock squirrels)
Père David's rock squirrel (S. davidianus)
Forrest's rock squirrel (S. forresti)
Spermophilus sensu stricto
(Old World ground squirrels)
Alashan ground squirrel (S. alashanicus)
S. brevicauda
European ground squirrel (S. citellus)
Daurian ground squirrel (S. dauricus)
Red-cheeked ground squirrel (S. erythrogenys)
Yellow ground squirrel (S. fulvus)
Russet ground squirrel (S. major)
S. pallicauda
Little ground squirrel (S. pygmaeus)
S. ralli
S. relictus
Speckled ground squirrel (Spermophilus suslicus)
Taurus ground squirrel (Spermophilus taurensis)
Asia Minor ground squirrel (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus)
Tamias
Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus)
Urocitellus
(Holarctic ground squirrels)
Uinta ground squirrel (U. armatus)
Belding's ground squirrel (U. beldingi)
Northern Idaho ground squirrel (U. brunneus)
Southern Idaho ground squirrel (U. endemicus)
Merriam's ground squirrel (U. canus)
Columbian ground squirrel (U. columbianus)
Wyoming ground squirrel (U. elegans)
Piute ground squirrel (U. mollis)
Arctic ground squirrel (U. parryii)
Richardson's ground squirrel (U. richardsonii)
Townsend's ground squirrel (U. townsendii)
Washington ground squirrel (U. washingtoni)
Long-tailed ground squirrel (U. undulatus)
Xerospermophilus
(pygmy ground squirrels)
Mohave ground squirrel (X. mohavensis)
Perote ground squirrel (X. perotensis)
Spotted ground squirrel (X. spilosoma)
Round-tailed ground squirrel (X. tereticaudus)
Category
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q30359
ADW: Cynomys
EoL: 39393
EPPO: 1KYMSG
Fossilworks: 41496
GBIF: 2437231
IRMNG: 1396454
ITIS: 180183
MSW: 12400909
NCBI: 45478
Authority control
NARA: 10646010
NDL: 00575326
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 May 2007. Retrieved 31 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 31 May 2007.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prairie_dog&oldid=841190592"
Categories:
Ground squirrels
Rodents of North America
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of Mexico
Mammals of the United States
Fauna of the Great Plains
Fauna of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
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Fauna of Northern Mexico
Grasslands of the United States
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Great Plains
Prairies
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A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment and the allocation of capital goods take place according to economy-wide economic and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized or participatory forms of economic planning.[1][2] A command economy or administrative command economy is any of the nominally-planned economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc - these terms highlight the central role of hierarchical administration in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems as opposed to planned coordination.[3][4]
Planned economies are usually associated[by whom?] with Soviet-type central planning, which involves centralized state planning and administrative decision-making.[5] In command economies, important allocation-decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.[6] Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that use indicative planning are sometimes referred to[by whom?] as “planned market economies”.
The traditional conception of socialism involves the integration of socially-owned economic enterprises via some form of planning with direct calculation substituting factor markets. As such, the concept of a planned economy is often associated[by whom?] with socialism and with socialist planning.[7][8][9] More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Planned versus command economies
2 Advantages of economic planning
3 Disadvantages of economic planning
3.1 Inefficient resource distribution: surplus and shortage
3.2 Suppression of economic democracy and self-management
3.3 Economic instability
4 Relationship with socialism
5 Computational economic planning
6 Fictional portrayals of planned economies
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Further reading
10 External links
Planned versus command economies[edit]
Main article: Economic planning
Planned economies are held in contrast with command economies, where a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc."[11] but a command economy, while also having this type of regulation, necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry.[12] Therefore, command economies are planned economies, but not necessarily the reverse.
Whereas most of the economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies. For example, Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy, and therefore would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.[13]
Although planned economies have historically been associated with Marxist-Leninist states and the Soviet economic model, some argue[weasel words] that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment; therefore the further distinction of an administrative command economy emerged as a more accurate designation for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy.[14] The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored by Chile with the creation of Project Cybersyn and Alexander Kharkevich head of the Department of technical physics in Kiev in 1962.[15][16]
Another key difference is that command economies are inherently authoritarian, whereas economic planning in general can be either participatory and democratic or authoritarian. Indicative planning is a form of planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. For example, in some predominately market-oriented and mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning, while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.
Another example of this is the utilization of dirigisme, or government direction of the economy through non coercive means, both of which were practiced in France and Great Britain after the Second World War. Swedish public housing models were planned by the government in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme.
Advantages of economic planning[edit]
The government can harness land, labours, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy, although the statistics concerning infant mortality are self-reported and based on varying standards.[17] The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of GNP dedicated to private consumption from eighty percent to fifty percent.[18] As a result, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector, in both relative and absolute terms.
Disadvantages of economic planning[edit]
Inefficient resource distribution: surplus and shortage[edit]
Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages, and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the "economic calculation problem"[19] and "local knowledge problem"[20] respectively. Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to subjective value theory while attacking the labor theory of value, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs, and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances, is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers, most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to Tibor R. Machan, "Without a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals."[21]
Suppression of economic democracy and self-management[edit]
Economist Robin Hahnel notes that, even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.[22]
Says Hahnel, "Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power."[22]
Economic instability[edit]
Studies of Eastern European planned economies in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that, contrary to the expectations of both groups, they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period.[23]
Relationship with socialism[edit]
Main article: Socialism
While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve ex-ante coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically, so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers.[24] The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate.
Computational economic planning[edit]
In their book Towards a New Socialism (1993) the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from the Wake Forest University claim to demonstrate, in detail, how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free market economies and also morally desirable.
In 1971, when the development of computer technology was still its early stages, the socialist Allende administration of Chile launched Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organisation in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for realtime observation and management of the overall economy. The project was initially successful[citation needed] but in 1973, after CIA-backed Augusto Pinochet led a coup and then established a dictatorship under his rule, he abolished the program to move Chile towards a freer economy.
Fictional portrayals of planned economies[edit]
The 1888 novel Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.
The World State in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Airstrip One in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four are both fictional examples of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims: The former is a consumer economy designed to engender productivity while the latter is a shortage economy designed as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organised by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.
Other literary portrayals of planned economies were Yevgeny Zamyatin's We, which was an influence on Orwell's work. Like Nineteen Eighty Four, Ayn Rand's dystopian story Anthem was also an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by We. The difference is that it was a primitivist planned economy, as opposed to the advanced technology of We or Brave New World.
See also[edit]
Calculation in kind
Communist state
Communist economy
Dirigisme
Distributed economy
Economic democracy
Economic equilibrium
Economic calculation problem
Economic planning
Horizontalidad
Inclusive democracy
Indicative planning
Industrial democracy
Input-output model
Material balance planning
Market economy
Marxism-Leninism
Mixed economy
Participatory economics
Production for use
Project Cybersyn
Public ownership
Peer-to-Peer economy
Socialist calculation debate
Socialist economy
State capitalism
Technocracy
Self-managed economy
Case studies (Soviet-type economies)
Analysis of Soviet-type economic planning
Five-Year Plans in the Soviet Union
Five-year plans of China
OGAS, a plan for creating a computer network to supervise the Soviet economy
Project Cybersyn, a project for a computer network controlling the economy of Chile under Salvador Allende.
Eastern Bloc economies
Cuban Planned Economy[25]
Case studies (Mixed-market economies)
Indicative planning in France
First Malaysia Plan
Five-year plans of Argentina
Five-Year Plans of South Korea
Economy of Singapore
Economy of India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Alec Nove (1987), "Planned Economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 879.
Jump up ^ Devine, Pat (July 26, 2010). Democracy and Economic Planning. Polity. ISBN 978-0745634791.
Jump up ^ Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy". Soviet Studies. 37 (1): 118–30. doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica. Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22. ISBN 0-230-54697-8. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...
Jump up ^ Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (October 1988). Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach. Harcourt College Pub. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-15-512403-5. Almost all industry in the Soviet Union is government owned and all production is directed, in theory, by a central plan (though in practice much is left for local discretion and much happens that is unplanned or not under government control).
Jump up ^ Rosser, Mariana V.; Rosser, J Barkley (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8. In a command economy the most important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.
Jump up ^ Prychito, David L. (July 31, 2002). Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1840645194. Traditional socialism strives to plan all economic activities comprehensively, both within and between enterprises. As such, it seeks to integrate the economic activities of society (the coordination of socially owned property) into a single coherent plan, rather than to rely upon the spontaneous or anarchic ordering of the market system to coordinate plans.
Jump up ^ Mandel, Ernest (1986). "In Defence of Socialist Planning" (PDF). New Left Review. 159: 5–37. Planning is not equivalent to 'perfect' allocation of resources, nor 'scientific' allocation, nor even ‘more humane’ allocation. It simply means ‘direct’ allocation, ex ante. As such, it is the opposite of market allocation, which is ex post.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (March 31, 1989). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0521358668. ‘socialist planning’, in the original sense of a national economy which replaced market relationships by direct calculation and direct product exchange, has nowhere been established…
Jump up ^ Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, Towards a new socialism (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ planned economy. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (accessed: May 11, 2008).
Jump up ^ command economy. In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008) (accessed May 11, 2008).
Jump up ^ Trotsky, Leon. Writings 1932–33. p. 96.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica. Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22. ISBN 0-230-54697-8. Realization of these facts led in the 1970s and 1980s to the development of new terms to describe what had previously been (and still were in United Nations publications) referred to as the ‘centrally planned economies’. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...
Jump up ^ http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983
Jump up ^ Kharkevich, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1973). Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3. Information and technology: Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems. p. 524.
Jump up ^ Michael Ellman (2014). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107427320 p. 372.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Paul (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Random House. pp. 322–3. ISBN 0-394-54674-1.
Jump up ^ Von Mises, Ludwig (1990). Economic calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth (pdf). Ludwig von Mises Institute. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
Jump up ^ Friedrich A. Hayek, "The Use of Knowledge", American Economic Review. XXXV, No. 4. pp. 519-30 (1945).
Jump up ^ Machan, R. Tibor (2002). "Some Skeptical Reflections on Research and Development". Liberty and Research and Development: Science Funding in a Free Society (PDF). Hoover Press. ISBN 0-8179-2942-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Hahnel, Robin (2002). The ABC's of Political Economy. London: Pluto Press. p. 262. ISBN 0-7453-1858-4.
Jump up ^ Zielinski, J. G. (1973). Economic Reforms in Polish Industry. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215323-4.
Jump up ^ Feinstein, C.H. (1975). Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb. Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-521-29007-4. We have presented the view that planning and market mechanisms are instruments that can be used both in socialist and non-socialist societies...It was important to explode the primitive identification of central planning and socialism and to stress the instrumental character of planning.
Jump up ^ Crittenden, Ann. "The Cuban Economy: How It Works". Retrieved 2018-06-29.
Further reading[edit]
Michael Ellman (2014). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press; 3 edition. ISBN 1107427320
Gregory Grossman (1987): "Command economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 494–95.
Carl Landauer (1947): Theory of National Economic Planning. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles, Second edition.
Alec Nove (1987): "Planned economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 879–85.
Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010), Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-470-59619-7
Cox, Robin 2005, "The Economic Calculation controversy: unravelling of a myth" [1]'
Devine, Pat.'Democracy and Economic Planning. Polity. 2010. ISBN 978-0745634791
Mandel, Ernest. In Defence of Socialist Planning. New Left Review, Issue 159. 1986.
External links[edit]
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values:
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values:
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values:
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values: Σχεδιασμένη οικονομία – Greek

values:
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values:
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values:
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values: اقتصاد دستوری – Persian

values:
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values:
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values:
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values: Պլանային տնտեսություն – Armenian

values:
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values:
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values:
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values: כלכלה מתוכננת – Hebrew

values:
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values: გეგმიური ეკონომიკა – Georgian

values:
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values: Жоспарлы экономика – Kazakh

values:
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values:
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values:
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values:
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values:
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values: رهبري شوی ( ارشادي ) اقتصاد – Pashto

values:
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values: Плановая экономика – Russian

values:
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values: සැලසුම්ගත ආර්ථික ක්‍රමය – Sinhala

values:
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values:
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values: திட்டமிட்ட பொருளாதாரம் – Tamil

values: Командна економіка – Ukrainian

values:
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values:
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