text:
Education reform
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed. However, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs (i.e., student achievement). In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the primary source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market (in the form of an input-output system), where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests.[1][2] As a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations.[3] This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition. As a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth.[clarify] Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed economic reforms in the United States.[citation needed]
The one constant for all forms of education reform includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth and well-being. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students and society. From ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor. Historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education.
Related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on "why", and "which" questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large numbers of facts into relatively few principles. This path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early modern age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin and Greek.
Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on more scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers. Some reformers incorporated several motivations, e.g. Maria Montessori, who both "educated for peace" (a social goal), and to "meet the needs of the child" (A humanistic goal). In historic Prussia, an important motivation for the invention of Kindergarten was to foster national unity by teaching a national language while children were young enough that learning a language was easy.
Reform has taken many forms and directions. Throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Classical times
1.2 Modern reforms
1.3 Reforms of classical education
1.4 England in the 19th century
1.5 Progressive reforms in Europe and the United States
1.5.1 Child-study
1.5.2 Horace Mann
1.5.3 National identity
1.5.4 Dewey
1.5.5 The administrative progressives
1.6 Late-20th and early 21st century (United states)
1.6.1 Reforms arising from the civil rights era
1.6.2 1980s
1.6.3 1990s and 2000s
1.6.4 Trump Administration
1.6.5 Modernizing the Education System
1.6.6 Higher education
1.6.7 Strengths-based education
1.6.8 Career and Technical Education
2 Contemporary issues (United States)
2.1 Overview
2.2 Funding levels
2.3 Alternatives to public education
2.4 School choice
2.5 Teacher tenure
2.6 Barriers to reform
3 Internationally
3.1 Education for All
3.2 Taiwan
4 Motivations
5 Strategies
6 Digital education
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Classical times[edit]
Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. In The Republic, he said, " ... compulsory learning never sticks in the mind." An educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought: "Given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin, was it safe to teach it to Christian children?"[citation needed]
Modern reforms[edit]
Though educational reform occurred on a local level at various points throughout history, the modern notion of education reform is tied with the spread of compulsory education. Education reforms did not become widespread until after organized schooling was sufficiently systematized to be 'reformed.'
In the modern world, economic growth and the spread of democracy have raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to high-quality, effective education. Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools.[4] However, in some cases, the reformers' goals of "high-quality education" has meant "high-intensity education", with a narrow emphasis on teaching individual, test-friendly subskills quickly, regardless of long-term outcomes, developmental appropriateness, or broader educational goals.[5]
Reforms of classical education[edit]
Western classical education as taught from the 18th to the 19th century has missing features that inspired reformers. Classical education is most concerned with answering the who, what, where, and when? questions that concern a majority of students. Unless carefully taught, group instruction naturally neglects the theoretical "why" and "which" questions that strongly concern fewer students.
Classical education in this period also did not teach local (vernacular) languages and cultures. Instead it taught high-status ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and their cultures. This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities.
England in the 19th century[edit]
Before there were government-funded public schools, education of the lower classes was by the charity school, pioneered in the 19th century by Protestant organizations and adapted by the Roman Catholic Church and governments. Because these schools operated on very small budgets and attempted to serve as many needy children as possible, they were designed to be inexpensive.
The basic program was to develop "grammar" schools. These taught only grammar and bookkeeping. This program permitted people to start businesses to make money, and gave them the skills to continue their education inexpensively from books. "Grammar" was the first third of the then-prevalent system of classical education.
Joseph Lancaster
The ultimate development of the grammar school was by Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell who developed the monitorial system. Lancaster started as a poor Quaker in early 19th century London. Bell started the Madras School of India. The monitorial system uses slightly more-advanced students to teach less-advanced students, achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 2, while educating more than a thousand students per adult. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called Improvements in Education that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world.
Discipline and labor in a Lancaster school were provided by an economic system. Scrip, a form of money meaningless outside the school, was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition. Every job of the school was bid-for by students in scrip, with the largest bid winning. However, any student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes. Besides tutoring, students could use scrip to buy food, school supplies, books, and childish luxuries in a school store. The adult supervisors were paid from the bids on jobs.
With fully developed internal economies, Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. The students were very clever at reducing their costs, and once invented, improvements were widely adopted in a school. For example, Lancaster students, motivated to save scrip, ultimately rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library, and read them in groups around music stands to reduce textbook costs. Students commonly exchanged tutoring, and paid for items and services with receipts from "down tutoring."
Lancaster schools usually lacked sufficient adult supervision. As a result, the older children acting as disciplinary monitors tended to become brutal task masters. Also, the schools did not teach submission to orthodox Christian beliefs or government authorities. As a result, most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly paid education explicitly to keep public education in "responsible" hands. These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education and were not accountable to established authorities.
Lancaster's supporters responded that any schoolchild could avoid cheats, given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the education, and thus deserved no say in their composition.
Lancaster, though motivated by charity, claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the poorest street-children. Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life.[6]
Progressive reforms in Europe and the United States[edit]
The term progressive in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number of kinds of educational progressivism, most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period between the late 19th and the middle of the 20th centuries.
Child-study[edit]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau has been called the father of the child-study movement. It has been said that Rousseau "discovered" the child (as an object of study).
Rousseau's principal work on education is Emile: Or, On Education, in which he lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education to adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in Plato's Republic and also of the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it; he held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the child and its curiosity, teaching it by confronting it with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning it by experience rather than teaching it intellectually. His ideas were rarely implemented directly, but were influential on later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel, the inventor of the kindergarten.
Horace Mann[edit]
In the United States, Horace Mann (1796 – 1859) of Massachusetts used his political base and role as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education to promote public education in his home state and nationwide.[7] His crusading style attracted wide middle class support. Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts:
No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends.[8]
National identity[edit]
Education is often seen in Europe and Asia as an important system to maintain national, cultural and linguistic unity. Prussia instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, "Hochdeutsch". One significant reform was kindergarten, whose purpose was to have the children spend time in supervised activities in the national language, when the children were young enough that they could easily learn new language skills.
Since most modern schools copy the Prussian models, children start school at an age when their language skills remain plastic, and they find it easy to learn the national language. This was an intentional design on the part of the Prussians.
In the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities.
Dewey[edit]
John Dewey
John Dewey, a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th century. An important member of the American Pragmatist movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a harsh critic of "dead" knowledge disconnected from practical human life.[9]
Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Bill Joel and those who followed him. He presented his educational theories as a synthesis of the two views. His slogan was that schools should encourage children to "Learn by doing."[citation needed] He wanted people to realize that children are naturally active and curious. Dewey's understanding of logic is best presented in his "Logic, the Theory of Inquiry" (1938). His educational theories were presented in "My Pedagogic Creed", The School and Society, The Child and Curriculum, and Democracy and Education (1916). Bertrand Russell criticized Dewey's conception of logic, saying "What he calls "logic" does not seem to me to be part of logic at all; I should call it part of psychology."[10]
The question of the history of Deweyan educational practice is a difficult one. He was a widely known and influential thinker, but his views and suggestions were often misunderstood by those who sought to apply them, leading some historians to suggest that there was never an actual implementation on any considerable scale of Deweyan progressive education.[citation needed] The schools with which Dewey himself was most closely associated (though the most famous, the "Laboratory School", was really run by his wife) had considerable ups and downs, and Dewey left the University of Chicago in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School.[citation needed]
Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore.
The administrative progressives[edit]
Horace Mann, regarded as the father of American public education
The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed "administrative progressivism" by historians. This began to be implemented in the early 20th century. While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the Industrial Revolution and the concept economies of scale.
The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs, the move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level. (Cf. "State, federal, and local control of education in the United States", below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp. 17–26)
These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards.
In more recent times, groups such as the think tank Reform's education division, and S.E.R. have attempted to pressure the government of the U.K. into more modernist educational reform, though this has met with limited success.
Late-20th and early 21st century (United states)[edit]
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Education reform in the United States. (Discuss) (July 2016)
See also: History of education in the United States
Reforms arising from the civil rights era[edit]
From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the civil rights movement and related trends; examples include ending racial segregation, and busing for the purpose of desegregation, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer.[11]
1980s[edit]
In the 1980s, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of A Nation at Risk, Ronald Reagan's efforts to reduce or eliminate the United States Department of Education.
"[T]he federal government and virtually all state governments, teacher training institutions, teachers' unions, major foundations, and the mass media have all pushed strenuously for higher standards, greater accountability, more "time on task," and more impressive academic results".[12]
This shift to the right caused many families to seek alternatives, including "charter schools, progressive schools, Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Afrocentric schools, religious schools - or teaching them at home and in their communities."[12]
In the latter half of the decade, E. D. Hirsch put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education, advocating an emphasis on "cultural literacy"—the facts, phrases, and texts that Hirsch asserted every American had once known and that now only some knew, but was still essential for decoding basic texts and maintaining communication. Hirsch's ideas remain significant through the 1990s and into the 21st century, and are incorporated into classroom practice through textbooks and curricula published under his own imprint.
1990s and 2000s[edit]
See also: Standards-based education reform
Most states and districts in the 1990s adopted Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in some form or another. A state would create a committee to adopt standards, and choose a quantitative instrument to assess whether the students knew the required content or could perform the required tasks. The standards-based National Education Goals (Goals 2000) were set by the U.S. Congress in the 1990s. Many of these goals were based on the principles of outcomes-based education, and not all of the goals were attained by the year 2000 as was intended. The standards-based reform movement culminated in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which as of 2016[update] is still an active nationwide mandate in the United States.
OBE reforms usually had other disputed methods, such as constructivist mathematics and whole language, added onto them.[dubious – discuss] Some proponents[who?] advocated replacing the traditional high school diploma with a Certificate of Initial Mastery. Other reform movements were school-to-work, which would require all students except those in a university track to spend substantial class time on a job site. See also Uncommon Schools.
Trump Administration[edit]
President Donald Trump relegated concerns in education to state governments. This began with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)[13] which limits the role of the federal government in school liability. Giving states more authority can help prevent considerable discrepancies in educational performance across different states.[14] ESSA was approved by former President Obama in 2015 which amended and empowered the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.[15] The Department of Education has the choice to carry out measures in drawing attention to said differences by pinpointing lowest-performing state governments and supplying information on the condition and progress of each state on different educational parameters. It can also provide reasonable funding along with technical aid to help states with similar demographics collaborate in improving their public education programs.[16]
During his campaign, Trump criticized the 2010 Common Core States Standard[17] and other cases of “federal government overreach.[18]” His advocacy was to give state and local governments more responsibilities over education policies. Trump appointed Betsy DeVos as education secretary. She also supported the idea of leaving education to state governments under the new K-12 legislation.[19] DeVos cited the interventionist approach of the federal government to education policy following the signing of the ESSA. The primary approach to that rule has not changed significantly. Her opinion was that the education movement's populist politics or populism.[20] encouraged reformers to commit promises which were not very realistic and therefore difficult to delive[21]
Modernizing the Education System[edit]
Many opinion makers say the situation in all American social institutions[22] is the same. These institutions which include government, higher education, healthcare, and mass media are still attuned with the traditional or original economic system.[23] There is a need to upgrade to a digital information economy.[24] More providers of higher education which include colleges and universities, non-traditional entities like school districts, libraries, and museums, and for-profit organizations will surface. All of these stakeholders will reach out to bigger audiences and use similar tools and technologies to achieve their goals.[25] An article released by CBNC.com said a principal Senate Committee will take into account legislation that reauthorizes and modernizes the Carl D. Perkins Act. President George Bush approved this statute in 2006 on August 12, 2006.[26] This new bill will emphasize the importance of federal funding for various Career and Technical (CTE) programs that will better provide learners with in-demand skills. Congress can provide more students with access to pertinent skills in education according to 21st century career opportunities.[27]
At present, there are many initiatives aimed at dealing with these concerns like innovative cooperation between federal and state governments, educators, and the business sector. One of these efforts is the Pathways to Technology Early College High School (P-TECH).[28] This six-year program was launched in cooperation with IBM, educators from three cities in New York, Chicago, and Connecticut, and over 400 businesses.[29] The program offers students high school and associate programs focusing on the STEM curriculum.[30] The High School Involvement Partnership, private and public venture, was established through the help of Northrop Grumman, a global security firm. It has given assistance to some 7,000 high school students (juniors and seniors) since 1971 by means of one-on-one coaching as well as exposure to STEM areas and careers.[31] In 2016, Time.com published an article mentioning that one way of reenergizing the United States economy is to provide quality education and training opportunities for American youngsters.[32] There is a need to update funding streams for schools at the federal, state, and local levels such as Pell Grants addressing the requirements of college students. The Grant or specific amount of money is given by the government every school year for disadvantaged students who need to pay tuition fees in college.[33]
Higher education[edit]
Higher education in the United States of America has always been regarded as exceptional worldwide although there are apprehensions regarding expensive and quality education, unimpressive completion rates, and increasing student debt. These issues raised doubts as to the effectiveness of the conventional approach to higher education.[34] There have been numerous proposals for federal reforms to enhance the status of higher education in the US. Some of the recommendations included making institutions liable for students/ non-attendance or dropping out of school, changing the obsolete accreditation process in overseeing access to federal subsidies, and allowing access to free education.[35]
Strengths-based education[edit]
This uses a methodology that values purposeful engagement in activities that turn students into self-reliant and efficient learners. Holding on to the view that everyone possesses natural gifts that are unique to one's personality (e.g. computational aptitude, musical talent, visual arts abilities), it likewise upholds the idea that children, despite their inexperience and tender age, are capable of coping with anguish, able to survive hardships, and can rise above difficult times.[36][37][38][39]
Career and Technical Education[edit]
President Donald Trump signed the Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (HR 2353) on July 31, 2018. This is the first law the American president signed that made meaningful amendments to the federal education system.[40] It reauthorizes the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, a $1.2 billion program modified by the United States Congress in 2006.[41]
Legislators have repeatedly rebuffed the efforts of Trump and education secretary Betsy DeVos to implement school choice programs funded by the federal government. The move to change the Higher Education Act was also deferred.[42] Business and education groups such as the Council of Chief State School Officers[43] as well as the National Governors Association[44] commended the US Congress for its prompt work during the past month. However, some advocacy organizations like Advanced CTE[45] and Association for Career and Technical Education[46] are apprehensive that said law can urge states to set passive laws for Career and Technical Education.
The new legislation takes effect on July 1, 2019 and takes the place of the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education (Perkins IV) Act of 2006. Stipulations in Perkins V enables school districts to make use of federal subsidies for all students' career search and development activities in the middle grades as well as comprehensive guidance and academic mentoring in the upper grades.[47] At the same time, this law updates and magnifies the meaning of "special populations" to include homeless persons, foster youth, those who left the foster care system, and children with parents on active duty in the United States armed forces.[48]
Contemporary issues (United States)[edit]
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Education reform in the United States. (Discuss) (July 2016)
See also: Standards-based education reform in the United States
Education in the United States
By state and in insular areas
By subject area
History of
Issues: Finance – Law – Literacy – Reform
Levels: Pre-kindergarten – Primary – Secondary – Higher
Organizations
Education portal
United States portal
v
t
e
Overview[edit]
In the first decade of the 21st century, several issues are salient in debates over further education reform:[49]
Longer school day or school year
After-school tutoring
Charter schools, school choice, or school vouchers
Smaller class sizes[50]
Improved teacher quality
Improved training
Higher credential standards
Generally higher pay to attract more qualified applicants
Performance bonuses ("merit pay")
Firing low-performing teachers
Internet and computer access in schools
Track and reduce drop-out rate
Track and reduce absenteeism
English-only vs. bilingual education
Mainstreaming or fully including students with special educational needs, rather than placing them in separate special schools
Content of curriculum standards and textbooks
What to teach, at what age, and to which students. For example, at what age should children normally learn to read? Should all teenagers study algebra, or would it be more useful for them to take a mathematics class focused on statistics or personal finances?
Funding, neglected infrastructure, and adequacy of educational supplies
Student rights
Funding levels[edit]
According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000 (in U.S. currency).[51] Despite this high level of funding, U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science.[52] A further analysis of developed countries shows no correlation between per student spending and student performance, suggesting that there are other factors influencing education. Top performers include Singapore, Finland and Korea, all with relatively low spending on education, while high spenders including Norway and Luxembourg have relatively low performance.[53] One possible factor is the distribution of the funding. In the US, schools in wealthy areas tend to be over-funded while schools in poorer areas tend to be underfunded.[54] These differences in spending between schools or districts may accentuate inequalities, if they result in the best teachers moving to teach in the most wealthy areas.[55] The inequality between districts and schools led to 23 states instituting school finance reform based on adequacy standards that aim to increase funding to low-income districts. A 2018 study found that between 1990 and 2012, these finance reforms led to an increase in funding and test scores in the low income districts; which suggests finance reform is effective at bridging inter-district performance inequalities.[56] It has also been shown that the socioeconomic situation of the students family has the most influence in determining success; suggesting that even if increased funds in a low income area increase performance, they may still perform worse than their peers from wealthier districts.
Starting in the early 1980s, a series of analyses by Eric Hanushek indicated that the amount spent on schools bore little relationship to student learning.[57] This controversial argument, which focused attention on how money was spent instead of how much was spent, led to lengthy scholarly exchanges.[58] In part the arguments fed into the class size debates and other discussions of "input policies."[59] It also moved reform efforts towards issues of school accountability (including No Child Left Behind) and the use of merit pay and other incentives.
There have been studies that show smaller class sizes[60] and newer buildings[61] (both of which require higher funding to implement) lead to academic improvements. It should also be noted that many of the reform ideas that stray from the traditional format require greater funding.
It has been shown that some school districts do not use their funds in the most productive way. For example, according to a 2007 article in the Washington Post, the Washington, D.C. public school district spends $12,979 per student per year. This is the third highest level of funding per student out of the 100 biggest school districts in the United States. Despite this high level of funding, the school district provides outcomes that are lower than the national average. In reading and math, the district's students score the lowest among 11 major school districts—even when poor children are compared only with other poor children. 33% of poor fourth graders in the United States lack basic skills in math, but in Washington, D.C., it's 62%.[62] According to a 2006 study by the Goldwater Institute, Arizona's public schools spend 50% more per student than Arizona's private schools. The study also says that while teachers constitute 72% of the employees at private schools, they make up less than half of the staff at public schools. According to the study, if Arizona's public schools wanted to be like private schools, they would have to hire approximately 25,000 more teachers, and eliminate 21,210 administration employees. The study also said that public school teachers are paid about 50% more than private school teachers.[63]
In 1985 in Kansas City, Missouri, a judge ordered the school district to raise taxes and spend more money on public education. Spending was increased so much, that the school district was spending more money per student than any of the country's other 280 largest school districts.
According to a 1999 article, William J. Bennett, former U.S. Secretary of Education, argued that increased levels of spending on public education have not made the schools better, citing the following statistics:[64]
Alternatives to public education[edit]
In the United States, private schools (independent schools) have long been an alternative to public education for those with the ability to pay tuition. These include religious schools, preparatory and boarding schools, and schools based on alternative paradigms such as Montessori education. Over 4 million students, about one in twelve children attend religious schools in the United States, most of them Christian.[65] Montessori pre- and primary school programs employ rigorously tested scientific theories[66] of guided exploration which seek to embrace children's natural curiosity rather than, for instance, scolding them for falling out of rank.
Home education is favored by a growing number of parents who take direct responsibility for their children's education rather than enrolling them in local public schools seen as not meeting expectations.
School choice[edit]
Economists such as Nobel laureate Milton Friedman advocate school choice to promote excellence in education through competition and choice.[67] A competitive "market" for schools eliminates the need to otherwise attempt a workable method of accountability for results. Public education vouchers permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds currently allocated to local public schools. The theory is that children's guardians will naturally shop for the best schools, much as is already done at college level.
Though appealing in theory, many reforms based on school choice have led to slight to moderate improvements—which some teachers' union members see as insufficient to offset the decreased teacher pay and job security.[68] For instance, New Zealand's landmark reform in 1989, during which schools were granted substantial autonomy, funding was devolved to schools, and parents were given a free choice of which school their children would attend, led to moderate improvements in most schools. It was argued that the associated increases in inequity and greater racial stratification in schools nullified the educational gains. Others, however, argued that the original system created more inequity (due to lower income students being required to attend poorer performing inner city schools and not being allowed school choice or better educations that are available to higher income inhabitants of suburbs). Instead, it was argued that the school choice promoted social mobility and increased test scores especially in the cases of low income students. Similar results have been found in other jurisdictions. Though discouraging, the merely slight improvements of some school choice policies often seems to reflect weaknesses in the way that choice is implemented rather than a failure of the basic principle itself.[69]
Teacher tenure[edit]
Critics of teacher tenure claim that the laws protect ineffective teachers from being fired, which can be detrimental to student success. Tenure laws vary from state to state, but generally they set a probationary period during which the teacher proves themselves worthy of the lifelong position. Probationary periods range from one to three years.[70] Advocates for tenure reform often consider these periods too short to make such an important decision; especially when that decision is exceptionally hard to revoke.[71] Due process restriction protect tenured teachers from being wrongfully fired; however these restrictions can also prevent administrators from removing ineffective or inappropriate teachers.[72] A 2008 survey conducted by the US Department of Education found that, on average, only 2.1% of teachers are dismissed each year for poor performance.[72]
In October 2010 Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs had a consequential meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama to discuss U.S. competitiveness and the nation's education system. During the meeting Jobs recommended pursuing policies that would make it easier for school principals to hire and fire teachers based on merit.[73]
In 2012 tenure for school teachers was challenged in a California lawsuit called Vergara v. California. The primary issue in the case was the impact of tenure on student outcomes and on equity in education. On June 10, 2014, the trial judge ruled that California's teacher tenure statute produced disparities that " shock the conscience"[74] and violate the equal protection clause of the California Constitution.[75] On July 7, 2014, U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan commented on the Vergara decision during a meeting with President Barack Obama and representatives of teacher's unions. Duncan said that tenure for school teachers "should be earned through demonstrated effectiveness" and should not be granted too quickly. Specifically, he criticized the 18-month tenure period at the heart of the Vergara case as being too short to be a "meaningful bar."[76]
Barriers to reform[edit]
A study by the Fordham Institute found that some labor agreements with teachers' unions may restrict the ability of school systems to implement merit pay and other reforms. Contracts were more restrictive in districts with high concentrations of poor and minority students.[77] The methodology and conclusions of the study have been criticized by teachers' unions.[78]
Another barrier to reform is assuming that schools are like businesses—when in fact they are very different.[79]
Legal barriers to reform are low in the United States compared to other countries: State and local governance of education creates "wiggle room for educational innovators" who can change local laws or move somewhere more favourable. Cultural barriers to reform are also relatively low, because the question of who should control education is still open.[80]
There are factors that can impede innovations in K-12 education.[81] One could be “Site-Based Decision Making Councils”[82] composed of teachers and some parents who vote on school rules and regulations, adoption of curriculum, hiring of new mentors, and other related matters. There are times attendance in meetings is not adequate or stakeholders are not represented properly. The belief is small meetings attended by a few individuals may not be ideal for innovation. Turnover of teachers is another possible hindrance to such innovations. The learning process is adversely affected because of frequent teacher resignations and replacements. Constant changing of mentors leads to waste of resources and dormant thinking influenced by policies, systems, and traditions.[83]
Internationally[edit]
Education for All[edit]
Main articles: Education For All and Education 2030 Agenda
Education 2030 Agenda refers to the global commitment of the Education for All movement to ensure access to basic education for all. It is an essential part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The roadmap to achieve the Agenda is the Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action, which outlines how countries, working with UNESCO and global partners, can translate commitments into action.[84]
The United Nations, over 70 ministers, representatives of member-countries, bilateral and multilateral agencies, regional organizations, academic institutions, teachers, civil society, and the youth supported the Framework for Action of the Education 2030 platform. The Framework was described as the outcome of continuing consultation to provide guidance for countries in implementing this Agenda. At the same time, it mobilizes various stakeholders in the new education objectives, coordination, implementation process, funding, and review of Education 2030.[85]
Taiwan[edit]
In other parts of the world, educational reform has had a number of different meanings. In Taiwan in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century a movement tried to prioritize reasoning over mere facts, reduce the emphasis on central control and standardized testing. There was consensus on the problems. Efforts were limited because there was little consensus on the goals of educational reforms, and therefore on how to fix the problems. By 2003, the push for education reform had declined.
Motivations[edit]
Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as poverty-, gender-, or class-based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness. Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geographies. As McKinsey and Company reported in a 2009 analysis, “These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession.”[86] Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people—the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic, etc. The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century.
The "beliefs" of school districts are optimistic that quite literally "all students will succeed", which in the context of high school graduation examination in the United States, all students in all groups, regardless of heritage or income will pass tests that in the introduction typically fall beyond the ability of all but the top 20 to 30 percent of students. The claims clearly renounce historical research that shows that all ethnic and income groups score differently on all standardized tests and standards based assessments and that students will achieve on a bell curve. Instead, education officials across the world believe that by setting clear, achievable, higher standards, aligning the curriculum, and assessing outcomes, learning can be increased for all students, and more students can succeed than the 50 percent who are defined to be above or below grade level by norm referenced standards.
States have tried to use state schools to increase state power, especially to make better soldiers and workers. This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when the U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress Lakota and Navaho, or when a culture has widely respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the Spanish failed to suppress Catalan.
Many students of democracy have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that the quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and that education can improve these abilities.
Politically motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as Plato in The Republic. In the United States, this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by Thomas Jefferson, who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for public schooling in Virginia.
Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the 20th century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as health, wealth and well-being. For example, in Kerala, India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In Iran, increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information.
Strategies[edit]
Reforms can be based on bringing education into alignment with a society's core values.[87][88] Reforms that attempt to change a society's core values can connect alternative education initiatives with a network of other alternative institutions.[89]
Digital education[edit]
Main article: Electronic learning
The movement to use computers more in education naturally includes many unrelated ideas, methods, and pedagogies since there are many uses for digital computers. For example, the fact that computers are naturally good at math leads to the question of the use of calculators in math education. The Internet's communication capabilities make it potentially useful for collaboration, and foreign language learning. The computer's ability to simulate physical systems makes it potentially useful in teaching science. More often, however, debate of digital education reform centers around more general applications of computers to education, such as electronic test-taking and online classes.
The idea of creating artificial intelligence led some computer scientists to believe that teachers could be replaced by computers, through something like an expert system; however, attempts to accomplish this have predictably proved inflexible. The computer is now more understood to be a tool or assistant for the teacher and students.
Harnessing the richness of the Internet is another goal. In some cases classrooms have been moved entirely online, while in other instances the goal is more to learn how the Internet can be more than a classroom.
Web-based international educational software is under development by students at New York University, based on the belief that current educational institutions are too rigid: effective teaching is not routine, students are not passive, and questions of practice are not predictable or standardized. The software allows for courses tailored to an individual's abilities through frequent and automatic multiple intelligences assessments. Ultimate goals include assisting students to be intrinsically motivated to educate themselves, and aiding the student in self-actualization. Courses typically taught only in college are being reformatted so that they can be taught to any level of student, whereby elementary school students may learn the foundations of any topic they desire. Such a program has the potential to remove the bureaucratic inefficiencies of education in modern countries, and with the decreasing digital divide, help developing nations rapidly achieve a similar quality of education. With an open format similar to Wikipedia, any teacher may upload their courses online and a feedback system will help students choose relevant courses of the highest quality. Teachers can provide links in their digital courses to webcast videos of their lectures. Students will have personal academic profiles and a forum will allow students to pose complex questions, while simpler questions will be automatically answered by the software, which will bring you to a solution by searching through the knowledge database, which includes all available courses and topics.
The 21st century ushered in the acceptance and encouragement of internet research conducted on college and university campuses, in homes, and even in gathering areas of shopping centers. Addition of cyber cafes on campuses and coffee shops, loaning of communication devices from libraries, and availability of more portable technology devices, opened up a world of educational resources. Availability of knowledge to the elite had always been obvious, yet provision of networking devices, even wireless gadget sign-outs from libraries, made availability of information an expectation of most persons. Cassandra B. Whyte researched the future of computer use on higher education campuses focusing on student affairs. Though at first seen as a data collection and outcome reporting tool, the use of computer technology in the classrooms, meeting areas, and homes continued to unfold. The sole dependence on paper resources for subject information diminished and e-books and articles, as well as on-line courses, were anticipated to become increasingly staple and affordable choices provided by higher education institutions according to Whyte in a 2002 presentation.[90][91]
Digitally "flipping" classrooms is a trend in digital education that has gained significant momentum. Will Richardson, author and visionary for the digital education realm, points to the not-so-distant future and the seemingly infinite possibilities for digital communication linked to improved education. Education on the whole, as a stand-alone entity, has been slow to embrace these changes. The use of web tools such as wikis, blogs, and social networking sites is tied to increasing overall effectiveness of digital education in schools. Examples exist of teacher and student success stories where learning has transcended the classroom and has reached far out into society.[92]
Creativity is of the utmost importance when improving education. The "creative teachers" must have the confidence through training and availability of support and resources. These creative teachers are strongly encouraged to embrace a person-centered approach that develops the psychology of the educator ahead or in conjunction with the deployment of machines.[93] Creative teachers have been also been inspired through Crowd-Accelerated Innovation. Crowd-Accelerated Innovation has pushed people to transition between media types and their understanding thereof at record-breaking paces.[94] This process serves as a catalyst for creative direction and new methods of innovation. Innovation without desire and drive inevitably flat lines.[94]
Mainstream media continues to be both very influential and the medium where Crowd-Accelerated Innovation gains its leverage. Media is in direct competition with formal educational institutions in shaping the minds of today and those of tomorrow. [Buchanan, Rachel footnote] The media has been instrumental in pushing formal educational institutions to become savvier in their methods. Additionally, advertising has been (and continues to be) a vital force in shaping students and parents thought patterns.[95]
Technology is a dynamic entity that is constantly in flux. As time presses on, new technologies will continue to break paradigms that will reshape human thinking regarding technological innovation. This concept stresses a certain disconnect between teachers and learners and the growing chasm that started some time ago. Richardson asserts that traditional classroom's will essentially enter entropy unless teachers increase their comfort and proficiency with technology.[92]
Administrators are not exempt from the technological disconnect. They must recognize the existence of a younger generation of teachers who were born during the Digital Age and are very comfortable with technology. However, when old meets new, especially in a mentoring situation, conflict seems inevitable. Ironically, the answer to the outdated mentor may be digital collaboration with worldwide mentor webs; composed of individuals with creative ideas for the classroom.[96]
Another viable addition to digital education has been blended learning. In 2009, over 3 million K-12 students took an online course, compared to 2000 when 45,000 took an online course. Blended learning examples include pure online, blended, and traditional education. Research results show that the most effective learning takes place in a blended format.[97] This allows children to view the lecture ahead of time and then spend class time practicing, refining, and applying what they have previously learned.
See also[edit]
Education portal
Politics portal
Anti-schooling activism
Blab school
Block scheduling
Certificate of Initial Mastery
Criterion-referenced test
Educational philosophies
High school graduation examination
Higher-order thinking
Inquiry-based Science
Learning environment
Learning space
Merit pay
Multiculturalism
Political correctness
Project-based learning
Special Assistance Program
Student-centered learning
Sudbury model democratic schools
Sudbury Valley School
Teaching for social justice
University reform
Web literacy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://parentreolution.org/who-we-are/[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-10-26. Retrieved 2014-09-16. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ http://www.edtrust.org/issues/pre-k-12/closing-the-gaps
Jump up ^ Whelan, Lessons Learned (2009)
Jump up ^ Kohn, Alfie. "The trouble with calls for universal 'high-quality' pre-K". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-05-26.
Jump up ^ Educational Economies in the 1800s – K12 Academics Archived 2012-10-19 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Messerli, Horace Mann: A Biography (1972)
Jump up ^ Ellwood P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States (1919) p. 167
Jump up ^ Alan Ryan, John Dewey and the high tide of American liberalism (1997).
Jump up ^ Russell, Bertrand (January 2, 1919). "Professor Dewey's "Essays in Experimental Logic"". The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. 16 (1): 5–26. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tyack and Cuban, p. 29
^ Jump up to: a b Ron Miller (2002). Free Schools, Free People: Education and Democracy After the Nineteen Sixties. SUNY Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-7914-8824-9. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) | U.S. Department of Education". www.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ Jacob, Brian A. (2017-02-02). "How the U.S. Department of Education can foster education reform in the era of Trump and ESSA". Brookings. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ Maranto, Robert; McShane, Michael Q. (2012), "Reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act", President Obama and Education Reform, Palgrave Macmillan, doi:10.1057/9781137030931_7, ISBN 9781137030931
Jump up ^ "Strategies to Improve Low-Performing Schools Under the Every Student Succeeds Act - Center for American Progress". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Common Core State Standards Initiative". Common Core State Standards Initiative. Retrieved 2018-07-09. [not in citation given]
Jump up ^ "Federal Overreach | SGLF". sglf.org. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ "States bristle as DeVos and Department of Education critique their K-12 plans". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ "What is populism?". The Economist. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Jack. "Why 'education reform' espoused by Betsy DeVos, Mark Zuckerberg and others lives on despite its many failures". MarketWatch. Retrieved 2018-07-09.
Jump up ^ Miller, Seumas (2014), Zalta, Edward N., ed., "Social Institutions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2018-07-10
Jump up ^ "5 Traits of a Traditional Economy". The Balance. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ Bank, Asian Development (2018-02-21). "Understanding the Digital Economy: What Is It and How Can It Transform Asia?". Asian Development Bank. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Modernizing U.S. Schools of Education". Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Reauthorization of Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act". www2.ed.gov. 2007-03-16. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ Grumman, Ginni Rometty and Wes Bush, CEOs of IBM and Northrop (2018-06-22). "Ginni Rometty and Wes Bush: Addressing the 'skills gap' requires an updated education system". CNBC. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Pathways in Technology Early College High School / Homepage". www.ptechnyc.org. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "P-TECH scholars head to 'new collar' future". P-TECH scholars head to 'new collar' future. 2018-05-29. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "What is STEM Education?". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Education Outreach Initiatives". Northrop Grumman. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "6 Ways the Next President Can Improve Education". Time. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Pay for College - What Is a Pell Grant?". bigfuture.collegeboard.org. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to AEI's Center on Higher Education Reform". AEI. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ "College Degrees Are Due for Reform". Time. Retrieved 2018-07-10.
Jump up ^ Lopez, S.J (2009). "The principles of strengths-based education" (PDF). Journal of College and Character. X: 1–6.
Jump up ^ Resiliency Initiatives (2011). "Embracing a strength-based perspective and practice in education". The California School Psychologist. 9: 1–24.
Jump up ^ Rawana, E. P. & Brownlee, K. (2009). "Making the possible probable: A strength-based assessment and intervention framework for clinical work with parents, children and adolescents." Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 90, 255-260
Jump up ^ Passarelli, A. (2010). "A strengths-based approach to outdoor and adventure education: Possibilities for personal growth". Journal of Experiential Education. 33: 120–135
Jump up ^ "Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (H.R. 2353)". GovTrack.us. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "PCRN: Perkins Act". cte.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ Ujifusa, Andrew. "Donald Trump Signs First Major Education Policy Bill of His Presidency". Education Week. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "About Us | CCSSO". ccsso.org. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "National Governors Association". National Governors Association. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Home | Advance CTE". careertech.org. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Home | ACTE". acte. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ Gewertz, Catherine. "What Is Career and Technical Education, Anyway?". Education Week. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Strengthening Career & Technical Education for 21st Century Act Signed". ED.gov Blog. 2018-08-02. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
Jump up ^ "A Joint Platform for Education Reform" (PDF). The Center for American Progress. United States Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2008. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
Jump up ^ Professor: Smaller Class Sizes Optimal For Kids. All Things Considered, National Public Radio. 24 September 2009.
Jump up ^ OECD calls for broader access to post-school education and training, OECD, September 13, 2005
Jump up ^ Who's No. 1? Finland, Japan, and Korea, Says OECD
Jump up ^ OECD, PISA 2006. Whelan, Lessons Learned: How Good Policies Produce Better Schools, 2009. See also Eric Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann, "The economics of international differences in educational achievement," in Eric A. Hanushek, Stephen Machin, and Ludger Woessmann (eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Education, Vol. 3 (Amsterdam: North Holland, 2011): 89-200.
Jump up ^ "More Than 40% of Low-Income Schools Don't Get a Fair Share of State and Local Funds, Department of Education Research Finds". Ed.gov. November 30, 2011. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
Jump up ^ National Catholic Reporter, May 2, 1997, by John Allen
Jump up ^ Lafortune, Julien; Rothstein, Jesse; Schanzenbach, Diane Whitmore (2018). "School Finance Reform and the Distribution of Student Achievement". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 10 (2): 1–26. doi:10.1257/app.20160567.
Jump up ^ See Eric Hanushek, "Throwing money at schools", Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 1, no. 1 (Fall 1981): 19-41; Eric Hanushek, "The economics of schooling: Production and efficiency in public schools," Journal of Economic Literature 24, no. 3 (September 1986): 1141-1177; Eric Hanushek, "The failure of input-based schooling policies", Economic Journal 113, no. 485 (February): F64-F98.
Jump up ^ For example, see Gary Burtless (ed.), Does money matter? The effect of school resources on student achievement and adult success (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1996) or Alan B. Krueger, "Reassessing the view that American schools are broken." FRBNY Economic Policy Review, 1998
Jump up ^ Alan B. Krueger, "Experimental estimates of education production functions," Quarterly Journal of Economics 114, no. 2 (May 1999): 497-532; Eric Hanushek "The evidence on class size", in Susan E. Mayer and Paul E. Peterson(eds.), Earning and learning: How schools matter (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999): 131-168; Lawrence Mishel and Richard Rothstein (eds.), The class size debate (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2002).
Jump up ^ "Class Size". Education Week. July 1, 2011. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Jago and Ken Tanner (April 1999). "Influence of the School Facility on Student Achievement". University of Georgia. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ Dan Keating and V. Dion Haynes (June 10, 2007). "Can D.C. Schools Be Fixed?". Washington Post. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ Andrew J. Coulson (October 18, 2006). "Private Schools Now 33% Off!". Cato Institute. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ 20 Troubling Facts about American Education, William J. Bennett, October 1999
Jump up ^ "Boston.com / News / Boston Globe / Opinion / Op-ed / Making the case for parochial schools". Archived from the original on 2 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Lillard, Angeline. "The Science Behind the Genius". Montessori-Genius.org. Angeline Lillard. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Given, Casey (27 January 2014). "School Vouchers Are a Good Way to Promote School Choice". Retrieved 10 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009)
Jump up ^ Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009). Fiske, Ladd, When Schools Compete (2000)
Jump up ^ "Teacher Tenure - Requirements for earning nonprobationary status". ecs.force.com. Retrieved 2017-11-30.
Jump up ^ Coleman, Julianne; Schroth, Stephen T.; Molinaro, Lisa; Green, Mark (2005-09-01). "Tenure: An Important Due Process Right or a Hindrance to Change in the Schools?". Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education. 18 (3): 219. doi:10.1007/s11092-006-9020-5. ISSN 0920-525X.
^ Jump up to: a b Chait, Robin (2010-03-07). "Removing Chronically Ineffective Teachers" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-11-29.
Jump up ^ Isaacson, Walter (2011), Steve Jobs, Simon & Schuster, pp. 544–45, ISBN 9781451648539
Jump up ^ Vergara v. California - Judgment , page 7, line 21 (Superior Court of the State of California, County of Los Angeles August 27, 2014). Text
Jump up ^ Vergara (2014) - Judgment , page 3, lines 19-27. Text
Jump up ^ Earle, Geoff (July 7, 2014). "Duncan digs at California teacher tenure during Obama meeting". New York Post. Retrieved November 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Frederick M. Hess and Coby Loup, "The LEADERSHIP LIMBO: Teacher Labor Agreements in America’s Fifty Largest School Districts", Fordham Institute, February 2008
Jump up ^ Nelson Hernandez (February 25, 2008). "Some Teachers' Contracts Bind Reforms, Study Says: Agreements in D.C. Region Generally Praised". The Washington Post: B04.
Jump up ^ White, J., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2009, Spring). "The cyclical rhetoric of educational reform and the rationalization of a failed zeitgeist". eJournal of Education Policy. Retrieved from
Jump up ^ Mitchell Stevens (9 February 2009). Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement. Princeton University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4008-2480-9. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Magazine, Relocate. "K-12 Curriculum – the US education system | Education & Schools resource centre | Relocate magazine". www.relocatemagazine.com. Retrieved 2018-06-26.
Jump up ^ "Site-Based Decision Making: Its Potential for Enhancing Learner Outcomes - Issues ...about Change, Site-Based Decision Making: Its Potential for Enhancing Learner Outcomes, Volume 1, Number 4". www.sedl.org. Retrieved 2018-06-26.
Jump up ^ "12 Barriers To Innovation In Education". TeachThought. 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2018-06-26.
Jump up ^ UNESCO (2017). Education Transforms Lives (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 6, 8–9.
Jump up ^ McKinnon, Tamara H.; Fitzpatrick, Joyce J. (2017), "Nursing Education Imperatives and the United Nations 2030 Agenda", in Rosa, William, A New Era in Global Health, Springer Publishing Company, doi:10.1891/9780826190123.0008, ISBN 9780826190116
Jump up ^ McKinsey and Company, “The Economic Impact of the Achievement Gap on America’s Schools.” April 2009.
Jump up ^ Sudbury Valley School (1 January 1970). "The American Dream". The crisis in American education: an analysis and a proposal. The Sudbury Valley School. ISBN 978-1-888947-05-2. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Amy Gutmann (29 March 1999). Democratic Education. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2291-1. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Paula Polk Lillard (7 September 2011). Montessori Today: A Comprehensive Approach to Education from Birth to Adulthood. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-307-76132-3. Retrieved 30 May 2013. , quoted in Mitchell Stevens (9 February 2009). Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement. Princeton University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-4008-2480-9. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard. (1989)."Student Affairs-The Future". Journal of College Student Development.30. (1). 86-89.
Jump up ^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (2002) Presentation at a Round Table Forum on Higher Education Topics.Oxford, England.
^ Jump up to: a b Richardson, Will. 2010. Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts and Other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms 3rd ed.,155, Corwin Press
Jump up ^ Song, H.-D., Wang, W.-T., & Liu, C.-Y. (2011). A Simulation Model that Decreases Faculty Concerns about Adopting Web Based Instruction. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (3), 141–151. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/journals/14_3/12.pdf Archived 2012-04-15 at the Wayback Machine..
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, Chris. "Crowd Accelerated Innovation." Wired Magazine. January 2011. Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/12/ff_tedvideos/
Jump up ^ Buchanan, Rachel."Paradox, Promise and Public Pedagogy: Implications of the Federal Government’s Digital Education Revolution". Vol. 36, Issue 2, Article 6, P. 73, March 2011.
Jump up ^ Gibson, S. (2009). Are our pre-service teachers prepared to teach in a digital age? In T. Bastiaens et al.(Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 200(pp. 2609-2617).
Jump up ^ Horn, M., Stacker, H. "The Rise of K-12 Blended Learning" Innosight Institute. January 2011. Retrieved from www.innosightinstitute.org
Sources[edit]
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Education Transforms Lives, 6, 8-9, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
Further reading[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Comer, J.P. (1997). Waiting for a Miracle: Why Schools Can’t Solve Our Problems- and How We Can. New York: Penguin Books.
Cuban, L. (2003). Why Is It So Hard to Get Good Schools? New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
Darling-Hammond, Linda. (1997) The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work. Jossey-Bass.
Dewey, J. and Dewey, E. (1915). Schools of To-morrow. New York: E.P. Dutton and Company.
Gatto, John Taylor (1992). Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling. Canada: New Society Publishers.
Glazek, S.D. and Sarason, S.B. (2007). Productive Learning: Science, Art, and Einstein’s Relativity in Education Reform. New York: Sage Publications, Inc.
Goldstein, Dana (2014). The Teacher Wars: A History of America's Most Embattled Profession. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-53695-0.
Goodland, J.I. and Anderson, R.H. (1959 and 1987). The Nongraded Elementary School. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Green, Elizabeth (2014). Building a Better Teacher: How Teaching Works (and How to Teach It to Everyone). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-08159-6.
Hanushek, Eric (2013). Endangering Prosperity: A Global View of the American School. Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0373-0.
James, Laurie. (1994) Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools New York.
Katz, M.B. (1971). Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in America. New York: Praeger Publishers.
Kliebard, Herbert. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum. New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Kohn, A. (1999). The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and 'Tougher Standards'. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Murphy, J.H. and Beck, L.G. (1995). School-Based Management as School Reform: Taking Stock. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Ogbu, J.U. (1978). Minority Education and Caste: The American System in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Academic Press.
Ravitch, D. (1988). The Great School Wars: A History of the New York City Public Schools. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Sarason, S.B. (1996). Revisiting 'The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change'. New York: Teachers College Press.
Sarason, S.B. (1990). The Predictable Failure of Educational Reform: Can We Change Course Before Its Too Late? San Francisco: Josey-Bass, Inc.
Sizer, T.R. (1984). Horace’s Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Tough, Paul. (2008). Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Tough, Paul. (2012). How Children Succeed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Tyack, David and Cuban, Larry. (1995) Tinkering Toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Zwaagstra, Michael; Clifton, Rodney; and Long, John. (2010) What's Wrong with Our Schools: and How We Can Fix Them. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1-60709-157-7
External links[edit]
Education reform at Curlie
Stanford University Libraries. "School and Education Reform". Topic Guides. USA.
hide
v
t
e
Standards-based education reform
Individuals
Benjamin Bloom
Jerome Bruner
Rheta DeVries
Caleb Gattegno
Constance Kamii
Maria Montessori
Jean Piaget
William Spady
Marc Tucker
Lev Vygotsky
Theories
Active learning
Block scheduling
Cognitive load
Constructivism
Developmentally appropriate practice
Discovery learning
Holistic education
Holistic grading
Inclusion
Inquiry-based learning
Inventive spelling
Open-space school
Outcome-based education
Problem-based learning
Small schools movement
Values
Achievement gap
Excellence and equity
Learning standards
Adequate Yearly Progress
Certificate of Initial Mastery
Goals 2000
National Reading Panel
National Science Education Standards
National Skill Standards Board
No Child Left Behind Act
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
Standards-based
assessment
Authentic assessment
Criterion-referenced test
Norm-referenced test
High school graduation examination
Standardized tests
List of standardized tests in the United States
Standardized testing and public policy
Standardized
curriculum
Decodable text
Direct instruction
Grades
Guided reading
Lecture
Phonics
Rote learning
Standard algorithms
Tracking (education)
Traditional education
Traditional mathematics
Whole language
Authority control
GND: 4006672-1
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_reform&oldid=863116178"
Categories:
Education issues
Education reform
History of education
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from September 2017
Articles with permanently dead external links
CS1 maint: Archived copy as title
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from August 2018
All Wikipedia articles needing clarification
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2018
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2008
Articles to be split from July 2016
All articles to be split
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016
All articles containing potentially dated statements
All accuracy disputes
Articles with disputed statements from October 2009
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2009
Free-content attribution
Free content from UNESCO
Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2016
USA-centric
Articles with Curlie links
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Deutsch
हिन्दी
日本語
Norsk
Svenska
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 October 2018, at 20:23 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: b

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Public_education
mw-redirect
Public education

value: sup

value: span

attrs: class style

values: padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;

values: This passage needs to be better explained. (October 2018)

attrs: href title

value: i

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Public_Library
mw-redirect
Public Library

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2008)

values: Edit section: Reforms of classical education

values: Edit section: England in the 19th century

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Monitorial_system
mw-redirect
Monitorial system

values:
/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends
mw-redirect
Religious Society of Friends

values: Edit section: Progressive reforms in Europe and the United States

values:
/wiki/Educational_progressivism
mw-redirect
Educational progressivism

values:
/wiki/Emile:_Or,_On_Education
mw-redirect
Emile: Or, On Education

values:
/wiki/Plato%27s_Republic
mw-redirect
Plato's Republic

values:
/wiki/Ellwood_P._Cubberley
mw-redirect
Ellwood P. Cubberley

values:
/wiki/Native_speaker
mw-redirect
Native speaker

values:
/wiki/Linguistic_minorities
mw-redirect
Linguistic minorities

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2008)

values: Edit section: The administrative progressives

values: Edit section: Late-20th and early 21st century (United states)

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move
presentation

values: History of education in the United States

values: Edit section: Reforms arising from the civil rights era

values: Desegregation busing in the United States

values:
/wiki/Standards-based_education_reform
mw-redirect
Standards-based education reform

values:
/wiki/Outcomes-based_education
mw-redirect
Outcomes-based education

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values: The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (October 2009)

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2009)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values: Edit section: Modernizing the Education System

values: Edit section: Career and Technical Education

values: Edit section: Contemporary issues (United States)

values: Standards-based education reform in the United States

values: Category:Education in the United States by state

values: Category:Education in insular areas of the United States

values: Category:Education in the United States by subject

values: Category:Education finance in the United States

values: Secondary education in the United States

values: Category:Educational organizations based in the United States

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;

values: Template talk:Education in the U.S. (page does not exist)

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Year-round_school
mw-redirect
Year-round school

values:
/wiki/English-only_education
mw-redirect
English-only education

values:
/wiki/Special_educational_needs
mw-redirect
Special educational needs

values:
/wiki/Special_school
mw-redirect
Special school

values:
/wiki/Curriculum_standard
mw-redirect
Curriculum standard

values:
/wiki/Student_rights
mw-redirect
Student rights

values:
/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind
mw-redirect
No Child Left Behind

values:
/wiki/Washington_Post
mw-redirect
Washington Post

values:
/wiki/William_J._Bennett
mw-redirect
William J. Bennett

values:
/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_Education
mw-redirect
U.S. Secretary of Education

values: Edit section: Alternatives to public education

values:
/wiki/Thomas_B._Fordham_Foundation
mw-redirect
Thomas B. Fordham Foundation

values:
/wiki/Teachers%27_union
mw-redirect
Teachers' union

values: High school graduation examination in the United States

values:
/wiki/Standards_based_assessment
mw-redirect
Standards based assessment

values:
/wiki/Navajo_people
mw-redirect
Navajo people

values:
/wiki/Electronic_learning
mw-redirect
Electronic learning

values:
/wiki/Multiple_intelligences
mw-redirect
Multiple intelligences

values:
/wiki/Flip_teaching
mw-redirect
Flip teaching

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Blab_school
mw-redirect
Blab school

values:
/wiki/Educational_philosophies
mw-redirect
Educational philosophies

values:
/wiki/Inquiry-based_Science
mw-redirect
Inquiry-based Science

values:
/wiki/Special_Assistance_Program
mw-redirect
Special Assistance Program

values:
/wiki/Student-centered_learning
mw-redirect
Student-centered learning

values:
/wiki/Sudbury_model_of_education
mw-redirect
Sudbury model of education

values:
/wiki/Teaching_for_social_justice
mw-redirect
Teaching for social justice

values: -moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;

values:
nofollow
http://parentreolution.org/who-we-are/
external free

values:
nofollow
http://www.dfer.org/about/principles/
external text

values: Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.ed.gov/essa

values:
nofollow
http://www.corestandards.org/
external text

values: The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (August 2018)

values:
nofollow
https://www.ptechnyc.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.aei.org/feature/cher/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://ccsso.org/about

values:
nofollow
https://www.nga.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://careertech.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.acteonline.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1257%2Fapp.20160567

values:
/wiki/Alan_B._Krueger
mw-redirect
Alan B. Krueger

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0920-525X

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg

values: Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia

values: Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize

values: Tinkering Toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform

values: Template talk:Standards-based education reform

values: Constructivism (philosophy of education)

values:
/wiki/Open-space_school
mw-redirect
Open-space school

values: Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

values: List of standardized tests in the United States

values:
/wiki/Grade_(education)
mw-redirect
Grade (education)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4006672-1

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2017

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with failed verification

values: Category:Articles with failed verification from August 2018

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles needing clarification

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2018

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2008

values: Category:Articles to be split from July 2016

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Articles with disputed statements from October 2009

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2009

values: Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Education_reform
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: إصلاح التعليم – Arabic

values: Образователна реформа – Bulgarian

values: शैक्षिक सुधार – Hindi

values: 教育体制改革 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Education_reform rootpage-Education_reform skin-vector action-view