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Sansa Stark
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Sansa Stark
A Song of Ice and Fire character
Game of Thrones character
Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark
First appearance
Novel:
A Game of Thrones (1996)
Television:
"Winter Is Coming" (2011)
Created by
George R. R. Martin
Portrayed by
Sophie Turner
(Game of Thrones)
Information
Aliases
Little Bird
Alayne Stone
Jonquil
Gender
Female
Title
Lady of Winterfell (TV series)
Princess
Family
House Stark
House Lannister
House Bolton (TV series)
Spouse(s)
Tyrion Lannister (unconsummated)
Ramsay Bolton (TV series)
Relatives
Ned Stark (father)
Catelyn Tully (mother)
Robb Stark (brother)
Arya Stark (sister)
Bran Stark (brother)
Rickon Stark (brother)
Jon Snow (half-brother; books)
(cousin/adoptive brother; TV series)
Brandon Stark (uncle)
Benjen Stark (uncle)
Lyanna Stark (aunt)
Lysa Tully (aunt)
Edmure Tully (uncle)
Robert/Robin Arryn (cousin)
Kingdom
The North
The Crownlands
Sansa Stark is a fictional character created by American author George R. R. Martin. She is a prominent character in Martin's award-winning A Song of Ice and Fire series.
Introduced in 1996's A Game of Thrones, Sansa is the eldest daughter and second child of Lord Eddard Stark and his wife Lady Catelyn Stark. She subsequently appeared in the following three novels, A Clash of Kings (1998), A Storm of Swords (2000) and A Feast for Crows (2005). While absent from the fifth novel A Dance with Dragons as the books are separated geographically, Sansa is confirmed to return in the forthcoming next book in the series, The Winds of Winter.[1]
In HBO's adaptation of the series, Game of Thrones, Sansa Stark is portrayed by Sophie Turner.[2][3] The character has received critical acclaim, being praised as the 4th greatest character in the series by Rolling Stone.[4] She and the rest of the cast were nominated for Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2016.
Contents
1 Character and appearances
2 Storylines
2.1 A Game of Thrones
2.2 A Clash of Kings
2.3 A Storm of Swords
2.4 A Feast for Crows
2.5 Family tree of House Stark
3 TV adaptation
3.1 Storylines
3.1.1 First season
3.1.2 Second season
3.1.3 Third season
3.1.4 Fourth season
3.1.5 Fifth season
3.1.6 Sixth season
3.1.7 Seventh season
3.2 Reception
3.2.1 Controversy
3.3 Recognition and awards
4 References
4.1 Inline citations
4.2 General references
Character and appearances[edit]
Sansa Stark is the second child and elder daughter of Eddard Stark and Catelyn Stark. She was born and raised in Winterfell, until leaving with her father and sister at the beginning of the series. She was raised with a younger sister Arya Stark, two younger brothers Rickon Stark and Bran Stark, as well as an older brother Robb Stark, and an older illegitimate half-brother, Jon Snow [5].
Raised as a lady, Sansa is traditionally feminine. Sansa's interests are music, poetry, and singing. She strives to become like the heroines of romantic tales by attempting to find a prince, knight, or gentleman to fall in love with. For a companion animal, she owned a direwolf named Lady. However, Lady was killed in place of Arya's direwolf, Nymeria, in the first installment. Lady is killed because Nymeria attacked the Crown Prince, Joffrey Baratheon and later fled.
Sansa has been described as tall, slim, womanly, and beautiful, destined to be a lady or a queen. She has blue eyes and thick auburn hair that she inherits from her mother, who came from House Tully in the Riverlands region prior to her marriage to Eddard Stark. She has her hair dyed dark brown later on while in the Vale, disguising as Alayne Stone- the bastard daughter of Petyr Baelish. Sansa is 11 years old in A Game of Thrones and nearly 14 in A Feast for Crows. Arguably the most naive of the Stark children at the start of the series, Sansa often finds herself used as a pawn in the machinations of the other characters. However, as the story progresses, she matures and becomes more of a player of the game rather than a pawn for other characters.[6]
Storylines[edit]
Coat of arms of House Stark
A Game of Thrones[edit]
Sansa Stark begins the novel by being betrothed to Crown Prince Joffrey Baratheon, believing Joffrey to be a gallant prince. While Joffrey and Sansa are walking through the woods, Joffrey notices Arya sparring with the butchers boy, Mycah. A fight breaks out and Joffrey is attacked by Nymeria (Arya's Direwolf) after Joffrey threatens to hurt Arya. Sansa lies to King Robert about the circumstances of the fight in order to protect both Joffrey and her sister Arya. Since Arya ran off with her wolf to save it, Sansa's wolf is killed instead, estranging the Stark daughters.
During the Tourney of the Hand to honour her father Lord Eddard Stark, Sansa Stark is enchanted by the knights performing in the event. At the request of his mother, Queen Cersei Lannister, Joffrey spends a portion of the tourney with Sansa, but near the end he commands his guard Sandor Clegane, better known as The Hound, to take her back to her quarters. The Hound tells Sansa the little known story of his burned face and why he dislikes knights, in turn she comforts him.
After Eddard discovers the truth of Joffrey's paternity, he tells Sansa that they will be heading back to Winterfell. Sansa is devastated and wishes to stay in King's Landing, so she runs off to inform Queen Cersei of her father's plans, unwittingly providing Cersei with the information needed to arrest her father. After Robert dies, Sansa begs Joffrey to show mercy on her father and he agrees to allow Ned to live if Ned will swear an oath of loyalty. After promising Sansa that he will be merciful, Joffrey betrays his word and has her father executed in front of her. Sansa is now effectively a hostage in King's Landing and finally sees Joffrey's true nature after he forces her to look at the tarred head of her now deceased father.
A Clash of Kings[edit]
Sansa is a hostage in King's Landing, and has learned to be outwardly loyal to King Joffrey to avoid severe physical abuse.
At the celebration for Joffrey's name day, she saves the life of Ser Dontos Hollard after he shows up late and heavily inebriated. She begs Joffrey to spare his life and in turn wins Dontos' apparent loyalty. Later Ser Dontos reveals a plan to her to help her escape from King's Landing. Sansa is routinely beaten by Joffrey's guards. After her brother has won a battle against Joffrey's maternal family, she is publicly beaten and has her clothes torn. Tyrion Lannister intervenes on the abuse on her behalf, and Sandor Clegane, gives her his cloak to cover herself. Later, Sandor Clegane saves Sansa from a riot in King's Landing.
During the Battle of Blackwater Bay, all of the highborn ladies in King's Landing stay in the Red Keep with Queen Cersei who drunkenly mocks and berates Sansa. After Cersei learns that they are losing the battle, she flees and Sansa comforts the remaining women before going to her quarters. Once there she finds Sandor Clegane there who offers to take her away with him during the Battle of the Blackwater, although Sansa refuses. Before he vanishes from King's Landing, she gives him a song, and he gives her his cloak a second time. When Sansa awakens, the battle is over. House Lannister has won the battle, her betrothal to Joffrey is called off so he can marry Margaery Tyrell instead. Joffrey informs Sansa that he can still use her when he is married and to expect a nightly visitor for a long while.
A Storm of Swords[edit]
In the third book, Sansa is invited by Margaery to dine with her and her grandmother Olenna Redwyne. The two women seek to learn the true nature of Joffrey Baratheon after he and Margaery have become betrothed. In turn, Olenna suggests that Sansa should marry Willas Tyrell, brother to Margaery and grandson to Olenna. Sansa reveals the marriage plan to Ser Dontos who warns her of the Tyrells, however Sansa develops a close friendship with Margaery and is excited about becoming a part of her family when she marries Willas. However, when Tywin learns of the marriage plot he schemes to have Sansa's brother Robb Stark killed, knowing that would leave Sansa to inherit Winterfell and the North. He then commands his son Tyrion Lannister to marry Sansa. Tyrion is initially opposed to the marriage, but is eventually enticed by the prospect of becoming Lord of Winterfell, and so agrees to marry her.
Sansa is shocked one morning when she is being fitted for a gown that she is to marry Tyrion that day. Joffrey taunts Sansa and acts on behalf of her father to give her away during the ceremony to add further insult. Sansa ignores Tyrion and refuses to bend as he attempts to put his cloak around her, an important marriage custom in Westeros. In turn, Joffrey commands Ser Dontos to act as a stool so that Tyrion can cloak his bride in spite of his short stature. Later Sansa dances with many lords who attempt to offer words of comfort, however when it is her turn to dance with Joffrey, he threatens to rape her after her marriage. Tyrion intervenes and states his desire to castrate Joffrey. After the wedding ceremony, Tyrion chooses not to consummate the marriage due to Sansa's lack of desire in him. It is not long before many in King's Landing come to know that the marriage was never consummated.
It is not long after Sansa's marriage that Joffrey and Margaery are wed and afterwards there is a grand feast. At Joffrey's wedding, Joffrey is poisoned, and Cersei orders both Tyrion and Sansa to be arrested. As Joffrey begins to choke to death, Sansa manages to flee during the chaos. Once in her room, she gathers her belongings and notices that one of the amethysts from her hairnet, a gift from Ser Dontos, is missing. Sansa immediately realizes that the prince had been poisoned and starts to doubt Ser Dontos' rescue plan. Understanding that she will be implicated in the murder of Joffrey, she chooses to flee King's Landing with the knight anyway. Ser Dontos is later killed by Petyr Baelish, who reveals that he is the mastermind behind nearly all of the intrigues in the capital. He reveals that he was the one who sent Dontos to her and that Olenna took the amethyst from her hairnet.
Baelish smuggles Sansa to safety in the Vale of Arryn, where she poses as his bastard daughter Alayne Stone. She is taken to her Aunt Lysa Arryn, now married to Baelish. Lysa declares that Sansa must marry her sickly boy Robert, heir to the Vale. Petyr Baelish and Lysa are wed, however Lysa becomes jealous when she witnesses Littlefinger kissing her niece. Lysa later attempts to murder Sansa, but she is saved once again by Baelish, who kills Lysa.
A Feast for Crows[edit]
After Lysa's death, Sansa becomes mistress of the Eyrie and continues to pretend to be Baelish's illegitimate daughter, Alayne Stone. Baelish successfully pacifies the lords of the Vale, who suspected Baelish's hand in Lysa's death. Afterwards, Baelish reveals to Sansa his plans to eventually marry her to the heir to the Vale, Harrold Hardyng, and his long range plans to reveal her true identity and reclaim the North. Sansa acts as a mother figure to Robert Arryn, caring for him after the death of his mother Lysa, and is shown to have grown in intelligence since the start of the series - she is able to figure out some of Baelish's plans, and does not trust him as she once did with Joffrey.
Family tree of House Stark[edit]
hide
v
t
e
Descendants of Rickard Stark
Rickard[a] Lyarra[b]
Brandon[a] Catelyn
Tully[c] Eddard[a] Lyanna[a][d] Benjen[a]
Robb[c] Jeyne
Westerling[e] Sansa[c] Tyrion
Lannister[f] Arya[c] Brandon[c] Rickon[c] Jon
Snow[c][d]
Notes:
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin, George R. R. (1996). "Chapter 4: Eddard". A Game of Thrones. pp. 36–45. ISBN 978-0-553-89784-5.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R.; García Jr., Elio M.; Antonsson, Linda (2014). "Appendix: Stark Lineage". The World of Ice & Fire. ISBN 978-0-553-80544-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Martin. "Appendix: House Stark". A Game of Thrones. pp. 785–786.
^ Jump up to: a b In the TV series Game of Thrones, Jon is the son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 14: Catelyn". A Storm of Swords. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 28: Sansa". A Storm of Swords. pp. 382–393. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
TV adaptation[edit]
Storylines[edit]
First season[edit]
Sansa is first seen with Arya at Winterfell during their embroidery lesson with Septa Mordane. Following the arrival of Robert Baratheon and his escort at Winterfell, he insists to Ned that Joffrey and Sansa should be married in order to join their houses. Sansa, who is desperate to leave Winterfell begs Catelyn to make Ned agree to the engagement. Following Sansa, Ned, and Arya's departure from Winterfell, Joffrey is injured by Arya's direwolf Nymeria, after he attacks the butcher's boy (Arya's friend), and Arya. Sansa, who was a witness, claims to Robert and Cersei that she did not know what happened. As retribution for Joffrey's injury, Cersei convinces Robert to have Sansa's direwolf, Lady, slaughtered in place of the missing Nymeria. After arriving at Kings Landing, Sansa attends the Hands Tourney where Petyr 'Littlefinger' Baelish tells Sansa and Arya the story behind how Sandor 'The Hound' Clegane's face was burned. As time passes, Sansa begins to wear her hair like a southerner, and becomes rude towards Mordane, while also expressing fears that she will fail to give Joffrey a male heir. Following Ned's initial resignation as hand of the king, Sansa is devastated to hear she has to return to Winterfell, in which she likens Joffrey to a lion, and that he was nothing like Robert Baratheon. This statement from Sansa inspires Ned to investigate the Baratheon family line, prompting him to realise that Cersei's children were bastards fathered by Jaime Lannister, not Robert Baratheon. Following Robert's death, and Ned's arrest for declaring Joffrey was not the true king, the entire Stark household in Kings Landing, with the exception of Sansa and Arya, are executed. Cersei persuades Sansa to write to Robb and Catelyn Stark imploring them to swear fealty to Joffrey. At court, Sansa pleads to Joffrey to show Ned mercy, in which he agrees on the condition Ned swears loyalty to Joffrey. Sansa is present at the Great Sept of Baelor, where she is initially confident Ned will be saved. However, Sansa is horrified when Joffrey orders Ned's execution, and begs someone to intervene, before fainting as Ned is beheaded. Sansa, grieving the death of her father, is forced by Joffrey to look upon the spiked heads of both Ned and Septa Mordane. Sansa begs Joffrey to let her return home, but he informs Sansa that they are still to be married, and that she will stay and obey. Joffrey also tells Sansa that he will give her Robb's head once he is defeated, in which she retorts that Robb will give her Joffrey's head instead. While on the boardwalk, Sansa moves to push Joffrey to his death, but is stopped by Sandor Clegane, who warns her she will continue to be abused.
Second season[edit]
As the War of the Five Kings progresses, Sansa's position in Kings Landing becomes more perilous. On Joffrey's name day celebration, Sansa saves an inebriated Ser Dontos Hollard from execution, convincing Joffrey to instead make Dontos his fool. While at the celebration, Tyrion offers his condolences for Ned's death, in which Sansa insists her family are all traitors and that she is loyal to Joffrey. Later on, when her eldest brother Robb wins a battle against the Lannisters, Sansa is publicly beaten and humiliated in front of the court by Joffrey and Ser Meryn (on Joffrey's orders), as payment for her brother's crimes. Tyrion Lannister enters the court and rescues Sansa. Despite being a dwarf, Tyrion takes pity on Sansa's situation, and offers to have the engagement called off. Sansa maintains her facade that she is loyal to Joffrey, which impresses Tyrion to the point of believing Sansa might just survive Kings Landing. Tyrion has his lover, Shae, positioned as Sansa's handmaiden. Sansa and Shae form a friendship, in which Sansa is able to vent about her hatred of the Lannisters without fear of being revealed. Sansa is present when the royal family bids farewell to Joffrey's sister, Myrcella, on her departure to Dorne to form an alliance between the Lannisters and the Martells. While returning to the Red Keep, a riot breaks out in the streets of Kings Landing, amidst which Sansa finds herself caught in the fray. Three peasant men chase Sansa and attempt to rape her, before she is rescued and returned to the castle by Sandor Clegane. The following morning, Sansa has a nightmare of the incident, and wakes up in a bloodstained bed. Sansa had flowered, which meant she could bear Joffrey children. Sansa and Shae attempt to conceal this, which involved Shae threatening to kill a witness handmaiden if she told anyone. However, Sandor Clegane sees the blood, and both Cersei and Joffrey are informed. Cersei invites Sansa to her chambers to share some of her wisdom and experience as a wife and a mother. Cersei reminisces that her husband Robert was not interested in her giving childbirth. Cersei explains to Sansa that while Sansa may never love Joffrey (and vice versa), she will love his children. Cersei warns Sansa that the more people she loves, the weaker she will be. Therefore, Sansa should only love her children, as it is the only love she has no choice in. Before the battle of the Blackwater, Joffrey forces Sansa to kiss the blade of his sword, while bragging he will kill Stannis himself. Sansa implicitly taunts Joffrey by remarking he must be battling in the vanguard (which of course he would not be). Joffrey responds to this by insisting Sansa will kiss the blade again with Stannis' blood on it. During the battle, Sansa takes refuge with Cersei, Shae and the other women and children of Kings Landing. A drunk Cersei openly torments Sansa and the women. She does this by explaining that if the city falls, they will all be raped and have bastards in their bellies come morning. Cersei continues her taunting by also telling Sansa that tears are not the only weapons women have; the greatest weapon they own are between their legs. Following Cersei's departure from the refuge with Tommen, Sansa leaves to hide in her bedchamber, where she finds Sandor Clegane. Sandor, about to leave Kings Landing, offers to take Sansa home. Sansa declines, insisting Stannis would not harm her. After the battle is won by the Lannister-Tyrell forces, Loras Tyrell asks Joffrey to take his sister, Margaery, as his bride. Joffrey accepts the proposal, which annuls his marriage with Sansa. Sansa, while pretending to be devastated, is secretly delighted she no longer has to marry Joffrey. However Petyr Baelish warns that while Sansa is no longer engaged, Joffrey would have greater rein to abuse Sansa, especially now she is a woman. Petyr assures Sansa he will help get her home, in which Sansa once again displays a facade, asserting Kings Landing is her home. Petyr advises Sansa that everyone in Kings Landing is a liar, and that they are much more cunning at it than her.
Third season[edit]
With her engagement to Joffrey annulled, Sansa does not have to worry about spending the rest of her life with him, but is with lesser protection from tormentors. Petyr Baelish, an old friend of her mother's with a reputation for being sadistic and cunning, tells her that he can smuggle her out of the city, but she is reluctant. Sansa finds a friend in Loras Tyrell, who is kind to her and whom she hopes will ask for her hand. His sister, Joffrey's new fiance, Margaery, is also kind to her and takes her to dine with her grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, who asks her for her opinion of Joffrey. Sansa reveals Joffrey's true, cruel personality, but Margaery and Lady Olenna merely pass it by as a trivial matter, saying there is nothing to be done to change a man's character, especially a king's. Sansa's affection for Loras grows, unaware that Loras is gay and, while he likes her and enjoys spending time with her, can never love her. Margaery proposes the idea that Loras will marry Sansa, meaning Sansa can leave King's Landing, which she is overjoyed at. But when this is reported to the Lannisters, they fear that the Tyrells will pose an even greater threat with a member of House Stark as one of their allies, and quickly end the idea of the engagement, betrothing Loras to Cersei and engaging Sansa to Tyrion, which both Sansa and Shae are against. However, the day of the wedding, Tyrion promises not to harm her and, as she prepares to consummate the marriage, Tyrion realizes how unhappy she is and tells her that she doesn't have to consummate it unless she wants to. When Sansa asks Tyrion what would happen if she never wants him in her bed he quips "And so my watch begins." She and Tyrion do form somewhat of a friendly relationship, as he is kind to her and treats her well, and she soon realizes there are worse Lannisters to be wed to. However, their cordial relationship suffers a crushing blow when Sansa receives news of Robb and Catelyn's death at the Red Wedding, an event orchestrated by Tywin Lannister, Tyrion's father.
Fourth season[edit]
Sansa, still distraught over the death of Robb and Catelyn, is approached by Dontos Hollard, a former knight whom Sansa had convinced Joffrey to make his fool instead of executing him. Dontos gives her a necklace, claiming it was his mother's. However, the necklace turns out to be a fake; one of the gems contains poison, which Lady Olenna Tyrell uses to poison Joffrey at his wedding to Margaery Tyrell. In the commotion, Sansa is taken by Dontos, to Baelish's boat in Blackwater Bay. Baelish smuggles Sansa from King's Landing after both revealing the nature of the necklace and having Dontos killed by crossbow.
Lord Baelish, with Sansa posing as his bastard daughter Alayne Stone, pass through the Blood Gates to the Eyrie and to the keep of Lysa Arryn. Lysa initially invites them with open arms, revealing she knows exactly who her niece is, and they are welcome to be housed. It is soon revealed however, Lysa mistrusts the relationship between Sansa and Baelish accusing Baelish of violating Sansa and accusing him of never loving her. Later in the keep, Sansa strikes Lysa's son Robin and Baelish appears. Baelish then proclaims his undying love for her deceased mother, Catelyn, and he shares a kiss with a stunned Sansa, with Lysa watching from above. Sansa is immediately summoned to Lysa's throne room, where she believes she had been summoned for striking her son. Lysa reveals she had observed the kiss, and though defending herself and Baelish's actions against her, Lysa holds her to the Moon Door, a trap door that leads hundreds of feet down into the mountains below. Baelish intervenes before she gets the chance to execute Sansa and pushes Lysa to her death instead as he proclaimed his love for her sister. Then Baelish later claimed to the lords of the Vale that she committed suicide. Sansa is called to give testimony, and although she reveals her true identity, she supports Baelish's story. She then joins Baelish and her cousin Robin Arryn on a tour of the Vale.
Fifth season[edit]
Baelish brokers a marriage between Sansa and Ramsay Bolton, now the heir to the North after the death of Robb Stark. Though Sansa is reluctant to marry Ramsay, as his father Roose had personally murdered Robb, Baelish persuades her by claiming that the marriage will give her the opportunity to avenge her family. On the way to Winterfell, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, who had sworn to Catelyn Stark to take Sansa to safety and tries to convince Sansa to come with her; Baelish has her chased off by his men, but Brienne follows Sansa to Winterfell regardless. Though initially charming, Ramsay's sadistic nature becomes apparent when Sansa discovers that he has captured and enslaved Ned's former ward Theon Greyjoy, and forced him to assume the identity of his serving man, Reek. Sansa and Ramsey wed in front of the Godswood. That night, Ramsey rapes Sansa, and forces Reek to watch. Over the next few days, Ramsay continues to rape and beat Sansa every night, and keeps her locked in her bedchamber. Sansa begs Reek to help her signal her northern allies by lighting a candle in the broken tower. Reek, wishing to spare Sansa from Bolton's wrath, instead tells Ramsay. He proceeds to flay the maid who had told Sansa of the signal, and forces Sansa to look at her corpse. Furious, Sansa confronts Reek, who admits that he had failed to capture Sansa's brothers Bran and Rickon, and killed two farm boys in their place. While the Boltons prepare to battle Stannis Baratheon's advancing forces, Sansa signals to Brienne, unaware that she has left to kill Stannis. When help does not come, Sansa attempts to return to her room but is caught by Ramsay's paramour Myranda, who threatens to mutilate Sansa. Finally snapping, Theon throws Myranda to her death, just as the Bolton forces return. Fearful of Ramsay's reaction, Theon and Sansa jump from Winterfell's battlements into the snow.
Sixth season[edit]
Sansa and Theon are captured by Bolton soldiers in the forest outside Winterfell, but Brienne and her squire Podrick Payne arrive in time to rescue them and kill the Bolton soldiers. This time, Sansa accepts Brienne's loyalty. While Theon returns to the Iron Islands, Sansa, Brienne, and Podrick journey on to Castle Black, where her half-brother Jon Snow has just resigned as Lord Commander of the Night's Watch. Sansa tries to persuade Jon to help her drive the Boltons out of Winterfell; although Jon initially refuses, he changes his mind after Ramsay sends a letter to Jon in which he gloats that he holds Rickon Stark captive and threatens to kill the Starks and the Wildlings Jon has let through the Wall if Sansa is not returned. Before Jon and Sansa leave Castle Black, Baelish arranges a meeting with Sansa in Mole's Town. He insists that he was unaware of Ramsay's nature and offers the support of the Knights of the Vale, also mentioning that her great-uncle Brynden "Blackfish" Tully has captured Riverrun from House Frey. Sansa sends Baelish away, declaring that she never wants to see him again, but sends Brienne to the Riverlands to convince the Blackfish to aid the Starks.
Although Jon and Sansa are only able to win over a handful of Northern lords, Jon insists that they must march on Winterfell, despite Sansa's objections. Sansa sends a letter to Baelish asking for his aid, and the Vale forces arrive at Winterfell in time to defeat the Boltons. Ramsay is captured and imprisoned with his hounds, and Sansa watches with satisfaction as they devour him alive. In the aftermath of the battle, she and Jon share a moment where Sansa apologizes for not telling Jon about Baelish and the Knights of the Vale. Jon forgives her but asks that they trust each other completely from now on. Sansa and Jon then share a happy smile when Sansa tells him that Winter is finally here. While in the godswood Baelish confesses his ambition to rule Westeros with Sansa at his side, but Sansa rebuffs his advances. Sansa also ignores Baelish's attempts to drive a wedge between her and Jon, but is surprised when the Northmen and Valemen declare Jon the new King in the North. Despite this she smiles at him happy that he has been praised. But she stops smiling when she notices Littlefinger glaring sinisterly at her and Jon.
Seventh season[edit]
Jon travels to Dragonstone to negotiate with Daenerys Targaryen for her support against the White Walkers, leaving Sansa as regent in his absence. Soon after, Bran and Arya return to Winterfell. Littlefinger seeks to drive a wedge between Sansa and Arya by letting Arya find Sansa's letter to Robb asking him to bend the knee to Joffrey, causing Arya to angrily confront Sansa. Sansa later sneaks into Arya's quarters and comes across the "faces" Arya has taken from the various people she has killed on her travels; Arya catches Sansa and tells Sansa of her ability to assume people's identities with the faces while menacing Sansa with a dagger, before abruptly handing Sansa the dagger and leaving.
Sansa later receives an invitation to King's Landing, where Jon intends to present Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) with proof of the White Walkers' existence. Refusing to return to King's Landing, she sends Brienne as her representative.
Sansa later shows Littlefinger the letter she received from Jon following the meeting in King's Landing, in which Jon states that he had pledged his support to Daenerys Targaryen. Littlefinger continues his manipulation of Sansa by claiming that Jon had betrayed the North and Sansa should seize power from Jon, as well as seemingly convincing her that Arya intends to murder her and take her role as Lady of Winterfell. Sansa summons Arya to the great hall and begins an accusation of treason and murder, but surprisingly directs the accusation towards Littlefinger. With help from their brother Bran (now known as Three-Eyed Raven), Sansa and Arya reveal that they are aware of Baelish's lies and treason and reveal his numerous crimes, including his murder of Lysa Arryn, his orchestrating the murders of both Jon Arryn and Eddard Stark, and his manipulating the Starks and Lannisters to war. Finding himself without support, Baelish tries to plead for his life, but Sansa refuses and allows Arya to slit Baelish's throat with his own Valyrian dagger, ending his manipulation and treachery for good. The Stark sisters later resolve their differences, and acknowledge that the Starks must stand together to survive the winter.
Reception[edit]
Sophie Turner plays the role of Sansa Stark in the television series
As her storyline has progressed, Sansa has received critical acclaim for the development of her character and her emergence from a naive young girl to a strong young woman. Rolling Stone ranked Sansa as No. 4 on a list of the "Top 40 Game of Thrones Characters", saying that Sansa is "often overlooked in favor of her killer kid sister", but that her "quiet, innate political shrewedness and emotional strength have enabled her to survive", and calling her "the show's best-kept secret".[7] In a ranking of the 48 best Game of Thrones characters listed in the main credits in the first five seasons on the website The Wrap, Sansa was ranked at No. 4, ahead of the more popular Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Tyrion Lannister, saying that "Sansa has been kind of great in Season 6, turning into the sort of badass we always hoped but never thought she actually could become".[8]
In an article published on Mic.com, Julianne Ross says that "the elder Stark daughter is often cited as one of the most reviled characters on Game of Thrones", while also saying that "not coincidentally, Sansa Stark is also one of the most classically feminine characters on the show." Ross criticized the heavy hatred for Sansa, particularly in contrast to "her universally (and rightly) adored tomboy little sister Arya", stating that Sansa "arguably gets a disproportionate amount of fan hate because she doesn't fit the narrow 'strong female character' mold we're used to rooting for." [9] Blogger Rhiannon Thomas of Feminist Fiction wrote in 2012 that "the focus on this sort of female character - the oft-cited 'strong female character' - seems to suggest that femininity is still bad, and that women can only be strong by adopting stereotypically male roles and attitudes". Thomas went on to say that "in an abusive situation that would break so many people, Sansa survives" and that she has a "woman's courage" that "keeps her alive and in the game where characters like Arya would not last five minutes".[10]
In an article published on MTV.com by Crystal Bell titled "Sansa Stark is the Only Game of Thrones Hero Worth Rooting For",[11] Bell writes: "Sansa is the most relatable character in George R.R. Martin's canon. She's often despised for having no agency, but the way I see it, Sansa is hated for being a woman. Unlike Brienne, Arya, Cersei, and Margaery -- models of the "strong female character" archetype—Sansa's passivity denotes weakness. She doesn't have cool swordplay skills like her sister Arya; she isn’t a smart seductress like Margaery Tyrell or a fierce queen like Cersei. She is the epitome of femininity on Game of Thrones, and therefore, she is dismissed." Bell went on to say: "However, Sansa's greatest strength as a character has been her unwavering resilience. She was tortured and humiliated for seasons by the unhinged man-boys around her. She's been the subject of everyday sexism and misogyny since day one. And yet, she survives, even as armor-clad heroes fall before her. She is the show's survivor. She continuously endures the pain and humiliation of being a woman in Westeros. Just because Sansa doesn't wield a sword as fiercely as Arya and Brienne, or command a horde of dragons like Daenerys Targaryen, doesn't make her any less of a hero."
Sansa received particular acclaim in Season 6 of the show, during which she began her quest to retake her family home and exact revenge on those who wronged her. In an interview with The New York Times, actress Sophie Turner said that "she's [Sansa] no longer a pawn in anyone's game; she's no longer a prisoner...she's the one taking charge and doing her own thing, which is very exciting".[12] Megan Garber of The Atlantic praised the show's decision to have Sansa be the one orchestrating Ramsay's death in Battle of the Bastards, saying that "In the end, it was Sansa and her abuser, alone again in a darkened chamber; in the end though, it was Sansa making the decisions about who would be the victim." [13] On the scene, Turner said: "It's amazing. It's Sansa's first kill and it's such a strong moment for her because all her life she's been affected by these men who have just done such terrible things to her...."[14]
Following the penultimate Season 6 episode, Bennett Madison of Vanity Fair wrote "When Sansa icily reminds her dopey brother that 'No one can protect you', it's because she's always been on her own. As far back as King's Landing, Sansa's between quietly protecting herself, working on her stitchery while taking cool measure of everything going on around her, learning how to game the system, and slithering through situations that would have gotten the best of the show's more flashy or impulsive characters. In 'Battle of the Bastards', she got to show a little flash of her own; by being defiantly, gloriously correct in her convictions, by saving the day with her foresight and savvy, and by feeding Ramsay to the dogs." [15] Turner later told Time magazine about how gratifying it was to watch Sansa's development during Season 6 and defended the show on its cruel treatment of women: "In my opinion, Game of Thrones is not sexist, and its accurate to medieval time. The show puts social boundaries on the women, and they break out of these boundaries."[16]
Controversy[edit]
In the episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken", Sansa's rape was the main subject of controversy for the season's deviations from the books. The majority of professional criticism concerned the decision to have Ramsay rape Sansa on their wedding night, with most critics describing the scene as gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. "This grim scene was difficult for the show to justify," said Charlotte Runcie of The Daily Telegraph.[17] Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair added, "this rape scene undercuts all the agency that’s been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. [...] I’d never advocate that Game of Thrones (or any work of fiction) shy away from edgy plots out of fear of pushback or controversy. But edgy plots should always accomplish something above pure titillation or shock value and what, exactly, was accomplished here?"[18] Christopher Orr wrote in The Atlantic, "I continue to be astonished that showrunners Benioff and Weiss still apparently believe that their tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and—especially—sexual violence of George R.R. Martin’s source material is a strength rather than the defining weakness of their adaptation."[19] Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club wrote, "The issue with the show returning to rape as a trope is not simply because there have been thinkpieces speaking out against it, and is not solely driven by the rational concerns lying at the heart of those thinkpieces. It’s also that the show has lost my faith as a viewer."[20] Writers from Vanity Fair, The Mary Sue and The Daily Beast all disapproved of the decision to use Sansa's victimization as a motivating agent for Theon, saying that the scene undermined Sansa's character development: "Was it really important to make that scene about Theon's pain?" wrote Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair.[18][21][22]
Other critics responded positively to the scene. Sean T. Collins of Rolling Stone wrote: "[B]y involving a multidimensional main character instead of one introduced primarily to suffer, the series has a chance to grant this story the gravity and seriousness it deserves.[23] Sarah Hughes of The Guardian wrote: "I have repeatedly made clear that I’m not a fan of rape as a plot device – but the story of Ramsay and Sansa’s wedding was more than that. [...] The writers are walking a very fine line here. They handled it well tonight, telling a gothic tale of innocence sacrificed".[24] Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post wrote that the scene "managed to maintain a fine balance, employing a dignity and care for the experiences of victims that Game of Thrones has not always demonstrated."[25]
Some critics questioned why this scene in particular should generate outrage when similar scenes have not. Sara Stewart of the New York Post pointed out that the rape and sexual abuse of both female and male characters is typical for Game of Thrones: "Why are we suddenly so outraged about the rape of Sansa Stark, when this show has served up a steady diet of sexual assault and violence against women since its first season began?"[26] Cathy Young of Reason magazine, writing in Time noted what she calls a lack of complaint in response to the sexual mistreatment of male characters in earlier seasons, specifically the literal emasculation of Theon Greyjoy and the sexual assault of Gendry.[27]
Criticism of the scene has not extended to the quality of the acting. Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair wrote, "And if we can say one positive thing about that scene it's that Allen nailed his performance. Theon's horror mirrored our own and the camera—focusing on his reaction—let our minds fill in the blanks."[18] Sophie Turner defended the scene as an artistic challenge for herself as an actor, saying, "When I read that scene, I kinda loved it. I love the way Ramsay had Theon watching. It was all so messed up. It's also so daunting for me to do it. [...] I think it's going to be the most challenging season for me so far, just because it's so emotional for her. It's not just crying all the time, like seasons 2 or 3, it's super messed up."[28] Iwan Rheon (Ramsay Bolton) agreed, referring to Turner's performances this season as "absolutely amazing."[29]
Some viewers, including U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill, announced that they would stop watching the show because of this scene.[29][30] According to Business Insider, this scene and increased use of streaming services are likely reasons why ratings dropped from 6.2 million viewers for this episode to 5.4 million for the next episode, "The Gift."[31]
Recognition and awards[edit]
Sophie Turner has received several award nominations for her portrayal of Sansa. For her performance in the series she earned the Glamour Award for Best UK TV Actress in 2016 and 2017,[32][33] and an EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2016.[34] Other nominations include the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series by a Supporting Young Actress in 2012,[35] and the EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2015.[36]
References[edit]
Inline citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Excerpt from the Winds of Winter - George R.R. Martin". georgerrmartin.com.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Cast & Crew". HBO. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (July 16, 2010). "From HBO". Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Collins, Sean T. (March 31, 2014). "Top 40 Game of Thrones Characters, Ranked". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Butler, Leigh (April 8, 2011). "A Read of Ice and Fire: A Game of Thrones, Part 4". Tor. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sansa Stark - Untold Story- "The Lady of Winterfell" - GOT Untold Stories - The Spoon Boy". www.thespoonboy.com. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top 40 'Game of Thrones' Characters, Ranked". Rolling Stone. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "48 'Game of Thrones' Main Characters, Ranked Worst to Best". June 26, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Mic. "Why Sansa Stark Is the Strongest Character on 'Game of Thrones'". Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rhiannon (May 10, 2012). "In Defense of Sansa Stark". Feminist Fiction. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sansa Stark Is The Only Game Of Thrones Hero Worth Rooting For". Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Egner, Jeremy (April 25, 2016). "Sophie Turner on 'Game of Thrones,' Sansa's Evolution and Learning From Controversy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Garber, Megan. "Justice for Sansa Stark". Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones' Sophie Turner Revels in Sansa Stark's Amazing First Kill". Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Madison, Bennett. "Game of Thrones Episode 609 Recap: It's Finally Sansa's Turn to Be the Best Stark". Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dockterman, Eliana. "Sophie Turner Grows Into Her Powers in 'Game of Thrones' and 'X-Men'". TIME.com. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Runcie, Charlotte (May 17, 2015). "Game of Thrones: Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken, season 5 episode 6, review: 'raw emotion'". The Telegraph. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, Joanna (May 17, 2015). "Game of Thrones Absolutely Did Not Need to Go There with Sansa Stark". Vanity Fair. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kornhaber, Spencer; Orr, Christopher; Sullivan, Amy (May 17, 2015). "Game of Thrones: A Pointless Horror and a Ridiculous Fight". The Atlantic. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ McNutt, Myles (May 17, 2015). "Game of Thrones (experts): "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken"". AV Club. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Leon, Melissa (May 19, 2015). "The Rape of Sansa Stark: 'Game of Thrones' Goes Off-book and Enrages Its Female Fans". The Daily Beast. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pantozzi, Jill (May 18, 2015). "We Will No Longer Be Promoting HBO's Game of Thrones". The Mary Sue. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ Collins, Sean T. (May 17, 2015). "'Game of Thrones' Recap: Stark Reality". Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Sarah (May 18, 2015). "Game of Thrones recap: season five, episode six – Unbent, Unbowed, Unbroken". The Guardian. Retrieved May 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (May 17, 2015). "'Game of Thrones' Season 5, Episode 6 review: "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken"". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Sara (May 19, 2015). "It's a Stark reality: Outrage over Sansa rape scene misses the point". New York Post. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Problem with the Backlash to the Game of Thrones Rape Scene". Time. May 21, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (May 17, 2015). "Game of Thrones: Sophie Turner says she 'loved' that horrifying scene". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Gratuitous and disgusting': Senator leads boycott of Game of Thrones over shocking rape scene of Sansa Stark but actress playing her says she 'kinda loved it'". The Daily Mail. May 20, 2015. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ Tani, Maxwell (May 20, 2015). "A US senator says she's going to stop watching 'Game of Thrones' over 'gratuitous' rape scene". Business Insider. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Acuna, Kirsten; Renfro, Kim (May 28, 2015). "'Game of Thrones' ratings are falling: Here are two possible reasons why". Business Insider. Retrieved May 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Here's who won what at the GLAMOUR Awards". glamourmagazine. glamourmagazine. 2016. Retrieved June 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "GLAMOUR Awards 2017: All the talking points". Glamour. June 7, 2017. Retrieved June 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Poppy Awards 2016: Meet Your Winners". Entertainment Weekly. September 13, 2016. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "34th Annual Young Artist Awards". YoungArtistAwards.org. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved March 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ "EWwy Awards 2015: Meet Your Winners". ew.com. August 11, 2015.
General references[edit]
Martin, George R. R. (September 1996). A Game of Thrones. A Song of Ice and Fire (US hardcover ed.). Bantam Spectra. ISBN 978-0-553-10354-0.
Martin, George R. R. (March 1999). A Clash of Kings. A Song of Ice and Fire (US hardcover ed.). Bantam Spectra. ISBN 978-0-553-10803-3.
Martin, George R. R. (November 2000). A Storm of Swords. A Song of Ice and Fire (US hardcover ed.). Bantam Spectra. ISBN 978-0-553-10663-3.
Martin, George R. R. (November 2005). A Feast for Crows. A Song of Ice and Fire (US hardcover ed.). Bantam Spectra. ISBN 978-0-553-80150-7.
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OSI model
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OSI model
by layer
7. Application layer[show]
NNTP
SIP
SSI
DNS
FTP
Gopher
HTTP
NFS
NTP
SMPP
SMTP
SNMP
Telnet
DHCP
Netconf
more....
6. Presentation layer[show]
MIME
XDR
5. Session layer[show]
Named pipe
NetBIOS
SAP
PPTP
RTP
SOCKS
SPDY
4. Transport layer[show]
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
SPX
3. Network layer[show]
IP
IPv4
IPv6
ICMP
IPsec
IGMP
IPX
AppleTalk
X.25 PLP
2. Data link layer[show]
ATM
ARP
IS-IS
SDLC
HDLC
CSLIP
SLIP
GFP
PLIP
IEEE 802.2
LLC
MAC
L2TP
IEEE 802.3
Frame Relay
ITU-T G.hn DLL
PPP
X.25 LAPB
Q.921 LAPD
Q.922 LAPF
1. Physical layer[show]
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
ITU-T V-Series
I.430
I.431
PDH
SONET/SDH
PON
OTN
DSL
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.15
IEEE 802.16
IEEE 1394
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USB
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The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.
Communication in the OSI-Model (example with layers 3 to 5)
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Description of OSI layers
2.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer
2.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
2.3 Layer 3: Network Layer
2.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
2.5 Layer 5: Session Layer
2.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
2.7 Layer 7: Application Layer
3 Cross-layer functions
4 Interfaces
5 Examples
6 Comparison with TCP/IP model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.[2]
Description of OSI layers[edit]
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
OSI Model
Layer
Protocol data unit (PDU)
Function[3]
Host
layers
7. Application Data High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access
6. Presentation Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption
5. Session Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes
4. Transport Segment (TCP) / Datagram (UDP) Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing
Media
layers
3. Network Packet Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control
2. Data link Frame Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer
1. Physical Bit Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.[citation needed]
Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (August 2017)
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example, an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
The physical layer is the layer of low-level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher-layer items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]
The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]
Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.
Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]
Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]
Feature name
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4
Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Connectionless network No No No No Yes
Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No
Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes
Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes
Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes
Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes
a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.
Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]
The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The presentation layer can include compression functions.[9] The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN.1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions[edit]
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Security service (telecommunication)[4] as defined by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) MPLS, ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI divides the Network Layer into 3 roles: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5. This is a fiction create by those who are unfamiliar with the OSI Model and ISO 8648, Internal Organization of the Network Layer in particular.
ARP determines the mapping of an IPv4 address to the underlying MAC address. This is not a translation function. If it were IPv4 and the MAC address would be at the same layer. The implementation of the MAC protocol decodes the MAC PDU and delivers the User-Data to the IP-layer. Because Ethernet is a multi-access media, a device sending a PDU on an Ethernet segment needs to know what IP address maps to what MAC address.
DHCP, DHCP assigns IPv4 addresses to new systems joining a network. There is no means to derive or obtain an IPv4 address from an Ethernet address.
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer service which is used to look up the IP address of a given domain name. Once a reply is received from the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer 4 connection or flow to the desired host. There are no connections at Layer 3.
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favorable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.[10]
Interfaces[edit]
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation-specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
Examples[edit]
Layer
OSI protocols
TCP/IP protocols
Signaling
System 7[11]
AppleTalk
IPX
SNA
UMTS
Miscellaneous examples
No.
Name
7 Application
FTAM
X.400
X.500
DAP
ROSE
RTSE
ACSE[12]
CMIP[13]
INAP
MAP
TCAP
ISUP
TUP
AFP
ZIP
RTMP
NBP
SAP
APPC
HL7
Modbus
6 Presentation
ISO/IEC 8823
X.226

ISO/IEC 9576-1
X.236
MIME
SSL
TLS
XDR
AFP
TDI
ASCII
EBCDIC
MIDI
MPEG
5 Session
ISO/IEC 8327
X.225

ISO/IEC 9548-1
X.235
Sockets (session establishment in TCP / RTP / PPTP)
ASP
ADSP
PAP
NWLink
DLC?
Named pipes
NetBIOS
SAP
half duplex
full duplex
simplex
RPC
SOCKS
4 Transport
ISO/IEC 8073
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4 (X.224)
ISO/IEC 8602
X.234
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
DDP
SPX
NBF
3 Network
ISO/IEC 8208
X.25 (PLP)

ISO/IEC 8878
X.223
ISO/IEC 8473-1
CLNP X.233
ISO/IEC 10589
IS-IS
IP
IPsec
ICMP
IGMP
OSPF
RIP
SCCP
MTP
ATP (TokenTalk / EtherTalk)
IPX
RRC / BMC
NBF
Q.931
NDP
IS-IS
2 Data link
ISO/IEC 7666
X.25 (LAPB)

Token Bus
X.222
ISO/IEC 8802-2
LLC (type 1 / 2)[14]
PPP
SBTV
SLIP
MTP
Q.710
LocalTalk
ARA
PPP
IEEE 802.3 framing
Ethernet II framing
SDLC
PDCP[15]
LLC
MAC
ARP
ARQ
ATM
Bit stuffing
CDP
CRC
DOCSIS
FDDI
FDP
Fibre Channel
Frame Relay
HDP
HDLC
IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (Ethernet MAC and LLC)
IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)
ISL
ITU-T G.hn DLL
Linux interface bonding
PPP
Q.921
Token Ring
1 Physical
X.25 (X.21bis
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
EIA-530
G.703)[14]
MTP
Q.710
RS-232
RS-422
PhoneNet
Twinax
UMTS air interfaces
RS-232
Full duplex
RJ45 (8P8C)
V.35
V.34
I.430
I.431
T1
E1
10BASE-T
100BASE-TX
1000BASE-T
POTS
SONET
SDH
DSL
802.11a/b/g/n PHY
ITU-T G.hn PHY
CAN bus
DOCSIS
DWDM
OTN
Comparison with TCP/IP model[edit]
The design of protocols in the TCP/IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.[16] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful".[17] TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.[18]
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.
These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.[citation needed]
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application-layer protocol in its own right.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Computing portal
Layer 8
Hierarchical internetworking model
Management plane
Service layer
Protocol stacks
IBM Systems Network Architecture
Internet protocol suite
WAP protocol suite
List of information technology initialisms
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ITU-T X-Series Recommendations
Jump up ^ "Publicly Available Standards". Standards.iso.org. 2010-07-30. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained". Microsoft Support. Retrieved 2014-12-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "ITU-T Recommendataion X.800 (03/91), Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications". ITU. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "5.2 RM description for end stations". IEEE Std 802-2014, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture. ieee.
Jump up ^ International Organization for Standardization (1989-11-15). "ISO/IEC 7498-4:1989 -- Information technology -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Basic Reference Model: Naming and addressing". ISO Standards Maintenance Portal. ISO Central Secretariat. Retrieved 2015-08-17.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation X.224 (11/1995) ISO/IEC 8073, Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service". ITU.
Jump up ^ Grigonis, Richard (2000). Computer telephony- encyclopaedia. CMP. p. 331. ISBN 9781578200450.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T X.200 - Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Basic Reference Model: The basic model".
Jump up ^ Miao, Guowang; Song, Guocong (2014). Energy and spectrum efficient wireless network design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107039886.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993)], Architecture framework for the development of signaling and OA&M protocols using OSI concepts". ITU. pp. 4, 7.
Jump up ^ ITU Rec. X.227 (ISO 8650), X.217 (ISO 8649).
Jump up ^ X.700 series of recommendations from the ITU-T (in particular X.711) and ISO 9596.
^ Jump up to: a b "Internetworking Technology Handbook - Internetworking Basics [Internetworking]". Cisco. 15 January 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "3GPP specification: 36.300". 3gpp.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ RFC 3439
Jump up ^ "RFC 3439 - Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy". ietf.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Walter Goralski. The Illustrated Network: How TCP/IP Works in a Modern Network (PDF). Morgan Kaufmann. p. 26. ISBN 978-0123745415.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to OSI model.
Microsoft Knowledge Base: The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained
ISO/IEC standard 7498-1:1994 (PDF document inside ZIP archive) (requires HTTP cookies in order to accept licence agreement)
ITU-T X.200 (the same contents as from ISO)
"INFormation CHanGe Architectures and Flow Charts powered by Google App Engine". infchg.appspot.com. The ISO OSI Reference Model, Beluga graph of data units and groups of layers. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26.
Zimmermann, Hubert (April 1980). "OSI Reference Model — The ISO Model of Architecture for Open Systems Interconnection". IEEE Transactions on Communications. 28 (4): 425–432. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.9497  . doi:10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094702.
Cisco Systems Internetworking Technology Handbook
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10967
11073
11170
11179
11404
11544
11783
11784
11785
11801
11898
11940 (-2)
11941
11941 (TR)
11992
12006
12182
12207
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13211
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13216
13250
13399
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13485
13490
13567
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14224
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OSI-model – Afrikaans
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OSI model – Bosnian
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OSI-model – Danish
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OSI model – Croatian
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Model OSI – Indonesian
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Model OSI – Malay
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OSI-model – Dutch
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Model OSI – Polish
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Model OSI – Slovak
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OSI model – Serbo-Croatian
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OSI-malli – Finnish
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OSI model – Yoruba
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