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Corvus
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For other uses, see Corvus (disambiguation).
Crow
Temporal range: 17–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
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Middle Miocene – Recent
American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Corvidae
Subfamily: Corvinae
Genus: Corvus
Linnaeus, 1758
Species
many, see
Main article: List of Corvus species
Diversity
c. 45 species
Corvus is a widely distributed genus of medium-sized to large birds in the family Corvidae. The genus includes species commonly known as crows, ravens, rooks and jackdaws; there is no consistent distinction between "crows" and "ravens", and these appellations have been assigned to different species chiefly on the basis of their size, crows generally being smaller than ravens.
Ranging in size from the relatively small pigeon-sized jackdaws (Eurasian and Daurian) to the common raven of the Holarctic region and thick-billed raven of the highlands of Ethiopia, the 45 or so members of this genus occur on all temperate continents except South America, and several islands. The crow genus makes up a third of the species in the family Corvidae. The members appear to have evolved in Asia from the corvid stock, which had evolved in Australia. The collective name for a group of crows is a 'flock' or a 'murder'.[1] The genus name is Latin for "raven".[2]
Recent research has found some crow species capable of not only tool use, but also tool construction.[3] Crows are now considered to be among the world's most intelligent animals[4] with an encephalization quotient equal to that of many non-human primates.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Evolutionary history and systematics
2.1 Species
3 North American urban corvid history
4 Behavior
4.1 Communal roosting
4.2 Play
4.3 Calls
4.4 Intelligence
5 Diet
6 Reproduction
7 Lifespan and disease
8 Conservation status
9 Problems and methods of control
9.1 Hunting
9.2 Scare tactics
9.3 Trapping
9.4 Other methods
10 As a food supplement
11 Human interaction
12 Cultural depictions and folklore
12.1 In folklore, myth, and spirituality
12.2 In popular culture
12.2.1 Literature
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Description[edit]
Hooded crow (Corvus cornix) in flight
Jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) scavenging on a dead shark at a beach in Kumamoto, Japan
Corvus species are all black or black with little white or grey plumage. They are stout with strong bills and legs. Sexual dimorphism is limited.
Evolutionary history and systematics[edit]
Further information: Corvidae
Crow on a branch
The members of the Corvus genus are believed to have evolved in central Asia and radiated out into North America, Africa, Europe, and Australia.
The latest evidence[6] regarding the evolution indicates descent within the Australasian family Corvidae. However, the branch that would produce the modern groups such as jays, magpies, and large, predominantly black Corvus species had left Australasia and were concentrated in Asia by the time the Corvus species evolved. Corvus has since re-entered Australia (relatively recently) and produced five species with one recognized subspecies.[citation needed]
The genus was originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae.[7] The name is derived from the Latin corvus meaning "raven".[8]
The type species is the common raven (Corvus corax); others named in the same work include the carrion crow (C. corone), the hooded crow (C. cornix), the rook (C. frugilegus), and the jackdaw (C. monedula). The genus was originally broader, as the magpie was designated C. pica before being moved later into a genus of its own. At least 42 extant species are now considered to be in this genus, and at least 14 extinct species have been described.
The fossil record of crows is rather dense in Europe, but the relationships among most prehistoric species are not clear.
Species[edit]
Main article: List of Corvus species
North American urban corvid history[edit]
Corvids are found in major cities across the world, and a major increase in the number of crows in urban settings has occurred since the 1900s. Historical records suggest that the population of American crows found in North America has been growing steadily since the introduction of European colonization, and spread east to west with the opening of the frontier. Crows were uncommon in the Pacific Northwest in the 1900s, except in riparian habitats. Populations in the west increased substantially from the late 1800s to mid 1900s. Crows and ravens spread along with agriculture and urbanization into the western part of North America.[9]
Behavior[edit]
House crow (Corvus splendens), Bangalore
Communal roosting[edit]
Crows gather in large communal roosts numbering between 200 and tens of thousands of individuals during nonbreeding months, particularly in the winter. These gatherings tend to happen near large food sources such as garbage dumps and shopping centers. [10]
Play[edit]
Countless incidents are recorded of corvids at play. Many behaviourists see play as an essential quality in intelligent animals.[11]
Calls[edit]
Corvus brachyrhynchos call
Call of Corvus brachyrhynchos (American crow)
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Crows and the other members of the genus make a wide variety of calls or vocalizations.[12] Crows have also been observed to respond to calls of other species; presumably, this behavior is learned because it varies regionally.[13] Crows' vocalizations are complex and poorly understood. Some of the many vocalizations that crows make are a "koww", usually echoed back and forth between birds, a series of "kowws" in discrete units, a long caw followed by a series of short caws (usually made when a bird takes off from a perch), an echo-like "eh-aw" sound, and more. These vocalizations vary by species, and within each species they vary regionally. In many species, the pattern and number of the numerous vocalizations have been observed to change in response to events in the surroundings (e.g. arrival or departure of crows).
Indian crow in Tamil Nadu
Intelligence[edit]
As a group, crows show remarkable examples of intelligence. Natural history books from the 18th century recount an often-repeated, but unproven anecdote of "counting crows" — specifically a crow whose ability to count to five (or four in some versions) is established through a logic trap set by a farmer.[14][15] Crows and ravens often score very highly on intelligence tests. Certain species top the avian IQ scale.[16] Wild hooded crows in Israel have learned to use bread crumbs for bait-fishing.[17] Crows engage in a kind of mid-air jousting, or air-"chicken" to establish pecking order. They have been found to engage in activities such as sports,[18] tool use, the ability to hide and store food across seasons, episodic-like memory, and the ability to use individual experience in predicting the behavior of environmental conspecifics.[19]
One species, the New Caledonian crow, has also been intensively studied recently because of its ability to manufacture and use tools in the day-to-day search for food. On 5 October 2007, researchers from the University of Oxford presented data acquired by mounting tiny video cameras on the tails of New Caledonian crows. They pluck, smooth, and bend twigs and grass stems to procure a variety of foodstuffs.[20][21] Crows in Queensland have learned how to eat the toxic cane toad by flipping the cane toad on its back and violently stabbing the throat where the skin is thinner, allowing the crow to access the nontoxic innards; their long beaks ensure that all of the innards can be removed.[22][23]
The jackdaw and the European magpie have been found to have a nidopallium about the same relative size as the functionally equivalent neocortex in chimpanzees and humans, and significantly larger than is found in the gibbon.[24]
Crows have demonstrated the ability to distinguish individual humans by recognizing facial features.[25] Evidence also suggests they are one of the few nonhuman animals, along with insects like bees or ants, capable of displacement (communication about things that are not immediately present, spatially or temporally).[26][27] Ravens have been observed to recruit other ravens to large feeding sites, such as to the carcass of an animal.
Diet[edit]
Corvus splendens or house crow resting in shadows on a rooftop with slaughterhouse refuse to eat
Crows are omnivorous, and their diet is very diverse. They will eat almost anything, including other birds, fruits, nuts, mollusks, earthworms, seeds, frogs, eggs, nestlings, mice, and carrion. The origin of placing scarecrows in grain fields resulted from the crow’s incessant damaging and scavenging, although crows assist farmers by eating insects otherwise attracted to their crops.[28]
Reproduction[edit]
Nestlings, almost ready to fledge
Crows reach sexual maturity around the age of three years for females and five years for males. Clutch size is approximately three to nine eggs, and the nesting period lasts between 20 and 40 days. Crows often mate for life, and young from previous years often help nesting pairs protect a nest and feed nestlings. [29]
A crow's nest is made of materials like twigs, electrical wires, metal strips, plastic pieces, and other small items.
Crow nestlings in urban areas face threats such as nest entanglement from anthropogenic nesting materials and stunted growth due to poor nutrition. [30] [31]
Lifespan and disease[edit]
Some crows may live to the age of 20, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost 30 years old.[32] The oldest documented captive crow died at age 59.[33]
The American crow is highly susceptible to the recently introduced North American strain of West Nile virus.[34] American crows typically die within one week of acquiring the disease and very few survive exposure.
Conservation status[edit]
The Hawaiian crow or ʻalala (Corvus hawaiiensis) is nearly extinct; only a few dozen birds survive in captivity. It is listed as "extinct in the wild" by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
Two species of crow have been listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: the Hawaiian crow and the Mariana crow.[35] The American crow, despite having its population reduced by 45% since 1999 by the West Nile virus, is considered a species of least concern.
Problems and methods of control[edit]
Intelligence and social structures makes most crow species adaptable and opportunistic. Crows frequently cause damage to crops and property,[36] strew trash, and transfer disease. In densely populated areas around the world, corvids are generally regarded as nuisance animals.[37] Crows are protected in the U.S. under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, but because of their perceived destructive nature, control of the species is allowed in certain areas. Because of their intelligence, control is often difficult or expensive. Methods for control include hunting, chemical immobilization, harassment and scare tactics, and trapping. Before any measure is used to confine, trap, kill, poison, immobilize, or alter the habits of any wild bird species, a person must check local, state, and federal regulations pertaining to such actions.
Hunting[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the United States, hunting is allowed under state and federal regulation. Crow hunting is considered a sport in rural areas of the U.S. because the birds are not considered a tasty traditional game species. Some cultures do treat various corvid species as a food source.[38] Liability and possible danger to persons and property limit the use of hunting or shooting as control methods in urban areas. Crows' wariness and cunning make harvesting crows in sufficient numbers difficult.
Scare tactics[edit]
Scare tactics have been the most widely used aversion tactic for crows in areas frequented by humans and domestic animal species. This safe method does not require constant maintenance or manpower to operate or monitor. However, corvids quickly become habituated to most tactics such as blast cannons, predator decoys, and traditional scarecrows. Greater success has been achieved by adding sound and motion to predator decoys to mimic a distressed crow being caught by a predator such as an owl or hawk.[39] Work is currently being done which uses multiple aversion techniques in one area. The theory is that multiple techniques used together will confuse the crows, thereby lessening the probability of habituation to stimuli.
Trapping[edit]
Trapping is a rarely used technique in the U.S., but is being used with success in parts of Europe and Australia. The ladder-style trap (e.g., Australian Crow Trap or Modified Australian Crow Trap) seems to be the most effective in crow-trapping techniques. Ladder traps are constructed in such a way that unintentional catch of nontarget species is avoided. If a nontarget species is caught, it can be easily released without harm to the bird. The traps are cost-efficient because they are inexpensive and simple to construct, and require little manpower to monitor. The bait used in the traps can also be specific to corvids. Carrion, grains, unshelled raw peanuts, and shiny objects in the trap are effective baits. When removing crows from a ladder trap, one living crow is left as an extremely effective decoy for other crows. Trapping is considered the most humane method for crow removal because the crows can be relocated without harm or stress. However, most wild birds in general have a knack for returning to their home ranges.[40]
Other methods[edit]
Other methods have been used with little or limited success. Lasers have been used successfully to remove large flocks of birds from roost structures in urban areas, but success in keeping crows off roosts has been short-lived.[41] Homeowners can reduce the presence of crows by keeping trash stored in containers, feeding pets indoors, and hanging tin pie-pans or reflective gazing globes around garden areas.
As a food supplement[edit]
Crows were hunted for survival by Curonians, a Baltic tribe,[42] when common food was exhausted and the landscape changed so that farming was not as productive during the 18th and 19th centuries. Fishermen supplemented their diet by gathering coastal bird eggs and preserving crow meat by salting and smoking it. It became a traditional food for poor folk and is documented in a poem, "The Seasons" by K. Donelaitis. After the nonhunting policy was lifted by the Prussian government in 1721–24 and alternative food supplies increased, the practice was forgotten. The tradition re-emerged after World War I; in marketplaces, butchered crows which were sought after and bought by townsfolk were common. The hunted crows were not the local, but the migrating ones; each year during the spring and autumn, crows migrated via the Curonian Spit between Finland and the rest of Europe. In 1943, the government even issued a hunting quota for such activities. Crows were usually caught by attracting them with smoked fish or grains soaked in spirits and then collecting them with nets. It was a job for the elderly or young who were unable to go to sea to fish, and it was common to catch 150 to 200 birds during a hunting day.
Human interaction[edit]
The common raven and carrion crow have been blamed for killing weak lambs and are often seen eating freshly dead corpses probably killed by other means. The Australian raven has been documented chasing, attacking, and seriously injuring lambs.[43] Rooks have been blamed for eating grain in the UK and brown-necked ravens for raiding date crops in desert countries.[44]
In Auburn, New York, 25,000 to 50,000 American crows (C. brachyrhynchos) have taken to roosting in the small city's large trees during winter since around 1993.[45] In 2003, a controversial, organized crow hunt proved ineffective at reducing their numbers and the problem (concerns for public health and the sheer noise of so many crows) continues.[46]
At a Technology Entertainment Design conference in March 2008, Joshua Klein presented the potential use of a vending machine for crows. He suggested the crows could be trained to pick up waste and the vending machine would be designed to give a reward in exchange for the garbage.[47]
Crows have been shown to have the ability to visually recognize individual humans and to transmit information about "bad" humans by squawking.[48] Crows appear to show appreciation to humans by presenting them with gifts.[49][50]
Cultural depictions and folklore[edit]
See also: Cultural depictions of ravens
Crow on a Branch - Kawanabe Kyosai (1831–1889)
In folklore, myth, and spirituality[edit]
Crow on a branch, Maruyama Ōkyo (1733–1795)
Dhumavati
In Ancient Greece and Rome, several myths about crows and jackdaws included:
An ancient Greek and Roman adage, told by Erasmus runs, "The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent," meaning that educated or wise people will speak after the foolish become quiet.[51]
The Roman poet Ovid saw the crow as a harbinger of rain (Amores 2,6, 34).[52]
Pliny noted how the Thessalians, Illyrians, and Lemnians cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers' eggs. The Veneti are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops.[53]
Ancient Greek authors tell how a jackdaw, being a social creature, may be caught with a dish of oil into which it falls while looking at its own reflection.[53]
In Greek legend, princess Arne was bribed with gold by King Minos of Crete and was punished for her avarice by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw, which still seeks shiny things.[54]
In the Bible account at 1 Kings 17:6, ravens are credited with providing Elijah food.
The Twa Corbies by Arthur Rackham
In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Crow is a trickster, culture hero, and ancestral being. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia; these commonly include stories relating to Crow's role in the theft of fire, the origin of death, and the killing of Eagle's son.
Crows are mentioned often in Buddhism, especially Tibetan disciplines. The Dharmapala (protector of the Dharma) Mahakala is represented by a crow in one of his physical/earthly forms.[citation needed]
In the Chaldean myth, the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.[55]
In Chinese mythology, the world originally had 10 suns either spiritually embodied as 10 crows and/or carried by 10 crows; when all 10 decided to rise at once, the effect was devastating to crops, so the gods sent their greatest archer Houyi, who shot down nine crows and spared only one.[56][57]
In Denmark, the night raven is considered an exorcised spirit. A hole in its left wing denotes where the stake used to exorcise it was driven into the earth. He who looks through the hole will become a night raven himself.[58]
In Hinduism, crows are thought of as carriers of information that give omens to people regarding their situations. For example, when a crow crows in front of a person's house, the resident is expected to have special visitors that day. Also, in Hindu literature, crows have great memories which they use to give information.[citation needed] Symbolism is associated with the crow in the Hindu faith. On a positive note, crows are often associated with worship of ancestors because they are believed to be embodying the souls of the recently deceased. However, many other associations with crows are seen in Hinduism. Crows are believed to be connected with both the gods and goddesses, particularly the controversial ones such as Sani, the god of the planet Saturn, who uses a crow as his vehicle. In Hindu astrology, it is said that one who has the effect of Sani in their horoscope are angered easily, and may be unable to take control of their futures, but are extremely intelligent at the same time. Thus the presence of a crow, the vehicle of Sani is believed to have similar effects on the homes it lays its eyes on. Whether these effects are positive or negative is a source of debate in Hinduism.[59] Crows are also considered ancestors in Hinduism and during Śrāddha, the practice of offering food or pinda to crows is still in vogue.[60] Crows are associated with Dhumavati the form of mother goddess that invokes quarrel and fear.[61] Crows are also fed during the fifteen day period of Pitru Paksha, which occurs in the Autumn season, as an offering and sacrifice to the ancestors. During the time of Pitra Paksha, it is believed that the ancestors descend on earth from pitra-loka, and are able to eat food offered to them by the means of a crow. This can also occur during the time of Kumbha, many Hindus prepare entire vegetarian meals that are eaten solely by the crows and other birds.
In Irish mythology, crows are associated with Morrigan, the goddess of war and death.[62]
In Islam, according to a narration in the Hadith, the crow is one of the five animals for which no blame is placed on the one who kills them.[63] The Surat Al-Ma'ida describes the story of how the crow teaches son of Adam to cover dead body of his brother "Then Allah sent a crow digging up the earth so that he might show him how he should cover the dead body of his brother. He said: Woe me! do I lack the strength that I should be like this crow and cover the dead body of my brother? So he became of those who regret.".[64]
In Japanese mythology, a three-legged crow called Yatagarasu (八咫烏, "eight-hand-crow")[65] is depicted.[66]
In Korean mythology, a three-legged crow is known as Samjokgo (hangul: 삼족오; hanja: 三足烏).[citation needed]
In Norse mythology, Huginn and Muninn are a pair of common ravens that range the entire world, Midgard, bringing the god Odin information.
In Sweden, ravens are held to be the ghosts of murdered men.[67]
In Welsh mythology, the god Brân the Blessed – whose name means "crow" or "raven" — is associated with corvids and death; tradition holds that Bran's severed head is buried under the Tower of London, facing France — a possible genesis for the practice of keeping ravens in the Tower, said to protect the fortunes of Britain. In Cornish folklore, crows — magpies particularly — are associated with death and the "other world", and must be greeted respectfully. The origin of "counting crows" as augury is British; however, the British version rather is to "count magpies" — their black and white pied colouring alluding to the realms of the living and dead.
In some Native American mythologies, especially those in the Pacific Northwest, the raven is seen as both the Creator of the World and, separately, a trickster god.
In medieval times, crows were thought to live abnormally long lives. They were also thought to be monogamous throughout their long lives. They were thought to predict the future, to predict rain and reveal ambushes. Crows were also thought to lead flocks of storks while they crossed the sea to Asia.[68]
In popular culture[edit]
Literature[edit]
In Aesop's Fables, the jackdaw embodies stupidity in one tale (by starving while waiting for figs on a fig tree to ripen), vanity in another (the jackdaw sought to become king of the birds with borrowed feathers, but was shamed when they fell off),[69] and cunning in yet another (the crow comes up to a pitcher and knows that his beak is too short to reach the water, and if he tips it over, all the water will fall out, so the crow places pebbles in the pitcher so the water rises and he can reach it to relieve his thirst).[70]
The British Poet Laureate Ted Hughes combined some of the Amerindian and Celtic myths mentioned above in writing the 1970 poetry collection Crow: From the Life and Songs of the Crow (1970).
In Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Greek mythology, the god Apollo became enraged when the crow exposed his lover Coronis' tryst with a mortal, his ire transmuting the crow's feathers from white to black.[71]
In the Story of Bhusunda, a chapter of the Yoga Vasistha, a very old sage in the form of a crow, Bhusunda, recalls a succession of epochs in the earth's history, as described in Hindu cosmology. He survived several destructions, living on a wish-fulfilling tree on Mount Meru.[72]
See also[edit]
Corvus (heraldry)
Eating crow
Ischys for the Greek myth of why the crow's feathers are black
Scarecrows
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Gorenzel, W. P.; Blackwell, B. F.; Simmons, G. D.; Salmon, T. P.; Dolbeer, R. A. (2002). "Evaluation of lasers to disperse American crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos, from urban night roosts". International Journal of Pest Management. 48 (4): 327. doi:10.1080/09670870210151689.
Jump up ^ "Crow hunting". nerija.lt. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Alexander, G.; Mann, T.; Mulhearn, C. J.; Rowley, I. C. R.; Williams, D.; Winn, D. (1967). "Activities of foxes and crows in a flock of lambing ewes". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 7 (27): 329. doi:10.1071/EA9670329.
Jump up ^ Goodwin D. (1983). Crows of the World. Queensland University Press, St Lucia, Qld. ISBN 0-7022-1015-3.
Jump up ^ "Auburn NY Crow Roost and lighting changes". Cnylinks.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Citizen, Auburn NY". Auburnpub.com. 14 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Klein, Joshua (2008). "The amazing intelligence of crows". TED conference. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Krulwich, Robert (July 27, 2009). "The Crow Paradox". Morning Edition. National Public Radio.
Jump up ^ Sewall, Katy (February 25, 2015). "The girl who gets gifts from birds". BBC.
Jump up ^ "Birds that bring gifts and do the gardening". BBC News. March 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mynors, Roger A. (Translator) (1989). Collected Works of Erasmus: Adages: Ivi1 to Ix100. University of Toronto Press. p. 314.
Jump up ^ de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 275. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth (1895). "Jackdaw". A Glossary of Greek Birds. Oxford. p. 89.
Jump up ^ Graves, R (1955). "Scylla and Nisus". Greek Myths. London: Penguin. p. 308. ISBN 0-14-001026-2.
Jump up ^ Kovacs, Maureen Gallery (1989). The epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8047-1711-3.
Jump up ^ This mythology comes from a text in Shanhaijing, among other sources.
Jump up ^ Yang, Lihui (2008). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96 and 231. ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6.
Jump up ^ The Atlantic Monthly. 34.
Jump up ^ Zailer, Xenia (2013). "Dark Shades of Power: the Crow in Hindu and Tantric Religious Traditions". Religions of South Asia. 7: 212–229. doi:10.1558/rosa.v7i1-3.212.
Jump up ^ Vasudevan, Vidia (26 July 2001). "It's a crow's day". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
Jump up ^ Kinsley, David R. (1988). "Tara, Chinnamasta and the Mahavidyas". Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition (1 ed.). University of California Press. pp. 161–177. ISBN 978-0-520-06339-6.
Jump up ^ Leeming, David Adams (2005). "Crows and ravens". The Oxford companion to world mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.
Jump up ^ What Ruling on killing mice and rats. Islamqa.info. Retrieved on 19 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Surat Al-Maidah 5:31". Quran.com. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (1994). Essentials of Shinto: an analytical guide to principal teachings. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-313-26431-3.
Jump up ^ Como, Michael (2009). Weaving and binding: immigrant gods and female immortals in ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-8248-2957-5.
Jump up ^ "Common Ravens - Species Information". Avianweb.com. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
Jump up ^ http://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast252.htm
Jump up ^ de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. pp. 388–89. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3.
Jump up ^ "The Crow and the Pitcher". Aesop's Fables.
Jump up ^ Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (1998). "Coronis/Corvus". Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-57607-129-8.
Jump up ^ Cole, Juan R.I. Baha'u'llah on Hinduism and Zoroastrianism: The Tablet to Mirza Abu'l-Fadl Concerning the Questions of Manakji Limji Hataria.
Further reading[edit]
Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert (2002). "Crow". The international wildlife encyclopedia, Volume 10. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7.
Gill, B. J. (2003). "Osteometry and Systematics of the Extinct New Zealand Ravens (Aves: Corvidae: Corvus)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 1: 43–58. doi:10.1017/S1477201903001019. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
Goodwin, D. (1983). Crows of the World. Queensland University Press. ISBN 0-7022-1015-3.
Heinrich, Bernd (1991). Ravens in Winter. Vintage Press. ISBN 0-679-73236-5.
Heinrich, Bernd (1999). Mind of the Raven: Investigations and Adventures with Wolf-Birds. Cliff Street Books. ISBN 978-0-06-093063-9.
Kilham, Lawrence (1991). The American Crow and the Common Raven. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-466-1.
Madge, Steve; Burn, Hillary (1994). Crows and jays: a guide to the crows, jays, and magpies of the world. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-67171-9.
Westerfield, Michael (2011). The Language of Crows: The crows.net Book of the American Crow. Ashford Press. ISBN 978-0-937992-00-5.
Worthy, Trevor H.; Holdaway, Richard N. (2002). The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric Life of New Zealand. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34034-9.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Crow.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corvus.
Frequently Asked Questions About Crows - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Crows (Corvidae) - Internet Bird Collection
Crows.net: The Language and Culture of Crows
Tool making and use by Crows - Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Oxford University
"A Murder of Crows" - PBS documentary (2010)
[show]
v
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Extant species of family Corvidae
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Subclass: Neornithes
Superorder: Neognathae
Order: Passeriformes
[show]
Family Corvidae
Choughs
Pyrrhocorax
Alpine chough (P. graculus)
Red-billed chough (P. pyrrhocorax)
Treepies
Crypsirina
Hooded treepie (C. cucullata)
Black racket-tailed treepie (C. temia)
Dendrocitta
Andaman treepie (D. bayleyi)
Bornean treepie (D. cinerascens)
Grey treepie (D. formosae)
Black-faced treepie (D. frontalis)
White-bellied treepie (D. leucogastra)
Sumatran treepie (D. occipitalis)
Rufous treepie (D. vagabunda)
Platysmurus
Black magpie (P. leucopterus)
Bornean black magpie (P. l. aterrimus)
Temnurus
Ratchet-tailed treepie (T. temnurus)
Oriental
magpies
Cissa
Common green magpie (C. chinensis)
Indochinese green magpie (C. hypoleuca)
Bornean green magpie (C. jefferyi)
Javan green magpie (C. thalassina)
Urocissa
Taiwan blue magpie (U. caerulea)
Red-billed blue magpie (U. erythrorhyncha)
Yellow-billed blue magpie (U. flavirostris)
Sri Lanka blue magpie (U. ornata)
White-winged magpie (U. whiteheadi)
Old World jays
Garrulus
Eurasian jay (G. glandarius)
Lanceolated jay (G. lanceolatus)
Lidth's jay (G. lidthi)
Podoces
(Ground jays)
Biddulph's ground jay (P. biddulphi)
Henderson's ground jay (P. hendersoni)
Pander's ground jay (P. panderi)
Persian ground jay (P. pleskei)
Ptilostomus
Piapiac (P. afer)
Stresemann's
bushcrow
Zavattariornis
Stresemann's bushcrow (Z. stresemanni)
[hide]
Family Corvidae (continued)
Nutcrackers
Nucifraga
Spotted nutcracker (N. caryocatactes)
Clark's nutcracker (N. columbiana)
Holarctic
magpies
Pica
Black-billed magpie (P. hudsonia)
Yellow-billed magpie (P. nuttalli)
Eurasian magpie (P. pica)
Korean magpie (P. sericea)
True crows
(crows, ravens,
jackdaws and rooks)
Corvus
Australian and Melanesian species
Little crow (C. bennetti)
Australian raven (C. coronoides)
Bismarck crow (C. insularis)
Brown-headed crow (C. fuscicapillus)
Bougainville crow (C. meeki)
Little raven (C. mellori)
New Caledonian crow (C. moneduloides)
Torresian crow (C. orru)
Forest raven (C. tasmanicus)
Grey crow (C. tristis)
Long-billed crow (C. validus)
White-billed crow (C. woodfordi)
Pacific island species
Hawaiian crow (C. hawaiiensis)
Mariana crow (C. kubaryi)
Tropical Asian species
Daurian jackdaw (C. dauuricus)
Slender-billed crow (C. enca)
Flores crow (C. florensis)
Large-billed crow (C. macrorhynchos)
Eastern jungle crow (C. levaillantii)
Indian jungle crow (C. culminatus)
House crow (C. splendens)
Collared crow (C. torquatus)
Piping crow (C. typicus)
Banggai crow (C. unicolor)
Violet crow (C. violaceus)
Eurasian and North African species
Mesopotamian crow (C. capellanus)
Hooded crow (C. cornix)
Carrion crow (C. corone)
Rook (C. frugilegus)
Jackdaw (C. monedula )
Eastern carrion crow (C. orientalis)
Fan-tailed raven (C. rhipidurus)
Brown-necked raven (C. ruficollis)
Holarctic species
Common raven (C. corax)
North and Central American species
American crow (C. brachyrhynchos)
Northwestern crow (C. caurinus)
Chihuahuan raven (C. cryptoleucus)
Tamaulipas crow (C. imparatus)
Jamaican crow (C. jamaicensis)
White-necked crow (C. leucognaphalus)
Cuban crow (C. nasicus)
Fish crow (C. ossifragus)
Palm crow (C. palmarum)
Sinaloan crow (C. sinaloae)
Tropical African species
White-necked raven (C. albicollis)
Pied crow (C. albus)
Cape crow (C. capensis)
Thick-billed raven (C. crassirostris)
Somali crow (C. edithae)
[show]
Family Corvidae (continued)
Azure-winged
magpies
Cyanopica
Iberian magpie (C. cooki)
Azure-winged magpie (C. cyanus)
Grey jays
Perisoreus
Grey jay (P. canadensis)
Siberian jay (P. infaustus)
Sichuan jay (P. internigrans)
New World jays
Aphelocoma
(Scrub jays)
California scrub jay (A. californica)
Island scrub jay (A. insularis)
Woodhouse's scrub jay (A. woodhouseii)
Florida scrub jay (A. coerulescens)
Transvolcanic jay (A. ultramarina)
Unicolored jay (A. unicolor)
Mexican jay (A. wollweberi)
Calocitta
(Magpie-Jays)
Black-throated magpie-jay (C. colliei)
White-throated Magpie-jay (C. formosa)
Cyanocitta
Blue jay (C. cristata)
Steller's jay (C. stelleri)
Cyanocorax
Black-chested jay (C. affinis)
Purplish-backed jay (C. beecheii)
Azure jay (C. caeruleus)
Cayenne jay (C. cayanus)
Plush-crested jay (C. chrysops)
Curl-crested jay (C. cristatellus)
Purplish jay (C. cyanomelas)
White-naped jay (C. cyanopogon)
Tufted jay (C. dickeyi)
Azure-naped jay (C. heilprini)
Bushy-crested jay (C. melanocyaneus)
Brown jay (C. morio)
White-tailed jay (C. mystacalis)
San Blas jay (C. sanblasianus)
Violaceous jay (C. violaceus)
Green jay (C. ynca)
Yucatan jay (C. yucatanicus)
Cyanolyca
Silvery-throated jay (C. argentigula)
Black-collared jay (C. armillata)
Azure-hooded jay (C. cucullata)
White-throated jay (C. mirabilis)
Dwarf jay (C. nana)
Beautiful jay (C. pulchra)
Black-throated jay (C. pumilo)
Turquoise jay (C. turcosa)
White-collared jay (C. viridicyana)
Gymnorhinus
Pinyon jay (G. cyanocephalus)
[show]
v
t
e
Birds in culture
Activities
Aviculture
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Bird conservation
Fletching
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Vinkensport
In science
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In mythology and religion
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Crow
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The Birds
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The Birds
Kes
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Species
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Joseph Smit
Archibald Thorburn
Joseph Wolf
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Niels Krabbe
Peter Scott
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Related
Category:Birds and humans
Dinosaurs in culture
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Insects in culture
Mammals in culture
Reptiles in culture
Zoomusicology
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q43365
EoL: 33750
EPPO: 1CORVG
Fauna Europaea: 97126
Fossilworks: 39446
GBIF: 2482468
iNaturalist: 7998
ITIS: 179724
NCBI: 30420
WoRMS: 159387
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corvus&oldid=834118462"
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text:
Eternity ring
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Eternity ring
An eternity ring, also known as an infinity ring, is a woman's ring, worn on the hand, comprising a band of precious metal (usually gold) set with a continuous line of identically cut gemstones (usually diamonds)[1] to symbolize never-ending love, usually given by a spouse to his or her wife on the occasion of a significant anniversary, typically after 1 or more years of marriage date[citation needed] Because the presence of stones all the way round the eternity ring can make it cumbersome to wear, the alternative is to have the stones across the face of the ring only. This is sometimes referred to as a "half-eternity" ring rather than a "full" eternity ring.
Eternity rings featuring paste gems, white topaz or a mix of stones appeared in the 18th century.[2]
History[edit]
The concept of the diamond eternity ring was created in the 1960s by diamond merchant De Beers.[3][4] American investigative journalist Edward Jay Epstein stated that at the time the company had a secret agreement with the Soviet Union which, in return for the creation of a "single channel" controlling the world's supply of diamonds, 'required' the purchase of 90-95% of the uncut gem diamonds produced by Russia.[4] The prevailing fashion at the time, particularly for engagement rings, was for them to be set with a single, large diamond. The Soviet gems, however, were small, often less than 0.25 Carats.[3] To avoid stockpiling, De Beers embarked on a campaign of promotion of jewelry containing a number of small diamonds culminating in the eternity ring, which was aimed at older, married women.[3] One campaign slogan, aimed at husbands, was "She married you for richer or poorer. Let her know how it’s going."[5] The idea proved popular with the public, and sales continue to be significant.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Primestyle. "Why Eternity Bands Are So Popular – Top 4 Reasons" November 1, 2016
Jump up ^ Taylor, Gerald; Scarisbrick, Diana (1978). Finger Rings From Ancient Egypt to the Present Day. Ashmolean Museum. p. 88. ISBN 0-900090-54-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Edward Jay Epstein (February 1982). "Have you ever tried to sell a Diamond?". The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved October 18, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Kempton, Daniel (1995). "Russia and de beers: Diamond conflict or cartel?". South African Journal of International Affairs. 3 (2): 94. doi:10.1080/10220469509545165.
Jump up ^ Joan McAlpine (March 1, 2009). "Maybe diamonds are a girl's best friend". The Times. Retrieved December 26, 2014.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eternity_ring&oldid=811201350"
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text:
Going Dutch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Going Dutch" is a term that indicates that each person participating in a group activity pays for themselves, rather than any person paying for anyone else, particularly in a restaurant bill. It is also called Dutch date, Dutch treat (the oldest form[1]) and "doing Dutch".
There are two possible senses—each person paying their own expenses, or the entire bill being split (divided evenly) between all participants. In strict usage, "Going Dutch" refers to the former, paying one's own expenses, and the latter is referred to as "splitting the bill", but in casual usage these may both be referred to as "going Dutch".
A derivative is "Sharing Dutch", which stands for having a joint ownership of luxury goods. For example: four people share the ownership of a plane, boat, car or any other sharable high-end product. This in order to minimize cost, sharing the same passion for that particular product and to have the maximum usage of this product.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 International practices
2.1 Europe
2.2 Middle East
2.3 Asia
2.4 Latin and South America
3 References
Etymology[edit]
One suggestion is that the phrase "going Dutch" originates from the concept of a Dutch door. Previously on farmhouses this consisted of two equal parts (Sullivan 2010)[full citation needed]. Note that a Dutch door is also called a "split" door.
The Oxford English Dictionary connects "go Dutch" with "Dutch treat" and other phrases many of which have "an opprobrious or derisive application, largely due to the rivalry and enmity between the English and Dutch in the 17th century," the period of the Anglo-Dutch Wars. Another example is "Dutch courage".[1]
The gambling term "dutching" may be related to "go Dutch", as it describes a system that shares stakes across a number of bets. It is commonly believed, however, that the Dutch reference here was in fact derived from a gangster, Dutch Schultz, who used this strategy to profit from racing.[citation needed]
Also the concept may have originated from Double Dutch, the jump rope variation in which partners simultaneously participate.
International practices[edit]
Europe[edit]
In Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, the practice of splitting the bill in restaurants is common, though often everybody pays for themselves. In a courtship situation where both parties have a similar financial standing, the traditional custom is that the man always pays, though some, including etiquette authorities,[2] consider it old fashioned. Sometimes a romantic couple will take turns paying the bill or split it.
In several south European countries such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece or Cyprus it is rather uncommon for most locals to have separate bills and is sometimes even regarded as rude, especially when in larger groups. But in urban areas or places frequented by tourists this has changed over the last decades. In Greece the practice is colloquially called "refené".
In Catalonia "going Dutch" is the rule among Catalans. This is referred to in the Spanish language as pagar a la catalana ("to pay the way Catalans do").
In some parts of Italy (especially the south), the expression pagare alla romana can be translated as: "To pay like people of Rome" or "to pay like they do in Rome". It has a double and opposite meaning, depending by the tradition followed: the modern and more common meaning of pagare alla romana is to divide equally the total cost between all the commensals; the other meaning is the same as "going Dutch". This can lead to misunderstanding.[3]
In France, it is close to "faire moitié-moitié" or "faire moit'-moit'", which means "each one pays half of the bill". For romantic dates, the traditional practice is that the man pays. In a business meeting, the hosting party usually pays for all - it is considered rude not to do so.
The corresponding phrase in Turkish is hesabı Alman usulü ödemek, which can be translated into English as "to pay the bill the German way" ("Alman usûlü": German style). Splitting the bill is becoming increasingly common among the younger generation, especially when all parties have similar income levels.
Middle East[edit]
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In Middle Eastern cultures, "going Dutch" is seen as being extremely rude. Traditions of hospitality play a great part in determining who pays, therefore an invitation will be given only when the host feels that he or she is able to afford the expenses of all. Similarly, gender roles and age play a more important role than they would in Western societies.
In Egypt, it is called Englizy, which translates into "English style".
In Iraq, the expression is "Maṣlawiya", "مصلاوية", referring to the people of Mosul who are supposedly stingy.
In Levant (Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan) and some Arab countries, the expression is "Shamia" "شامية", referring to the people of Damascus in Syria, who are supposedly stingy with tight money expenditure. Another similar expression is "Sherke Halabieh" (meaning "Sharing the Aleppo way"), that bears a similar connotation.
The corresponding phrase in Turkish is hesabı Alman usulü ödemek, which can be translated into English as "to pay the bill the German way" ("Alman usûlü": German style).
Asia[edit]
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In India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Iran, it is even considered taboo to ask people to pay their own bills. The bills are generally paid by the elder of a group, the male in a couple, the local of the area, or by the one who made the invitation if there is no significant age gap. Invitations are only given if someone understands that they can pay for all of the guests.
In Pakistan, Going Dutch is sometimes referred to as the "American System". This practice is more prevalent among the younger age group, friends, colleagues and some family members to request separate bills.. In Urdu, the practice is called "Apna Apna" which means "Each his own" in which each pays his own bill. In a group, generally Going Dutch means splitting the bill equally.
Though with changing times, customs among the new generation has changed and "going Dutch" is a completely accepted practice in most of urban India. It is most common among friends, colleagues and couples to split the bill or request separate bills. It is commonly called "TTMM" (Tera Tu Mera Main) literally meaning you (pay) for yours and me for mine in Mumbai. It's also not unacceptable to pay for elders among the group if the invitation has been extended by some one younger (say a niece taking her aunts and uncles out for dinner).
In Bangladesh it is common to use the term (je je, jar jar) যে যে,যার যার "His, His; Whose, Whose".
In North Korea, where rigid social systems are still in place, it is most common for the person of the highest social standing, such as a boss or an elder figure, to pay the bill. This not only applies in a 1 to 1 situation but also in groups. Among the younger generation, it is quite common for friends to alternate when paying the bill, or for one to pay for dinner and another to pay for drinks.
In South Korea, "going Dutch" is called "Dutch Pay" (더치페이), a konglish loan phrase. For romantic dates, men usually pay.
In People's Republic of China, where traditional culture still plays an important role, the bills are generally paid in groups by the person of the highest social standing, such as a boss or an elder figure, the male in a group, the local of the area, or by the one who made the invitation. For a 1 to 1 situation, the younger one (except for students or people with limited income) pays for the elder one to show respect. It is considered rude and less friendly to split the bill. It is very common for a group of friends or colleagues to take turns paying the bill. Men always pay for romantic dates to show generosity and responsibility as a man. It is most common among groups of strangers or sometimes younger generations to split the bill. The appropriate term is "AA制", where 制 is the Chinese word for "system". Explanations vary: "AA" could stand for "Algebraic Average" or "Acting Appointment" or "About to Act"[citation needed].
In Indonesia, the term is BSS and BMM, as acronym for "Bayar Sendiri-Sendiri" and "Bayar Masing-Masing", and which both means "pay for yourself". This term commonly used only in less formal setting among friends. In a more formal setting the commonly accepted convention is person with higher social standing to take the payments. Among equal members of group it is consider polite to offer payments for all the meals and drinks in which the other party have the opportunity to refuse or accept out of respect for the other party.
In India, in Hindi, the practice is called as TTMM - Tu Tera Mein Mera Hindi (or Je Jaar Shey Taar in Bengali) (or Tujhe Tu Majhe Mi in Marathi) (or "Neenu nindu koodu, nanu nandu kodthini" in Kannada) (or EDVD - "Evadi Dabbulu Vaadi Dabbule" in Telugu) (or "thanakathu, thaan" in Tamil) (or "thantrathu, thaan" in Malayalam) meaning 'You pay yours and I pay mine'. Generally though, since the concept of dating is very new this act is not applied to dating. When the expression going Dutch is used, it often refers to splitting the bill equally.
In Japan, it is called 割勘 (warikan), which translates into "splitting the cost".
In the Philippines, it is referred to as KKB; an acronym for "Kanya-kanyang bayad" which means "pay for your own self". KKB would generally be the norm among friends or people of similar financial standing. As in most Asian countries the person footing the bill is generally dictated by gender roles or standing in the community or work. It is still general practice to have the male answer the bill especially during courtship or when in romantic relationships.
In Thailand, the practice is referred to as อเมริกันแชร์ "American Share".
Latin and South America[edit]
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Some Latin American countries use the Spanish phrase pagar a la americana (literally "to pay American style") which refers to a trait attributed to people from the United States or Canada.
In Argentina specifically, 'a la romana' (exact translation of Italian's 'pagare alla romana') is rarely used and 'pagar a la americana' (pay American style) is the most common way of expressing this idea.[citation needed] Other alternatives are to 'pagar cincuenta cincuenta' or 'hacer mitad y mitad' (or also colloquially 'hacer miti miti').
In Chile the phrase used is 'hacer una vaca' (to make a cow) which means that each participant pays on a common pot to either pay the bill afterwards, or beforehand, when buying for a meeting or party at a home. In this cases a person is designated as the 'bank' (the one who collects the money) this works either when planning the things to buy for a party, or when paying the bill on a restaurant and/or pub. It still is splitting the bill but one person pays for all of it and the others reimburse him/her. In more formal settings (office party) the participants may require to see the supermarket bill to check that the money was spent as agreed.
In Panama the phrase mita (or miti) y mita (a colloquial contraction of mitad y mitad in this case with the stress on the first syllable mi) literally "half and half" refers to both "going Dutch" and to splitting the check equally.
In Costa Rica the phrase is "ir con Cuyo". It means to go with Cuyo (Cuyo being supposedly a person). If the interlocutor asks "who is Cuyo?" the other responds "cada uno con lo suyo" meaning each person pays what they ate. It is not unusual for Costa Ricans to be rather strict with the math, sometimes even up to the last Colón.
In Guatemala the phrase is "a la ley de Cristo... cada quien con su pisto" which is used more as a rhyme with the word "Cristo" and "pisto" rather than having a religious connotation.
Almost the same in Honduras where the phrase is "Como dijo Cristo... cada quien con su pisto".
In El Salvador the rhyming phrase Ley de Esparta... Cada quien paga lo que se harta, which means 'Spartan Law, each pays what he/she eats'.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Oxford English Dictionary. Dutch, adj., n., and adv. Second edition, 1989; online version June 2012; accessed 02 September 2012. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1897.
Jump up ^ Magdalena Ribbing (2008-10-05). "Delad nota är delad glädje". DN.SE. Archived from the original on 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2012-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Pagare alla romana" sul sito dell'Accademia della Crusca.
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