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Mount Isa
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For the Queensland electoral division, see Electoral district of Mount Isa.
City in Queensland, Australia
Mount Isa
Queensland
Mount Isa
Mount Isa
Coordinates
20°44′0″S 139°30′0″E / 20.73333°S 139.50000°E / -20.73333; 139.50000Coordinates: 20°44′0″S 139°30′0″E / 20.73333°S 139.50000°E / -20.73333; 139.50000
Population
21,998 (2016)[1]
• Density
350.29/km2 (907.2/sq mi)
Established
1923
Postcode(s)
4825
Elevation
356 m (1,168 ft)
Area
62.8 km2 (24.2 sq mi)[2] (2011 urban)
Time zone
AEST (UTC+10)
Location
1,830 km (1,137 mi) NW of Brisbane
1,163 km (723 mi) SW of Cairns
661 km (411 mi) E of Tennant Creek
LGA(s)
City of Mount Isa
State electorate(s)
Traeger
Federal Division(s)
Kennedy
Mean max temp Mean min temp Annual rainfall
31.9 °C
89 °F 17.3 °C
63 °F 461.8 mm
18.2 in
Mount Isa (/ˈaɪzə/ EYE-zə) is a city in the Gulf Country region of Queensland, Australia. It came into existence because of the vast mineral deposits found in the area. Mount Isa Mines (MIM) is one of the most productive single mines in world history, based on combined production of lead, silver, copper and zinc.[3]
With an estimated urban population of 21,998 as at June 2016,[1] Mount Isa is the administrative, commercial and industrial centre for the state's vast north-western region. Although situated in an arid area, the artificial Lake Moondarra[4] 19 kilometres (12 mi) north of the city on the Leichhardt River provides both drinking water and an area for watersports, birdwatching and recreation. Locals often refer to Mount Isa as "The Isa".[5]
Due to the lead production in the city, Mount Isa has one of the most intensive air quality monitoring systems in Australia.[6] Concerns have been raised over childhood lead contamination and air pollution within the city.[7][8] The Mount Isa Mines (MIM) in particular are a source of significant lead pollution.[9]
Contents
1 History
2 Heritage listings
3 Governance
4 Local industry and business
4.1 Tourism
5 Climate
6 Culture and sport
7 Festivals and events
7.1 Mount Isa Rodeo
7.2 Mount Isa parkrun
8 Demographics
9 Suburbs
10 Transport
11 Water infrastructure
12 Education
13 Facilities
14 Media
14.1 Radio
14.2 Television
14.3 Newspapers
15 Notable people
16 See also
17 References
18 External links
History[edit]
The Attorney General of Queensland, John Mullan, officially opened the railway line on 6 April 1929
Smelter interior, 1932
Township, 1932
Main street, ~1936
The land around the present day city of Mount Isa was home to the Kalkadoon aboriginal tribe. The Kalkadoon tribe led a subsistence lifestyle on this land that the white settlers looked at as nothing but poor grazing land, with the odd mineral deposit. As settlers and prospectors pressed further into their lands the Kalkadoon tribe members set out on one of Australia's most successful guerrilla wars in a fight for their lands. Their success continued until at Battle Mountain in 1884, with what some historians have called a rush of blood, the tribe attacked a fortified position in large numbers and suffered terrible losses. The weakened state of the tribe made their land more vulnerable to the settlers and soon much of the land was lost. Armed patrols chasing the surviving tribe members and poor grazing lands for the settlers made times hard in the area over the following decades.
It is said that a lone prospector, John Campbell Miles, stumbled upon one of the world's richest deposits of copper, silver and zinc during his 1923 expedition into the Northern Territory, but many people do not know that he was taken to the deposits by a young aboriginal man by the name of Kabalulumana (for whom an Indigenous person's hostel in Mount Isa is named)[dubious – discuss].[10] When Miles inspected the yellow-black rocks in a nearby outcrop, they reminded him of the ore found in the Broken Hill mine that he had once worked at. Upon inspection these rocks were weighty and heavily mineralised. A sample sent away to the assayer in Cloncurry confirmed their value. Miles and four farmers staked out the first claims in the area. Taken with friend's stories of the Mount Ida gold mines in Western Australia, Miles decided upon Mount Isa as the name for his new claim.
Mount Isa Post Office opened on 1 August 1924.[11]
A location for the town's hospital was chosen in 1929, with a small building completed the following year.[12] In 1931, a larger structure was moved to the site from the closed mining town of Kuridala.[12]
The Mount Isa City Library opened in 1974.[13]
Heritage listings[edit]
Mount Isa has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
Camooweal Street: Underground Hospital[14]
Camooweal Street: Tent House[15][16]
Mount Isa Mining District: Bower Bird Battery[17]
on Mount Isa Mine Lease: Mount Isa Mine Early Infrastructure[18]
Nettle Street: Casa Grande[19]
Governance[edit]
Mount Isa at local level is part of the City of Mount Isa, at state level is part of the electoral district of Mount Isa in the Legislative Assembly of Queensland, and at federal level is part of the Division of Kennedy in the Australian House of Representatives. The mayor of Mount Isa, after the 2016 Local Government Elections, is Joyce McCulloch.[20] The City of Mount Isa LGA jurisdiction, covering 43,188 km2[21] (2nd largest in Australia), is one of the largest in the world in terms of area[citation needed] and takes in the border town of Camooweal, 188 km (117 mi) to the north-west of Mount Isa and 12 km (7.5 mi) from the border of the Northern Territory.
Local industry and business[edit]
Mount Isa's industry is largely dependent on mining. Glencore operates the Mount Isa Mines lease adjacent to the city, which comprises the "Enterprise" underground copper mine, X41 underground copper mine, "Black Star Open Cut" silver-lead zinc mine, and metallurgical processing facilities. Silver-lead-zinc ore is also mined 20 km (12 mi) to the north at Hilton from the "George Fisher" underground mine, and the adjoining "Handlebar Hill" open cut, which is trucked back to Mount Isa for processing.
Mount Isa is in the top two of the largest copper mining and smelting operations in the country.[22] Copper and lead are smelted on site, with copper anodes and zinc concentrate being transported 900 km (560 mi) to the city and port of Townsville on the east coast. The lead ingots are transported to a refinery in Britain where the silver is extracted. The mine is the most significant landmark in the area, with the stack from the lead smelter (built 1978), standing 270 m tall, visible from all parts of the city and up to 40 km (25 mi) out.[citation needed]
In 2008 a Queensland Health report found that more than 10% of children in Mount Isa had blood lead levels above World Health Organization recommendations. The mining operator Glencore denied responsibility and stated that the town has naturally high levels of lead in the soil.[23] However, a more recent study led by Macquarie University environmental engineers has used lead isotope analysis to show conclusively that the lead ingested had originated from smelted ore and not surface deposits.[24][25]
Tourism[edit]
Underground hospital
Attractions include the Hard Times Mine at "Outback at Isa" and The Mount Isa Rodeo and Mardi Gras (held on the same weekend) has given Mount Isa the title of "Rodeo Capital of Australia". The occasion may well triple the city's population in these few days.[citation needed] A memorial has been made especially for the Rodeo, down Rodeo Drive; the sidewalks have special memorials embedded in the cement.
The burial place of John Campbell Miles, the founder of Mount Isa, is on the corner of Rodeo Drive and Miles Street. His ashes are buried underneath a large statue where each panel represents a significant part of Mount Isa. Miles' ashes used to be watched over by a large clock where the statue now stands.
The World War II-era Mount Isa Underground Hospital is an historical building that has been registered on the Register of the National Estate and the Queensland Heritage Register. It is an air-raid shelter which could function as a hospital was a precautionary measure taken after Darwin was bombed in 1942.[12] Local miners excavated the site which remains today as the only underground health facility in Queensland which was built during World War II.[12]
The Glencore Mount Isa Lake Moondarra Fishing Classic is held annually, and after 2011 will also be followed by a Fishing, Camping and 4x4 Expo. The Fishing Classic is the richest fresh water fishing event in Queensland.[26] Catching the tagged Barramundi fetches the greatest prize money.
Climate[edit]
Mount Isa experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh). The summer/wet season is very hot with highly variable rainfall and humidity owing to the erratic influence of the monsoon. This can be almost non-existent in years like 1985/1986, where as little as 83 millimetres (3.3 in) fell from December to March, or extremely intense as in 1973/1974 when 789 mm (31.1 in) of rain fell over the same period. A typical summer includes numerous hot windy days over 40 °C with clear skies and low humidity, a few weeks of 35-40 °C temperatures with higher humidity and spectacular thunderstorms and a few days with heavy monsoon rain and cooler conditions below 30 °C. Although Mount Isa lies within the tropics, its cool winter nights results in a temperature range similar to subtropical climates.
The winter or dry season is warm and almost completely rainless with median monthly rainfalls from April to September below 2 mm (0.08 in), though nights can be quite cool and about once every three years a minimum below 0 °C (32 °F) is recorded. On rare occasions winter rain-bearing systems may bring heavy rain for a day or two, such as in June 2007, when 111.8 mm (4.40 in) of rain was recorded; however, such occurrences happen only every 5 years or less. The lowest temperature recorded at Mount Isa is −2.9 °C (26.8 °F) on 7 July 1984 and the hottest is 45.9 °C (114.6 °F) on 29 January 1990. The wettest 24 hour period on record was 213.0 mm (8.39 in) on 15 January 2004.
hideClimate data for Mount Isa
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
45.9
(114.6) 43.5
(110.3) 41.9
(107.4) 38.6
(101.5) 37.8
(100) 34.3
(93.7) 35.2
(95.4) 36.4
(97.5) 39.5
(103.1) 42.5
(108.5) 43.9
(111) 45.1
(113.2) 45.9
(114.6)
Average high °C (°F)
36.4
(97.5) 35.4
(95.7) 34.4
(93.9) 32.0
(89.6) 27.9
(82.2) 24.9
(76.8) 24.8
(76.6) 27.3
(81.1) 31.3
(88.3) 34.7
(94.5) 36.6
(97.9) 37.1
(98.8) 31.9
(89.4)
Average low °C (°F)
23.8
(74.8) 23.3
(73.9) 21.8
(71.2) 18.5
(65.3) 13.9
(57) 10.0
(50) 8.7
(47.7) 10.2
(50.4) 14.2
(57.6) 18.5
(65.3) 21.5
(70.7) 23.1
(73.6) 17.3
(63.1)
Record low °C (°F)
15.4
(59.7) 13.1
(55.6) 13.1
(55.6) 6.2
(43.2) 1.8
(35.2) −1.3
(29.7) −2.9
(26.8) −1.1
(30) 1.0
(33.8) 6.1
(43) 10.3
(50.5) 13.4
(56.1) −2.9
(26.8)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
118.6
(4.669) 100.8
(3.969) 63.1
(2.484) 14.1
(0.555) 12.4
(0.488) 6.5
(0.256) 6.0
(0.236) 3.6
(0.142) 8.5
(0.335) 17.9
(0.705) 38.0
(1.496) 74.9
(2.949) 464.4
(18.284)
Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm)
7.9 7.1 4.0 1.4 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.9 2.3 4.0 6.0 36.7
Average afternoon relative humidity (%)
35 38 32 27 29 28 25 20 18 18 22 27 27
Mean daily sunshine hours
8.7 8.8 9.0 9.6 9.4 9.5 9.8 10.4 10.3 10.0 9.7 9.3 9.5
Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology[27]
Culture and sport[edit]
Athletics,[28] Gymnastics,[29] Rugby League, cricket, netball, soccer, field hockey, Rugby Union, Australian Rules Football and tennis are the most common sports but Shooting, Squash, Softball, Basketball, BMX racing, and Ten-Pin bowling are also present. Mount Isa has a Go Kart Club[30] situated off Duchess Road on the southern side of town.
Mount Isa also has a cinema complex, situated in the inner city on Rodeo Drive, that contains three air-conditioned cinemas, a skate park/aquatic centre and a multi-purpose sporting complex for basketball and other indoor sports. Mount Isa's events complex, Buchanan Park, opened in May 2007, can hold up to 6,000 people and is used for special events such as concerts and expos. It is also the home of the city's annual show and rodeo.
In 2008, plans were made to build a massive motor sports complex on the city's north-eastern outskirts, but as of 2016 it had not been built.[31]
The city is known for its annual Rodeo and Mardi Gras street parade every August. There is also an annual Multicultural Festival in early September.
The local theater group, the Mount Isa Theatrical Society, also known as MITS, often holds plays and musicals, at least once every few months.
In July 2015, Mt Isa formed its own Symphony Orchestra, acclaimed as the "most remote in the world".[32] Inaugurated on 23 July, the event attracted several stars of the music world, including world-famous jazz musician James Morrison. Morrison also figured in the premiere of Matthew Dewey's 'Symphony of the Inland Sea', composed for the occasion.[32]
On the 5th March 2017, Mount Isa was chosen as a host city of the 2018 Commonwealth Games Queen's Baton Relay, along with Cloncurry, Hughenden, Winton and Birdsville. The baton will pass through the CBD and suburbs and regions en route before the opening ceremony on the Gold Coast.
Festivals and events[edit]
Mount Isa Rodeo[edit]
The Mount Isa Rodeo has been held annually since 1959. In addition to the rodeo itself, there are associated street parties, music events, market stalls and family entertainment.[33] The Rodeo Queen Quest raises money for charities; the Rodeo Queen is crowned at the Rodeo Ball.[34] Rodeo school is available for aspiring bull riders.[35] It is the largest annual rodeo event in the Southern Hemisphere. It is organised by the combined Rotary clubs of Mount Isa.[36] The rodeo often features guest DJing from renowned global DJs including Ste Earley from Doncaster in England who adds to the global party atmosphere. In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Mount Isa Rodeo was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an "event and festival".[37]
Mount Isa parkrun[edit]
The Mount Isa parkrun is a 5 km run in Mount Isa. It starts at 7am every Saturday and is free. The event started in 2018 and has attracted tourists from across Queensland and more. The event starts at Tharrapatha Way. As at April 2018, the largest attendance is 102. The event caters for all types of runners of all standards.[38]
Demographics[edit]
Mount Isa had an estimated resident population of 21,998 people in 2016,[1] housed in 6,285 dwellings,[2] making the city the largest and most populous in Queensland's western interior, and one of the largest centres in outback Australia. The district population is 30,243 and incorporates the Cloncurry, Boulia, Burketown, Carpentaria, Doomadgee, Flinders, Mornington and Richmond shires.[citation needed]
The 2011 census found that 52.8% of residents were male and 47.2% were female.[39] However, a rumour has circulated that the ratio of males to females living in Mount Isa was five to one. Former Mayor John Molony drew international press attention in August 2008 when he told the Townsville Bulletin newspaper that Mount Isa's gender imbalance made it a good place for "not so attractive" women to live.[40][41]
Franchises such as McDonald's, KFC, Hungry Jack's, Pizza Hut, Subway, K-Mart, Best & Less, Donut King, Coffee Club, Blockbuster, Harvey Norman, Bunnings, Boating Camping and Fishing and EB Games have established stores in Mount Isa, as well as many smaller locally owned businesses, many in the Mount Isa Village Shopping Complex and Simpson Central Arcade in the Central Business District.
Suburbs[edit]
Mining in 1951
Mt Isa Street, 1962
The Leichhardt River divides the city into areas known as "mineside" and "townside". Xstrata, the power station and the Airport are on the mineside, whilst the majority of the city, including the CBD and Base Hospital are on the townside. In recent years,[when?] population increases associated with the mining boom has increased demand for accommodation and land.[citation needed] The city has begun to spread out, with new suburbs in the south-east and north of the city being planned or developed. It is planned these expansions will cater for more than 40,000 people over the next 10 to 20 years.[42]
Mineside
Happy Valley, Queensland - includes Happy Valley State School, St Joseph's Catholic Primary School, and Captain James Cook Park
Kalkadoon - includes Mount Isa Airport and Kalkadoon Park
Mica Creek – includes CS Energy Mica Creek Power Station
Miles End - includes Mount Isa train station
Parkside – Mount Isa's largest and oldest suburb. Contains the Irish Club, Parkside Flats complex, and Playway Park
Soldiers Hill – All streets and parks named after war locations and soldiers, such as Kokoda Road and Gallipoli Park
Hilton - More commonly known as Mineside, on the same side of the railway line as Mount Isa Mines and the Incitec Pivot Sulphuric Acid plant. Employee housing, particularly for managers and visiting staff from Xstrata, Casa Grande; a white brick mansion built for the visit of Queen Elizabeth II; now used for the annual Casa Grande Ball, and some mine operations.
Townside
Breakaway Estate - Semi-rural acreages
Fisher
Healy - Residential suburb, site of Healy State School
Healy Heights - New suburb, development ongoing, with several houses finished.
Lanskey
Menzies – includes Buchanan Park events complex, Stables and Racecourse.
Mornington
Mount Isa City - The Central Business District
Mount Isa East – has own post office and smaller shopping centres
Pioneer – includes a campus of TAFE Queensland North, Spinifex Senior Campus and Ten-Pin Bowling complex, St Kierans Catholic Primary School
Ryan – mostly industrial, includes army and State Emergency Service barracks, home to one company of the 51st Battalion, Far North Queensland Regiment[43]
Spreadborough - mostly bushland and light industry. The notable Spreadborough family still resides in the area.
Sunset - Home to Sunset State Primary School, and some shopping facilities
The Gap
Townview - Home to Townview State Primary School
Winston
Transport[edit]
Mount Isa city and surrounds are serviced by a 35 vehicle taxi service. A taxi service known as "Isa-Curry" express transports passengers to and from the neighbouring centre of Cloncurry to Mount Isa and back again, usually for shopping and medical requirements. Additionally, many of the city's clubs have courtesy buses to and from their establishments that run seven days a week and into the early hours of the morning. Mount Isa Coaches is a locally owned and operated coach company that provides tours and charter services to the local community as well as mining, sporting, school and airport transfers. Greyhound Australia has a depot in Mount Isa, with coach services to and from Townsville, Brisbane and Tennant Creek.
Mount Isa Airport has regular daily services to Brisbane, Cairns and Townsville, in addition to other services to remote Outback communities in western Queensland. The primary carriers which service Mount Isa and district are Qantas/QantasLink - Brisbane and Townsville; AirNorth - Darwin and Gold Coast; Regional Express - Townsville. In November 2009, it was announced that Skytrans and Westwing Aviation will commence flights in and out of Mount Isa to and from cities on the coast, commencing in February 2010. Regional Express (REX) also announced flights between Mount Isa and Townsville starting after December 2009. Virgin Australia (VA) began services in August 2012 and offers return services from Brisbane on weekdays.
The city is served by QR passenger train The Inlander, which travels overnight to Townsville twice a week in each direction.
Long distance rail services
Preceding station
Queensland Rail
Following station
Duchess
toward Townsville
The Inlander Terminus
Water infrastructure[edit]
Panorama of Lake Moondarra from lookout above Transport Bay. July 2014. Mount Isa, Queensland.
Mount Isa's water is supplied from Lake Moondarra, 13 km (8.1 mi) from Mount Isa, and from Lake Julius, 60 km (37 mi) from Mount Isa. As it costs approximately twice as much to supply water from Lake Julius, the water is normally drawn from Lake Moondarra. However, during periods of drought, it becomes necessary to draw water supplies from Lake Julius. The three major water users are the Mount Isa Mines, Incitec Pivot and the Mount Isa City Council (which in turn supplies residents and smaller businesses).[44]
Due to a prolonged drought, water levels in Lake Moondarra have become very low. In April 2013, it was forecast that Lake Moondarra would be reduced to 40% of capacity by July 2013, which would trigger the need to supply additional water from Lake Julius. The increased cost to the Mount Isa Council for water was estimated to be $800,000 per year ($114 each for 7000 households).[45] Water restrictions in the town were escalated in April 2013 to reduce water consumption.[46] Boating on Lake Moondarra would be restricted if water levels reduced to 20% for safety reasons as the lower water levels would reveal obstructions.[45] The fish in the lake will be at risk if Lake Moondarra falls to 10% capacity.[47]
Water has traditionally been processed using a natural filtration process involving reed beds in a large isolated lagoon, which, after disinfecting, produced water to acceptable standards under the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines.[44] However, the prolonged drought has produced climatic conditions that have caused blooms of blue-green algae in Lake Moondarra, Lake Julius and the Clear Water Lagoon, necessitating the temporary introduction of a large filtration plant to remove the algae.[44]
On 22 January 2015, Lake Moondarra was at 85.3% capacity.[48]
Education[edit]
Mount Isa State School, 1929
Mount Isa has eight public primary schools and three private primary schools:
Happy Valley State School
Healy State School
Townview State School
Barkly Highway State School
Central State School
Sunset State School
Mount Isa School of Distance Education
Mount Isa Special School
St Kieren's (private)
St Josephs (private)
And four high schools:
Good Shepherd Catholic College (private)
Mt Isa Flexible Learning Centre (private)
Mount Isa School of Distance Education (to grade 10)
Spinifex State College - Three campuses, Junior from grade 7 to grade 9, Senior from grade 10 to grade 12, and Residential; for students who don't have a high-school in their region and need to leave their place of residence to access years 7-12. Spinifex State College opened on 1 January 2003. The Junior campus is located at the former Mount Isa State High School. The Senior campus is located at the former Kalkadoon State High School. The Mount Isa Education and Training Precinct campus is an amalgamation of Kalkadoon State High School and Mount Isa State High School to form Spinifex State College Precinct.[49]
And Early Childhood Education:
CCM: Cherub Childminding Services Family Day Care Scheme
Mount Isa is also home to the School of the Air, a unique-to-Australia way of schooling isolated students in Australia's vast lightly populated country areas. The city also holds the main campus of the Mount Isa Institute of TAFE, offering courses in a wide range of fields, including mining, agriculture and trades. In addition, James Cook University has a presence, with the Mount Isa Centre for Rural and Remote Health in the Base Hospital complex.
Facilities[edit]
The City of Mount Isa operates a public library in Mount Isa at 23 West Street.[50]
Media[edit]
Radio[edit]
The following radio stations are available in the Mount Isa region:
AM 666 4LM (commercial)
FM 100.9 Mob FM (commercial-70% country)
FM 101.7 ABC Classic FM
FM 102.5 Hot FM (commercial)
FM 103.3 4TAB (horse racing)
FM 104.1 ABC Triple J
FM 104.9 ABC News Radio
FM 105.7 Radio Rhema (religious)
FM 106.5 ABC Local Radio
FM 107.1 ABC Radio National
Television[edit]
Five broadcast television services operate in Mount Isa — commercial stations Imparja Television and Southern Cross7 (formerly known as ITQ Channel 8, QQQ, QTV and QSTV- Queensland Satellite Regional Television), and the Government-owned ABC and SBS. Imparja has a programming affiliation agreement with the Nine Network. Aboriginal focused channel NITV (National Indigenous Television) broadcasts on UHF Channel 35.
Digital Television transmissions have commenced in Mount Isa. New channels provided by the ABC and SBS can be received with a digital set top box or digital television. Additional channels from the commercial broadcasters that are available in most other areas of Australia are expected to commence transmission in 2011-2012. Analogue television transmissions will be switched off by 31 December 2013.
Newspapers[edit]
The North West Star is a local newspaper which is printed daily Monday to Friday. The Courier-Mail, The Sunday Mail and the Townsville Bulletin are also available.
Notable people[edit]
Simon Black, Australian rules footballer
Charlie Cameron, Australian rules footballer
Lindy Chamberlain, wrongly imprisoned for the murder of her baby, which was subsequently attributed to dingo attack. In the movie Evil Angels, made about the incident, Mount Isa appears at the beginning scenes of the movie as the hometown of the Chamberlain family
Altiyan Childs, winner of the second season of The X Factor
Peter Crawford, basketball player
Gerard Denton, cricketer
Nathan Fien, rugby league player
Karen Foxlee, novelist
Jamie Goddard, rugby league player
Pat Mackie, union leader (1964/5 dispute)
Simmone Jade Mackinnon, actress
Deborah Mailman, actress
Tony McGrady, Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland and Mayor of Mount Isa
Gene Miles, rugby league player
Greg Norman, golfer
Scott Prince, rugby league player
Pat Rafter, tennis player
Bill Sweetenham, Olympic swimming coach[51]
Carl Webb, rugby league player
John White, squash player
See also[edit]
Queensland portal
Mount Isa Mines
Riversleigh
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Lake Moondarra Fishing Classic Archived 8 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Climate statistics for Mount Isa". Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mt Isa Athletics - Home". Archived from the original on 25 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "North West Gymnastics". North West Gymnastics. Archived from the original on 26 February 2018. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Australian Karting Association (Qld) Incorporated". Archived from the original on 24 December 2005.
Jump up ^ WALTON, SAMANTHA (7 March 2016). "Mt Isa wants motorsports". Archived from the original on 17 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Burns, Chris (17 March 2015). "Mount Isa symphony orchestra 'most remote in the world'". Daily Advertiser. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Program snapshot". Mount Isa Rodeo. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Queen Quest". Mount Isa Roeo. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rodeo School". Mount Isa Rodeo. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mount Isa Rodeo". Mount Isa Rodeo. Archived from the original on 30 May 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Bligh, Anna (10 June 2009). "PREMIER UNVEILS QUEENSLAND'S 150 ICONS". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mount Isa parkrun - Weekly Free 5km Timed Run". Parkrun. 19 Apr 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-04-20. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (31 October 2012). "Mount Isa (Urban Centre and Locality)". 2011 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ugly girls welcome, says beer goggle capital". Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Outback mayor seeks "ugly duckling" women". 18 August 2016. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017 – via Reuters.
Jump up ^ http://www.northweststar.com.au/news/local/news/general/people-have-nowhere-to-live/329190.aspx[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Units — 51st Battalion, Far North Queensland Regiment". Australian Army. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Frequently asked questions". Mount Isa Water Board. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Barber, Jasmine (10 April 2013). "Running dry". The North West Star. Fairfax Regional Media. Archived from the original on 4 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Level 2 Water Restrictions". Mount Isa City Council. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Stephens, Kate (4 February 2014). "Drought threatens Lake Moondarra barra supplies". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Mount Isa Water Board". Mount Isa Water Board. Archived from the original on 4 October 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Opening and closing dates of Queensland schools". Department of Education and Training. Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Mount Isa City Library". Public Libraries Connect. State Library of Queensland. 14 May 2014. Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Bill Sweetenham: the bloke from Mt Isa saving British swimming". The Sydney Morning Herald. 13 August 2003. Archived from the original on 12 September 2007.
External links[edit]
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text:
Oryx and Crake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Oryx and Crake
First edition
Author
Margaret Atwood
Country
Canada
Language
English
Genre
Speculative fiction, Dystopian, Science Fiction Novel
Publisher
McClelland and Stewart (Canada), Bloomsbury (UK), Doubleday (U.S.)
Publication date
2003
ISBN
0-7710-0868-6 (first edition, hardcover)
OCLC
52726798
Dewey Decimal
813/.54 22
LC Class
PR9199.3.A8 O79 2003b
Followed by
The Year of the Flood, MaddAddam
Oryx and Crake is a novel by the Canadian author Margaret Atwood. She has described the novel as speculative fiction and "adventure romance" rather than science fiction because it does not deal with things "we can't yet do or begin to do"[1] and goes beyond the realism she associates with the novel form.[2] Oryx and Crake was first published by McClelland and Stewart in 2003. It was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize for Fiction that same year, and for the 2004 Orange Prize for Fiction.
A television adaptation of Oryx and Crake and its follow-up novels The Year of the Flood (2009) and MaddAddam (2013) was being helmed by Darren Aronofsky under the working title MaddAddam, but was dropped by HBO as of October 2016.[3][4][5] Currently, an adaptation of the MadAddam trilogy is in development at Paramount Television and Anonymous Content.[5]
Contents
1 Plot
2 Main characters
3 Beginnings
4 Allusions and references
4.1 To other works
4.2 To popular culture
5 Critical reception
6 Sequels
7 TV adaptation
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Plot[edit]
The novel focuses on a post-apocalyptic character with the name of Snowman, living near a group of primitive human-like creatures whom he calls Crakers. Flashbacks reveal that Snowman was once a boy named Jimmy who grew up in a world dominated by multinational corporations and privileged compounds for the families of their employees. Near starvation, Snowman decides to return to the ruins of a compound named RejoovenEsence to search for supplies even though it is overrun by dangerous genetically engineered hybrid animals. He concocts an explanation for the Crakers, who regard him as a teacher, and begins his foraging expedition.
In Snowman's recollection of past events, Jimmy's family moves to the HelthWyzer compound, where his father works as a genographer. Jimmy meets and befriends a brilliant science student named Glenn. Jimmy begins to refer to him as Crake when he uses that name in an online trivia game called Extinctathon. Jimmy and Crake spend much of their leisure time playing online games, smoking "skunkweed" and watching underground videos such as live executions, graphic surgery, Noodie News, frog squashing and child pornography.[6][7][8] During one of their child pornography viewings, Jimmy is very much lovestruck by the gazing eyes of a young Asian girl seen in the porn.
After high school, Crake attends the highly respected Watson-Crick Institute, where he studies advanced bioengineering, but Jimmy ends up at the loathed Martha Graham Academy, where students study humanities, only valued for their propaganda applications. Jimmy gets a job writing ad copy, while Crake becomes a bioengineer at RejoovenEsence. Crake uses his prominent position to create the Crakers, peaceful, gentle, herbivorous humanoids who have sexual intercourse only during limited polyandrous breeding seasons. His stated purpose for the Crakers, actually a deliberate deception, is to create "floor models" of all the possible options a family could choose in the genetic manipulation of their future children. Crake's bio-engineering team consists of the most expert players gathered from the online Extinctathon community.
Crake tells Jimmy about another very important project, a Viagra-like super-pill called BlyssPluss, which also promises health and happiness, but secretly has other major and ultimately fatal effects. Crake officially hires Jimmy to help market it. At the Rejoov compound, Jimmy eventually sees a human in the Craker habitat and recognizes her as the girl from the pornographic video. Unaware of Jimmy's obsession with her, Crake explains that her name is Oryx and that he has hired her as a prostitute for himself and a teacher for the Crakers. Oryx notices Jimmy's feelings for her and makes herself sexually available to him. As their relationship progresses, Jimmy becomes increasingly fearful that Crake has found out about it. He also makes a promise to both Oryx and Crake that he will look after the Crakers if anything happens to them.
After Crake's wonder drug BlyssPluss is widely distributed, a global pandemic, deliberately caused by it, breaks out and begins wiping out the human race and causing mass chaos outside of the protected Rejoov compound. Realizing that this was planned by Crake all along, and sensing that something dangerous is happening regarding Crake and Oryx, Jimmy grabs a gun to confront Crake, who is returning with Oryx from outside the compound and needs Jimmy to let them in. Crake presents himself to Jimmy with his arm around an injured and silent Oryx, saying that he and Jimmy are immune to the virus. Jimmy lets them in, whereupon Crake looks directly into Jimmy's eyes and with the words "I'm counting on you," he slits Oryx's throat with his jackknife. Jimmy then immediately shoots Crake dead.
During Snowman's journey to scavenge supplies, he cuts his foot on a sliver of glass and becomes infected. He returns to the Crakers' camp and learns that three ragged true humans are camping nearby. Snowman follows the smoke to their fire and surreptitiously sees two dangerous looking men and a woman. Unsure of whether to befriend them or shoot them, Snowman checks his broken watch, thinks "Time to go" and makes up his mind.
Main characters[edit]
Snowman, whose original name is Jimmy, is the main protagonist; the story is told from his perspective. The name "Snowman" is short for "abominable Snowman", a reference to the Yeti, a mythical ape-like creature of the Himalaya. For the online-game Extinctathon, Jimmy temporarily also has the animal code name "Thickney" (bush thick-knee or bush stone-curlew, Burhinus grallarius), which Crake chooses for Jimmy from an Australian bird known for inhabiting cemeteries (p. 81).
Crake, whose original name is Glenn, is Jimmy's childhood friend; an excellent student in high school, he becomes a brilliant geneticist and eventual mad scientist. He devises a plan to rid the earth of Homo sapiens and replace this destructive, poorly designed species with a more peaceful and environmentally friendly version. His player-name in Extinctathon is from the red-necked crake, a small Australian bird. In Robin Elliott's essay on Atwood, he explains the parallels between Glenn and the famous pianist Glenn Gould: the novel states that Glenn is named after a famous pianist, and Atwood has explained that Glenn, like the pianist, has Asperger syndrome.[9][10]
Oryx is a mysterious woman, recognized by Jimmy and Crake as the waif-like girl from a child pornography site. Crake hires her for sexual services and as a teacher to the Crakers, but she secretly becomes Jimmy's lover as well. After the catastrophe, her memory continues to haunt Snowman. Her name is from the oryx, an African antelope: "It's not even her real name, which he'd never known anyway; it's only a word. It's a mantra" (p. 110). She is described as likely originating from the South or South-East Asian region.
Sharon is Jimmy's mother. She once worked at OrganInc like her husband, but stopped due to an untreated nervous breakdown related to her opposition to the bio-corporations' business. She is depressed and often fights with Jimmy's father. Jimmy vies for his mother's attention, but she spends much of her time sitting in her bathrobe and smoking. Eventually, Sharon runs away from the HelthWyzer compound, abandoning her son and taking his treasured genetically engineered pet rakunk named "Killer." She takes up with various underground opposition groups, and is hunted by the deadly CorpSeCorps corporate security services. Jimmy is haunted by his mother's absence, and is visited often by CorpSeCorps inspectors attempting to track her whereabouts.
Jimmy's father, unnamed in the book, works first for OrganInc and later for HelthWyzer as a scientist. He is heavily involved in the development of pigoons. He is more pragmatic about the morality of genetic splicing than his wife. After Jimmy's mother deserts the compound, he pursues a relationship with his laboratory technician, Ramona, and they eventually marry.
Ramona is one of Jimmy's father's lab technicians at OrganInc. Ramona, Jimmy, and Jimmy's father frequently go out to eat together. When Jimmy's father leaves OrganInc to accept a new position at HelthWyzer, Ramona makes the move with him. After Jimmy's mother's mysterious departure, Ramona moves in and takes on a motherly role in Jimmy's life.
Beginnings[edit]
Margaret Atwood started writing the novel much earlier than she expected, while still on a book tour for her previous novel, The Blind Assassin. In March 2001, Atwood found herself in the Northern region of Australia, birdwatching with her partner during a break from the book tour. Here, while watching the red-necked crakes in their natural habitat, she was struck with inspiration for the story. However, Atwood explained that the work was also a product of her lingering thoughts on such a scenario throughout her life, as well as spending a great amount of time with scientists throughout her childhood. She stated
Several of my close relatives are scientists, and the main topic at the annual family Christmas dinner is likely to be intestinal parasites or sex hormones in mice, or, when that makes the non-scientists too queasy, the nature of the Universe.[11]
Atwood continued to write the novel through the summer of 2001 while visiting the Arctic North, witnessing global warming's effect on the region. However, shaken by the September 11 attacks, she stopped writing for a few weeks in the autumn, saying, "It's deeply unsettling when you're writing about a fictional catastrophe and then a real one happens".[11] However, with the looming questions of the end, Atwood finished the novel for release in 2003. These questions in Oryx and Crake, Atwood explained, are "simply, What if we continue down the road we're already on? How slippery is the slope? What are our saving graces? Who's got the will to stop us?"[11]
Allusions and references[edit]
To other works[edit]
The cover of some editions contains a portion of the left panel of Hieronymous Bosch's painting The Garden of Earthly Delights. The cover of other editions contains a modified portion of Lucas Cranach the Elder's painting The Fall.
In the first chapter, Snowman utters a reference from Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse Five:
"It is the strict adherence to daily routine that tends towards the maintenance of good morale and the preservation of sanity," he says out loud. He has the feeling he's quoting from a book, some obsolete, ponderous directive written in aid of European colonials running plantations of one kind or another.
One of Snowman's musings, "Now I'm alone [...] All, all alone. Alone on a wide, wide sea"[12] is an allusion to part four of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner.[13]
In chapter 5 (sub section Bottle) is "Out, out, brief candle" from Shakespeare's Macbeth.
Crake finds as Hamlet does, that his father was probably killed by his mother and step father. Like Hamlet he plots to avenge him.
To popular culture[edit]
In "Margaret Atwood, Transhumanism, and the Singularity", Sobriquet Magazine identified several possible pop cultural references in Oryx and Crake:
the world Atwood imagines in Oryx and Crake is hardly that far-fetched, especially online. The exhibitionistic website At Home With Anna K, for instance, is almost certainly a reference to Ana Voog's AnaCam and the lifecasting movement pioneered by Jennifer Ringley and her now-defunct JenniCam website. Likewise, many of the other fictional websites Jimmy and Crake visit in the novel have real-life analogues: Felicia's Frog Squash is essentially a crush porn portal, the premise of dirtysockpuppets.com recalls ITV's Spitting Image programme, Queek Geek sounds an awful lot like Fear Factor, and the concept of watching assisted suicides on nitee-nite.com was actualized in our world when Craig Ewert allowed his death in Switzerland to be documented by Sky TV for their controversial Right to Die documentary. Even the seemingly far-fetched idea of broadcasting live executions (which Jimmy and Crake watch on shortcircuit.com, brainfrizz.com, and deathrowlive.com) has already been discussed, with a high percentage of the U.S. population receptive to the concept.[14]
Critical reception[edit]
The book received mostly favourable reviews in the press. The Globe and Mail, Maclean's, and the Toronto Star ranked the novel high among Atwood's works and Helen Brown, for the Daily Telegraph, wrote "The bioengineered apocalypse she imagines is impeccably researched and sickeningly possible: a direct consequence of short-term science outstripping long-term responsibility. And just like the post-nuclear totalitarian vision of The Handmaid's Tale, this story is set in a society readers will recognise as only a few steps ahead of our own."[15] For The New Yorker, Lorrie Moore called the novel "towering and intrepid". Moore wrote, "Tonally, 'Oryx and Crake' is a roller-coaster ride. The book proceeds from terrifying grimness, through lonely mournfulness, until, midway, a morbid silliness begins sporadically to assert itself, like someone, exhausted by bad news, hysterically succumbing to giggles at a funeral."[16] Joyce Carol Oates noted that the novel is "more ambitious and darkly prophetic" than The Handmaid's Tale. Oates called the work an "ambitiously concerned, skillfully executed performance".[17]
Joan Smith, writing for The Observer, faulted the novel's uneven construction and lack of emotional depth. She concluded: "In the end, Oryx and Crake is a parable, an imaginative text for the anti-globalisation movement that does not quite work as a novel."[18]
In a review of The Year of the Flood, Ursula K. Le Guin defended the novel against criticism of its characters by suggesting the novel experiments with components of morality plays.[19]
Sequels[edit]
The Year of the Flood was released on 7 September 2009 in the United Kingdom, and 22 September 2009 in Canada and the United States. Though chronicling a different set of characters, the follow-up expands upon and clarifies the relationships of Crake with Oryx and Jimmy with his high school girlfriend Ren. Glenn makes a brief appearance. It also identifies the three characters introduced at the end of the original, and finishes the cliffhanger ending.
The third book in the series, MaddAddam, was published in August 2013.[20]
TV adaptation[edit]
Darren Aronofsky's company Protozoa Pictures were developing a television adaptation of the entire trilogy, under the working title MaddAddam. Aronofsky is to serve as executive producer and possibly director, with the script written by playwright Eliza Clark.[3][21]
The project was formerly being developed for HBO; in 2016 Aronofsky said that the network was no longer attached, but confirmed that the scripts were written and the project was still underway.[21]
In January 2018, Paramount Television and Anonymous Content announced they won the bidding war for rights to Atwood's MaddAddam book trilogy and plan to bring the series to cable or a video on demand. A network has not yet agreed to carry the series.[22]
See also[edit]
Human genetic engineering
Transhumanism
Biological weapons
Shaking the Habitual (2013 album by The Knife)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Atwood, 2004: 513.
Jump up ^ Atwood, 2004: 517.
^ Jump up to: a b Andreeva, Nellie (4 June 2014). "Darren Aronofsky Adapting Futuristic 'MaddAddam' Book Trilogy As HBO Series". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Van Syckle, Katie (18 October 2016). "Darren Aronofsky's 'MaddAddam' Is 'All Written,' But Not Moving Forward at HBO". Vulture.com. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Otterson, Joe (2018-01-24). "Margaret Atwood's 'MaddAddam' Trilogy Series Adaptation in Works From Anonymous Content, Paramount TV". Variety. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
Jump up ^ Coral Ann Howells, The Cambridge companion to Margaret Atwood, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-521-83966-1, p.186
Jump up ^ John Moss, Tobi Kozakewich, "Margaret Atwood: The Open Eye", Re-appraisals, Canadian writers, volume 30, University of Ottawa Press, 2006, ISBN 0-7766-0613-1, p.398
Jump up ^ Sharon Rose Wilson, Myths and fairy tales in contemporary women's fiction: from Atwood to Morrison, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, ISBN 0-230-60554-0, pp.43,49
Jump up ^ Robin Elliott, "Margaret Atwood and Music". University of Toronto Quarterly 75, no. 3 (summer 2006): 821–832.
Jump up ^ Atwood conceived of Oryx and Crake on a birding expedition in Australia (Atwood, 2004: 517).
^ Jump up to: a b c Atwood, Margaret (January 2003). "Writing Oryx and Crake". randomhouse.com/features/atwood. Random House. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Atwood, 2003: 13
Jump up ^ Machat, 2013: 92
Jump up ^ "Margaret Atwood, Transhumanism, and the Singularity". Sobriquet Magazine. 20 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Brown, Helen (11 May 2003). "Does it hurt if I do this?". London: Telegraph. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Moore, Lorrie (7 January 2009). "Bioperversity". The New Yorker. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Oates, Joyce Carol (2 November 2006). "Margaret Atwood's Tale — The New York Review of Books". Nybooks.com. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Smith, Joan (11 May 2003). "Observer review: Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood | Books | The Observer". London: Guardian. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Year of the Flood by Margaret Atwood". The Guardian. London. 29 August 2009.
Jump up ^ http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/17262203-maddaddam
^ Jump up to: a b Katie Van Syckle (16 October 2016). "Darren Aronofsky's MaddAddam Is 'All Written,' But Not Moving Forward at HBO". Vulture (New York magazine).
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (2018-01-24). "'Handmaid's Tale' Author Margaret Atwood's 'MaddAddam' Trilogy Coming to TV". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
References[edit]
Adami, Valentina. "Bioethics through Literature: Margaret Atwood's Cautionary Tales". WVR, 2011.
Atwood, Margaret. Oryx and Crake. McClelland and Stewart, 2003.
Atwood, Margaret. "The Handmaid's Tale and Oryx and Crake in Context". PMLA 119, 2004.
DiMarco, Dannette. "Paradice Lost, Paradise Regained: Homo Faber and the Makings of a New Beginning in Oryx and Crake". Papers on Language and Literature 41(2), 2005.
Howells, Coral Ann. "Margaret Atwood's Dystopian Visions: The Handmaid's Tale and Oryx and Crake". In Coral Ann Howells (Ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Margaret Atwood (161–75). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 161-75. ISBN 978-0-521-83966-2 (hardback) ISBN 0-521-83966-1 (hardback) ISBN 978-0-521-54851-9 (pbk.) ISBN 0-521-54851-9 (pbk.)
Ingersoll, Earl G. "Survival in Margaret Atwood's Novel Oryx and Crake". Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 45.2 (2004): 162–175.
Machat, Sibylle. In the Ruins of Civilizations: Narrative Structures, World Constructions and Physical Realities in the Post-Apocalyptic Novel. WVT, Trier, 2013. ISBN 978-3-86821-431-4 (pbk.)
Mohr, Dunja M. "Transgressive Utopian Dystopias: The Postmodern Reappearance of Utopia in the Disguise of Dystopia". Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik 55.1 (2007): 5-24. [Oryx and Crake]
Mundler, Helen E. "Heritage, Pseudo-Heritage and Survival in a Spurious Wor(L)D: Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood". Commonwealth Essays and Studies 27(1), 89–98, 2004.
External links[edit]
Margaret Atwood Feature article, exclusive interview and book excerpt published in Bold Type, an online literary magazine.
"Margaret Atwood, Transhumanism, and the Singularity" Includes a discussion of the novel's possible real-world allusions.
"Adam Roberts' review of Oryx and Crake"
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Works by Margaret Atwood
Novels
The Edible Woman (1969)
Surfacing (1972)
Lady Oracle (1976)
Life Before Man (1979)
Bodily Harm (1981)
The Handmaid's Tale (1985)
Cat's Eye (1988)
The Robber Bride (1993)
Alias Grace (1996)
The Blind Assassin (2000)
Oryx and Crake (2003)
The Penelopiad (2005)
The Year of the Flood (2009)
MaddAddam (2013)
The Heart Goes Last (2015)
Hag-Seed (2016)
Short fiction
collections
Dancing Girls (1977)
Murder in the Dark (1983)
Bluebeard's Egg (1983)
Wilderness Tips (1991)
Good Bones (1992)
Good Bones and Simple Murders (1994)
The Labrador Fiasco (1996)
The Tent (2006)
Moral Disorder (2006)
Stone Mattress (2014)
Short stories
"Rape Fantasies" (1977)
"The Resplendent Quetzal" (1977)
"Happy Endings" (1983)
"Unearthing Suite" (1983)
"Freeforall" (1986)
Poetry
collections
Double Persephone (1961)
The Circle Game (1964)
Expeditions (1965)
Speeches for Doctor Frankenstein (1966)
The Animals in That Country (1968)
The Journals of Susanna Moodie (1970)
Procedures for Underground (1970)
Power Politics (1971)
Two-Headed Poems (1978)
True Stories (1981)
Interlunar (1984)
Morning in the Burned House (1995)
The Door (2007)
Non-fiction
Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature (1972)
Negotiating with the Dead: A Writer on Writing (2002)
Writing with Intent: Essays, Reviews, Personal Prose—1983–2005 (2005)
Payback: Debt and the Shadow Side of Wealth (2008)
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