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16S ribosomal RNA
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Molecular structure of the 30S Subunit from Thermus thermophilus. Proteins are shown in blue and the single RNA strand in orange.[1]
16S ribosomal RNA (or 16S rRNA) is the component of the 30S small subunit of a prokaryotic ribosome that binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. The genes coding for it are referred to as 16S rRNA gene and are used in reconstructing phylogenies, due to the slow rates of evolution of this region of the gene.[2] Carl Woese and George E. Fox were two of the people who pioneered the use of 16S rRNA in phylogenetics.[3]
Multiple sequences of the 16S rRNA gene can exist within a single bacterium.[4]
Contents
1 Functions
2 Structure
3 Universal primers
3.1 PCR and NGS applications
3.2 Hypervariable Regions
4 16S ribosomal databases
4.1 EzTaxon-e
4.2 Ribosomal Database Project
4.3 SILVA
4.4 GreenGenes
5 References
6 External links
Functions[edit]
It has several functions:
Like the large (23S) ribosomal RNA, it has a structural role, acting as a scaffold defining the positions of the ribosomal proteins.
The 3' end contains the anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence, which binds upstream to the AUG start codon on the mRNA. The 3'-end of 16S RNA binds to the proteins S1 and S21 known to be involved in initiation of protein synthesis; RNA-protein cross-linking by A.P. Czernilofsky et al. (FEBS Lett. Vol 58, pp 281–284, 1975).
Interacts with 23S, aiding in the binding of the two ribosomal subunits (50S+30S)
Stabilizes correct codon-anticodon pairing in the A site, via a hydrogen bond formation between the N1 atom of Adenine (see image of Purine chemical structure) residues 1492 and 1493 and the 2'OH group of the mRNA backbone
Structure[edit]
Universal primers[edit]
The 16S rRNA gene is used for phylogenetic studies[5] as it is highly conserved between different species of bacteria and archaea.[6] Carl Woese pioneered this use of 16S rRNA.[2] It is suggested that 16S rRNA gene can be used as a reliable molecular clock because 16S rRNA sequences from distantly related bacterial lineages are shown to have similar functionalities.[7] Some (hyper)thermophilic archaea (i.e. order Thermoproteales) contain 16S rRNA gene introns that are located in highly conserved regions and can impact the annealing of "universal" primers.[8] Mitochondrial and chloroplastic rRNA are also amplified.
The most common primer pair was devised by Weisburg et al.[5] and is currently referred to as 27F and 1492R; however, for some applications shorter amplicons may be necessary for example for 454 sequencing with Titanium chemistry (500-ish reads are ideal) the primer pair 27F-534R covering V1 to V3.[9] Often 8F is used rather than 27F. The two primers are almost identical, but 27F has an M instead of a C. AGAGTTTGATCMTGGCTCAG compared with 8F.[10]
Primer name
Sequence (5'-3')
Reference
8F AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG [11][12]
U1492R GGT TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T same as above
928F TAA AAC TYA AAK GAA TTG ACG GG [13]
336R ACT GCT GCS YCC CGT AGG AGT CT as above
1100F YAA CGA GCG CAA CCC
1100R GGG TTG CGC TCG TTG
337F GAC TCC TAC GGG AGG CWG CAG
907R CCG TCA ATT CCT TTR AGT TT
785F GGA TTA GAT ACC CTG GTA
805R GAC TAC CAG GGT ATC TAA TC
533F GTG CCA GCM GCC GCG GTA A
518R GTA TTA CCG CGG CTG CTG G
27F AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG [14]
1492R CGG TTA CCT TGT TAC GAC TT as above
PCR and NGS applications[edit]
In addition to highly conserved primer binding sites, 16S rRNA gene sequences contain hypervariable regions that can provide species-specific signature sequences useful for identification of bacteria.[15][16] As a result, 16S rRNA gene sequencing has become prevalent in medical microbiology as a rapid and cheap alternative to phenotypic methods of bacterial identification.[17] Although it was originally used to identify bacteria, 16S sequencing was subsequently found to be capable of reclassifying bacteria into completely new species,[18] or even genera.[5][19] It has also been used to describe new species that have never been successfully cultured.[20][21] With Third-generation sequencing coming to many labs, simultaneous identification of thousands of 16S rRNA sequences is possible within hours, allowing metagenomic studies, for example of the gut flora.[22]
Hypervariable Regions[edit]
The bacterial 16S gene contains nine hypervariable regions (V1-V9) ranging from about 30-100 base pairs long that are involved in the secondary structure of the small ribosomal subunit.[23] The degree of conservation varies widely between hypervariable regions, with more conserved regions correlating to higher-level taxonomy and less conserved regions to lower levels, such as genus and species.[24] While the entire 16S sequence allows for comparison of all hypervariable regions, at approximately 1500 base pairs long it can be prohibitively expensive for studies seeking to identify or characterize diverse bacterial communities.[24] These studies commonly utilize the Illumina platform, which produces reads at rates 50-fold and 12,000-fold less expensive than 454 pyrosequencing and Sanger sequencing, respectively.[25] While cheaper and allowing for deeper community coverage, Illumina sequencing only produces reads 75-150 base pairs long (250 to 300 base pairs with Illumina MiSeq), and has no established protocol for reliably assembling the full gene in community samples.[26] Full hypervariable regions can be assembled from a single Illumina run, however, making them ideal targets for the platform.[26]
While 16S hypervariable regions can vary dramatically between bacteria, the 16S gene as a whole maintains greater length homogeneity than its Eukaryotic counterpart, which can make alignments easier.[27] Additionally, the 16S gene contains highly conserved sequences between hypervariable regions, enabling the design of universal primers that can reliably produce the same sections of the 16S sequence across different taxa.[28] Although no hypervariable region can accurately classify all bacteria from Domain to Species, some can reliably predict specific taxonomic levels.[24] Many community studies select semi-conserved hypervariable regions like the V4 for this reason, as it can provide resolution at the phylum level as accurately as the full 16S gene.[24] While lesser-conserved regions struggle to classify new species when higher order taxonomy is unknown, they are often used to detect the presence of specific pathogens. In one study by Chakravorty et al. in 2007, they characterized the V1-V8 regions of a variety of pathogens in order to determine which hypervariable regions would be most useful to include for disease-specific and broad assays.[29] Amongst other findings, they noted that the V3 region was best at identifying the genus for all pathogens tested, and that V6 was the most accurate at differentiating species between all CDC-watched pathogens tested, including Anthrax.[29]
While 16S hypervariable region analysis is a powerful tool for bacterial taxonomic studies, it struggles to differentiate between closely related species.[28] In the families Enterobacteriaceae, Clostridiaceae, and Peptostreptococcaceae, species can share up to 99% sequence similarity across the full 16S gene.[30] As a result, the V4 sequences can differ by only a few nucleotides, leaving reference databases unable to reliably classify these bacteria at lower taxonomic levels.[30] By limiting 16S analysis to select hypervariable regions, these studies can fail to observe differences in closely related taxa and group them into single taxonomic units, therefore underestimating the total diversity of the sample.[28] Furthermore, bacterial genomes can house multiple 16S genes, with the V1, V2, and V6 regions containing the greatest intraspecies diversity.[6] While not the most precise method of classifying bacterial species, analysis of the hypervariable regions remains one of the most useful tools available to bacterial community studies.[30]
16S ribosomal databases[edit]
The 16S rRNA gene is used as the standard for classification and identification of microbes, because it is present in most microbes and shows proper changes. Type strains of 16S rRNA gene sequences for most bacteria and archaea are available on public databases such as NCBI. However, the quality of the sequences found on these databases are often not validated. Therefore, secondary databases that collect only 16S rRNA sequences are widely used. The most frequently used databases are listed below:
EzTaxon-e[edit]
https://web.archive.org/web/20130928154318/http://eztaxon-e.ezbiocloud.net/ The EzTaxon-e database is an extension of the original EzTaxon database. It contains comprehensive 16S rRNA gene sequences of taxa with valid names as well as sequences of uncultured taxa. EzTaxon-e contains complete hierarchical taxonomic structure (from phylum rank to species rank) for the domain of bacteria and archaea.[31]
Ribosomal Database Project[edit]
http://rdp.cme.msu.edu/ The Ribosomal Database Project (RDP) is a curated database that offers ribosome data along with related programs and services. The offerings include phylogenetically ordered alignments of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences, derived phylogenetic trees, rRNA secondary structure diagrams and various software packages for handling, analyzing and displaying alignments and trees. The data are available via ftp and electronic mail. Certain analytic services are also provided by the electronic mail server.[32]
SILVA[edit]
SILVA provides comprehensive, quality checked and regularly updated datasets of aligned small (16S/18S, SSU) and large subunit (23S/28S, LSU) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences for all three domains of life as well as a suite of search, primer-design and alignment tools (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya).[33]
GreenGenes[edit]
Greengenes is a quality controlled, comprehensive 16S reference database and taxonomy based on a de novo phylogeny that provides standard operational taxonomic unit sets. The official home page for the site is http://greengenes.secondgenome.com, and is licensed under the Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.[34][35]
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
University of Washington Laboratory Medicine: Molecular Diagnosis | Bacterial Sequencing
The Ribosomal Database Project
Ribosomes and Ribosomal RNA: (rRNA)
SILVA rRNA database
Greengenes: 16S rDNA data and tools
EzBioCloud
hide
v
t
e
Ribosomal RNA / ribosome subunits
Archaea
Large:
Small:
Bacteria (70S)
Large:
50S
5S
23S
Small:
30S
16S
Eukaryotes (80S)
Cytoplasmic
Large:
60S
5S
5.8S
28S
Small:
40S
18S
Mitochondrial
Large:
MT-RNR2, 16S
Small:
MT-RNR1, 12S
Chloroplast
Large chloroplast subunit
Small chloroplast subunit
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text:
Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Twenty-third Amendment (Amendment XXIII) to the United States Constitution extends the right to vote in the presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District electors in the Electoral College, as if it was a state. The amendment was proposed by the 86th Congress on June 16, 1960. Ratification by the requisite 38 of the 50 states was completed on March 29, 1961.
The Electoral College, established in Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, is the institution that elects the President and Vice President of the United States every four years. The President and Vice President are not elected directly by the voters. Instead, they are elected by "electors" who are chosen by popular vote on a state-by-state basis. As the District of Columbia is not a state, it was not entitled to any electors prior to the adoption of the Twenty-third Amendment. Citizens living in the district were, therefore, shut out from the presidential– vice presidential election process. The first presidential election in which the District of Columbia participated was the election of 1964. This amendment mentions the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution when it mentions how the district's electors should perform duties provided by said amendment.
According to the terms of the amendment, the district is allocated as many electors as it would have if it were a state, but no more electors than the least populous state (currently Wyoming, which has three electors); thus, the district cannot have more than three electors. At current population levels, even if it were a state, the district's population would entitle it to only three electors.[1] Since the passage of this amendment, the District's electoral votes have been cast for the Democratic Party's presidential and vice presidential candidates in every election.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Background
3 Proposal and ratification
3.1 Adoption by the Congress
3.2 Ratification by the states
4 Political impact
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Text[edit]
Section 1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:
A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.
Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.[3]
Background[edit]
The United States Constitution's rules for the composition of the House of Representatives and the Senate explicitly grant seats to states and no other entities. Similarly, electors to the Electoral College are apportioned to states, not to territories or the federal district. The main reference to the federal district is in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution which gives Congress the power "To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States."[4] In the early existence of the District, it was too small and rural to merit a hypothetical seat in the House of Representatives anyway, with fewer than 30,000 inhabitants.[5]
In 1890, a bill was introduced in Congress to grant Washington, D.C. voting rights in presidential elections, but it did not proceed.[6] Theodore W. Noyes, a writer of the Washington Evening Star, published a number of stories in support of D.C. voting rights. Noyes also helped found the Citizens' Joint Committee on National Representation for the District of Columbia, a citizen's group which lobbied Congress to pass an amendment expanding D.C. voting rights. Noyes died in 1946, but the Citizens' Joint Committee continued onward, and the issue of District voting rights began to be seen as similar to the civil rights movement.[6] A split developed between advocates for greater power for the District after World War II. The Evening Star, continuing in the Noyes mold, supported D.C. representation in Congress and the electoral college, but opposed "home rule" (locally elected mayors and councils with actual power, rather than direct rule by Congress). The Washington Post, however, supported "home rule" and civil rights, but opposed full-fledged representation for the District.[6] Additionally, while many of the people leading the push were liberal Democrats, the District of Columbia in the 1950s was fairly balanced in its potential voting impact; Democrats had only a slight edge over Republicans, although District Republicans in the 1950s were liberal by national standards.[6] Thus, an amendment to grant the District increased voting powers was able to gain bipartisan support in a way that would have been more difficult later. Only 28% of the District was African-American according to the 1940 census, and the black population was young compared to other residents, making the voting electorate even smaller due to the voting age of 21. This grew to 54% in the 1960 census, but according to political scientist Clement E. Vose, "various factors—inexperience in voting, educational handicaps, residency requirements, welfare laws, and social ostracism before the Voting Rights Act of 1965—minimized black registration and voting".[7]
Proposal and ratification[edit]
The Twenty-third Amendment in the National Archives
Adoption by the Congress[edit]
Senate Joint Resolution–39, which would eventually become the Twenty-third Amendment, was introduced in 1959 by Tennessee Democratic Senator Estes Kefauver. His proposal would provide for the emergency functioning of Congress and continuity of the legislative process by authorizing governors to fill vacancies in the House of Representatives “on any date that the total number of vacancies ... exceeds half of the authorized membership.” The governor’s appointive authority would have been limited to 60 days, and the appointee would have served until a successor was elected in a special election. The bill was amended twice on the Senate floor. One added provision, proposed by New York Republican Kenneth Keating, would grant the District of Columbia electoral votes in national elections and non-voting delegate(s) to the House. The other, offered by Florida Democrat Spessard Holland, would eliminate the poll tax or other property qualification as a prerequisite for voting in federal elections. The Senate passed SJR–39 in this three-amendment form on February 2, 1960, by a vote of 70–18, and sent it forward to the House.
The House Judiciary Committee, after setting aside the anti-poll tax and House emergency appointment provisions of SJR–39, sent its own proposal, House Joint Resolution–757, devoted solely to presidential electors for the District of Columbia, to the House floor for consideration. This was adopted in the House without amendment, by voice vote, on June 14, 1960. Then, by unanimous consent, the text of HJR–757 was inserted into SJR–39, the original language of which was removed. The Senate adopted the revised resolution by voice vote on June 16, 1960.[8][9][10]
Ratification by the states[edit]
Ratified amendment, 1960–61
Ratified amendment after its certification
Rejected amendment
No action taken on amendment
To become valid as part of the Constitution, the Twenty-third Amendment needed to be ratified by the legislatures of three-quarters of the states (38, following admission of Alaska and Hawaii to the union in 1959) within seven years from its submission to the states by Congress (June 16, 1967). President Eisenhower, along with both major party candidates in the 1960 presidential election, Vice-President Richard Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy, endorsed the proposal. Amendment supporters ran an effective ratification campaign, mobilizing persons in almost every state to press for its approval.[7]
The following states ratified the amendment:[11]
Hawaii – June 23, 1960
Massachusetts – August 22, 1960
New Jersey – December 19, 1960
New York – January 17, 1961
California – January 19, 1961
Oregon – January 27, 1961
Maryland – January 30, 1961
Idaho – January 31, 1961
Maine – January 31, 1961
Minnesota – January 31, 1961
New Mexico – February 1, 1961
Nevada – February 2, 1961
Montana – February 6, 1961
Colorado – February 8, 1961
Washington – February 9, 1961
West Virginia – February 9, 1961
Alaska – February 10, 1961
Wyoming – February 13, 1961
South Dakota – February 14, 1961 (date of filing in Office of Secretary of State of South Dakota)
Delaware – February 20, 1961
Utah – February 21, 1961
Wisconsin – February 21, 1961
Pennsylvania – February 28, 1961
Indiana – March 3, 1961
North Dakota – March 3, 1961
Tennessee – March 6, 1961
Michigan – March 8, 1961
Connecticut – March 9, 1961
Arizona – March 10, 1961
Illinois – March 14, 1961
Nebraska – March 15, 1961
Vermont – March 15, 1961
Iowa – March 16, 1961
Missouri – March 20, 1961
Oklahoma – March 21, 1961
Rhode Island – March 22, 1961
Kansas – March 29, 1961
Ohio – March 29, 1961
Ratification was completed on March 29, 1961, 9 months and 12 days after being proposed by Congress. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states:
39. New Hampshire – March 30, 1961 (Date in the official notice; preceded by ratification on March 29, 1961, as the 37th state to ratify, which was annulled and then repeated later that same day.)
40. Alabama – April 11, 2002
On April 3, 1961, John L. Moore, Administrator of General Services, certified that the amendment had been adopted by the requisite number of States and had become a part of the Constitution.
The amendment was rejected by Arkansas on January 24, 1961.[12] Nine states took no action on the amendment: Florida, Kentucky, Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, Louisiana, Texas, North Carolina, and Virginia.
Political impact[edit]
See also: District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment and District of Columbia home rule
While perceived as politically neutral and only somewhat liberal-leaning at the time of passage in 1961, the District swung dramatically toward the Democratic Party in the years after passage. African-Americans voted in greater numbers than they had in the 1940s and 1950s with the clearing away of restrictions on the vote, and their share of the District electorate increased - according to the 1970 census, 71% of the Federal District was black, a dramatic jump.[7] Accordingly, the District has sent its 3 electoral votes to the Democratic candidate in every single presidential election since 1964, including the 1984 landslide re-election of President Reagan, where only the District of Columbia and Minnesota voted for Democratic candidate Walter Mondale. The District's electoral votes have yet to prove decisive in a presidential election. The smallest Electoral College majority won by a Democratic president since the Twenty-third Amendment's ratification was the 56 vote majority achieved by Jimmy Carter in 1976.
Unaddressed by the Twenty-third Amendment were the parallel issues of congressional representation and "home rule" for the district. On December 24, 1973, Congress approved the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, which established an elected office of mayor and a 13-member elected council for the district.[13] These officials were empowered to pass laws and enact administrative policies for the District, though Congress retained veto power if they chose to intervene. On March 23, 1971, President Nixon signed the District of Columbia Delegate Act which authorized voters in the District to elect one non-voting delegate to represent them in the House of Representatives.[14] On August 22, 1978, Congress submitted the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment to the states for ratification.[15][16] This sweeping proposal would have granted the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress as if it were a state, repealed the Twenty-third Amendment and granted the District full representation in the Electoral College plus participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended as if it were a state.[17] The amendment failed to become part of the Constitution, however, as it was not ratified by the required number of states (38) prior to its August 22, 1985 ratification deadline.[17] The campaign for the proposed amendment ran into much fiercer conservative opposition due to the open and obvious fact that by 1978 the proposed amendment would have practically guaranteed two Democratic Senators for some time; the amendment was criticized on various other grounds as well, and was not ratified even by several more "liberal" states.[18]
See also[edit]
District of Columbia statehood movement
District of Columbia voting rights
District of Columbia retrocession
Political party strength in Washington, D.C.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010, to July 1, 2011 in State Totals: Vintage 2011, United States Census Bureau.
Jump up ^ Barring a faithless elector in the 2000 election who refused to cast a vote.
Jump up ^ United States Government Printing Office. "PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS FOR D. C. TWENTY-THIRD AMENDMENT" (PDF). gpo.gov.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Senate: Constitution of the United States". senate.gov. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Vose, p. 112.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vose, p. 114–115.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vose, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Sula P. Richardson (August 12, 2003). "House Vacancies: Proposed Constitutional Amendments for Filling Them Due to National Emergencies". CRS Report for Congress, RL32031. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved April 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Breneman, Lory (2000). Tamara Tamara, ed. Senate Manual Containing the Standing Rules, Orders, Laws and Resolutions Affecting the Business of the United States Senate (Senate Document 106-1 ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 959. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
Jump up ^ Vile, John R. (2003). Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments, Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues, 1789–2002 (Second ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc.,. p. 480. ISBN 1851094334. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ "THE CONSTITUTION of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION, Centennial Edition, INTERIM EDITION: ANALYSIS OF CASES DECIDED BY THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES TO JUNE 26, 2013" (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2013. p. 42. Retrieved April 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Mintz, Morton (January 25, 1961). "Arkansas Is First To Reject District Voting Amendment". The Washington Post. p. B1.
Jump up ^ "District of Columbia Home Rule Act". Government of the District of Columbia. February 1999. Retrieved May 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ "84 Stat. 845 - An Act to establish a Commission on the Organization of the Government of the District of Columbia and to provide for a Delegate to the House of Representatives from the District of Columbia". gpo.gov. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ 124 Congressional Record 5272–5273
Jump up ^ 124 Congressional Record 27260
^ Jump up to: a b "The Failed Amendments". usconstitution.net. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Vose, p. 120–125.
References[edit]
Constitution of the United States.
Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.
Vose, Clement (1978). "When District of Columbia Representation Collides with the Constitutional Amendment Institution". Publius. Oxford University Press. 9 (1): 105–125. doi:10.2307/3329772. JSTOR 3329772.
External links[edit]
CRS Annotated Constitution: 23rd Amendment
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Common carotid artery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Carotids" redirects here. For the parotids (salivary glands), see Parotid gland.
Common carotid artery
The common carotid artery arises directly from the aorta on the left, and as a branch of the brachiocephalic trunk on the right
The common carotid artery and its main branches
Details
Precursor
aortic arch 3
Source
aortic arch, brachiocephalic artery
Branches
internal carotid artery, external carotid artery
Vein
internal jugular vein
Supplies
head and neck
Identifiers
Latin
Arteria carotis communis
MeSH
A07.231.114.186.200
Dorlands
/Elsevier
a_61/12153659
TA
A12.2.04.006
FMA
3939
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (English: /kəˈrɒtɪd/[1][2]) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 In the chest
1.2 In the neck
2 Collateral circulation
3 Variation
3.1 Origin
3.2 Point of division
3.3 Occasional branches
4 Clinical significance
5 Gallery
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
The common carotid arteries are present on the left and right sides of the body. These arteries originate from different arteries, but follow symmetrical courses. The right common carotid originates in the neck from the brachiocephalic trunk; the left from the aortic arch in the thorax. These split into the external and internal carotid arteries at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, at around the level of the fourth cervical vertebra.
The left common carotid artery can be thought of as having two parts: a thoracic (chest) part and a cervical (neck) part. The right common carotid originates in or close to the neck, so contains only a small thoracic portion. There are studies in the bioengineering literature that have looked into characterizing the geometric structure of the common carotid artery from both qualitative and mathematical (quantitative) standpoints.[4]
The average diameters of the common carotids in adult males and females are 6.5 mm and 6.1 mm respectively.[5]
In the chest[edit]
Only the left common carotid artery has a substantial presence in the thorax. It originates directly from the aortic arch, and travels upward through the superior mediastinum to the level of the left sternoclavicular joint.
During the thoracic part of its course, the left common carotid artery is related to the following structures: In front, it is separated from the manubrium of the sternum by the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles, the anterior portions of the left pleura and lung, the left brachiocephalic vein, and the remains of the thymus; behind, it lies on the trachea, esophagus, left recurrent laryngeal nerve, and thoracic duct.
To its right side below is the brachiocephalic trunk, and above, the trachea, the inferior thyroid veins, and the remains of the thymus; to its left side are the left vagus and phrenic nerves, left pleura, and lung. The left subclavian artery is posterior and slightly lateral to it.
In the neck[edit]
Arteries of the neck. The right common carotid artery – labeled Common caroti in the figure – divides into the right internal carotid artery and external carotid artery.
The cervical portions of the common carotids resemble each other so closely that one description will apply to both.
Each vessel passes obliquely upward, from behind the sternoclavicular joint to the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, where it divides.
At the lower neck the two common carotid arteries are separated from each other by a very narrow interval which contains the trachea; but at the upper part, the thyroid gland, the larynx and pharynx separate the two arteries.
The common carotid artery is contained in a sheath known as the carotid sheath, which is derived from the deep cervical fascia and encloses also the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve, the vein lying lateral to the artery, and the nerve between the artery and vein, on a plane posterior to both. On opening the sheath, each of these three structures is seen to have a separate fibrous cover.
At approximately the level of the fourth cervical vertebra, the common carotid artery splits ("bifurcates" in literature) into an internal carotid artery (ICA) and an external carotid artery (ECA). While both branches travel upward, the internal carotid takes a deeper (more internal) path, eventually travelling up into the skull to supply the brain. The external carotid artery travels more closely to the surface, and sends off numerous branches that supply the neck and face.
Superficial dissection of the right side of the neck, showing the carotid and subclavian arteries.
At the lower part of the neck the common carotid artery is very deeply seated, being covered by the integument, superficial fascia, the platysma muscle, deep cervical fascia, the sternocleidomastoid muscle, the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and the omohyoid; in the upper part of its course it is more superficial, being covered merely by the integument, the superficial fascia, the platysma, deep cervical fascia, and medial margin of the sternocleidomastoid.
When the sternocleidomastoid muscle is drawn backward, the artery is seen to be contained in a triangular space known as the carotid triangle. This space is bounded behind by the sternocleidomastoid, above by the stylohyoid and the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, and below by the superior belly of the omohyoid.
This part of the artery is crossed obliquely, from its medial to its lateral side, by the sternocleidomastoid branch of the superior thyroid artery; it is also crossed by the superior and middle thyroid veins (which end in the internal jugular vein); descending in front of its sheath is the descending branch of the hypoglossal nerve, this filament being joined by one or two branches from the cervical nerves, which cross the vessel obliquely.
Sometimes the descending branch of the hypoglossal nerve is contained within the sheath.
The superior thyroid vein crosses the artery near its termination, and the middle thyroid vein a little below the level of the cricoid cartilage; the anterior jugular vein crosses the artery just above the clavicle, but is separated from it by the sternohyoid and sternothyroid.
Behind, the artery is separated from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae by the longus colli and longus capitis muscles, the sympathetic trunk being interposed between it and the muscles. The inferior thyroid artery crosses behind the lower part of the vessel.
Medially, it is in relation with the esophagus, trachea, and thyroid gland (which overlaps it), the inferior thyroid artery and recurrent laryngeal nerve being interposed; higher up, with the larynx and pharynx. Lateral to the artery, inside the carotid sheath with the common carotid, are the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve.
At the lower part of the neck, on the right side of the body, the right recurrent laryngeal nerve crosses obliquely behind the artery; the right internal jugular vein diverges from the artery. On the left side, however, the left internal jugular vein approaches and often overlaps the lower part of the artery.
Behind the angle of bifurcation of the common carotid artery is a reddish-brown oval body known as the carotid body. It is similar in structure to the coccygeal body which is situated on the median sacral artery.
The relations of the cervical region of the common carotid artery may be discussed in two points:
Internal relations of organs present inside the carotid sheath
two external relations of carotid sheath
Collateral circulation[edit]
After ligature of the common carotid, the collateral circulation can be perfectly established, by the free communication which exists between the carotid arteries of opposite sides, both without and within the cranium, and by enlargement of the branches of the subclavian artery on the side corresponding to that on which the vessel has been tied.
The chief communications outside the skull take place between the superior and inferior thyroid arteries, and the deep cervical artery and the descending branch of the occipital artery; the vertebral artery takes the place of the internal carotid artery within the cranium.
Variation[edit]
Origin[edit]
The right common carotid may arise above the level of the upper border of the sternoclavicular joint; this variation occurs in about 12 percent of cases.
In other cases the artery on the right side may arise as a separate branch from the arch of the aorta, or in conjunction with the left carotid.
The left common carotid varies in its origin more than the right.
In the majority of abnormal cases it arises with the brachiocephalic trunk; if that artery is absent, the two carotids arise usually by a single trunk.
It is rarely joined with the left subclavian artery, except in cases of transposition of the aortic arch.
Point of division[edit]
In the majority of abnormal cases, the bifurcation occurs higher than usual, the artery dividing opposite or even above the hyoid bone; more rarely, it occurs below, opposite the middle of the larynx, or the lower border of the cricoid cartilage. In at least one reported case, the artery was only 4 cm in length and divided at the root of the neck.
Very rarely, the common carotid artery ascends in the neck without any subdivision, either the external or the internal carotid being absent; and in a few cases the common carotid has itself been found to be absent, the external and internal carotids arising directly from the arch of the aorta.
This peculiarity existed on both sides in some instances, on one side in others.
Occasional branches[edit]
The common carotid usually gives off no branch previous to its bifurcation, but it occasionally gives origin to the superior thyroid artery or its laryngeal branch, the ascending pharyngeal artery, the inferior thyroid artery, or, more rarely, the vertebral artery.
Clinical significance[edit]
The common carotid artery is often used in measuring the pulse,[3] especially in patients who are in shock and who lack a detectable pulse in the more peripheral arteries of the body. The pulse is taken by palpating the artery just deep to the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle at the level of the superior border of the thyroid cartilage.
Presence of a carotid pulse has been estimated to indicate a systolic blood pressure of more than 40 mmHg, as given by the 50% percentile.[6]
Carotidynia is a syndrome marked by soreness of the carotid artery near the bifurcation.
Carotid stenosis may occur in patients with atherosclerosis.
The intima-media thickness of the carotid artery wall is a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, it increases with age and with long-term exposure to particulate air pollution. [7]
Gallery[edit]
Magnetic Resonance Angiography
Normal carotidal arteriography
Common carotid artery
Common carotid artery – right view
Brachial plexus and common carotid artery
Common carotid artery
Common carotid artery
Right and left common carotid arteries
See also[edit]
Head and neck anatomy
Carotid sheath
Carotid sinus
Carotid body
Carotid Doppler machine
Carotidynia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ OED 2nd edition, 1989.
Jump up ^ Entry "carotid" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b Ashrafian H. Anatomically specific clinical examination of the carotid arterial tree. Anat Sci Int. 2007 Mar;82(1):16–23.
^ Jump up to: a b Manbachi, A., Hoi, Y., Wasserman, B. A. Lakatta, E.G. and Steinman. D.A. (November 2011). "On the shape of the common carotid artery with implications for blood velocity profiles.". Physiol. Meas. 32 (12): 1885–1897. PMC 3494738  . PMID 22031538. doi:10.1088/0967-3334/32/12/001. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ J. Krejza; M. Arkuszewski; S. Kasner; J. Weigele; A. Ustymowicz; R. Hurst; B. Cucchiara; S. Messe (April 2006). "Carotid Artery Diameter in Men and Women and the Relation to Body and Neck Size.". Stroke. 37 (4): 1103–1105. PMID 16497983. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000206440.48756.f7.
Jump up ^ Deakin CD, Low JL (September 2000). "Accuracy of the advanced trauma life support guidelines for predicting systolic blood pressure using carotid, femoral, and radial pulses: observational study". BMJ. 321 (7262): 673–4. PMC 27481  . PMID 10987771. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7262.673.
Jump up ^ Provost, E; Madhloum, N; Int Panis, L; De Boever, P; Nawrot, T (2015). "Carotid Intima-Media Thickness, a Marker of Subclinical Atherosclerosis, and Particulate Air Pollution Exposure: the Meta-Analytical Evidence". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0127014. PMC 4430520  . PMID 25970426. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127014.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Common carotid artery.
Anatomy figure: 21:06-01 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center
Blood flow numerical simulations in stenosed carotid
[hide]
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Matthew Logelin
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Matthew Logelin addresses the crowd at an event for The Liz Logelin Foundation in 2009.
Matthew Logelin is an American author, blogger, public speaker, and charity founder. In 2011, he published Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love, which was a New York Times best seller.[1] His blog, Matt, Liz and Madeline: Life and Death, All in a 27-Hour Period, received over 40,000 hits per day at its height in 2008.[2] Both the blog and the memoir document his grief and sudden single parenthood following the unexpected death of his wife, Liz Logelin, 27 hours after the birth of the couple's first child. A screen adaptation of the memoir was optioned by Lifetime in 2012.[3] In 2009, Logelin established The Liz Logelin Foundation, a non-profit organization providing financial grants to families with children who have lost a parent.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Matt, Liz, and Madeline: Life and Death, All in a 27 Hour Period
3 Two Kisses for Maddy
4 The Liz Logelin Foundation
5 Additional
6 References
7 See also
8 External links
Background[edit]
Matt Logelin was born to Tammy and Tom Logelin and raised in Minnetonka, Minnesota. He has three younger brothers. [5]
He met his late wife, Elizabeth 'Liz' Goodman, at an area gas station when they were both high school seniors. After high school, the two maintained a long-distance relationship while she attended Scripps College in California, and he studied Sociology at St. John's University in their native Minnesota. After graduation, their long-distance dating continued as Logelin pursued a Master's degree at Loyola University Chicago. In 2002, rather than continuing on to a PhD in the subject, Logelin opted to move to California to begin life with his high school sweetheart, whom he married on August 13, 2005. Two years later, the Logelins were thrilled to learn they were expecting their first child,[6] but the pregnancy was difficult, and she was admitted to the hospital for bed rest.[7]
Following 3 weeks of hospital bedrest, their daughter - Madeline Elizabeth Logelin - was born healthy, though 7 weeks premature, on March 24, 2008 via an emergency caesarean section. The following afternoon, Logelin's wife died suddenly and unexpectedly of a pulmonary embolism.[8]
Before his wife's death, Logelin spent many years working as a Project Manager for Yahoo!, often traveling to India as head of their outsourcing program. He quit his job in 2009 to write Two Kisses for Maddy, a memoir about his experience.[9]
Matt, Liz, and Madeline: Life and Death, All in a 27 Hour Period[edit]
Logelin had begun a blog many years before his wife's death. At one time titled simply Matt Logelin.com, it was originally a place to document his photography as they traveled the world together, one of their great hobbies as a couple, as well as amusing experiences at his job. The blog later became a source of information for family and friends once his wife was admitted to the hospital for closer monitoring during her seventh month of pregnancy.[10]
After her death, he kept blogging as an outlet for his grief and a way to document his journey as an unexpected single father to a premature infant. As news of his wife's death spread, Logelin found himself and his blog thrust into the national spotlight. His experience was profiled in People Magazine, on the daytime shows of Rachael Ray and Oprah Winfrey, and in Minneapolis and Los Angeles-area newspapers.[11][12]
The sudden influx of blog readers who had learned of the tragedy through these media outlets led to Logelin receiving 20-30 packages a day from total strangers. He received formula coupons, diapers, clothing and gifts for his daughter, as well as gift certificates, books, and even beer for himself. His blog comments filled with words of advice and encouragement, his blog building up to tens of thousands of page views per day as he detailed his life with his daughter and reminisced about the nearly 13 years he spent with his wife. "In many ways, it's a love letter to Madeline and to Liz," he said of the blog in 2009, which still receives 15,000 hits a day.[13]
Two Kisses for Maddy[edit]
In 2009, Logelin left his job at Yahoo! and moved to India for two months with his daughter, where he began writing a memoir about his experience. India and its surrounding areas were a place of great significance for both him and his late wife – he had proposed in Kathmandu, Nepal, on the steps of a temple in Durbar Square, and the two had traveled through India together during one of his foreign work assignments, a year after they were married. It was during that trip that they visited the Taj Mahal and, upon hearing the story of how the monument came to be built, his wife turned to him with tears in her eyes and declared, "You would never do something like this for me." The memory impacted Logelin so deeply that it prompted him to write his memoir. "Figuratively speaking, [the book] is my Taj Mahal to her," he explained in 2009. "I'm doing what I can to bring that legacy back for her."[14] Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love details his courtship and marriage, as well as the moments surrounding his wife's death and the first year of his daughter's life without her mother. "Selfishly, I want her to know her mom through this," he has said.[15]
The memoir was edited by Amanda Englander of Grand Central Publishing, and published by GCP in April 2011, reaching #24 on the New York Times Best Seller List and #11 on the eBook list.[16] An audio book read by Logelin was released as well. In April 2012, a paperback version with an added chapter, additional photographs, and a reading group guide was made available.
Following its publication, Logelin was asked to appear as the keynote speaker for the Gaithersburg Book Festival in Maryland,[17] as well as the Vascular Disease Foundation's annual meeting.[18] He spoke on a panel with such writers as Dan Fante and Emma Forrest at the 2011 West Hollywood Book Fair,[19] as well as at his late wife's alma mater, Scripps College,[20] during a nationwide book tour. He has written an original article for the Huffington Post[21] and has received extensive media coverage since publication, including appearing on Fox and Friends, BBC Outlook, Minneapolis' Kare 11, multiple radio shows, and in Los Angeles Magazine.[22]
A screen adaptation of the memoir was optioned by Lifetime in 2012, with Marta Kauffman set to executive-produce the telepic.[23]
Logelin's second book will be a picture book for children entitled Be Glad Your Dad, written with Sara Jensen and illustrated by Jared Chapman.[24]
The Liz Logelin Foundation[edit]
In 2009, a group of early blog readers planned a 5K Walk/Run in honor of Logelin's late wife, who was a runner. The event brought in over $4,000, and while it was intended to go to Logelin and his daughter, he instead donated the money to other widowed families he had met through his blog. This inspired him to establish The Liz Logelin Foundation, in honor of his wife. As of 2010, the foundation had given out $20,000 to grieving families and has been featured on numerous media outlets, including CBS This Morning.[25][dead link]
Each year, on the weekend closest to Liz Logelin's birthday, the foundation holds a Celebration of Hope gala, with live and silent auctions. A Walk, Run, Hope 5K, to benefit the organization, is also held annually.[26]
Matt Logelin donates a portion of his book sales - 7%, his late wife's lucky number - to the foundation.
Additional[edit]
Matt Logelin has worked extensively with people who have lost a partner. In 2011, he was one of the presenters at Camp Widow, a weekend learning retreat for those who have lost a spouse, leading a workshop on revisiting places that held significance in the relationship, just as he had experienced during his short-term move to India. He also spoke to the National Conference on Widowhood in 2009,[27] as well as appeared on Voice of America's Healing the Grieving Heart radio show.[28] He has guest-posted not only as a widower, but as a single parent, on a variety of blogs, including Glamour Magazine.[29]
As Logelin lost his wife so shortly after childbirth, he is also frequently cited in news stories regarding the rising national maternal mortality rate, and has been interviewed by Amnesty International, in hopes of raising awareness of postpartum complications.[30][31]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Schuessler, Jennifer. "New York Times Best Seller List". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "A New Baby, a Wife's Death, and a Dad on His Own". People Magazine. January 26, 2009.
Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey (10 July 2012). "'Friends' Co-Creator, 'The Lucky One' Producers Developing Lifetime Telepic (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter.
Jump up ^ "The Liz Logelin Foundation".
Jump up ^ Logelin, Matthew (2011). Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love. New York, Boston: Grand Central. ISBN 978-0-446-56430-4.
Jump up ^ Logelin, Matthew (2011). Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love. New York, Boston: Grand Central. ISBN 978-0-446-56430-4.
Jump up ^ Logelin, Matthew (2011). Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love. New York, Boston: Grand Central. ISBN 978-0-446-56430-4.
Jump up ^ Logelin, Matthew (2011). Two Kisses for Maddy: A Memoir of Loss and Love. New York, Boston: Grand Central. ISBN 978-0-446-56430-4.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin on Huffington Post".
Jump up ^ Matt Logelin on Flickr. "Matt, Liz, and Madeline: Life and Death, all in a 27-Hour Period". MattLogelin.com.
Jump up ^ "A Single Dad Finds Support From Strangers". Rachael Ray Show.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin Talks About Losing His Wife After Childbirth". Oprah Winfrey Show.
Jump up ^ Franklin, Sarah (2 April 2011). "Just the Two of Us". Guardian UK. London.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin Speaks at National Conference on Widowhood". MattLogelin.com, MP3 audio file. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin Interview". Rockabyebabymusic.com. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "New York Times Best Seller List - May 1, 2011". NY Times. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Trescott, Jacqueline (11 May 2011). "Matt Logelin Headlines Gaithersburg Book Festival". Washington Post. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Annual Meeting 2011". Vascular Disease Foundation. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Memories That Became Memoirs - Panel". West Hollywood Book Fair. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin Reads From Two Kisses for Maddy". Scripps College - Media. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Logelin, Matthew (14 April 2011). "Love, Loss, and Suddenly, Single Parenthood". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ "Press". Two Kisses for Maddy: Official Website. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey (10 July 2012). "'Friends' Co-Creator, 'The Lucky One' Producers Developing Lifetime Telepic (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter.
Jump up ^ http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/childrens/childrens-book-news/article/60233-rights-report-week-of-december-2-2013.html
Jump up ^ "Liz Logelin Foundation Helps 36 Families". Press Release. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Liz Logelin Foundation". The Liz Logelin Foundation.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin's Workshop - Revisiting Places That Matter". Camp Widow.org. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Matt Logelin to Appear on Healing the Grieving Heart". Press Release. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Coppa, Chrissy. "Glamour Girls: Liz and Madeline". Glamour Magazine's Storked Blog - June 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Roan, Shari (26 April 2011). "Caesarean Sections a Major Factor in Pregnancy Related Deaths". LA Times - April 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "After Death from Childbirth, Family Wounds Still Healing". California Watch. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
See also[edit]
The Liz Logelin Foundation
External links[edit]
Matt, Liz, and Madeline [1]
The Liz Logelin Foundation [2]
Two Kisses for Maddy [3]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Logelin&oldid=798932936"
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