text:
Cognition
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the mental process. For the journal, see Cognition (journal).
See also: Animal cognition
"Cognitive" redirects here. For other uses, see Cognitive (disambiguation).
Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".[1] It encompasses processes such as attention, the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and "computation", problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.
The processes are analyzed from different perspectives within different contexts, notably in the fields of linguistics, anesthesia, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, education, philosophy, anthropology, biology, systemics, logic, and computer science.[2] These and other different approaches to the analysis of cognition are synthesised in the developing field of cognitive science, a progressively autonomous academic discipline.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 The beginnings of the studies on cognition
3 In psychology
3.1 Piaget's theory of cognitive development
3.2 Common experiments on human cognition
4 Metacognition
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word cognition comes from the Latin verb cognosco (con, 'with', and gnōscō, 'know'; itself a cognate of the Greek verb γι(γ)νώσκω, gi(g)nόsko, meaning 'I know, perceive'), meaning 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'.[3]
The beginnings of the studies on cognition[edit]
Cognition is a word that dates back to the 15th century, when it meant "thinking and awareness".[4] Attention to the cognitive process came about more than eighteen centuries ago, beginning with Aristotle and his interest in the inner workings of the mind and how they affect the human experience. Aristotle focused on cognitive areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery. The Greek philosopher found great importance in ensuring that his studies were based on empirical evidence; scientific information that is gathered through observation and conscientious experimentation.[5] Centuries later, as psychology became a burgeoning field of study in Europe and then gained a following in America, other scientists like Wilhelm Wundt, Herman Ebbinghaus, Mary Whiton Calkins, and William James would offer their contributions to the study of human cognition.
Wilhelm Wundt emphasized the notion of what he called introspection: examining the inner feelings of an individual. With introspection, the subject had to be careful to describe his or her feelings in the most objective manner possible in order for Wundt to find the information scientific.[6][7] Though Wundt's contributions are by no means minimal, modern psychologists find his methods to be quite subjective and choose to rely on more objective procedures of experimentation to make conclusions about the human cognitive process.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) conducted cognitive studies that mainly examined the function and capacity of human memory. Ebbinghaus developed his own experiment in which he constructed over 2,000 syllables made out of nonexistent words, for instance EAS. He then examined his own personal ability to learn these non-words. He purposely chose non-words as opposed to real words to control for the influence of pre-existing experience on what the words might symbolize, thus enabling easier recollection of them.[6][8] Ebbinghaus observed and hypothesized a number of variables that may have affected his ability to learn and recall the non-words he created. One of the reasons, he concluded, was the amount of time between the presentation of the list of stimuli and the recitation or recall of same. Ebbinghaus was the first to record and plot a "learning curve," and a "forgetting curve."[9] His work heavily influenced the study of serial position and its effect on memory, discussed in subsequent sections.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an influential American pioneer in the realm of psychology. Her work also focused on the human memory capacity. A common theory, called the recency effect, can be attributed to the studies that she conducted.[10] The recency effect, also discussed in the subsequent experiment section, is the tendency for individuals to be able to accurately recollect the final items presented in a sequence of stimuli. Calkin's theory is closely related to the aforementioned study and conclusion of the memory experiments conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus.[11]
William James (1842–1910) is another pivotal figure in the history of cognitive science. James was quite discontent with Wundt's emphasis on introspection and Ebbinghaus' use of nonsense stimuli. He instead chose to focus on the human learning experience in everyday life and its importance to the study of cognition. James' most significant contribution to the study and theory of cognition was his textbook Principles of Psychology that preliminarily examines aspects of cognition such as perception, memory, reasoning, and attention.[11]
In psychology[edit]
When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking (abstract thinking).
In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions (see cognitivism),[12] and it is the same in cognitive engineering;[13] in a branch of social psychology called social cognition, the term is used to explain attitudes, attribution, and group dynamics.[12]
Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a language). It encompasses processes such as memory, association, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem solving and mental imagery.[14][15] Traditionally, emotion was not thought of as a cognitive process, but now much research is being undertaken to examine the cognitive psychology of emotion; research is also focused on one's awareness of one's own strategies and methods of cognition, which is called metacognition.
While few people would deny that cognitive processes are a function of the brain, a cognitive theory will not necessarily make reference to the brain or to biological processes (compare neurocognitive). It may purely describe behavior in terms of information flow or function. Relatively recent fields of study such as the neuropsychology aim to bridge this gap, using cognitive paradigms to understand how the brain implements the information-processing functions (see also cognitive neuroscience), or to understand how pure information-processing systems (e.g., computers) can simulate human cognition (see also artificial intelligence). The branch of psychology that studies brain injury to infer normal cognitive function is called cognitive neuropsychology. The links of cognition to evolutionary demands are studied through the investigation of animal cognition.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development[edit]
For years, sociologists and psychologists have conducted studies on cognitive development or the construction of human thought or mental processes.
Jean Piaget was one of the most important and influential people in the field of Developmental Psychology. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the capacity to do "abstract symbolic reasoning." His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, and Erik Erikson who were also great contributors in the field of Developmental Psychology. Today, Piaget is known for studying the cognitive development in children. He studied his own three children and their intellectual development and came up with a theory that describes the stages children pass through during development.[16]
Stage
Age or Period
Description
Sensorimotor stage Infancy (0–2 years) Intelligence is present; motor activity but no symbols; knowledge is developing yet limited; knowledge is based on experiences/ interactions; mobility allows child to learn new things; some language skills are developed at the end of this stage. The goal is to develop object permanence; achieves basic understanding of causality, time, and space.
Pre-operational stage Toddler and Early Childhood (2–7 years) Symbols or language skills are present; memory and imagination are developed; nonreversible and nonlogical thinking; shows intuitive problem solving; begins to see relationships; grasps concept of conservation of numbers; egocentric thinking predominates.
Concrete operational stage Elementary and Early Adolescence (7–12 years) Logical and systematic form of intelligence; manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects; thinking is now characterized by reversibility and the ability to take the role of another; grasps concepts of the conservation of mass, length, weight, and volume; operational thinking predominates nonreversible and egocentric thinking
Formal operational stage Adolescence and Adulthood (12 years and on) Logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts; Acquires flexibility in thinking as well as the capacities for abstract thinking and mental hypothesis testing; can consider possible alternatives in complex reasoning and problem solving.[17]
Common experiments on human cognition[edit]
Serial position
The serial position experiment is meant to test a theory of memory that states that when information is given in a serial manner, we tend to remember information in the beginning of the sequence, called the primacy effect, and information in the end of the sequence, called the recency effect. Consequently, information given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not recalled as easily. This study predicts that the recency effect is stronger than the primacy effect, because the information that is most recently learned is still in working memory when asked to be recalled. Information that is learned first still has to go through a retrieval process. This experiment focuses on human memory processes.[18]
Word superiority
The word superiority experiment presents a subject with a word, or a letter by itself, for a brief period of time, i.e. 40ms, and they are then asked to recall the letter that was in a particular location in the word. By theory, the subject should be better able to correctly recall the letter when it was presented in a word than when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human speech and language.[19]
Brown-Peterson
In the Brown-Peterson experiment, participants are briefly presented with a trigram and in one particular version of the experiment, they are then given a distractor task, asking them to identify whether a sequence of words are in fact words, or non-words (due to being misspelled, etc.). After the distractor task, they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor task. In theory, the longer the distractor task, the harder it will be for participants to correctly recall the trigram. This experiment focuses on human short-term memory.[20]
Memory span
During the memory span experiment, each subject is presented with a sequence of stimuli of the same kind; words depicting objects, numbers, letters that sound similar, and letters that sound dissimilar. After being presented with the stimuli, the subject is asked to recall the sequence of stimuli that they were given in the exact order in which it was given. In one particular version of the experiment, if the subject recalled a list correctly, the list length was increased by one for that type of material, and vice versa if it was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that people have a memory span of about seven items for numbers, the same for letters that sound dissimilar and short words. The memory span is projected to be shorter with letters that sound similar and with longer words.[21]
Visual search
In one version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a window that displays circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to identify whether there is a green circle on the window. In the "featured" search, the subject is presented with several trial windows that have blue squares or circles and one green circle or no green circle in it at all. In the "conjunctive" search, the subject is presented with trial windows that have blue circles or green squares and a present or absent green circle whose presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in the feature searches, reaction time, that is the time it takes for a participant to identify whether a green circle is present or not, should not change as the number of distractors increases. Conjunctive searches where the target is absent should have a longer reaction time than the conjunctive searches where the target is present. The theory is that in feature searches, it is easy to spot the target, or if it is absent, because of the difference in color between the target and the distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent, reaction time increases because the subject has to look at each shape to determine whether it is the target or not because some of the distractors if not all of them, are the same color as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches where the target is present take less time because if the target is found, the search between each shape stops.[22]
Knowledge representation
The semantic network of knowledge representation systems has been studied in various paradigms. One of the oldest paradigms is the leveling and sharpening of stories as they are repeated from memory studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to determine the main meanings of words, finding that value or "goodness" of words is the first factor. More controlled experiments examine the categorical relationships of words in free recall. The hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly mapped in George Miller's Wordnet. More dynamic models of semantic networks have been created and tested with neural network experiments based on computational systems such as latent semantic analysis (LSA), Bayesian analysis, and multidimensional factor analysis. The semantics (meaning) of words is studied by all the disciplines of cognitive science.[citation needed]
Metacognition[edit]
This section is transcluded from Metacognition. (edit | history)
Metacognition is "cognition about cognition", "thinking about thinking", "knowing about knowing", becoming "aware of one's awareness" and higher-order thinking skills. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond".[23] Metacognition can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem-solving.[23] There are generally two components of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition and (2) regulation of cognition.[24]
Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an especially important form of metacognition.[25] Academic research on metacognitive processing across cultures is in the early stages, but there are indications that further work may provide better outcomes in cross-cultural learning between teachers and students.[26]
Some evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that humans use metacognition as a survival tool, which would make metacognition the same across cultures.[26][need quotation to verify] Writings on metacognition date back at least as far as two works by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC): On the Soul and the Parva Naturalia.[27]
See also[edit]
thinking portal
Philosophy portal
Cognitive biology
Cognitive computing
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive science
Comparative cognition
Information processing technology and aging
Nootropic
Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more.
Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "cognition - definition of cognition in English from the Oxford dictionary". www.oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 2016-02-04.
Jump up ^ Von Eckardt, Barbara (1996). What is cognitive science?. Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 45–72. ISBN 9780262720236.
Jump up ^ Stefano Franchi, Francesco Bianchini. "On The Historical Dynamics Of Cognitive Science: A View From The Periphery". The Search for a Theory of Cognition: Early Mechanisms and New Ideas. Rodopi, 2011. p. XIV.
Jump up ^ Cognition: Theory and Practice by Russell Revlin
Jump up ^ Matlin, Margaret (2009). Cognition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b Fuchs, A. H.; Milar, K.J. (2003). "Psychology as a science". Handbook of psychology. 1 (The history of psychology): 1–26. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0101.
Jump up ^ Zangwill, O. L. (2004). The Oxford companion to the mind. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 951–952.
Jump up ^ Zangwill, O.L. (2004). The Oxford companion to the mind. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 276.
Jump up ^ T.L. Brink (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit 7: Memory." p. 126
Jump up ^ Madigan, S.; O'Hara, R. (1992). "Short-term memory at the turn of the century: Mary Whiton Calkin's memory research". American Psychologist. 47 (2): 170–174. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.2.170.
^ Jump up to: a b Matlin, Margaret (2009). Cognition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2009). Cognitive psychology (6th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Jump up ^ Blomberg, O. (2011). "Concepts of cognition for cognitive engineering". International Journal of Aviation Psychology. 21 (1): 85–104. doi:10.1080/10508414.2011.537561.
Jump up ^ Sensation & Perception, 5th ed. 1999, Coren, Ward & Enns, p. 9
Jump up ^ Cognitive Psychology, 5th ed. 1999, Best, John B., pp. 15–17
Jump up ^ Cherry, Kendra. "Jean Piaget Biography". The New York Times Company. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint (7th Ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Surprenant, A (2001). "Distinctiveness and serial position effects in total sequences". Perception and Psychophysics. 63 (4): 737–745. doi:10.3758/BF03194434. PMID 11436742.
Jump up ^ Krueger, L. (1992). "The word-superiority effect and phonological recoding". Memory & Cognition. 20 (6): 685–694. doi:10.3758/BF03202718.
Jump up ^ Nairne, J.; Whiteman, H.; Kelley, M. (1999). "Short-term forgetting of order under conditions of reduced interference" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology. 52: 241–251. doi:10.1080/713755806.
Jump up ^ May, C.; Hasher, L.; Kane, M. (1999). "The role of interference in memory span". Memory & Cognition. 27 (5): 759–767. doi:10.3758/BF03198529. PMID 10540805.
Jump up ^ Wolfe, J.; Cave, K.; Franzel, S. (1989). "Guided search: An alternative to the feature integration model for visual search". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 15 (3): 419–433. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.15.3.419.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalfe, J., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994). Metacognition: knowing about knowing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Schraw, Gregory (1998). "Promoting general metacognitive awareness". Instructional Science. 26: 113–125. doi:10.1023/A:1003044231033.
Jump up ^ Dunlosky, J. & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.). Handbook of Metamemory and Memory. Psychology Press: New York.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Frederick. APERA Conference 2008. 14 April 2009. http://www.apera08.nie.edu.sg/proceedings/4.24.pdf[dead link]
Jump up ^ Colman, Andrew M. (2015) [2001]. "metacognition". A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford Paperback Reference (4 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 456. ISBN 9780199657681. Retrieved 2017-05-17. Writings on metacognition can be traced back at least as far as De Anima and the Parva Naturalia of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) [...].
Further reading[edit]
Coren, Stanley; Lawrence M. Ward; James T. Enns (1999). Sensation and Perception. Harcourt Brace. p. 9. ISBN 0-470-00226-3.
Lycan, W.G., (ed.). (1999). Mind and Cognition: An Anthology, 2nd Edition. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.
Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12385-2. Lay summary (PDF) (21 November 2010).
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Cognition
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Cognitive psychology
Look up cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Cognition An international journal publishing theoretical and experimental papers on the study of the mind.
Information on music cognition, University of Amsterdam
Cognitie.NL Information on cognition research, Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and University of Amsterdam (UvA)
Emotional and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM Lab
The Limits of Human Cognition – an article describing the evolution of mammals' cognitive abilities
Half-heard phone conversations reduce cognitive performance
The limits of intelligence Douglas Fox, Scientific American, 14 June 14, 2011.
hide
v
t
e
Mental processes
Cognition
Awareness
Cognitive dissonance
Comprehension
Consciousness
Imagination
Intuition
Perception
Amodal
Haptic (touch)
Sound
pitch
harmonics
speech
Social
Perception as interpretation
Visual
Color
RGB model
Peripheral
Depth
Form
Memory
Encoding
Storage
Recall
Consolidation
Other
Attention
Higher nervous activity
Intention
Learning
Mental fatigue
Mental set
Thinking
Volition
hide
v
t
e
Human intelligence topics
Types
Collective
Emotional
Intellectual
Linguistic
Multiple
Social
Spatial (visuospatial)
Abilities
Traits
Constructs
Cognition
Communication
Creativity
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
g factor
Intelligence quotient
Knowledge
Learning
Memory
Problem solving
Reasoning
Thought (abstraction)
Understanding
Visual processing
Models and theories
Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
Multiple-intelligences theory
Three-stratum theory
Triarchic theory
PASS theory
Areas of research
Evolution of human intelligence
Heritability of IQ
Psychometrics
Intelligence and environment / health / longevity / neuroscience / race
Outline of human intelligence / thought
Authority control
BNF: cb11931219p (data)
GND: 4031630-0
LCCN: sh85027742
NDL: 00568520
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognition&oldid=844955868"
Categories:
Cognition
Cognitive science
Psychology
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from April 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013
Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2017
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Беларуская
Български
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Русиньскый
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
ייִדיש
中文
52 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 June 2018, at 10:10 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Cognitive_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Cognitive (disambiguation)

value: b

value: sup

values:
/wiki/Decision_making
mw-redirect
Decision making

values:
/wiki/Academic_discipline
mw-redirect
Academic discipline

values: Edit section: The beginnings of the studies on cognition

values:
/wiki/Association_of_Ideas
mw-redirect
Association of Ideas

values:
/wiki/Concept_formation
mw-redirect
Concept formation

values:
/wiki/Mental_images
mw-redirect
Mental images

values: Edit section: Piaget's theory of cognitive development

values: Edit section: Common experiments on human cognition

values:
/wiki/Knowledge_representation
mw-redirect
Knowledge representation

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint

values: Quotation needed from source to verify. (May 2017)

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: Information processing technology and aging

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2F0471264385.wei0101

values: International Journal of Aviation Psychology

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03194434

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11436742

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03202718

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1080%2F713755806

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03198529

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10540805

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1003044231033

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Harcourt_Brace
mw-redirect
Harcourt Brace

values:
nofollow
http://www.cognitie.nl/
external text

values:
/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)#Mental_fatigue
mw-redirect
Fatigue (medical)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4031630-0

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from April 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Cognition
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: معرفة (علم نفس) – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Познавателна способност – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognition
Kognition – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognition
Kognition – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Νόηση – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogno
Kogno – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognizio
Kognizio – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition
Cognition – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Ճանաչողություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: संज्ञान – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoznaja
Spoznaja – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognisi
Kognisi – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitio
Cognitio – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Спознание – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognisi
Kognisi – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitie
Cognitie – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognisjon
Kognisjon – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognisjon
Kognisjon – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values: ਸੰਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Познаня – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Познание – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poznanie
Poznanie – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognicija
Kognicija – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Спознаја – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoznaja
Spoznaja – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognitio
Kognitio – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognition
Kognition – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kognisyon
Kognisyon – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: அறிதிறன் – Tamil

values: ประชาน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Шинохт – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values: Пізнання – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ادراک – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cognition rootpage-Cognition skin-vector action-view


text:
State ownership
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"State property" redirects here. For other uses, see State property (disambiguation). For the socialist concept, see Social ownership.
Not to be confused with Public good.
Part of a series on
Economic systems
By ideology[show]
Anarchist
Capitalist
Corporate
Dirigist
Laissez-faire
Mercantilist
Neo-mercantilist
Protectionist
Social market
State capitalist
Democratic
Fascist
Feminist
Georgist
Green
Religious
Christian
Islamic
Socialist
Market socialist
Mutualist
Participatory
Socialist market
Socialist oriented market
Syndicalist
Traditionalist
Communalist
Corporatist
Distributist
Feudalism
By coordination[show]
Closed (autarky)
Decentralized
Digital
Dual
Gift
Informal
Market
Mixed
Natural
Open
Planned
Robinson Crusoe
Subsistence
Underground
Vertical archipelago
Virtual
By regional model[show]
Asian
East Asian
Chinese
Singaporean
European
Anglo-Saxon
German
Nordic
Rhenish
Soviet
Latin America
Socialism of the 21st century
Sectors[show]
Common property
Private
Public
Voluntary
Property types[show]
Collective ownership
Commons
Private ownership
Public ownership
Social ownership
Transition[show]
Collectivization
Communization
Corporatization
Demutualization
Deregulation
Expropriation
Financialization
Liberalization
Marketization
Municipalization
Mutualization
Nationalization
Privatization
Socialization
Coordination[show]
Barter
Market
Free
Open
Regulated
Planned
In kind
Cybernetic
Indicative
Material balancing
Price
Self-managed
Peer-to-peer
Shared
Open access
Other types[show]
Commons-based peer production
Expeditionary
Hunter-gatherer
Inclusive Democracy
Information
Manorialism
Newly industrialized
Palace
Plantation
Plutonomy
Post-capitalist
Post-industrial
Post-scarcity
Resource-based
Token
Traditional
Transition
World
Business and economics portal
v
t
e
A plaque marking state property in Riga, Latvia.
State ownership (also called public ownership and government ownership) is the ownership of an industry, asset, or enterprise by the state or a public body representing a community as opposed to an individual or private party.[1] Public ownership specifically refers to industries selling goods and services to consumers and differs from public goods and government services financed out of a government’s general budget.[2] Public ownership can take place at the national, regional, local, or municipal levels of government; or can refer to non-governmental public ownership vested in autonomous public enterprises. Public ownership is one of the three major forms of property ownership, differentiated from private, collective/cooperative, and common ownership.[3]
In market-based economies, state-owned assets are often managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with a government owning all or a controlling stake of the company's shares. This form is often referred to as a state-owned enterprise. A state-owned enterprise might variously operate as a not-for-profit corporation, as it may not be required to generate a profit; as a commercial enterprise in competitive sectors; or as a natural monopoly. Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support the general budget. The creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization.
In Soviet-type economies, state property was the dominant form of industry as property. The state held a monopoly on land and natural resources, and enterprises operated under the legal framework of a nominally planned economy, and thus according to different criteria than enterprises in market and mixed economies.
Nationalization process of transferring private or municipal assets to a central government or state entity. Municipalization is the process of transferring private or state assets to a municipal government.
Contents
1 State-owned enterprise
2 Relation to socialism
3 User rights
4 Public property
5 Criticism
6 See also
7 References
State-owned enterprise[edit]
Main article: State-owned enterprise
A state-owned enterprise is a commercial enterprise owned by a government entity in a capitalist market or mixed economy. Reasons for state ownership of commercial enterprises are that the enterprise in question is a natural monopoly or because the government is promoting economic development and industrialization. State-owned enterprises may or may not be expected to operate in a broadly commercial manner and may or may not have monopolies in their areas of activity. The transformation of public entities and government agencies into government-owned corporations is sometimes a precursor to privatization.
State capitalist economies are capitalist market economies that have high degrees of government-owned businesses.
Relation to socialism[edit]
Main article: Social ownership
See also: State socialism
Public ownership of the means of production is a subset of social ownership, which is the defining characteristic of a socialist economy. However, state ownership and nationalization by themselves are not socialist, as they can exist under a wide variety of different political and economic systems for a variety of different reasons. State ownership by itself does not imply social ownership where income rights belong to society as a whole. As such, state ownership is only one possible expression of public ownership, which itself is one variation of the broader concept of social ownership.[4][5]
In the context of socialism, public ownership implies that the surplus product generated by publicly owned assets accrues to all of society in the form of a social dividend, as opposed to a distinct class of private capital owners. There is a wide variety of organizational forms for state-run industry, ranging from specialized technocratic management to direct workers' self-management. In traditional conceptions of non-market socialism, public ownership is a tool to consolidate the means of production as a precursor to the establishment of economic planning for the allocation of resources between organizations, as required by government or by the state.
State ownership is advocated as a form of social ownership for practical concerns, with the state being seen as the obvious candidate for owning and operating the means of production. Proponents assume that the state, as the representative of the public interest, would manage resources and production for the benefit of the public.[6] As a form of social ownership, state ownership may be contrasted with cooperatives and common ownership. Socialist theories and political ideologies that favor state ownership of the means of production may be labelled state socialism.
State ownership was recognized by Friedrich Engels in Socialism: Utopian and Scientific as, by itself, not doing away with capitalism, including the process of capital accumulation and structure of wage labor. Engels argued that state ownership of commercial industry would represent the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and manufacture by the state.[7]
User rights[edit]
A plaque marking state property in Jūrmala.
When ownership of a resource is vested in the state, or any branch of the state such as a local authority, individual use "rights" are based on the state's management policies, though these rights are not property rights as they are not transmissible. For example, if a family is allocated an apartment that is state owned, it will have been granted a tenancy of the apartment, which may be lifelong or inheritable, but the management and control rights are held by various government departments.[8]
Public property[edit]
Main article: Public property
There is a distinction to be made between state ownership and public property. The former may refer to assets operated by a specific state institution or branch of government, used exclusively by that branch, such as a research laboratory. The latter refers to assets and resources that are available to the entire public for use, such as a public park (see public space).
Criticism[edit]
In Neoclassical economic theory, the desirability of state ownership has been studied using contract theory. According to the property rights approach based on incomplete contracting (developed by Oliver Hart and his co-authors), ownership matters because it determines what happens in contingencies that were not considered in prevailing contracts.[9] The work by Hart, Shleifer and Vishny (1997) is the leading application of the property rights approach to the question whether state ownership or private ownership is desirable.[10] In their model, the government and a private firm can invest to improve the quality of a public good and to reduce its production costs. It turns out that private ownership results in strong incentives to reduce costs, but it may also lead to poor quality. Hence, depending on the available investment technologies, there are situations in which state ownership is better. The Hart-Shleifer-Vishny theory has been extended in many directions. For instance, some authors have also considered mixed forms of private ownership and state ownership.[11] Moreover, the Hart-Shleifer-Vishny model assumes that the private party derives no utility from provision of the public good. Besley and Ghatak (2001) have shown that if the private party (a non-governmental organization) cares about the public good, then the party with the larger valuation of the public good should always be the owner, regardless of the parties' investment technologies.[12] Yet, more recently some authors have shown that the investment technology also matters in the Besley-Ghatak framework if an investing party is indispensable[13] or if there are bargaining frictions between the government and the private party.[14]
See also[edit]
State-owned enterprise
Social ownership
List of government-owned companies
Municipalization
Nationalization
Public good
Public sector
Public finance
Public property
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Public Ownership". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved January 25, 2018. Ownership by the government of an asset, corporation, or industry.
Jump up ^ Tupper, Allan (February 7, 2006). "Public Ownership". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved January 25, 2018. public ownership generally refers to enterprises, wholly or partially government owned, which sell goods and services at a price according to use. According to this definition, government-owned railways, airlines, and utilities are examples of public ownership, but hospitals, highways and public schools are not.
Jump up ^ Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003). Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 27. ISBN 0-618-26181-8. There are three broad forms of property ownership-private, public, and collective (cooperative).
Jump up ^ Hastings, Mason and Pyper, Adrian, Alistair and Hugh (December 21, 2000). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 677. ISBN 978-0198600244. Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one. Nationalization in itself has nothing particularly to do with socialism and has existed under non-socialist and anti-socialist regimes. Kautsky in 1891 pointed out that a ‘co-operative commonwealth’ could not be the result of the ‘general nationalization of all industries’ unless there was a change in ‘the character of the state’.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (1989). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press. p. 327. ISBN 0-521-35866-3. State ownership of the means of production is not necessarily social ownership and state ownership can hinder efficiency.
Jump up ^ Arnold, Scott (1994). The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0195088274. For a variety of philosophical and practical reasons touched on in chapter 1, the most obvious candidate in modern societies for that role has been the state. In the past, this led socialists to favor nationalization as the primary way of socializing the means of production…The idea is that just as private ownership serves private interests, public or state ownership would serve the public interest.
Jump up ^ Frederick Engels. "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (Chpt. 3)". Marxists.org. Retrieved 2014-01-08.
Jump up ^ Clarke, Alison; Paul Kohler (2005). Property law: commentary and materials. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780521614894.
Jump up ^ Hart, Oliver (1995). "Firms, Contracts, and Financial Structure". Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Hart, Oliver; Shleifer, Andrei; Vishny, Robert W. (1997). "The Proper Scope of Government: Theory and an Application to Prisons". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 112 (4): 1127–1161. doi:10.1162/003355300555448. ISSN 0033-5533.
Jump up ^ Hoppe, Eva I.; Schmitz, Patrick W. (2010). "Public versus private ownership: Quantity contracts and the allocation of investment tasks". Journal of Public Economics. 94 (3–4): 258–268. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.11.009.
Jump up ^ Besley, Timothy; Ghatak, Maitreesh (2001). "Government versus Private Ownership of Public Goods". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 116 (4): 1343–1372. doi:10.1162/003355301753265598. JSTOR 2696461.
Jump up ^ Halonen-Akatwijuka, Maija (2012). "Nature of human capital, technology and ownership of public goods". Journal of Public Economics. Fiscal Federalism. 96 (11–12): 939–945. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.07.005.
Jump up ^ Schmitz, Patrick W. (2015). "Government versus private ownership of public goods: The role of bargaining frictions". Journal of Public Economics. 132: 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.09.009.
show
v
t
e
Property
By owner
Communal land
Marital property (USA)
Cooperative
Estate in land
Private
Public
State
Crown land
By nature
Croft
Intangible
Intellectual
indigenous
Personal
Tangible
immovable
real
Common resources
Common land
Common-pool resource
Digital
Global
Information
Knowledge
Theory
Bundle of rights
Commodity
fictitious commodities
Common good (economics)
Excludability
First possession
appropriation
Homestead principle
Free-rider problem
Game theory
Georgism
Gift economy
Labor theory of property
Law of rent
rent-seeking
Legal plunder
Natural rights
Ownership
common
customary
self
state
Property rights
primogeniture
usufruct
women's
Right to property
Rivalry
Tragedy of the commons
anticommons
Applications
Acequia (watercourse)
Ejido (agrarian land)
Forest types
Inheritance
Land tenure
Property law
alienation
easement
restraint on alienation
real estate
title
Rights
Air
Fishing
Forest-dwelling (India)
Freedom to roam
Grazing
pannage
Hunting
Land
aboriginal
indigenous
squatting
Littoral
Mineral
Bergregal
Right of way
Water
prior-appropriation
riparian
Disposession/
redistribution
Bioprospecting
Collectivization
Eminent domain
Enclosure
Eviction
Expropriation
Farhud
Forced migration
population transfer
Illegal fishing
Illegal logging
Land reform
Legal plunder
Piracy
Poaching
Primitive accumulation
Privatization
Regulatory taking
Slavery
Bride buying
Human trafficking
wage
wife selling
Tax
inheritance
poll
progressive
property
Theft
Scholars
(key work)
Frédéric Bastiat
Ronald Coase
Henry George
Garrett Hardin
David Harvey
John Locke
Two Treatises of Government
Karl Marx
Marcel Mauss
The Gift
John Stuart Mill
Elinor Ostrom
Karl Polanyi
The Great Transformation
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
What Is Property?
David Ricardo
Murray N. Rothbard
The Ethics of Liberty
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract
Adam Smith
The Wealth of Nations
Categories: Property
Property law
by country
show
v
t
e
Public services
Municipalization
Nationalization
Progressive tax
Concepts
Public administration
Public domain
Public health
Public interest
Public land
Public ownership
Public policy
Public procurement
Public value
Basic services
Civil service
Fire department
Law enforcement
Postal service
Savings system
Public broadcasting
Public transport
Public utility
Electric utility
Oil & gas
Telecommunication
Municipal broadband
Public water system
Waste management
Public works
Infrastructure
Public bank
Public hospital
Public library
Public school
Public space
Public university
Social services
Single-payer health care
National health insurance
Public housing
Social insurance
Social pension
Social security
Category
Commons
Authority control
GND: 4194082-9
NDL: 00566476
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=State_ownership&oldid=841338721"
Categories:
Property law
Socialism
Economic systems
Ownership
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Беларуская
Български
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Қазақша
日本語
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Русский
Svenska
Türkçe
Українська
中文
8 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 May 2018, at 07:22 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/State_property_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
State property (disambiguation)

values: /wiki/Socialist mw-redirect Socialist

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: td

value: tr

value: th

attrs: class id href

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Self-managed_economy
mw-redirect
Self-managed economy

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Public_body
mw-redirect
Public body

values:
/wiki/Regional_government
mw-redirect
Regional government

values:
/wiki/Public_enterprise
mw-redirect
Public enterprise

values:
/wiki/Not-for-profit_corporation
mw-redirect
Not-for-profit corporation

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/State_capitalist
mw-redirect
State capitalist

values:
/wiki/Local_authority
mw-redirect
Local authority

values:
/wiki/Property_rights
mw-redirect
Property rights

values:
/wiki/Government_department
mw-redirect
Government department

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5533

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2696461

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: List of types of formally designated forests

values: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

values: Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

values:
/wiki/What_Is_Property%3F
mw-redirect
What Is Property?

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
/wiki/Single-payer_health_care
mw-redirect
Single-payer health care

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4194082-9

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/State_ownership
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: ممتلكات الدولة – Arabic

values: Дзяржаўная ўласнасць – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Държавна собственост – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values: مالکیت دولتی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Мемлекеттік меншік – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: Государственная собственность – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Державна власність – Ukrainian

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-State_ownership rootpage-State_ownership skin-vector action-view