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Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
Hieroglyphs from the Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak (Seti I, 13th century BC)
Type
Logography usable as an abjad
Languages
Egyptian language
Time period
c. 3200 BC[1] – AD 400
Parent systems
(Proto-writing)
Egyptian hieroglyphs
Child systems
Hieratic, Demotic, Coptic, Meroitic, Proto-Sinaitic
Direction
Left-to-right
ISO 15924
Egyp, 050
Unicode alias
Egyptian Hieroglyphs
Unicode range
U+13000–U+1342F
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Egyptian hieroglyphs (/ˈhaɪrəˌɡlɪf, -roʊ-/[2][3]) were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.[4][5] Cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts were derived from hieroglyphic writing; Meroitic was a late derivation from demotic.
The use of hieroglyphic writing arose from proto-literate symbol systems in the Early Bronze Age, around the 32nd century BC (Naqada III),[1] with the first decipherable sentence written in the Egyptian language dating to the Second Dynasty (28th century BC). Egyptian hieroglyphs developed into a mature writing system used for monumental inscription in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom period; during this period, the system made use of about 900 distinct signs. The use of this writing system continued through the New Kingdom and Late Period, and on into the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, extending into the 4th century AD.
With the final closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost. Although attempts were made, the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphic writing would only be accomplished in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, with the help of the Rosetta Stone.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History and evolution
2.1 Origin
2.2 Mature writing system
2.3 Late Period
2.4 Late survival
3 Decipherment
4 Writing system
4.1 Phonetic reading
4.1.1 Uniliteral signs
4.1.2 Phonetic complements
4.2 Semantic reading
4.2.1 Logograms
4.2.2 Determinatives
4.3 Additional signs
4.3.1 Cartouche
4.3.2 Filling stroke
4.4 Signs joined together
4.4.1 Doubling
4.5 Grammatical signs
5 Spelling
6 Simple examples
7 Encoding and font support
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos),[6] a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred')[7] and γλύφω (glýphō 'Ι carve, engrave'; see glyph).[8]
The glyphs themselves since the Ptolemaic period were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) "the sacred engraved letters", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr "god's words".[9] Greek ἱερογλυφός meant "a carver of hieroglyphs".
In English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character).[10]
History and evolution
Origin
Seal impression of Seth-Peribsen (Second Dynasty, c. 28th century BC)
Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c. 4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing.[citation needed] Proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called "Scorpion I" (Naqada IIIA period, c. 33rd century BC) recovered at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) in 1998 or the Narmer Palette (c. 31st century BC).[1] The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal impression found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qa'ab, which dates from the Second Dynasty (28th or 27th century BC). There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.[4]
Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",[11] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".[12][13] However, given the lack of direct evidence, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".[14] Instead, it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[15] Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, it has been held as doubtful whether the Mesopotamian symbol system can be said to predate the Egyptian one.[16]
Mature writing system
Further information: Middle Egyptian language
Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words.
Hieroglyphs on a funerary stela in Manchester Museum
Late Period
Further information: Late Egyptian language
As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek.
Late survival
Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally.[citation needed] Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.[citation needed]
By the 4th century, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the "myth of allegorical hieroglyphs" was ascendant.[citation needed] Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.[17]
The Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs. Some are identified correctly, such as the "goose" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for "son".
Decipherment
Main article: Decipherment of hieroglyphic writing
Ibn Wahshiyya's translation of the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph alphabet
Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. Early attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).[18]
The early modern tradition of decipherment attemtps begins with the work of Piero Valeriano Bolzani (1556). The most famous of the early "decipherers" was Athanasius Kircher. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta (1643), Kircher called hieroglyphics "this language hitherto unknown in Europe, in which there are as many pictures as letters, as many riddles as sounds, in short as many mazes to be escaped from as mountains to be climbed". While some of his notions are long discredited, portions of his work have been valuable to later scholars, and Kircher helped pioneer Egyptology as a field of serious study. All medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs recorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. As no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.
The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum
The breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). As the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:
It is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.[19]
Hieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic; and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet.
Writing system
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Visually, hieroglyphs are all more or less figurative: they represent real or illusional elements, sometimes stylized and simplified, but all generally perfectly recognizable in form. However, the same sign can, according to context, be interpreted in diverse ways: as a phonogram (phonetic reading), as a logogram, or as an ideogram (semagram; "determinative") (semantic reading). The determinative was not read as a phonetic constituent, but facilitated understanding by differentiating the word from its homophones.
Phonetic reading
Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period
Most non-determinative hieroglyphic signs are phonetic in nature, meaning that the sign is read independently of its visual characteristics (according to the rebus principle where, for example, the picture of an eye could stand for the English words eye and I [the first person pronoun]). This picture of an eye is called a phonogram of the word, 'I'.
Phonograms formed with one consonant are called uniliteral signs; with two consonants, biliteral signs; with three, triliteral signs.
Twenty-four uniliteral signs make up the so-called hieroglyphic alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing does not normally indicate vowels, unlike cuneiform, and for that reason has been labelled by some an abjad alphabet, i.e., an alphabet without vowels.
Thus, hieroglyphic writing representing a pintail duck is read in Egyptian as sꜣ, derived from the main consonants of the Egyptian word for this duck: 's', 'ꜣ' and 't'. (Note that ꜣ ( , two half-rings opening to the left), sometimes replaced by the digit '3', is the Egyptian alef).
It is also possible to use the hieroglyph of the pintail duck without a link to its meaning in order to represent the two phonemes s and ꜣ, independently of any vowels that could accompany these consonants, and in this way write the word: sꜣ, "son", or when complemented by the context other signs detailed further in the text, sꜣ, "keep, watch"; and sꜣṯ.w, "hard ground". For example:
– the characters sꜣ;
– the same character used only in order to signify, according to the context, "pintail duck" or, with the appropriate determinative, "son", two words having the same or similar consonants; the meaning of the little vertical stroke will be explained further on:

– the character sꜣ as used in the word sꜣw, "keep, watch"[clarification needed]
As in the Arabic script, not all vowels were written in Egyptian hieroglyphs; it is debatable whether vowels were written at all. Possibly, as with Arabic, the semivowels /w/ and /j/ (as in English W and Y) could double as the vowels /u/ and /i/. In modern transcriptions, an e is added between consonants to aid in their pronunciation. For example, nfr "good" is typically written nefer. This does not reflect Egyptian vowels, which are obscure, but is merely a modern convention. Likewise, the ꜣ and ʾ are commonly transliterated as a, as in Ra.
Hieroglyphs are written from right to left, from left to right, or from top to bottom, the usual direction being from right to left[20] (although, for convenience, modern texts are often normalized into left-to-right order). The reader must consider the direction in which the asymmetrical hieroglyphs are turned in order to determine the proper reading order. For example, when human and animal hieroglyphs face to the left (i.e., they look left), they must be read from left to right, and vice versa, the idea being that the hieroglyphs face the beginning of the line.
As in many ancient writing systems, words are not separated by blanks or by punctuation marks. However, certain hieroglyphs appear particularly common only at the end of words, making it possible to readily distinguish words.
Uniliteral signs
Hieroglyphs at Amada, at temple founded by Tuthmosis III.
Main article: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian § Uniliteral signs
The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.[21]
Each uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.
Besides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language.
Phonetic complements
Egyptian writing is often redundant: in fact, it happens very frequently that a word might follow several characters writing the same sounds, in order to guide the reader. For example, the word nfr, "beautiful, good, perfect", was written with a unique triliteral that was read as nfr:
However, it is considerably more common to add to that triliteral, the uniliterals for f and r. The word can thus be written as nfr+f+r, but one still reads it merely as nfr. The two alphabetic characters are adding clarity to the spelling of the preceding triliteral hieroglyph.
Redundant characters accompanying biliteral or triliteral signs are called phonetic complements (or complementaries). They can be placed in front of the sign (rarely), after the sign (as a general rule), or even framing it (appearing both before and after). Ancient Egyptian scribes consistently avoided leaving large areas of blank space in their writing, and might add additional phonetic complements or sometimes even invert the order of signs if this would result in a more aesthetically pleasing appearance (good scribes attended to the artistic, and even religious, aspects of the hieroglyphs, and would not simply view them as a communication tool). Various examples of the use of phonetic complements can be seen below:
– md +d +w (the complementary d is placed after the sign) → it reads mdw, meaning "tongue".

– ḫ +p +ḫpr +r +j (the four complementaries frame the triliteral sign of the scarab beetle) → it reads ḫpr.j, meaning the name "Khepri", with the final glyph being the determinative for 'ruler or god'.
Notably, phonetic complements were also used to allow the reader to differentiate between signs that are homophones, or which do not always have a unique reading. For example, the symbol of "the seat" (or chair):
– This can be read st, ws and ḥtm, according to the word in which it is found. The presence of phonetic complements—and of the suitable determinative—allows the reader to know which of the three readings to choose:
1st Reading: st –

– st, written st+t ; the last character is the determinative of "the house" or that which is found there, meaning "seat, throne, place";

– st (written st+t ; the "egg" determinative is used for female personal names in some periods), meaning "Isis";
2nd Reading: ws –

– wsjr (written ws+jr, with, as a phonetic complement, "the eye", which is read jr, following the determinative of "god"), meaning "Osiris";
3rd Reading: ḥtm –
– ḥtm.t (written ḥ+ḥtm+m+t, with the determinative of "Anubis" or "the jackal"), meaning a kind of wild animal;
– ḥtm (written ḥ +ḥtm +t, with the determinative of the flying bird), meaning "to disappear".
Finally, it sometimes happens that the pronunciation of words might be changed because of their connection to Ancient Egyptian: in this case, it is not rare for writing to adopt a compromise in notation, the two readings being indicated jointly. For example, the adjective bnj, "sweet", became bnr. In Middle Egyptian, one can write:

– bnrj (written b+n+r+i, with determinative)
which is fully read as bnr, the j not being pronounced but retained in order to keep a written connection with the ancient word (in the same fashion as the English language words through, knife, or victuals, which are no longer pronounced the way they are written.)
Semantic reading
Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also called determinatives).[22]
Logograms
A hieroglyph used as a logogram defines the object of which it is an image. Logograms are therefore the most frequently used common nouns; they are always accompanied by a mute vertical stroke indicating their status as a logogram (the usage of a vertical stroke is further explained below); in theory, all hieroglyphs would have the ability to be used as logograms. Logograms can be accompanied by phonetic complements. Here are some examples:

– rꜥ, meaning "sun";

– pr, meaning "house";

– swt (sw+t), meaning "reed";

– ḏw, meaning "mountain".
In some cases, the semantic connection is indirect (metonymic or metaphoric):
– nṯr, meaning "god"; the character in fact represents a temple flag (standard);
– bꜣ, meaning "Bâ" (soul); the character is the traditional representation of a "bâ" (a bird with a human head);
– dšr, meaning "flamingo"; the corresponding phonogram means "red" and the bird is associated by metonymy with this color.
Determinatives
Determinatives or semagrams (semantic symbols specifying meaning) are placed at the end of a word. These mute characters serve to clarify what the word is about, as homophonic glyphs are common. If a similar procedure existed in English, words with the same spelling would be followed by an indicator that would not be read, but which would fine-tune the meaning: "retort [chemistry]" and "retort [rhetoric]" would thus be distinguished.
A number of determinatives exist: divinities, humans, parts of the human body, animals, plants, etc. Certain determinatives possess a literal and a figurative meaning. For example, a roll of papyrus,
is used to define "books" but also abstract ideas. The determinative of the plural is a shortcut to signal three occurrences of the word, that is to say, its plural (since the Egyptian language had a dual, sometimes indicated by two strokes). This special character is explained below.
Here, are several examples of the use of determinatives borrowed from the book, Je lis les hiéroglyphes ("I am reading hieroglyphs") by Jean Capart, which illustrate their importance:
– nfrw (w and the three strokes are the marks of the plural: [literally] "the beautiful young people", that is to say, the young military recruits. The word has a young-person determinative symbol:
– which is the determinative indicating babies and children;
– nfr.t (.t is here the suffix that forms the feminine): meaning "the nubile young woman", with
as the determinative indicating a woman;
– nfrw (the tripling of the character serving to express the plural, flexional ending w) : meaning "foundations (of a house)", with the house as a determinative,
;

– nfr : meaning "clothing" with
as the determinative for lengths of cloth;

– nfr : meaning "wine" or "beer"; with a jug
as the determinative.
All these words have a meliorative connotation: "good, beautiful, perfect". The Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian by Raymond A. Faulkner, gives some twenty words that are read nfr or which are formed from this word.
Additional signs
Cartouche
Rarely, the names of gods are placed within a cartouche; the two last names of the sitting king are always placed within a cartouche:

jmn-rꜥ, "Amon-Ra";

qljwꜣpdrꜣ.t, "Cleopatra";
Filling stroke
A filling stroke is a character indicating the end of a quadrat that would otherwise be incomplete.
Signs joined together
Some signs are the contraction of several others. These signs have, however, a function and existence of their own: for example, a forearm where the hand holds a scepter is used as a determinative for words meaning "to direct, to drive" and their derivatives.
Doubling
The doubling of a sign indicates its dual; the tripling of a sign indicates its plural.
Grammatical signs
The vertical stroke, indicating the sign is a logogram;
The two strokes of the "dual" and the three strokes of the "plural";
The direct notation of flexional endings, for example:
Spelling
Standard orthography—"correct" spelling—in Egyptian is much looser than in modern languages. In fact, one or several variants exist for almost every word. One finds:
Redundancies;
Omission of graphemes, which are ignored whether or not they are intentional;
Substitutions of one grapheme for another, such that it is impossible to distinguish a "mistake" from an "alternate spelling";
Errors of omission in the drawing of signs, which are much more problematic when the writing is cursive (hieratic) writing, but especially demotic, where the schematization of the signs is extreme.
However, many of these apparent spelling errors constitute an issue of chronology. Spelling and standards varied over time, so the writing of a word during the Old Kingdom might be considerably different during the New Kingdom. Furthermore, the Egyptians were perfectly content to include older orthography ("historical spelling") alongside newer practices, as though it were acceptable in English to use archaic spellings in modern texts. Most often, ancient "spelling errors" are simply misinterpretations of context. Today, hieroglyphicists use numerous cataloguing systems (notably the Manuel de Codage and Gardiner's Sign List) to clarify the presence of determinatives, ideograms, and other ambiguous signs in transliteration.
Simple examples

nomen or birth name
Ptolemy
in hieroglyphs
The glyphs in this cartouche are transliterated as:
p
t "ua" l
m y (ii) s

Ptolmys
though ii is considered a single letter and transliterated y.
Another way in which hieroglyphs work is illustrated by the two Egyptian words pronounced pr (usually vocalised as per). One word is 'house', and its hieroglyphic representation is straightforward:

Here, the 'house' hieroglyph works as a logogram: it represents the word with a single sign. The vertical stroke below the hieroglyph is a common way of indicating that a glyph is working as a logogram.
Another word pr is the verb 'to go out, leave'. When this word is written, the 'house' hieroglyph is used as a phonetic symbol:

Here, the 'house' glyph stands for the consonants pr. The 'mouth' glyph below it is a phonetic complement: it is read as r, reinforcing the phonetic reading of pr. The third hieroglyph is a determinative: it is an ideogram for verbs of motion that gives the reader an idea of the meaning of the word.
Encoding and font support
Egyptian hieroglyphs were added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009 with the release of version 5.2 which introduced the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block (U+13000–U+1342F) with 1,070 defined characters (and one reserved codepoint).
As of July 2013[update], four fonts, Aegyptus, NewGardiner, Noto Sans Egyptian Hieroglyphs and JSeshFont support this range. Another font, Segoe UI Historic, comes bundled with Windows 10 and also contains glyphs for the entire Egyptian Hieroglyphs block.
See also
Ancient Egypt portal
List of Egyptian hieroglyphs
Gardiner's sign list
Egyptian numerals
Egyptian language
Middle Bronze Age alphabets
Writing in Ancient Egypt
Manuel de Codage
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Notes and references
^ Jump up to: a b c Richard Mattessich (2002). "The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. JSTOR 40698264.
Jump up ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2 CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "hieroglyph". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b There were about 1,000 graphemes in the Old Kingdom period, reduced to around 750 to 850 in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom, but inflated to the order of some 5,000 signs in the Ptolemaic period. Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 12.
Jump up ^ The standard inventory of characters used in Egyptology is Gardiner's sign list (1928–1953). A.H. Gardiner (1928), Catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, from matrices owned and controlled by Dr. Alan Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1928)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929), p. 95; , "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1931)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17 (1931), pp. 245-247; A.H. Gardiner , "Supplement to the catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, showing acquisitions to December 1953" (1953). Unicode Egyptian Hieroglyphs as of version 5.2 (2009) assigned 1,070 Unicode characters.
Jump up ^ ἱερογλυφικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ ἱερός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ γλύφω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 11.
Jump up ^ "Hieroglyphic | Definition of Hieroglyphic by Merriam-Webster". Retrieved 2016-08-27.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Sampson (1 January 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1150–. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (December 2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–. ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56.
Jump up ^ "challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
Jump up ^ The latest presently known hieroglyphic inscription date: Birthday of Osiris, year 110 [of Diocletian], dated to August 24, 394[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Ahmed ibn 'Ali ibn al Mukhtar ibn 'Abd al Karim (called Ibn Wahshiyah) (1806). Ancient alphabets & hieroglyphic characters explained: with an account of the Egyptian priests, their classes, initiation time, & sacrifices by the aztecs and their birds, in the Arabic language. W. Bulmer & co. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Jean-François Champollion, Letter to M. Dacier , September 27, 1822
Jump up ^ Sir Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, Third Edition Revised , Griffith Institute (2005), p.25
Jump up ^ Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1973). Egyptian Grammar. Griffith Institute. ISBN 0-900416-35-1.
Jump up ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian, A Linguistic Introduction , Cambridge University Press (1995), p. 13
Further reading
Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (2000). The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-019439-1.
Allen, James P. (1999). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77483-7.
Collier, Mark & Bill Manley (1998). How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: a step-by-step guide to teach yourself. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1910-5.
Selden, Daniel L. (2013). Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-27546-2.
Faulkner, Raymond O. (1962). Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Griffith Institute. ISBN 0-900416-32-7.
Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1957). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, 3rd ed. The Griffith Institute.
Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588392312.
Kamrin, Janice (2004). Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-4961-X.
McDonald, Angela. Write Your Own Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25235-7).
External links
Look up hieroglyph in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics – Aldokkan
Glyphs and Grammars – Resources for those interested in learning hieroglyphs, compiled by Aayko Eyma
Hieroglyphics! – Annotated directory of popular and scholarly resources
Egyptian Language and Writing
Full-text of The stela of Menthu-weser
Wikimedia's hieroglyph writing codes
Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts – Ancient scripts free software fonts
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
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NDL: 00978198
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_hieroglyphs&oldid=837798118"
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Deciduous
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Deciduous (disambiguation).
Second-growth deciduous forest, Pennsylvania, United States
Deciduous forest in autumn, Hesse, Germany
Deciduous forest in winter, Denmark
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous means "falling off at maturity"[1] and "tending to fall off"[2] in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit.
Generally, the term deciduous means "the dropping of a part that is no longer needed" and the "falling away [of a part] after its purpose is finished". In plants, it is the result of natural processes. "Deciduous" has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer,[3] deciduous teeth (baby teeth) in some mammals (including humans); or decidua, the uterine lining that sheds off after birth.

Wood from deciduous trees is used in a variety of ways in industry including lumber for furniture, construction and flooring (oak), ornamental, bowling pins and baseball bats (maple) and furniture, cabinets, plywood and paneling (birch).
Contents
[hide]
1 Botany
2 Function
2.1 Deciduous woody plants
3 Regions
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Botany[edit]
In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year.[4] This process is called abscission.[5] In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter—namely in temperate or polar climates.[6] In other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during the dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall.
The converse of deciduous is evergreen, where foliage is shed on a different schedule from deciduous trees, therefore appearing to remain green year round.[7] Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins.[8] Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, retaining some during winter or dry periods.[9] Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that remain on the tree through winter; these dry persistent leaves are called marcescent leaves and are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.
Like a number of other deciduous plants, Forsythia flowers during the leafless season
Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. The absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as the flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, result in water stress on the plant. Nevertheless, there is much less branch and trunk breakage from glaze ice storms when leafless, and plants can reduce water loss due to the reduction in availability of liquid water during cold winter days.[10]
Leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. The process of photosynthesis steadily degrades the supply of chlorophylls in foliage; plants normally replenish chlorophylls during the summer months. When autumn arrives and the days are shorter or when plants are drought-stressed,[11] deciduous trees decrease chlorophyll pigment production, allowing other pigments present in the leaf to become apparent, resulting in non-green colored foliage. The brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing.[12] These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, and orange. Anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in the leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, when sugars are trapped in the leaves after the process of abscission begins. Parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. In other parts of the world, the leaves of deciduous trees simply fall off without turning the bright colors produced from the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.
Further information: Autumn leaf color
The beginnings of leaf drop starts when an abscission layer is formed between the leaf petiole and the stem. This layer is formed in the spring during active new growth of the leaf; it consists of layers of cells that can separate from each other. The cells are sensitive to a plant hormone called auxin that is produced by the leaf and other parts of the plant. When auxin coming from the leaf is produced at a rate consistent with that from the body of the plant, the cells of the abscission layer remain connected; in autumn, or when under stress, the auxin flow from the leaf decreases or stops, triggering cellular elongation within the abscission layer. The elongation of these cells break the connection between the different cell layers, allowing the leaf to break away from the plant. It also forms a layer that seals the break, so the plant does not lose sap.
A number of deciduous plants remove nitrogen and carbon from the foliage before they are shed and store them in the form of proteins in the vacuoles of parenchyma cells in the roots and the inner bark. In the spring, these proteins are used as a nitrogen source during the growth of new leaves or flowers.[13]
Function[edit]
Deciduous plants in mid- to high latitudes shed their leaves as temperatures drop in autumn.[14]
Plants with deciduous foliage have advantages and disadvantages compared to plants with evergreen foliage. Since deciduous plants lose their leaves to conserve water or to better survive winter weather conditions, they must regrow new foliage during the next suitable growing season; this uses resources which evergreens do not need to expend. Evergreens suffer greater water loss during the winter and they also can experience greater predation pressure, especially when small. Losing leaves in winter may reduce damage from insects; repairing leaves and keeping them functional may be more costly than just losing and regrowing them.[15] Removing leaves also reduces cavitation which can damage xylem vessels in plants. This then allows deciduous plants to have xylem vessels with larger diameters and therefore a greater rate of transpiration (and hence CO2 uptake as this occurs when stomata are open) during the summer growth period.
Deciduous woody plants[edit]
The deciduous characteristic has developed repeatedly among woody plants. Trees include maple, many oaks and nothofagus, elm, aspen,and birch, among others, as well as a number of coniferous genera, such as larch and Metasequoia. Deciduous shrubs include honeysuckle, viburnum, and many others. Most temperate woody vines are also deciduous, including grapes, poison ivy, Virginia creeper, wisteria, etc. The characteristic is useful in plant identification; for instance in parts of Southern California and the American Southeast, deciduous and evergreen oak species may grow side by side.
Periods of leaf fall often coincide with seasons: winter in the case of cool-climate plants or the dry-season in the case of tropical plants,[16] however there are no deciduous species among tree-like monocotyledonous plants, e.g. palms, yuccas, and dracaenas. The hydrangea hirta is a deciduous woody shrub found in Japan.
Regions[edit]
Forests where a majority of the trees lose their foliage at the end of the typical growing season are called deciduous forests. These forests are found in many areas worldwide and have distinctive ecosystems, understory growth, and soil dynamics.[17] For example, these biomes differ in their canopy cover. The canopies of temperate deciduous forests let light reach the forest floor which creates more diversity in the plant and animal species. Tropical and subtropical canopies have several layers which prevents most of the sunlight from reaching the forest floor. [18]
Two distinctive types of deciduous forest are found growing around the world.
Temperate deciduous forest biomes are plant communities distributed in North and South America, Asia, Southern slopes of the Himalayas, Europe and for cultivation purposes in Oceania. They have formed under climatic conditions which have great seasonable temperature variability with growth occurring during warm summers and leaf drop in autumn and dormancy during cold winters. These seasonally distinctive communities have diverse life forms that are impacted greatly by the seasonality of their climate, mainly temperature and precipitation rates. These varying and regionally different ecological conditions produce distinctive forest plant communities in different regions.
Tropical and subtropical deciduous forest biomes have developed in response not to seasonal temperature variations but to seasonal rainfall patterns. During prolonged dry periods the foliage is dropped to conserve water and prevent death from drought. Leaf drop is not seasonally dependent as it is in temperate climates, and can occur any time of year and varies by region of the world. Even within a small local area there can be variations in the timing and duration of leaf drop; different sides of the same mountain and areas that have high water tables or areas along streams and rivers can produce a patchwork of leafy and leafless trees.[19]
Lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) dominates deciduous woodland in early spring.
Dry-season deciduous tropical forest
Mixed tropical and subtropical deciduous forest in spring, Texas, United States
See also[edit]
Evergreen
Semi-evergreen / semi-deciduous
Marcescence
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William Dwight Whitney; Century Dictionary. The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia: Dictionary. books.google.com. p. 1484.
Jump up ^ Debra J. Housel; Capstone Publishers (2009). Ecosystems. books.google.com. ISBN 9780756540685.
Jump up ^ Gause, John Taylor (1955). The Complete Word Hunter. A Crowell reference book. New York: Crowell. p. 465.
Jump up ^ University of the Western Cape. "Trees that lose their leaves". botany.uwc.ac.za. Archived from the original on 25 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Dr. Kim D. Coder; University of Georgia (1999). "Falling Tree Leaves: Leaf Abscission" (PDF). forestry.uga.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Science Daily. "Science Reference: Deciduous". sciencedaily.com.
Jump up ^ J. Robert Nuss; Pennsylvania State University (2007). "Evergreen Shrubs and Trees for Pennsylvania" (PDF). psu.edu.
Jump up ^ "The Illinois - North Carolina Collaborative Environment for Botanical Resources: Openkey Project. Glossary of Botanical Terms. Page 22" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-07-17.
Jump up ^ Weber, William. 2001. African rain forest ecology and conservation an interdisciplinary perspective. New Haven: Yale University Press. page 15.
Jump up ^ Lemon, P. C. (1961). "Forest ecology of ice storms". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 88, No. 1. 88 (21): 21. doi:10.2307/2482410. JSTOR 2482410.
Jump up ^ Mohammad Pessarakli (2005). Handbook of photosynthesis. CRC Press. pp. 725–. ISBN 978-0-8247-5839-4. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Donald W. Linzey (1 April 2008). A natural history guide to Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Univ. of Tennessee Press. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-1-57233-612-4. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Srivastava, Lalit M. (2002). Plant growth and development. Hormones and environment. Amsterdam: Academic Press. p. 476. ISBN 0-12-660570-X.
Jump up ^ Bonan, Gordon (2015). Ecological Climatology: Concepts and Applications. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 9781316425190.
Jump up ^ Labandeira, C. C.; Dilcher, D. L.; Davis, D. R.; Wagner, D. L. (1994). "Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (25): 12278–12282. Bibcode:1994PNAS...9112278L. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.25.12278. PMC 45420  . PMID 11607501.
Jump up ^ Cundall, Peter (2005). Flora: The Gardener’s Bible: Over 20,000 Plants. Ultimo, NSW, Australia: ABC Publishing. ISBN 0-7333-1094-X.
Jump up ^ Röhrig, Ernst; Ulrich, Bernhard, eds. (1991). Temperate deciduous forests. Ecosystems of the world, 7. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-88599-4.
Jump up ^ "Deciduous Forest". biologydictionary.net. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Bullock, Stephen H.; J. Arturo Solis-Magallanes (March 1990). "Phenology of Canopy Trees of a Tropical Deciduous Forest in Mexico". Biotropica. 22 (1): 22–35. doi:10.2307/2388716. JSTOR 2388716.
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of deciduous at Wiktionary
Media related to Deciduous forests at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deciduous&oldid=815051484"
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Crest (physics)
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A crest is the point on a wave with the maximum value or upward displacement within a cycle. A crest is a point on the wave where the displacement of the medium is at a maximum. A trough is the opposite of a crest, so the minimum or lowest point in a cycle. A point on the wave is a trough if the displacement of the medium. A "trough" is lowest point or lowest stage of the wave a movement within a cycle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Interference
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
Interference[edit]
When the crests and troughs of two sine waves of equal amplitude and frequency intersect or collide, while being in phase with each other, the result is called constructive interference and the magnitudes double (above and below the line). When in antiphase – 180° out of phase – the result is destructive interference: the resulting wave is the undisturbed line having zero amplitude.
See also[edit]
Crest factor
Superposition principle
Wave
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Kinsman, Blair (1984), Wind Waves: Their Generation and Propagation on the Ocean Surface, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-49511-6 , 704 pages.
This physics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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List of individuals executed in Louisiana
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A total of 28 individuals convicted of murder have been executed by the state of Louisiana since 1976: The most recent Louisiana inmate to be put to death, Gerald Bordelon, waived his appeals and asked the state to carry out his sentence.
Executed person
Date of execution
Method
Victims
Under Governor
1 Robert Wayne Williams 14 December 1983 electric chair Willie Kelly. David C. Treen
2 Johnny Taylor, Jr. 29 February 1984 David Vogler.
3 Elmo Patrick Sonnier 5 April 1984 Loretta Bourque and David LeBlanc. Edwin Edwards
4 Timothy G. Baldwin 10 September 1984 Mary Lee Peters.
5 Ernest Knighton, Jr. 30 October 1984 Ralph Shell.
6 Robert Lee Willie 28 December 1984 Faith Hathaway.
7 David Dene Martin 4 January 1985 Bobby Todd.
8 Benjamin Berry 7 June 1987 Robert Cochran.
9 Alvin R. Moore, Jr. 8 June 1987 Jo Ann Wilson.
10 Jimmy L. Glass 12 June 1987 Newt Brown and Erlene Brown.
11 Jimmy Wingo 16 June 1987
12 Willie Celestine 20 July 1987 Marcelaine Richard.
13 Willie Watson 24 July 1987 Kathy Newman.
14 John E. Brogdon 30 July 1987 Barbara Jo Brown.
15 Sterling J. Rault, Jr. 24 August 1987 Jane Ellen Francioni.
16 Wayne Robert Felde 15 March 1988 Glen Thompkins. Buddy Roemer
17 Leslie Lowenfield 13 April 1988 Shiela Thomas, Shantel Osborne, Carol Osborne, Owen Griffin, and Myrtle Griffin.
18 Edward R. Byme, Jr. 14 June 1988 Robert Johnson.
19 Dalton Prejean 18 May 1990 Louisiana State Police Trooper Donald Cleveland.
20 Andrew Lee Jones 22 July 1991 Tumekica Jackson.
21 Robert Wayne Sawyer 5 March 1993 lethal injection Frances Arwood. Edwin Edwards
22 Thomas Lee Ward 16 March 1995 Wilbert John Spencer.
23 Antonio G. James 1 March 1996 Henry Silver. Murphy J. Foster, Jr.
24 John Ashley Brown, Jr. 24 April 1997 Omer Laughlin.
25 Dobie Gillis Williams 8 January 1999 Sonja Knippers.
26 Feltus Taylor, Jr. 6 June 2000 Donna Ponsano.
27 Leslie Dale Martin 10 May 2002 Christina Burgin.
28 Gerald Bordelon 7 January 2010 Courtney LeBlanc. Bobby Jindal
See also[edit]
Capital punishment in Louisiana
Capital punishment in the United States
Notes[edit]
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