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Négritude
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See also: Créolité and Antillanité
Négritude is a framework of critique and literary theory, developed mainly by francophone intellectuals, writers, and politicians of the African diaspora during the 1930s. Its initiators included Martinican poet Aimé Césaire, Léopold Sédar Senghor (the first President of Senegal), and Léon Damas of French Guiana. Négritude intellectuals disavowed colonialism, and argued for the importance of a Pan-African racial identity among people of African descent worldwide. Négritude intellectuals employed Marxist political philosophy, in the black radical tradition. The writers generally used a realist literary style, and some say they were also influenced somewhat by the Surrealist stylistics. In 1932, the manifesto "Murderous Humanitarianism" was signed by prominent Surrealists, including the Martinicans Pierre Yoyotte and J. M. Monnerot.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Influences
3 Development during the 20th century
4 Reception
5 Other uses
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 Filmography
11 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term négritude is a construction which appropriates the derogatory word niger, used to refer to people (in French) as nègre, so largely used exclusively in a racist context. The movement's use of the word négritude is a way of re-imagining the word as an emic form of empowerment. The term was first used in its present sense by Césaire, in the third issue of L'Étudiant noir, a magazine which he had started in Paris with fellow students Léopold Senghor and Léon Damas, as well as Gilbert Gratiant, Leonard Sainville, Louis T. Achille, Aristide Maugée, and Paulette Nardal. L'Étudiant noir also includes Césaire's first published work, Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale with the heading "Les Idées" and the rubric "Négreries", which is notable for its disavowal of assimilation as a valid strategy for resistance and for its use of the word nègre as a positive term. The problem with assimilation was that one assimilated into a culture that considered African culture to be barbaric and unworthy of being seen as "civilized". The assimilation into this culture would have been seen as an implicit acceptance of this view. Nègre previously had been used mainly in a pejorative sense. Césaire deliberately incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his philosophy.
Influences[edit]
In 1885, Haitian anthropologist Anténor Firmin published an early work De l'Égalité des Races Humaines (On the Equality of Human Races), which was published as a rebuttal to French writer Count Arthur de Gobineau's Essai sur l'inegalite des Races Humaines (An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races). Firmin influenced Jean Price-Mars, the initiator of Haitian ethnology and developer of the concept of Indigenism, and 20th-century American anthropologist Melville Herskovits.[1] Black intellectuals have historically been proud of Haiti due to its slave revolution commanded by Toussaint L'Ouverture during the 1790s. Césaire spoke, thus, of Haiti as being "where négritude stood up for the first time".
Other diverse thinkers include Charles Baudelaire, André Breton, René Maran, and Arthur Rimbaud.[2]
The Harlem Renaissance, a literary style developed in Harlem in Manhattan during the 1920s and 1930s, influenced the Negritude philosophy.[3] The Harlem Renaissance's writers, including Langston Hughes and Richard Wright, addressed the themes of "noireism" and race relations.
Development during the 20th century[edit]
During the 1920s and 1930s, a group of young black students and scholars, primarily from France's colonies and territories, assembled in Paris. There they were introduced to some writers of the Harlem Renaissance by Paulette Nardal and her sister Jane. The Nardal sisters contributed to the Negritude discussions by their writings and by being the proprietors of the Clamart Salon, a tea-shop venue of the French-Black intelligentsia where Negritude philosophy was often discussed. Paulette Nardal and the Haitian Dr. Leo Sajou initiated La revue du Monde Noir (1931–32), a literary journal published in English and French, which attempted to appeal to African and Caribbean intellectuals in Paris. This Harlem association was shared by the parallel development of negrismo in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean region.
Although each of the initiators had his own ideas about the purpose and styles of la Négritude, the philosophy was characterized generally by opposing colonialism, the denunciation of Europe's alleged lack of humanity, and the rejection of Western domination and ideas. The movement also appears to have had some Heideggerian strands in the sense that the goal of this movement was to achieve blacks' "being-in-the-world". This was to emphasize that blacks did have a history and a worthy culture, and that it was capable of standing alongside the cultures of other countries as equals. Also important was the acceptance of and pride in being black and a celebration of African history, traditions, and beliefs. Their literary style was realistic and they cherished Marxist ideas.
Motivation for the Negritude movement was a result of Aimé Césaire’s, Leopold Senghor’s, and Leon Damas’s dissatisfaction, disgust, and personal conflict over the state of black French experience in France. All three shared a personal sense of revolt for the racism and colonial injustices that plagued their world and their French education. Senghor refused to believe that the purpose of his education was "to build Christianity and civilization in his soul where there was only paganism and barbarism before". Césaire's disgust came as embarrassment when he was accused by some of the people of the caribbean as having nothing to do with the people of Africa—whom they saw as savages. They separated themselves from Africa and proclaimed themselves as civilized. He denounced the writers from the Caribbean as "intellectually... corrupt and literarily nourished with white decadence".[4] Damas believed this because of the pride these writers would take when a white person could read their whole book and not be able to tell the author's complexion.
Césaire was a poet, playwright, and politician from Martinique. He studied in Paris, where he discovered the black community and "rediscovered Africa". He saw la Négritude as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of the history and culture, and of black people. It is important to note that for Césaire, this emphasis on the acceptance of the fact of "blackness" was the means by which the "decolonization of the mind" could be achieved. According to him, western imperialism was responsible for the inferiority complex of blacks. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of Blacks—the slave trade and plantation system. Césaire's ideology was especially important during the early years of la Négritude.
Neither Césaire—who after returning to Martinique after his studies was elected mayor of Fort de France, the capital, and a representative of Martinique in France's Parliament—nor Senghor in Senegal envisaged political independence from France. Négritude would, according to Senghor, enable Blacks in French lands to have a "seat at the give and take [French] table as equals". However the French eventually presented Senegal and its other African colonies with independence.
Poet and the later first president of Sénégal, Senghor used la Négritude to work toward a universal valuation of African people. He advocated a modern incorporation of the expression and celebration of traditional African customs and ideas. This interpretation of la Négritude tended to be the most common, particularly during later years.
Damas was a French Guyanese poet and National Assembly member. He had a militant style of defending "black qualities" and rejected any kind of reconciliation with caucasians. Two particular anthologies were pivotal to the movement, which would serve as manifestos for the movement. One was published by Damas in 1946, Poètes d'expression française 1900–1945. Senghor would then go on to publish Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française in 1948. Damas’s introduction to the anthology and the anthology was meant to be a sort of manifesto for the movement, but Senghor's own anthology eventually took that role. Though it would be the “Preface” written by French philosopher and public intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre for the anthology which would propel Negritude into the broader intellectual conversation.
As a manifesto for the Negritude movement Damas’ introduction was more political and cultural in nature. A distinctive feature of Damas’s anthology and beliefs was that Damas felt that his message was one for the colonized in general, and included poets from Indochina and Madagascar. This is sharply in contrast to Senghor’s anthology which would be published two years later. In the introduction Damas proclaimed that now was the age where "the colonized man becomes aware of his rights and of his duties as a writer, as a novelist or a storyteller, an essayist or a poet." Damas explicitly outlines the themes of the anthology. He says, "Poverty, illiteracy, exploitation of man by man, social and political racism suffered by the black or the yellow, forced labor, inequalities, lies, resignation, swindles, prejudices, complacencies, cowardice, failure, crimes committed in the name of liberty, of equality, of fraternity, that is the theme of this indigenous poetry in French." Damas’ introduction was indeed a calling and affirmation for a distinct cultural identification.
Reception[edit]
In 1948, Jean-Paul Sartre analyzed the négritude philosophy in an essay called "Orphée Noir" ("Black Orpheus")[5] that served as the introduction to a volume of francophone poetry named Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache, compiled by Léopold Senghor. In this essay, Sartre characterizes négritude as the opposite of colonial racism in a Hegelian dialectic and with it he helped to introduce Négritude issues to French intellectuals. In his opinion, négritude was an "anti-racist racism" (racisme antiraciste), a strategy with a final goal of racial unity.
Négritude was criticized by some black writers during the 1960s as insufficiently militant. Keorapetse Kgositsile said that the term Négritude was based too much on blackness according to a caucasian aesthetic, and was unable to define a new kind of perception of African-ness that would free black people and black art from caucasian conceptualizations altogether.
The Nigerian dramatist, poet, and novelist Wole Soyinka opposed Négritude. He believed that by deliberately and outspokenly being proud of their ethnicity, black people were automatically on the defensive: "Un tigre ne proclame pas sa tigritude, il saute sur sa proie" (French: A tiger doesn't proclaim its tigerness; it jumps on its prey).
After a long period of silence there has been a renaissance of Negritude developed by scholars such as Souleymane Bachir Diagne (Columbia), Donna Jones (Berkeley),[6] and Cheikh Thiam (Ohio State) who all continue the work of Abiola Irele. Cheikh Thiam's book is the only book-length study of Negritude as philosophy. It develops Diagne's reading of Negritude as a philosophy of art, and Jones' presentation of Negritude as a lebensphilosophie.
Other uses[edit]
American physician Benjamin Rush, a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and early abolitionist, used the term negritude to imagine a rhetorical "disease" which he said was a mild form of leprosy, the only cure of which was to become white. This early use of the term may not have been known by the Francophone blacks who developed the philosophy of Negritude during the 20th century.[7]
Novelist Norman Mailer used the term to describe boxer George Foreman's physical and psychological presence in his book The Fight, a journalistic treatment of the legendary Ali vs. Foreman "Rumble in the Jungle" bout in Kinshasa, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) in October 1974.
See also[edit]
Black Skin, White Masks
Black Consciousness Movement
Black Surrealism
Black Power
Black Power Revolution
Angolanidade ("Angolan-ness")
Authenticité
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn (2005). "Anténor Firmin and Haiti's contribution to anthropology". Gradhiva – musée du quai Branly (2005 : Haïti et l'anthropologie): 95–108.
Jump up ^ "Négritude", Africana Age.
Jump up ^ Murphey, David "Birth of a Nation? The Origins of Senegalese Literature in French", Research in African Literature 39.1 (2008): 48–69. Web. 9 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Diagne, Souleymane Bachir (2014). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Négritude (Spring 2014 ed.).
Jump up ^ The title subsequently inspired the name of the Nigerian magazine Black Orpheus — see Peter Benson, Black Orpheus, Transition, and Modern Cultural Awakening in Africa, University of California Press, 1986, p. 24.
Jump up ^ "Donna V. Jones", English Department, University of California, Berkeley.
Jump up ^ Vernellia R. Randall. "An Early History – African American Mental Health". Retrieved 2008-12-21.
References[edit]
Christian Filostrat, "La Négritude et la 'Conscience raciale et révolution sociale' d'Aimé Césaire". Présence Francophone, No. 21, Automne 1980. pp. 119–130.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. "Orphée Noir". Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache. ed. Léopold Senghor. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, p. xiv (1948).
Condé, Maryse (1998), "O Brave New World", Research in African Literatures, 29: 1–7, archived from the original on 2001-04-06 .
Bibliography[edit]
Original texts
Césaire, Aimé: Return to My Native Land, Bloodaxe Books, 1997, ISBN 1-85224-184-5
Césaire, Aimé: Discourse on Colonialism, Monthly Review Press, 2000 (orig. 1950), ISBN 1-58367-025-4
Damas, Léon-Gontran, Poètes d'expression française.Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1947
Damas, Léon-Gontan, Mine de Rien, Poèmes inédits.
Diop, Birago, Leurres et lueurs. Paris: Présence Africaine, 1960
Senghor, Léopold Sedar, The Collected Poetry, University of Virginia Press, 1998
Senghor, Léopold Sédar, Ce que je crois. Paris: Grasset, 1988
Tadjo, Véronique, Red Earth/Latérite. Spokane, Washington: Eastern Washington University Press, 2006
Secondary literature
Cheikh Thiam, Return to the Kingdom of Childhood: Re-envisioning the Legacy and Philosophical Relevance of Negritude, The Ohio State University Press, 2014
T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, Negritude Women, University of Minnesota Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8166-3680-X
Christian Filostrat, Negritude Agonistes, Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9818939-2-1
Gary Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude & Colonial Humanism Between the Two World Wars, University of Chicago Press, 2005, ISBN 0-226-89772-9
Thompson, Peter, Negritude and Changing Africa: An Update, in Research in African Literatures, Winter 2002
Thompson, Peter, Négritude et nouveaux mondes—poésie noire: africaine, antillaise et malgache. Concord, Mass: Wayside Publishing, 1994
Filmography[edit]
Négritude: Naissance et expansion du concept a documentary by Nathalie Fave and Jean-Baptiste Fave, first minutes online, with the interventions of Amadou Lamine Sall, Racine Senghor, Lylian Kesteloot, Jean-Louis Roy, Jacqueline Lemoine, Gérard Chenêt, Victor Emmanuel Cabrita, Nafissatou Dia Diouf, Amadou Ly, Youssoufa Bâ, Raphaël Ndiaye, Alioune Badara Bèye, Hamidou Dia, Georges Courrèges, Baba Diop; Maison Africaine de la Poésie Internationale. Shot in Sénégal in 2005, 56' (DVD)
External links[edit]
Noir, Journal Mensuel de l'Association des Etudiants Martiniquais en France, PREMIERE ANNEE N. 3 MAI-JUN 1935,
Césaire et l'introduction de la notion "négritude"
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A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment and the allocation of capital goods is performed through economy-wide economic and production plans. A planned economy may be based on centralized, decentralized or participatory forms of economic planning.[1][2] A command economy or administrative command economy is any of the nominally-planned economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, highlighting the central role of hierarchical administration in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems as opposed to planned coordination.[3][4]
Planned economies are usually associated with Soviet-type central planning, which involves centralized state planning and administrative decision making.[5] In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.[6] Planned economies are held in contrast to unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where production, distribution, pricing and investment decisions are made by autonomous firms operating in markets. Market economies that use indicative planning are sometimes referred to as “planned market economies”.
The traditional conception of socialism involves the integration of socially-owned economic enterprises via some form of planning with direct calculation substituting factor markets. As such the concept of a planned economy is often associated with socialism and socialist planning.[7][8][9] More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Planned versus command economies
2 Advantages of economic planning
3 Disadvantages of economic planning
3.1 Inefficient resource distribution: surplus and shortage
3.2 Suppression of economic democracy and self-management
3.3 Economic instability
4 Relationship with socialism
5 Computational economic planning
6 Fictional portrayals of planned economies
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Further reading
10 External links
Planned versus command economies[edit]
Main article: Economic planning
Planned economies are held in contrast with command economies, where a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc."[11] but a command economy, while also having this type of regulation, necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry.[12] Therefore, command economies are planned economies, but not necessarily the reverse.
Whereas most of the economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies. For example, Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy, and therefore would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.[13]
Although planned economies have historically been associated with Marxist-Leninist states and the Soviet economic model, some argue[weasel words] that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment; therefore the further distinction of an administrative command economy emerged as a more accurate designation for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy.[14] The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored by Chile with the creation of Project Cybersyn and Alexander Kharkevich head of the Department of technical physics in Kiev in 1962.[15][16]
Another key difference is that command economies are inherently authoritarian, whereas economic planning in general can be either participatory and democratic or authoritarian. Indicative planning is a form of planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. For example, in some predominately market-oriented and mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning, while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.
Another example of this is the utilization of dirigisme, or government direction of the economy through non coercive means, both of which were practiced in France and Great Britain after the Second World War. Swedish public housing models were planned by the government in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme.
Advantages of economic planning[edit]
The government can harness land, labours, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy, although the statistics concerning infant mortality are self-reported and based on varying standards.[17] The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of GNP dedicated to private consumption from eighty percent to fifty percent.[18] As a result, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector, in both relative and absolute terms.
Disadvantages of economic planning[edit]
Inefficient resource distribution: surplus and shortage[edit]
Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages, and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the "economic calculation problem" and "local knowledge problem" respectively. These opponents of central planning argue that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs, and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances, is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers, most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to Tibor R. Machan, "Without a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals."[19]
Suppression of economic democracy and self-management[edit]
Economist Robin Hahnel notes that, even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.[20]
Says Hahnel, "Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power."[20]
Economic instability[edit]
Studies of Eastern European planned economies in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that, contrary to the expectations of both groups, they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period.[21]
Relationship with socialism[edit]
Main article: Socialism
While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve ex-ante coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically, so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers.[22] The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate.
Computational economic planning[edit]
In their book Towards a New Socialism (1993) the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from the Wake Forest University shows in detail how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free market economies and also morally desirable.
In 1971, when the development of computer technology was still its early stages, the democratically elected socialist Allende regime launched the Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organisation in the economy for the communication of economic data between the corporations and the government. The data was also fed into a computer simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for realtime observation and management of the overall economy. The project was initially successful but in 1973 it was violently ended by a CIA sponsored military coup led by Pinochet. He installed himself as a dictator and replaced the socialist economy with a neoliberal free market economy inspired and advised by Milton Friedman.
Fictional portrayals of planned economies[edit]
The 1888 novel Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.
The World State in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Airstrip One in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four are both fictional examples of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims: The former is a consumer economy designed to engender productivity while the latter is a shortage economy designed as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organised by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.
Other literary portrayals of planned economies were Yevgeny Zamyatin's We, which was an influence on Orwell's work. Like Nineteen Eighty Four, Ayn Rand's dystopian story Anthem was also an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by We. The difference is that it was a primitivist planned economy, as opposed to the advanced technology of We or Brave New World.
See also[edit]
Calculation in kind
Communist state
Communist economy
Dirigisme
Distributed economy
Economic democracy
Economic equilibrium
Economic calculation problem
Economic planning
Horizontalidad
Inclusive democracy
Indicative planning
Industrial democracy
Input-output model
Material balance planning
Market economy
Marxism-Leninism
Mixed economy
Participatory economics
Production for use
Project Cybersyn
Public ownership
Peer-to-Peer economy
Socialist calculation debate
Socialist economy
State capitalism
Technocracy
Self-managed economy
Case studies (Soviet-type economies)
Analysis of Soviet-type economic planning
Five-Year Plans in the Soviet Union
Five-year plans of China
OGAS, a plan for creating a computer network to supervise the Soviet economy
Project Cybersyn, a project for a computer network controlling the economy of Chile under Salvador Allende.
Eastern Bloc economies
Case studies (Mixed-market economies)
Indicative planning in France
First Malaysia Plan
Five-year plans of Argentina
Five-Year Plans of South Korea
Economy of Singapore
Economy of India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Alec Nove (1987), "Planned Economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 879.
Jump up ^ Devine, Pat (July 26, 2010). Democracy and Economic Planning. Polity. ISBN 978-0745634791.
Jump up ^ Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy". Soviet Studies. 37 (1): 118–30. doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica. Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22. ISBN 0-230-54697-8. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...
Jump up ^ Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (October 1988). Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach. Harcourt College Pub. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-15-512403-5. Almost all industry in the Soviet Union is government owned and all production is directed, in theory, by a central plan (though in practice much is left for local discretion and much happens that is unplanned or not under government control).
Jump up ^ Rosser, Mariana V.; Rosser, J Barkley (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8. In a command economy the most important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.
Jump up ^ Prychito, David L. (July 31, 2002). Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1840645194. Traditional socialism strives to plan all economic activities comprehensively, both within and between enterprises. As such, it seeks to integrate the economic activities of society (the coordination of socially owned property) into a single coherent plan, rather than to rely upon the spontaneous or anarchic ordering of the market system to coordinate plans.
Jump up ^ Mandel, Ernest (1986). "In Defence of Socialist Planning" (PDF). New Left Review. 159: 5–37. Planning is not equivalent to 'perfect' allocation of resources, nor 'scientific' allocation, nor even ‘more humane’ allocation. It simply means ‘direct’ allocation, ex ante. As such, it is the opposite of market allocation, which is ex post.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (March 31, 1989). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0521358668. ‘socialist planning’, in the original sense of a national economy which replaced market relationships by direct calculation and direct product exchange, has nowhere been established…
Jump up ^ Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, Towards a new socialism (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 28 February 2017.
Jump up ^ planned economy. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (accessed: May 11, 2008).
Jump up ^ command economy. In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008) (accessed May 11, 2008).
Jump up ^ Trotsky, Leon. Writings 1932–33. p. 96.
Jump up ^ Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica. Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22. ISBN 0-230-54697-8. Realization of these facts led in the 1970s and 1980s to the development of new terms to describe what had previously been (and still were in United Nations publications) referred to as the ‘centrally planned economies’. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...
Jump up ^ http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983
Jump up ^ Kharkevich, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1973). Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3. Information and technology: Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems. p. 524.
Jump up ^ Michael Ellman (2014). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107427320 p. 372.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Paul (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Random House. pp. 322–3. ISBN 0-394-54674-1.
Jump up ^ Machan, R. Tibor (2002). "Some Skeptical Reflections on Research and Development". Liberty and Research and Development: Science Funding in a Free Society (PDF). Hoover Press. ISBN 0-8179-2942-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Hahnel, Robin (2002). The ABC's of Political Economy. London: Pluto Press. p. 262. ISBN 0-7453-1858-4.
Jump up ^ Zielinski, J. G. (1973). Economic Reforms in Polish Industry. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215323-4.
Jump up ^ Feinstein, C.H. (1975). Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb. Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-521-29007-4. We have presented the view that planning and market mechanisms are instruments that can be used both in socialist and non-socialist societies...It was important to explode the primitive identification of central planning and socialism and to stress the instrumental character of planning.
Further reading[edit]
Michael Ellman (2014). Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press; 3 edition. ISBN 1107427320
Gregory Grossman (1987): "Command economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 494–95.
Carl Landauer (1947): Theory of National Economic Planning. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles, Second edition.
Alec Nove (1987): "Planned economy," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 879–85.
Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010), Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-470-59619-7
Cox, Robin 2005, "The Economic Calculation controversy: unravelling of a myth" [1]'
Devine, Pat.'Democracy and Economic Planning. Polity. 2010. ISBN 978-0745634791
Mandel, Ernest. In Defence of Socialist Planning. New Left Review, Issue 159. 1986.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Planned Economy
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An article "Economic planning in India"
The Stalin Model for the Control and Coordination of Enterprises in a Socialist Economy
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Elements of music
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This notation indicates differing pitch, dynamics, articulation, instrumentation, timbre, and rhythm (duration and onset/order).
Music can be analysed by considering a variety of its elements, or parts (aspects, characteristics, features), individually or together. A commonly used list of the main elements includes pitch, timbre, texture, volume, duration and form. The elements of music may be compared to the elements of art or design.
Contents
[hide]
1 Selection of elements
2 Definition of music
3 Universal aspect
4 Other terms
5 See also
6 Sources
7 Further reading
Selection of elements[edit]
According to Howard Gardner (1983, 104), there is little dispute about the principal constituent elements of music, though experts differ on their precise definitions. Harold Owen bases his list on the qualities of sound: pitch, timbre, intensity, and duration (Owen 2000, 6). Most definitions of music include a reference to sound (Google.com.au 2015; Dictionary.com 2015; Merriam-webster.com 2015; Anon. & 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003) and sound perception can be divided into six cognitive processes. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location (Burton 2015, 22–28).
A parameter is any element that can be manipulated (composed) separately from other elements or focused on separately in an educational context.[citation needed] Leonard B. Meyer compares distinguishing parameters within a culture by their different constraints to distinguishing independent parameters within music, such as melody, harmony, timbre, "etc." (Meyer 1989, 21n44). The first person to apply the term parameter to music may have been Joseph Schillinger, though its relative popularity may be due to Werner Meyer-Eppler (Grant 2005, 62n85). Gradation is gradual change within one parameter, or an overlapping of two blocks of sound.
Meyer gives melody, rhythm, timbre, harmony, "and the like" (Meyer 1973, 9), while Narmour lists, melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics, tessitura, timbre, tempo, meter, texture, "and perhaps others" (Narmour 1988, 326). According to McClellan, two things should be considered, the quality or state of an element and its change over time (McClellan 2000, 142). Alan P. Merriam (1964, 32–33) proposed a theoretical research model that assumes three aspects are always present in musical activity: concept, behaviour, and sound. Virgil Thomson (1957, vii) lists the "raw materials" of music in order of their supposed discovery: rhythm, melody, and harmony; including counterpoint and orchestration. Near the end of the twentieth century music scholarship began to give more attention to social and physical elements of music (Moran 2013, 59). For example: performance, social, gender, dance, and theater.
Definition of music[edit]
Circular definition of "musicality"
Main article: Definition of music
Does the definition of music determine its aspects, or does the combination of certain aspects determine the definition of music? For example, intensional definitions list aspects or elements that make up their subject.
Some definitions refer to music as a score, or a composition (Dictionary.com 2015; Merriam-webster.com 2015; Oxforddictionaries.com): music can be read as well as heard, and a piece of music written but never played is a piece of music notwithstanding. The process of reading music, at least for trained musicians, involves a process, called "inner hearing" or "audiation" by Gordon, where the music is heard in the mind as if it were being played (Gordon 1999). This suggests that while sound is often considered a required aspect of music, it may not be.
Jean Molino (1975, 43) points out that "any element belonging to the total musical fact can be isolated, or taken as a strategic variable of musical production." Nattiez gives as examples Mauricio Kagel's Con Voce [with voice], where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments. In this example sound, a common element, is excluded, while gesture, a less common element, is given primacy. However Nattiez goes on to say that despite special cases where sound is not immediately obvious (because it is heard in the mind): "sound is a minimal condition of the musical fact" (Nattiez 1990, 43).
Universal aspect[edit]
There is disagreement about whether some aspects of music are universal, as well as whether the concept of music is universal. This debate often hinges on definitions. For instance, the fairly common assertion that "tonality" is a universal of all music may necessarily require an expansive definition of tonality. A pulse is sometimes taken as a universal, yet there exist solo vocal and instrumental genres with free and improvisational rhythms no regular pulse (Johnson 2002, 62), one example being the alap section of an Indian classical music performance. Harwood questions whether a "cross-cultural musical universal" may be found in the music or in the making of music, including performance, hearing, conception, and education (Harwood 1976, 522).
One aspect that is important to bear in mind when examining multi-cultural associations, is that an English-language word (i.e. the word "music"), not a universal concept, is the object of scrutiny. For this reason it is important to approach apparently equivalent words in other languages with caution. Based on the many disparate definitions that can be found just in English language dictionaries (Google.com.au 2015; Dictionary.com 2015; Merriam-webster.com 2015; Music & 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003), it seems there is no agreement on what the word "Music" means in English,[original research?] let alone determining a potentially equivalent word from another culture.
Kenneth Gourlay describes how, since different cultures include different elements in their definitions of music, dance, and related concepts, translation of the words for these activities may split or combine them, citing Nigerian musicologist Chinyere Nwachukwu's definition of the Igbo term "nkwa" (Nwachukwu 1981, 59) as an activity combining and/or requiring singing, playing musical instruments, and dancing (Gourlay 1984, 35). He then concludes that there exists "nonuniversality of music and the universality of nonmusic."
Other terms[edit]
Other terms used to discuss particular pieces include:
Note—an abstraction that refers to either a specific pitch or rhythm, or the written symbol
Chord—a simultaneity of notes heard as some sort of unit
Chord progression—a succession of chords (simultaneity succession)
For a more comprehensive list of terms see: List of musical topics
See also[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Elements of music
Combinatoriality
New musicology
Noise in music
Permutation (music)
Philosophy of music
Process music
Serialism
Set (music)
Sound art
Sources[edit]
American National Standards Institute, "American National Psychoacoustical Terminology". [N.p.]: American Standards Association
Anon. (1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003) "Music". Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged. Retrieved November 30, 2015 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/music
Burton, Russell L. (2015). "The Elements of Music: What Are They, and Who Cares?" In ASME XXth National Conference Proceedings, edited by Jennifer Rosevear and Susan Harding, 22–28. Parkville, Victoria: The Australian Society for Music Education Inc. (Paper presented at: Music: Educating for life: ASME XXth National Conference).
Clayton, Martin, Byron Dueck, and Laura Leante (eds.). (2013). Experience and Meaning in Music Performance. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981131-1; ISBN 978-0-19-981132-8 (ebook).
Dictionary.com (2015). the definition of music. Retrieved 1 December 2015, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/music
Dictionary.com (2015). the definition of sound. Retrieved 2 December 2015, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sound
Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465025084; ISBN 9780465025091. Quoted in Gary Spruce, Aspects of Teaching Secondary Music: Perspectives on Practice. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 9781134508655.
Google.com.au (2015). Google. Retrieved 1 December 2015, from https://www.google.com.au/?gws_rd=ssl#safe=strict&q=music+definition.
Gordon, E. E. (1999). "All About Audiation and Music Aptitudes". Music Educators Journal (September): 41–44.
Gourlay, Kenneth (1984). "The Non-Universality of Music and the Universality of Non-Music”. The World of Music 26, no. 2 (1984): 25–39. Cited in Nattiez (1990) and Nattiez (2012), p. 78.
Grant, M[orag] J[osephine] (2005). Serial Music, Serial Aesthetics: Compositional Theory in Post-War Europe. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-61992-9.
Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology". Ethnomusicology 20, no. 3:521-33. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Johnson, Julian (2002). Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6.
McClellan, Randall (2000). The Healing Forces of Music: History, Theory, and Practice. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595006656.
Merriam, Alan P. 1964. The Anthropology of Music. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Merriam-webster.com (2015). music
Meyer, Leonard (1973). Explaining Music: Essays and Explorations. University of California. ISBN 9780520022164.
Meyer, Leonard B. (1989). Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology. Studies in the Criticism and Theory of Music. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Reprinted, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-226-52152-7.
Molino, J. (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique". Musique en Jeu, no. 17:37–62. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Moran, Nikki (2013). "Social Co-Regulation and Communication in North Indian Duo Performances". In Experience and Meaning in Music Performance, edited by Martin Clayton, Byron Dueck, and Laura Leante, 40–61. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981131-1; ISBN 978-0-19-981132-8 (ebook).
Music. 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.[full citation needed]
Narmour, Eugene (1988). Explorations in Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Essays in Honor of Leonard B. Meyer. Pendragon. ISBN 9780918728944.
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Carolyn Abbate from Musicologie générale et sémiologue (1987). New Jersey: Princeton University Press.[full citation needed] ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (2012). "Is the Search for Universals Incompatible with the Study of Cultural Specificity?" Humanities and Social Sciences 1, no. 1: 67–94.
Nwachukwu, C. (1981). Taxonomy of Musical Instruments in Mbaise, Nigeria. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. The Queen’s University of Belfast, 1981.
Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2.
Oxforddictionaries.com (2015) "[...] The written or printed signs representing vocal or instrumental sound; The score or scores of a musical composition or compositions". Retrieved 1 December 2015, from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/music
Thomson, Virgil (1957). "Introduction" to Robert Erickson. The Structure of Music: A Listener's Guide: A Study of Music in Terms of Melody and Counterpoint. New York: Noonday Press.
White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-033233-2.
Further reading[edit]
Agricola, Martin (1991). The Rudiments of Music, new edition, translated from the Latin edition of 1539 by John Trowell. Aberystwyth: Boethius Press. ISBN 0-86314-034-3
Macpherson, Stewart, and Anthony Payne (1970). The Rudiments of Music, revised edition, with a new chapter by Anthony Payne. London: Stainer & Bell; New York: Galliard. ISBN 978-0-85249-010-5.
Ottman, Robert W., and Frank D. Mainous (2000). Rudiments of Music, second edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-783671-0.
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