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Early American currency
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Obverse and reverse of a three pence note of paper currency issued by the Province of Pennsylvania and printed by Benjamin Franklin in 1764.
Early American currency went through several stages of development in colonial and post-Revolutionary history of the United States. Because few coins were minted in the thirteen colonies that became the United States in 1776, foreign coins like the Spanish dollar were widely circulated. Colonial governments sometimes issued paper money to facilitate economic activities. The British Parliament passed Currency Acts in 1751, 1764, and 1773 that regulated colonial paper money.
During the American Revolution, the colonies became independent states; freed from British monetary regulations, they issued paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also issued paper money during the Revolution, known as Continental currency, to fund the war effort. Both state and Continental currency depreciated rapidly, becoming practically worthless by the end of the war. This depreciation was caused by the government having to over-print in order to meet the demands of war.
Contents
[hide]
1 Colonial currency
1.1 Thirteen colony set of United States Colonial currency
2 Continental currency
3 See also
4 References
4.1 Footnotes
5 Bibliography
6 Further reading
7 External links
Colonial currency[edit]
There were three general types of money in the colonies of British America: specie (coins), paper money and commodity money.[1] Commodity money was used when cash (coins and paper money) was scarce. Commodities such as tobacco, beaver skins, and wampum served as money at various times and places.[2]
Cash in the colonies was denominated in pounds, shillings, and pence.[2] The value varied from colony to colony; a Massachusetts pound, for example, was not equivalent to a Pennsylvania pound. All colonial pounds were of less value than the British pound sterling.[2] The coins in circulation in the colonies were most often of Spanish and Portuguese origin.[2] The prevalence of the Spanish dollar in the colonies led to the money of the United States being denominated in dollars rather than pounds.[2]
One by one, colonies began to issue their own paper money to serve as a convenient medium of exchange. In 1690, the Province of Massachusetts Bay created "the first authorized paper money issued by any government in the Western World."[3] This paper money was issued to pay for a military expedition during King William's War. Other colonies followed the example of Massachusetts Bay by issuing their own paper currency in subsequent military conflicts.[3]
The paper bills issued by the colonies were known as "bills of credit." Bills of credit were usually fiat money: they could not be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold or silver coins upon demand.[2][4] Bills of credit were usually issued by colonial governments to pay debts. The governments would then retire the currency by accepting the bills for payment of taxes. When colonial governments issued too many bills of credit or failed to tax them out of circulation, inflation resulted. This happened especially in New England and the southern colonies, which, unlike the Middle Colonies, were frequently at war.[4] Pennsylvania, however, was responsible in not issuing too much currency and it remains a prime example in history as a successful government-managed monetary system. Pennsylvania's paper currency, secured by land, was said to have generally maintained its value against gold from 1723 until the Revolution broke out in 1775.
This depreciation of colonial currency was harmful to creditors in Great Britain when colonists paid their debts with money that had lost value. The British Parliament passed several Currency Acts to regulate the paper money issued by the colonies. The Currency Act of 1751 restricted the emission of paper money in New England. It allowed the existing bills to be used as legal tender for public debts (i.e. paying taxes), but disallowed their use for private debts (e.g. for paying merchants).[5] In 1776, British (Scot) economist Adam Smith criticized colonial bills of credit in his most famous work, The Wealth of Nations.
Another Currency Act, in 1764, extended the restrictions to the colonies south of New England. Unlike the earlier act, this act did not prohibit the colonies in question from issuing paper money but it forbade them to designate their currency as legal tender for public or private debts. That prohibition created tension between the colonies and the mother country and has sometimes been seen as a contributing factor in the coming of the American Revolution. After much lobbying, Parliament amended the act in 1773, permitting the colonies to issue paper currency as legal tender for public debts.[6] Shortly thereafter, some colonies once again began issuing paper money. When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, all of the rebel colonies, soon to be independent states, issued paper money to pay for military expenses.
Thirteen colony set of United States Colonial currency[edit]
The Thirteen Colony set of colonial currency below is from the National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian Institution. Examples were selected based on the notability of the signers, followed by issue date and condition. The initial selection criteria for notability was drawn from a list[7] of currency signers who were also known to have signed the United States Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, the United States Constitution, or attended the Stamp Act Congress.[nb 1]
Complete 13-colony set of United States Colonial currency[8][nb 2]
Colony
Value
Date
Issue
First[nb 3]
Note (Obv)
Note (Rev)
Signatures
Connecticut
40s 1775-01-02 £15,000[9] 1709[10] Elisha Williams,
Thomas Seymour,
Benjamin Payne[nb 4]
Delaware
4s 1776-01-01 £30,000[12] 1723[13] John McKinly,
Thomas Collins,
Boaz Manlove
Georgia
$40 1778-05-04 £150,000[nb 5] 1735[15] Charles Kent,
William Few,
Thomas Netherclift,
William O’Bryen,[nb 6]
Nehemiah Wade
Maryland
$1 1770-03-01 $318,000[18] 1733[19] John Clapham,
Robert Couden[nb 7]
Massachusetts
2s 1741-05-01 £50,000[21] 1690[22] Robert Choate,
Jonathan Hale,
John Brown,
Edward Eveleth
New Hampshire
$1 1780-04-29 $145,000[23] 1709[10] James McClure,
Ephraim Robinson,
Joseph Pearson,[nb 8]
John Taylor Gilman (rev)
New Jersey
12s 1776-03-25 £100,000[25] 1709[26] Robert Smith,
John Hart,
John Stevens, Jr.
New York
2s 1775-08-02 £2,500[27] 1709[28] John H. Cruger,
William Waddell[nb 9]
North Carolina
£3 1729-11-27 £40,000[30] 1712[31] William Downing,[nb 10]
John Lovick,[nb 11]
Edward Moseley,
Cullen Pollock,[nb 12]
Thomas Swann[nb 13]
Pennsylvania
20s 1771-03-20 £15,000[35] 1723[36] Francis Hopkinson,
Robert Strettell Jones,
William Fisher[nb 14]
Rhode Island
$1 1780-07-02 £39,000[38] 1710[39] Caleb Harris,
Metcalf Bowler,[nb 15]
Jonathan Arnold
South Carolina
$60 1779-02-08 $1,000,000[41] 1703[42] John Scott,
John Smyth,
Plowden Weston[nb 16]
Virginia
£3 1773-03-04 £36,384[44] 1755[45] Peyton Randolph,
John Blair, Jr.,
Robert Carter Nicholas, Sr.(rev)

Continental currency[edit]
Continental One Third Dollar Note (obverse)
A fifty-five dollar Continental issued in 1779.
After the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, the Continental Congress began issuing paper money known as Continental currency, or Continentals. Continental currency was denominated in dollars from $ 1⁄6 to $80, including many odd denominations in between. During the Revolution, Congress issued $241,552,780 in Continental currency.[46]
Continental currency depreciated badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase "not worth a continental".[47] A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit.[48] "Some think that the rebel bills depreciated because people lost confidence in them or because they were not backed by tangible assets," writes financial historian Robert E. Wright. "Not so. There were simply too many of them."[49] Congress and the states lacked the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds.[50]
Another problem was that the British successfully waged economic warfare by counterfeiting Continentals on a large scale. Benjamin Franklin later wrote:
The artists they employed performed so well that immense quantities of these counterfeits which issued from the British government in New York, were circulated among the inhabitants of all the states, before the fraud was detected. This operated significantly in depreciating the whole mass.[51]
By the end of 1778, Continentals retained from 1⁄5 to 1⁄7 of their face value. By 1780, the bills were worth 1⁄40 of their face value. Congress attempted to reform the currency by removing the old bills from circulation and issuing new ones, without success. By May 1781, Continentals had become so worthless that they ceased to circulate as money. Franklin noted that the depreciation of the currency had, in effect, acted as a tax to pay for the war.[52]
For this reason, some Quakers, whose pacifism did not permit them to pay war taxes, also refused to use Continentals, and at least one Yearly Meeting formally forbade its members to use the notes.[53] In the 1790s, after the ratification of the United States Constitution, Continentals could be exchanged for treasury bonds at 1% of face value.[54]
After the collapse of Continental currency, Congress appointed Robert Morris to be Superintendent of Finance of the United States. Morris advocated the creation of the first financial institution chartered by the United States, the Bank of North America, in 1782. The bank was funded in part by specie loaned to the United States by France. Morris helped finance the final stages of the war by issuing notes in his name, backed by his own money. The Bank of North America also issued notes convertible into specie.[55] Morris also presided over the creation of the first mint operated by the U.S. government, which struck the first coins of the United States, the Nova Constellatio patterns of 1783.[56]
The painful experience of the runaway inflation and collapse of the Continental dollar prompted the delegates to the Constitutional Convention to include the gold and silver clause into the United States Constitution so that the individual states could not issue bills of credit or "make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts."[57] This restriction of bills of credit was extended to the Federal government, as the power to "emit bills" from the Articles of Confederation was abolished, leaving Congress with the power "to borrow money on credit.".[58][59]

See also[edit]
Economic history of the United States
Federal Reserve Note
History of economic thought
History of the United States dollar
Monetary policy
Money creation
United States dollar
Hyperinflation
References[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Visually attractive and early examples were digitized and additional signer research was conducted later.
Jump up ^ Obverse and reverse images have been prepared separately for table preparation purposes. Some of the notes obverse/reverse are not on the same orientation which would make single images containing both distracting.
Jump up ^ Date of the first issue of paper currency for each of the Colonies.
Jump up ^ Williams, Seymour, and Payne (among others) were appointed to a committee to print and sign currency for the Colony of Connecticut in the amount of 50,000 pounds.[11]
Jump up ^ Newman (2008) indicates the total issue in Pound sterling despite the currency issue in dollars.[14]
Jump up ^ O’Bryen, Treasurer of Georgia[16] was elected to the Continental Congress but did not attend.[17]
Jump up ^ Couden served as Mayor of Annapolis from 1785–86 and 1790–91.[20]
Jump up ^ Act authorizing Ephraim Robinson and Joseph Pearson to countersign New Hampshire currency.[24]
Jump up ^ Waddell was a New York City Alderman (1773–77) with the authority to sign currency issued to fund the “water works” under construction near Broadway and Chambers streets.[29]
Jump up ^ Downing served as Speaker of the House of Burgesses from 1735 to 1739.[32]
Jump up ^ Lovick was a member of the House of Burgesses.[33]
Jump up ^ Pollock was a member of the House of Burgesses.[34]
Jump up ^ Swann served as Speaker of the House of Burgesses in 1729.[32]
Jump up ^ Hopkinson, Jones, and Fisher authorized to sign Pennsylvania currency.[37]
Jump up ^ Act passed June 1780 authorizing Harris and Bowler to sign Rhode Island currency.[40]
Jump up ^ Scott, Smyth, and Weston (among others) were appointed commissioners with the authority to print and sign one million dollars of South Carolina currency.[43]

These references have been removed from EH.Net ---
Jump up ^ Flynn, "Credit in the Colonial American Economy".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Michener, "Money in the American Colonies" Archived 2010-06-11 at the Wayback Machine..
^ Jump up to: a b Newman, 1990, p. 11.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, p. 45.
Jump up ^ Allen, pp. 96–98.
Jump up ^ Allen, p. 98.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, pp. 24–25.
Jump up ^ Friedberg & Friedberg, pp. 12–29.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 110.
^ Jump up to: a b Newman, 2008, p. 89.
Jump up ^ Public Records, May, 1775, The public records of the Colony of Connecticut 1636–1776, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 125.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 119.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 151.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 130.
Jump up ^ Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789, Volume 11, Government Printing Office, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–2005, Government Printing Office, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 172.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 167.
Jump up ^ Robert Couden, Maryland State Archives, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 200.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 183.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 223.
Jump up ^ An Act describing the tenor of notes and certificates to be issued by the Treasurer of this state and appointing a committee to counter sign said notes, Laws of New Hampshire: First constitutional period, 1784–1792, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 260.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 247.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 285.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 269.
Jump up ^ Colonial And Revolutionary Families Of Pennsylvania, Laws of New Hampshire: First constitutional period, 1784–1792, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 315.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 313.
^ Jump up to: a b North Carolina State House of Representatives - Past Speakers of the House, Colonial and State Records of North Carolina, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Letter from George Burrington to the Board of Trade of Great Britain, Documenting the American South, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Minutes of the Upper House of the North Carolina General Assembly, Documenting the American South, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 346.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 331.
Jump up ^ The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801, Volume 8, State Printer of Pennsylvania, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 399.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 371.
Jump up ^ Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England, Alfred Anthony, Printer to the State, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 426.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 405.
Jump up ^ An ordinance for the printing, stamping and issuing one million dollars…, Statutes at Large of South Carolina: Acts, 1753 – 1786, retrieved 29 April 2014
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 443.
Jump up ^ Newman, 2008, p. 437.
Jump up ^ Newman, 1990, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Newman, 1990, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Wright, p. 50.
Jump up ^ Wright, p. 49.
Jump up ^ Wright, 52
Jump up ^ Kenneth Scot, Counterfeiting in Colonial America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), 259–60.
Jump up ^ Wright, p. 49; Newman, 1990, 17.
Jump up ^ Gross, David M. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns. Picket Line Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-1490572741.
Jump up ^ Newman, 1990, p. 17; Wright, p. 49.
Jump up ^ Wright, p. 62.
Jump up ^ Morris Papers, Volume 7, pp. 761–765
Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 10.
Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 8.
Jump up ^ Rozeff, p 18. https://mises.org/books/rozeff_us_constitution_and_money.pdf
Flynn, David. "Credit in the Colonial American Economy". EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. March 16, 2008. Michener, Ron. "Money in the American Colonies". EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. June 8, 2003.
Bibliography[edit]
Allen, Larry. The Encyclopedia of Money. 2nd edition. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59884-251-7.
Flynn, David. "Credit in the Colonial American Economy". EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. March 16, 2008.
Michener, Ron. "Money in the American Colonies". EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. June 8, 2003.
Newman, Eric P. The Early Paper Money of America. 3rd edition. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications, 1990. ISBN 0-87341-120-X.
Newman, Eric P. The Early Paper Money of America. 5th edition. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications, 2008. ISBN 0-89689-326-X.
Wright, Robert E. One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. ISBN 978-0-07-154393-4.
Further reading[edit]
Brock, Leslie V. The currency of the American colonies, 1700–1764: a study in colonial finance and imperial relations. Dissertations in American economic history. New York: Arno Press, 1975. ISBN 0-405-07257-0.
Ernst, Joseph Albert. Money and politics in America, 1755–1775: a study in the Currency act of 1764 and the political economy of revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8078-1217-X.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colonial currency and Currency of the American Revolution.
Currency Issues to Overcome Depressions in Pennsylvania, 1723 and 1729
Creating the U.S. Dollar Currency Union,1748–1811: A Quest for Monetary Stability or a Usurpation of State Sovereignty for Personal Gain?
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Germination
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Sunflower seedling, three days after germination
Germination rate testing on the germination table
Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or similar structure. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. In addition, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination. Thus, in a general sense, germination can be thought of as anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
1.1 Dormancy
1.2 Seedling establishment
2 Germination rate and germination capacity
2.1 Repair of DNA damage
2.2 Dicot germination
2.2.1 Epigeal
2.2.2 Hypogeal
2.3 Monocot germination
2.4 Precocious germination
3 Pollen germination
3.1 Self-incompatibility
4 Spore germination
4.1 Resting spores
4.2 Ferns and mosses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Introduction[edit]
A seed tray used in horticulture for sowing and taking plant cuttings and growing plugs
Germination glass (glass sprouter jar) with a plastic sieve-lid
Brassica campestris germinating seeds
Play media
Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos; these are called empty seeds[1] and never germinate. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling.
Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right temperature, water, oxygen or air and sometimes light or darkness.[2] Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the individual seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plant's natural habitat. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of seed dormancy.
Water is required for germination. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called imbibition, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as starch, proteins, or oils. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the seed imbibes water, hydrolytic enzymes are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful chemicals.[2] After the seedling emerges from the seed coat and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at this point photosynthesis provides the energy needed for continued growth and the seedling now requires a continuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
Oxygen is required by the germinating seed for metabolism.[3] Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, the main source of the seedling's energy until it grows leaves.[2] Oxygen is an atmospheric gas that is found in soil pore spaces; if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged, the seed can be oxygen starved. Some seeds have impermeable seed coats that prevent oxygen from entering the seed, causing a type of physical dormancy which is broken when the seed coat is worn away enough to allow gas exchange and water uptake from the environment.
Temperature affects cellular metabolic and growth rates. Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a temperature range within which they will germinate, and they will not do so above or below this range. Many seeds germinate at temperatures slightly above 60-75 F (16-24 C) [room-temperature if you live in a centrally heated house], while others germinate just above freezing and others germinate only in response to alternations in temperature between warm and cool. Some seeds germinate when the soil is cool 28-40 F (-2 - 4 C), and some when the soil is warm 76-90 F (24-32 C). Some seeds require exposure to cold temperatures (vernalization) to break dormancy. Some seeds in a dormant state will not germinate even if conditions are favorable. Seeds that are dependent on temperature to end dormancy have a type of physiological dormancy. For example, seeds requiring the cold of winter are inhibited from germinating until they take in water in the fall and experience cooler temperatures. Cold stratification is a process that induces the dormancy breaking prior to light emission that promotes germination .[4] Four degrees Celsius is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but some groups, especially within the family Ranunculaceae and others, need conditions cooler than -5 C. Some seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a forest fire which cracks their seed coats; this is a type of physical dormancy.
Most common annual vegetables have optimal germination temperatures between 75-90 F (24-32 C), though many species (e.g. radishes or spinach) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods.
Light or darkness can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many seeds, including species found in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for growth of the seedling.[2]
Scarification mimics natural processes that weaken the seed coat before germination. In nature, some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time. Others need to be passed through an animal's digestive tract to weaken the seed coat enough to allow the seedling to emerge.[2]
Malted (germinated) barley grains
Dormancy[edit]
Some live seeds are dormant and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate. Seed dormancy can originate in different parts of the seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds.[5] Factors affecting seed dormancy include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably abscisic acid, which inhibits germination, and gibberellin, which ends seed dormancy. In brewing, barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for the production of barley malt.[2]
Seedling establishment[edit]
In some definitions, the appearance of the radicle marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress.[2] The germination index can be used as an indicator of phytotoxicity in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce huge numbers of seeds
Germination rate and germination capacity[edit]
Germination of seedlings raised from seeds of eucalyptus after 3 days of sowing.
In agriculture and gardening, the germination rate describes how many seeds of a particular plant species, variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over the germination period given. The germination rate is useful for calculating the seed requirements for a given area or desired number of plants. In seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of sowing. On the other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred as germination capacity.
Repair of DNA damage[edit]
Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage.[6] During germination, repair processes are activated to deal with accumulated DNA damage.[7] In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired.[8] The DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed.[9]
Dicot germination[edit]
The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the radicle or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic shoot emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts: the cotyledons (seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons (hypocotyl), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons (epicotyl). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups.[2]
Epigeal[edit]
In epigeal germination (or epigeous germination), the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. Beans, tamarind and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.[2]
Hypogeal[edit]
Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas, gram and mango, for example, germinate this way.[10]
Monocot germination[edit]
In monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge.[2]
Precocious germination[edit]
When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination.
Pollen germination[edit]
Another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination. Like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of a protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2-3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a tube cell. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower (or a female cone in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style.[2] Pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro (in a petri dish or test tube).[11][12]
During germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male microgametophyte of these plants.[2]
Self-incompatibility[edit]
Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus inbreeding. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In self-incompatibility in plants, the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating.[13]
Spore germination[edit]
Germination can also refer to the emergence of cells from resting spores and the growth of sporeling hyphae or thalli from spores in fungi, algae and some plants.
Conidia are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows fusion between conidia.[14][15]
Resting spores[edit]
In resting spores, germination that involves cracking the thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in zygomycetes the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the zygospore inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In slime molds, germination refers to the emergence of amoeboid cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in the free-living amoebas of slime molds).[2]
Ferns and mosses[edit]
In plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and a few others, spores germinate into independent gametophytes. In the bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts), spores germinate into protonemata, similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In ferns, the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped prothalli that can often be found underneath a spore-shedding adult plant.[2]
See also[edit]
Lily seed germination types
Oldest viable seed
Pot farm
Seed testing
Seedling
Seed tray
Sprouting
Urban horticulture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "A Guide to Forest Seed Handling".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Raven, Peter H.; Ray F. Evert; Susan E. Eichhorn (2005). Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp. 504–508. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
Jump up ^ Siegel, S. M.; Rosen, L. A. (1962). "Effects of Reduced Oxygen Tension on Germination and Seedling Growth". Physiologia Plantarum. 15 (3): 437–444. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1962.tb08047.x.
Jump up ^ Baskin and Baskin, Carol C. and Jerry M. (2014). Variation in Seed Dormancy and Germination within and between Individuals and Populations of a Species. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and, Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Burlington: Elsevier Science. pp. Pages 5–35. ISBN 9780124166837.
Jump up ^ Derek Bewley, J.; Black, Michael; Halmer, Peter (2006). The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses Cabi Series. CABI. p. 203. ISBN 0-85199-723-6. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Bray CM, West CE (2015). "The importance of safeguarding genome integrity in germination and seed longevity". J. Exp. Bot. 66 (12): 3549–58. PMID 25750428. doi:10.1093/jxb/erv080.
Jump up ^ Koppen G, Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating Vicia faba". Folia Biol. (Praha). 47 (2): 50–4. PMID 11321247.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Masnavi G, Bhardwaj RM, Jiang Q, Bray CM, West CE (2010). "A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity". Plant J. 63 (5): 848–60. PMID 20584150. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x.
Jump up ^ Waterworth WM, Footitt S, Bray CM, Finch-Savage WE, West CE (2016). "DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM regulates germination and maintains genome stability in seeds". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 (34): 9647–52. PMC 5003248  . PMID 27503884. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608829113.
Jump up ^ Sadhu, M.K. (1989). Plant propagation. New Age International. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-224-0065-6.
Jump up ^ Martin FW (1972). "In Vitro Measurement of Pollen Tube Growth Inhibition". Plant Physiol. 49 (6): 924–925. PMC 366081  . PMID 16658085. doi:10.1104/pp.49.6.924.
Jump up ^ Pfahler PL (1981). "In vitro germination characteristics of maize pollen to detect biological activity of environmental pollutants". Environ. Health Perspect. 37: 125–32. JSTOR 3429260. PMC 1568653  . PMID 7460877. doi:10.2307/3429260.
Jump up ^ Takayama S, Isogai A (2005). "Self-incompatibility in plants". Annu Rev Plant Biol. 56 (1): 467–89. PMID 15862104. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144249.
Jump up ^ Roca, M.; Davide, L.C.; Davide, L.M.; Mendes-Costa, M.C.; Schwan, R.F.; Wheals, A. (2004). "Conidial anastomoses fusions between Colletotrichum species". Mycological Research. 108 (11): 1320–1326. doi:10.1017/S0953756204000838.
Jump up ^ Roca, M.G.; Arlt, J.; Jeffree, C.E.; Read, N.D. (2005). "Cell biology of conidial anastomosis tubes in Neurospora crassa". Eukaryotic Cell. 4 (5): 911–919. PMC 1140100  . PMID 15879525. doi:10.1128/EC.4.5.911-919.2005.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Germination.
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Germination
Wikisource has the text of the 1906 New International Encyclopedia article Germination.
Sowing Seeds A survey of seed sowing techniques.
Seed Germination: Theory and Practice, Norman C. Deno, 139 Lenor Dr., State College PA 16801, USA. An extensive study of the germination rates of a huge variety of seeds under different experimental conditions, including temperature variation and chemical environment.
Rajjou, L; Duval, M; Gallardo, K; Catusse, J; Bally, J; Job, C; Job, D (2012). "Seed germination and vigor". Annu Rev Plant Biol. 63: 507–33. PMID 22136565. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105550.
Germination time-lapse ≈1 minute HD video of mung bean seeds germinating over 10 days. Hosted on YouTube.
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Canadian constitutional law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Part of a series on the
Constitution
of Canada
Constitutional history
Bill of Rights (1689)
Act of Settlement (1701)
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Royal Proclamation (1763)
Quebec Act (1774)
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Constitution Act, 1886
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v
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Canadian constitutional law (French: droit constitutionnel du Canada) is the area of Canadian law relating to the interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the courts. All laws of Canada, both provincial and federal, must conform to the Constitution and any laws inconsistent with the Constitution have no force or effect.
In Reference re Secession of Quebec,[nb 1] the Supreme Court characterized four fundamental and organizing principles of the Constitution (though not exhaustive): federalism; democracy; constitutionalism and the rule of law; and respect for minorities.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reviewable matters and legal standing
2 Unwritten aspects of constitutional law
3 Concepts in interpretation
3.1 A "living tree"
3.2 Purposive
3.3 Dialogue
4 Charter compliance
5 Legislative competence
5.1 Pith and substance
5.2 "Double aspect" under Multiple Access
5.3 Canadian Western Bank principles
5.4 Ancillary powers under Lacombe
5.5 Interjurisdictional immunity under COPA and PHS Community Services
6 Footnotes and citations
6.1 References
6.2 Case citations
Reviewable matters and legal standing[edit]
Under the authority of section 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982, courts may review all matters of law. Accordingly, the courts have a broad reaching scope of competence. Constitutional issues come before the court through disputes between parties as well as through reference questions. The court has the discretion to hear any Constitutional issues as long as there is a sufficient legal component.[nb 2] The US constitutional political questions doctrine was rejected and so a political dimension to the issue does not bar it from court.[nb 3]
Courts must be careful when considering reference questions. They are required to be careful to only answer questions that are not speculative, of a purely political nature, or unripe.[nb 1] When answering the questions the court must retain its proper role within the constitutional framework.[nb 4]
A party must have standing (locus standi) to bring a constitutional challenge to the courts. Those who wish to challenge a law can do so in one of several ways. A party who is directly affected by the law that purports to be unconstitutional has standing as of right. Likewise, rights holder may challenge any law that will limit any of their rights. Those who are not protected by a right but are nonetheless prosecuted by that law may challenge it as well.[nb 5]
Public interest groups may also gain standing if they satisfy the requirements of the Borowski test.[nb 6] The group must demonstrate that the law raises a serious constitutional issue, the group has a genuine interest in the matter, and that there is no other reasonable and effective manner in which the issue may be brought before the Court.
Unwritten aspects of constitutional law[edit]
See also: Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867 and Implied Bill of Rights
In rare cases, the courts have developed substantive rules of constitutional law that are not expressly set out in constitutional texts but rather implied by a number of different principles.
In Hunt v T&N plc,[nb 7] the Supreme Court of Canada found that "the integrating character of our constitutional arrangements as they apply to interprovincial mobility" called for the courts of each province to give "full faith and credit" to the judgments of courts of other provinces – even though Canada's constitution does not have an express Full Faith and Credit Clause. This development was criticized by at least one academic.[1]
In the Provincial Judges Reference,[nb 8] the Supreme Court found that there was an unwritten constitutional principle that protected a right to judicial salary commissions for provincial court judges.
Concepts in interpretation[edit]
A "living tree"[edit]
See also: Living tree doctrine
Since the 1929 ruling in Edwards v Canada (AG), the courts have interpreted the Constitution within the context of society to ensure that it adapts and reflects changes. As Viscount Sankey stated, "The British North America Act planted in Canada a living tree capable of growth and expansion within its natural limits."[nb 9]
Purposive[edit]
See also: Purposive approach
The Canadian courts have adopted a liberal approach to the approach of statutory and constitutional interpretation, best expressed in the statement, "Today there is only one principle or approach, namely, the words of an Act are to be read in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of Parliament."[2]
Dialogue[edit]
See also: Dialogue principle
In Charter jurisprudence, the "dialogue principle" is where judicial review of legislation is said to be part of a "dialogue" between the legislatures and the courts. It specifically involves governments drafting legislation in response to court rulings and courts acknowledging the effort if the new legislation is challenged.

Charter compliance[edit]
See also: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
In 1982 the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was brought into effect. This was not meant to affect the workings of federalism, though some content was moved from section 91 to section 4 of the Charter. Mainly, the Charter is meant to decrease powers of both levels of government by ensuring both federal and provincial laws respect Charter rights, under section 32.
The relationship between federalism and the Charter is directly dealt with in section 31, which declares that neither the federal nor provincial governments gain powers under the Charter.
In R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd,[nb 5] it was found that legislation whose purpose is found to violate the Charter cannot be saved even if its effects were found to be inoffensive. If a provision of law cannot be seen to constitute a reasonable limit, demonstrably justifiable in a free and democratic society, it cannot be saved pursuant to section 1 of the Charter. The determination of s. 1 validity follows the Oakes test first expressed in R v Oakes, which follows four parts, of which the last three have been named as the "proportionality test":[nb 10]
the reason for the rights violation must be "pressing and substantial"
there must be a "rational connection" between the rights-infringing measure and the objective
the measure must be the least restrictive means for realizing the objective
the deleterious effects of the measure must be proportionate to the importance of the objective
Although modified in subsequent jurisprudence to relax its strictness,[nb 11][nb 12] Oakes continues to be of valid application.[3]
However, the provincial education power under Section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 is plenary, and is not subject to Charter attack, so long as it does not extend beyond the confines of Section 93's mandate to fund Roman Catholic separate schools and public schools.[nb 13]
Legislative competence[edit]
Main article: Canadian federalism
In order to rationalize how far each jurisdiction may use its authority, certain doctrines have been devised by the courts:
pith and substance, including the nature of any ancillary powers and the colourability of legislation,
double aspect,
paramountcy,
Crown immunity, and
interjurisdictional immunity
There are also differences in legislative competence in each of the Provinces, as each had entered Confederation on somewhat different terms. As Viscount Simon of the Privy Council noted in 1953:
“
Every province created or to be created must, of course, be a province in the Dominion of Canada, but the Act of 1867 contained no such definition of province as would involve any conflict between that Act and the 1871 Act. There is no complete equality of powers between the four original provinces.[4]
”
Pith and substance[edit]
The pith and substance doctrine is founded on the recognition that it is in practice impossible for a legislature to exercise its jurisdiction over a matter effectively without incidentally affecting matters within the jurisdiction of another level of government.[5]
Also, some matters are by their very nature impossible to categorize under a single head of power: they may have both provincial and federal aspects. The double aspect doctrine, which applies in the course of a pith and substance analysis, ensures that the policies of the elected legislators of both levels of government are respected, by recognizing that both Parliament and the provincial legislatures can adopt valid legislation on a single subject depending on the perspective from which the legislation is considered (i.e., depending on the various aspects of the matter in question).[6]
In certain circumstances, however, the powers of one level of government must be protected against intrusions, even incidental ones, by the other level. For this purpose, the courts have developed the doctrines of interjurisdictional immunity and federal paramountcy.[7]
The Parliament of Canada has power to bind Her Majesty both in right of Canada and of any province, but provincial statutes do not of their own force bind the federal Crown.[8][nb 14] There is considerable debate as to whether interprovincial sovereign immunity exists.[9]
In Re Upper Churchill Water Rights Reversion Act, an Act of the Newfoundland legislature was held to be unconstitutional because of colourability. While its stated purpose was to cancel a long-term lease and to expropriate power generation assets located in the province, its real purpose was to interfere with civil rights existing outside the province. As noted by Mr Justice McIntyre:
Where the pith and substance of the provincial enactment is in relation to matters which fall within the field of provincial legislative competence, incidental or consequential effects on extraprovincial rights will not render the enactment ultra vires. Where, however, the pith and substance of the provincial enactment is the derogation from or elimination of extraprovincial rights then, even if it is cloaked in the proper constitutional form, it will be ultra vires. A colourable attempt to preserve the appearance of constitutionality in order to conceal an unconstitutional objective will not save the legislation.[nb 15]
Lord Haldane
Certain measures that would be constitutionally valid if enacted on their own are invalid if they are combined with other measures that invade unconstitutionally into the other jurisdiction. This is held to be overreach. As noted by Viscount Haldane:
Within the spheres allotted to them by the (B.N.A.) Act the Dominion and the Provinces are rendered on general principle co-ordinate governments. As a consequence where one has legislative power the other has not, speaking broadly, the capacity to pass laws which will interfere with its exercise. What cannot be done directly cannot be done indirectly.[nb 16]
In Reference re Assisted Human Reproduction Act,[nb 17] the federal use of the criminal law power was found in certain key aspects to overreach too far into the provincial hospitals power, as well as into the more familiar sphere of property and civil rights.
In Reference re Securities Act,[nb 18] a proposed federal law for establishing a national securities regulator was held to overreach, as a whole, too far into the property and civil rights power, and was thus wholly unconstitutional.
"Double aspect" under Multiple Access[edit]
Multiple Access Ltd v McCutcheon[nb 19] held that, even when federal and provincial laws have been enacted on the same matter by virtue of the double aspect doctrine, the doctrine of paramountcy does not necessarily have to be invoked. In that regard, Mr Justice Dickson observed:
The conflict ... lies in large measures upon the opinion ... that the paramountcy doctrine became applicable because a plaintiff could resort to one set of provisions only and, having done so, there would be no scope for the other to have operational effect. That is unquestionably an important consideration but it is not, in my view, conclusive. The provincial legislation merely duplicates the federal; it does not contradict it. The fact that a plaintiff may have a choice of remedies does not mean that the provisions of both levels of government cannot “live together” and operate concurrently.[10]
Therefore, paramountcy should only be invoked where there is a conflict between the federal and provincial laws in question. There is no danger of double recovery being possible where the laws are not in conflict, as no court would permit it.[11]
Canadian Western Bank principles[edit]
The current approach to determining the constitutionality of legislation is founded in Canadian Western Bank v Alberta,[nb 20] where the Supreme Court of Canada summarized the following principles:
the pith and substance of the provincial law and the federal law should be examined to ensure that they are both validly enacted laws and to determine the nature of the overlap, if any, between them.
the applicability of the provincial law to the federal undertaking or matter in question must be resolved with reference to the doctrine of interjurisdictional immunity.
only if both the provincial law and the federal law have been found to be valid pieces of legislation, and only if the provincial law is found to be applicable to the federal matter in question, then both statutes must be compared to determine whether the overlap between them constitutes a conflict sufficient to trigger the application of the doctrine of federal paramountcy.
The burden of proof falls on the party that is alleging paramountcy. As Mr Justice Binnie and Mr Justice LeBel noted:
To sum up, the onus is on the party relying on the doctrine of federal paramountcy to demonstrate that the federal and provincial laws are in fact incompatible by establishing either
that it is impossible to comply with both laws or
that to apply the provincial law would frustrate the purpose of the federal law.[12]
Where the constitutionality of legislation is being questioned in relation to the division of powers under the Constitution Act, 1867, an analysis of its pith and substance must be undertaken. This analysis consists of an inquiry into the true nature of the law in question for the purpose of identifying the matter to which it essentially relates.[13]
If its pith and substance can be related to a matter that falls within the jurisdiction of the legislature that enacted it, the courts will declare it intra vires.
If, however, it can more properly be said to relate to a matter that is outside the jurisdiction of that legislature, it will be held to be invalid owing to this violation of the division of powers.
The corollary to this analysis is that legislation whose pith and substance falls within the jurisdiction of the legislature that enacted it may, at least to a certain extent, affect matters beyond the legislature’s jurisdiction without necessarily being unconstitutional. At this stage of the analysis, the dominant purpose of the legislation is still decisive.
Merely incidental effects will not disturb the constitutionality of an otherwise intra vires law.[14]
Ancillary powers under Lacombe[edit]
In Quebec (AG) v Lacombe, the nature of any ancillary powers arising from the pith and substance of a matter was considered. As noted by Chief Justice McLachlin, the Chief Justice:[nb 21]
The degree of integration required increases in proportion to the seriousness of the encroachment.
Where the impugned measure encroaches only slightly on the jurisdiction of the other level of government, a rational, functional connection is required.
As the degree of intrusion grows more serious, the required degree of integration tends toward a test of necessity.
To meet the test, a prima facie invalid measure must complement rather than merely supplement the legislative scheme. It must, both rationally and in its function, further the purposes of the valid legislative scheme of which it is said to be part.
Interjurisdictional immunity under COPA and PHS Community Services[edit]
In Quebec (AG) v Canadian Owners and Pilots Assn ("COPA"), Chief Justice McLachlin outlined a two-step test that must be undertaken to determine if interjurisdictional immunity comes into play:[nb 22]
Does the provincial law trench on the protected “core” of a federal competence?
Is the provincial law’s effect on the exercise of the protected federal power sufficiently serious to invoke the doctrine of interjurisdictional immunity?
Though there remains some debate, it has generally been accepted that interjurisdictional immunity applies equally to both the federal and provincial governments. Nevertheless, virtually all of the case law concerns situations where provincial laws encroach on federal matters.[15] In Canada (AG) v PHS Community Services Society, the Supreme Court expressed caution in employing the doctrine in future cases because:[nb 23]
It is in tension with the dominant approach that permits concurrent federal and provincial legislation with respect to a matter.
It is in tension with the emergent practice of cooperative federalism.
It may overshoot the federal or provincial power in which it is grounded and create legislative “no go” zones where neither level of government regulates.
As Chief Justice McLachlin explained in that decision:
[70] In summary, the doctrine of interjurisdictional immunity is narrow. Its premise of fixed watertight cores is in tension with the evolution of Canadian constitutional interpretation towards the more flexible concepts of double aspect and cooperative federalism. To apply it here would disturb settled competencies and introduce uncertainties for new ones. Quite simply, the doctrine is neither necessary nor helpful in the resolution of the contest here between the federal government and the provincial government.
Footnotes and citations[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jean-Gabriel Castel (1995). "Back to the future! Is the "new" rigid Choice of Law Rule for Interprovincial Torts constitutionally mandated?" (PDF). Osgoode Hall Law Journal. Osgoode Hall Law School. 33 (1). Retrieved 2007-02-17.
Jump up ^ Elmer Driedger (1983). Construction of Statutes (2nd ed.). Toronto: Butterworths. p. 87. ISBN 0-409-82803-3.
Jump up ^ Choudhry, Sujit (2006). "So What Is the Real Legacy of Oakes? Two Decades of Proportionality Analysis under the Canadian Charter's Section 1". Supreme Court Law Review. Osgoode Hall Law School. 34: 501–535.
Jump up ^ The Attorney-General of for Saskatchewan v Canadian Pacific Railway Company [1953] UKPC 19, [1953] AC 594 (6 July 1953), P.C. (on appeal from Canada)
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 29
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 30
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 32
Jump up ^ John Lovell (18 May 2012). "Federal Immunity from Provincial Laws: A Well-Tempered Inequality". Emerging Issues in Canadian Public Law 2012, University of Ottawa. pp. 23–35. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Janet Walker (1997). "Interprovincial Sovereign Immunity Revisited" (PDF). Osgoode Hall Law Journal. Osgoode Hall Law School. 35 (2): 379–397. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Multiple Access, p. 189
Jump up ^ Multiple Access, p. 191
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 75
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 26
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank, par. 26–28
Jump up ^ Dwight Newman (2011). "Canada's re-emerging division of powers and the unrealized force of reciprocal interjurisdictional immunity". Constitutional Forum. 20 (1): 1–7. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
Case citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Reference re Secession of Quebec 1998 CanLII 793, [1998] 2 SCR 217 (20 August 1998)
Jump up ^ Re: Objection by Quebec to a Resolution to amend the Constitution 1982 CanLII 219 at p. 805, [1982] 2 SCR 793 (6 December 1982)
Jump up ^ Operation Dismantle v. The Queen 1985 CanLII 74, [1985] 1 SCR 441 (9 May 1985)
Jump up ^ Reference Re Canada Assistance Plan (B.C.) 1991 CanLII 74, [1991] 2 SCR 525 (15 August 1991)
^ Jump up to: a b R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd. 1985 CanLII 69, [1985] 1 SCR 295 (24 April 1985), Supreme Court (Canada)
Jump up ^ Minister of Justice (Can.) v. Borowski 1981 CanLII 34, [1981] 2 SCR 575 (1 December 1981), subsequently clarified in Canadian Council of Churches v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) 1992 CanLII 116, [1992] 1 SCR 236 (23 January 1992)
Jump up ^ Hunt v. T&N plc 1999 CanLII 43, [1993] 4 SCR 289 (18 November 1993)
Jump up ^ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I. 1997 CanLII 317, [1997] 3 SCR 3 (18 September 1997)
Jump up ^ Henrietta Muir Edwards and others v The Attorney General of Canada [1929] UKPC 86, [1930] A.C. 124 (18 October 1929), P.C. (on appeal from Canada)
Jump up ^ R. v. Oakes 1986 CanLII 46 at par. 68–71, [1986] 1 SCR 103 (28 February 1986)
Jump up ^ R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd. 1986 CanLII 12, [1986] 2 SCR 713 (18 December 1986)
Jump up ^ Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1989 CanLII 87, [1989] 1 SCR 927 (27 April 1989)
Jump up ^ Adler v. Ontario 1996 CanLII 148, 30 OR (3d) 642; 140 DLR (4th) 385 (21 November 1996), Supreme Court (Canada)
Jump up ^ Gauthier v. The King 1918 CanLII 85 at p. 194, 56 SCR 176 (5 March 1918)
Jump up ^ Re Upper Churchill Water Rights Reversion Act, at p. 332
Jump up ^ The Great West Saddlery Company Limited and others v The King [1921] UKPC 27, [1921] AC 91 (25 February 1921), Privy Council (on appeal from Canada), at p. 100
Jump up ^ Reference re Assisted Human Reproduction Act 2010 SCC 61, [2010] 3 SCR 457 (22 December 2010)
Jump up ^ Reference re Securities Act 2011 SCC 66, [2011] 3 SCR 837 (22 December 2011)
Jump up ^ Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon 1982 CanLII 1705, [1982] 2 SCR 161 (9 August 1982)
Jump up ^ Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta 2007 SCC 22, [2007] 2 SCR 3 (31 May 2007)
Jump up ^ Quebec (Attorney General) v. Lacombe 2010 SCC 38 at par. 41–48, [2010] 2 SCR 453 (15 October 2010)
Jump up ^ Quebec (Attorney General) v. Canadian Owners and Pilots Association 2010 SCC 39 at par. 27, [2010] 2 SCR 536 (15 October 2010)
Jump up ^ Canada (Attorney General) v. PHS Community Services Society 2011 SCC 44 at par. 62–64, [2011] 3 SCR 134 (30 September 2011)
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