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Colonial India
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Colonial India
Imperial entities of India
Dutch India
1605–1825
Danish India
1620–1869
French India
1668–1954
Portuguese India
(1505–1961)
Casa da Índia
1434–1833
Portuguese East India Company
1628–1633
British India
(1612–1947)
East India Company
1612–1757
Company rule in India
1757–1858
British Raj
1858–1947
British rule in Burma
1824–1948
Princely states
1721–1949
Partition of India
1947
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Colonial India was the part of the Indian subcontinent which was under the jurisdiction of European colonial powers, during the Age of Discovery. European power was exerted both by conquest and trade, especially in spices.[1][2] The search for the wealth and prosperity of India led to the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Only a few years later, near the end of the 15th century, Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama became the first European to re-establish direct trade links with India since Roman times by being the first to arrive by circumnavigating Africa (c. 1497–1499). Having arrived in Calicut, which by then was one of the major trading ports of the eastern world,[3] he obtained permission to trade in the city from Saamoothiri Rajah.
Trading rivalries among the seafaring European powers brought other European powers to India. The Dutch Republic, England, France, and Denmark-Norway all established trading posts in India in the early 17th century. As the Mughal Empire disintegrated in the early 18th century, and then as the Maratha Empire became weakened after the third battle of Panipat, many relatively weak and unstable Indian states which emerged were increasingly open to manipulation by the Europeans, through dependent Indian rulers.
In the later 18th century Great Britain and France struggled for dominance, partly through proxy Indian rulers but also by direct military intervention. The defeat of the redoubtable Indian ruler Tipu Sultan in 1799 marginalised the French influence. This was followed by a rapid expansion of British power through the greater part of the Indian subcontinent in the early 19th century. By the middle of the century the British had already gained direct or indirect control over almost all of India. British India, consisting of the directly-ruled British presidencies and provinces, contained the most populous and valuable parts of the British Empire and thus became known as "the jewel in the British crown".
Contents
[hide]
1 Portuguese
2 Dutch
3 English and British India
3.1 Rivalry with the Netherlands
3.2 East India Company
4 French
5 Dano-Norwegian
6 Turkish
7 Other external powers
8 Wars
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Portuguese[edit]
Main article: Portuguese India
Evolution of Portuguese possessions in the Indian Subcontinent
Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut, 20 May 1498.
Portrait of a European
Long after the decline of the Roman Empire's sea-borne trade with India, the Portuguese were the next Europeans to sail there for the purpose of trade, first arriving by ship in May 1498. The closing of the traditional trade routes in western Asia by the Ottoman Empire, and rivalry with the Italian states, sent Portugal in search of an alternate sea route to India. The first successful voyage to India was by Vasco da Gama in 1498, when after sailing around the Cape of Good Hope he arrived in Calicut, now in Kerala. Having arrived there, he obtained from Saamoothiri Rajah permission to trade in the city. The navigator was received with traditional hospitality, but an interview with the Saamoothiri (Zamorin) failed to produce any definitive results. Vasco da Gama requested permission to leave a factor behind in charge of the merchandise he could not sell; his request was refused, and the king insisted that Gama should pay customs duty like any other trader, which strained their relations.
The colonial era in India began in 1502, when the Portuguese Empire established the first European trading centre at Kollam, Kerala. In 1505 King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Dom Francisco de Almeida as the first Portuguese viceroy in India, followed in 1509 by Dom Afonso de Albuquerque. In 1510 Albuquerque conquered the city of Goa, which had been controlled by Muslims. He inaugurated the policy of marrying Portuguese soldiers and sailors with local Indian girls, the consequence of which was a great miscegenation in Goa and other Portuguese territories in Asia.[citation needed] Another feature of the Portuguese presence in India was their will to evangelise and promote Catholicism. In this, the Jesuits played a fundamental role, and to this day the Jesuit missionary Saint Francis Xavier is revered among the Catholics of India.
The Portuguese established a chain of outposts along India's west coast and on the island of Ceylon in the early 16th century. They built the St. Angelo Fort at Kannur to guard their possessions in North Malabar.[4][full citation needed] Goa was their prized possession and the seat of Portugal's viceroy. Portugal's northern province included settlements at Daman, Diu, Chaul, Baçaim, Salsette, and Mumbai. The rest of the northern province, with the exception of Daman and Diu, was lost to the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century.
In 1661 Portugal was at war with Spain and needed assistance from England. This led to the marriage of Princess Catherine of Portugal to Charles II of England, who imposed a dowry that included the insular and less inhabited areas of southern Bombay while the Portuguese managed to retain all the mainland territory north of Bandra up to Thana and Bassein. This was the beginning of the English presence in India.
Dutch[edit]
Main article: Dutch India
European settlements in India (1501–1739)
The Dutch East India Company established trading posts on different parts along the Indian coast. For some while, they controlled the Malabar southwest coast (Pallipuram, Cochin, Cochin de Baixo/Santa Cruz, Quilon (Coylan), Cannanore, Kundapura, Kayamkulam, Ponnani) and the Coromandel southeastern coast (Golkonda, Bhimunipatnam, Kakinada, Palikol, Pulicat, Parangippettai, Negapatnam) and Surat (1616–1795). They conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese. The Dutch also established trading stations in Travancore and coastal Tamil Nadu as well as at Rajshahi in present-day Bangladesh, Pipely, Hugli-Chinsura, and Murshidabad in present-day West Bengal, Balasore (Baleshwar or Bellasoor) in Odisha, and Ava, Arakan, and Syriam in present-day Myanmar (Burma). Ceylon was lost at the Congress of Vienna in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, where the Dutch having fallen subject to France, saw their colonies raided by Britain. The Dutch later became less involved in India, as they had the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) as their prized possession.
English and British India[edit]
Main articles: English overseas possessions and British India
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Rivalry with the Netherlands[edit]
At the end of the 16th century, England and the United Netherlands began to challenge Portugal's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages: the English (later British) East India Company, and the Dutch East India Company, which were chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. These companies were intended to carry on the lucrative spice trade, and they focused their efforts on the areas of production, the Indonesian archipelago and especially the "Spice Islands", and on India as an important market for the trade. The close proximity of London and Amsterdam across the North Sea, and the intense rivalry between England and the Netherlands, inevitably led to conflict between the two companies, with the Dutch gaining the upper hand in the Moluccas (previously a Portuguese stronghold) after the withdrawal of the English in 1622, but with the English enjoying more success in India, at Surat, after the establishment of a factory in 1613.
Fort St. George was founded at Madras in 1639
The Netherlands' more advanced financial system[5] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left the Dutch as the dominant naval and trading power in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, when the Dutch prince William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the more valuable spice trade of the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles overtook spices in terms of profitability, so that by 1720, in terms of sales, the English company had overtaken the Dutch.[5] The English East India Company shifted its focus from Surat—a hub of the spice trade network—to Fort St. George.
East India Company[edit]
See also: Company rule in India
In 1757 Mir Jafar, the commander in chief of the army of the Nawab of Bengal, along with Jagat Seth, Maharaja Krishna Nath, Umi Chand and some others, secretly connived with the British, asking support to overthrow the Nawab in return for trade grants. The British forces, whose sole duty until then was guarding Company property, were numerically inferior to the Bengali armed forces. At the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, fought between the British under the command of Robert Clive and the Nawab, Mir Jafar's forces betrayed the Nawab and helped defeat him. Jafar was installed on the throne as a British subservient ruler.[6] The battle transformed British perspective as they realised their strength and potential to conquer smaller Indian kingdoms and marked the beginning of the imperial or colonial era in South Asia.
An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881) making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption was "New crowns for old ones!"
British policy in Asia during the 19th century was chiefly concerned with expanding and protecting its hold on India, viewed as its most important colony and the key to the rest of Asia.[7] The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to cooperate in arenas outside India: the eviction of Napoleon from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).[8]
From its base in India, the company had also been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to China since the 1730s. This trade, unlawful in China since it was outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and the seizure by Britain of the island of Hong Kong, at that time a minor settlement.[9]
The British had direct or indirect control over all of present-day India before the middle of the 19th century. In 1857, a local rebellion by an army of sepoys escalated into the Rebellion of 1857, which took six months to suppress with heavy loss of life on both sides, although the loss of British lives is in the range of a few thousand, the loss on the Indian side was in the hundreds of thousands.[10] The trigger for the Rebellion has been a subject of controversy. The resistance, although short-lived, was triggered by British East India Company attempts to expand its control of India. According to Olson, several reasons may have triggered the Rebellion. For example, Olson concludes that the East India Company's attempt to annexe and expand its direct control of India, by arbitrary laws such as Doctrine of Lapse, combined with employment discrimination against Indians, contributed to the 1857 Rebellion.[11] The East India Company officers lived like princes, the company finances were in shambles, and the company's effectiveness in India was examined by the British crown after 1858. As a result, the East India Company lost its powers of government and British India formally came under direct British rule, with an appointed Governor-General of India. The East India Company was dissolved the following year in 1858. A few years later, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India.[12]
India suffered a series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century, leading to widespread famines in which at least 10 million people died. Responding to earlier famines as threats to the stability of colonial rule, the East India Company had already begun to concern itself with famine prevention during the early colonial period.[13] This greatly expanded during the Raj, in which commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.[14]
The slow but momentous reform movement developed gradually into the Indian Independence Movement. During the years of World War I, the hitherto bourgeois "home-rule" movement was transformed into a popular mass movement by Mahatma Gandhi, a pacifist. Apart from Gandhi, other revolutionaries such as Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar Azad, Surya Sen, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Pradyumn Ananth Pendyala were not against use of violence to oppose the British rule. The independence movement attained its objective with the independence of Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively.
Conservative elements in England consider the independence of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased to be a world power, following Curzon's dictum that, "[w]hile we hold on to India, we are a first-rate power. If we lose India, we will decline to a third-rate power."[citation needed]
French[edit]
Main article: French India
Following the Portuguese, English, and Dutch, the French also established trading bases in India. Their first establishment was in Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India in 1674. Subsequent French settlements were Chandernagore in Bengal, northeastern India in 1688, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh in 1723, Mahe in 1725, and Karaikal in 1739. The French were constantly in conflict with the Dutch and later on mainly with the British in India. At the height of French power in the mid-18th century, the French occupied large areas of southern India and the area lying in today's northern Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Between 1744 and 1761, the British and the French repeatedly attacked and conquered each other's forts and towns in southeastern India and in Bengal in the northeast. After some initial French successes, the British decisively defeated the French in Bengal in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and in the southeast in 1761 in the Battle of Wandiwash, after which the British East India Company was the supreme military and political power in southern India as well as in Bengal. In the following decades it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control. The enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahé and Chandernagore were returned to France in 1816 and were integrated with the Republic of India in 1954.
Dano-Norwegian[edit]
Main article: Danish India
Fort Dansborg at Tranquebar, built by Ove Gjedde, c. 1658
Denmark–Norway held colonial possessions in India for more than 200 years, but the Danish presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat.[15] Denmark–Norway established trading outposts in Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu (1620), Serampore, West Bengal (1755), Calicut, Kerala (1752) and the Nicobar Islands (1750s). At one time, the main Danish and Swedish East Asia companies together imported more tea to Europe than the British did. Their outposts lost economic and strategic importance, and Tranquebar, the last Dano-Norwegian outpost, was sold to the British in October 16, 1868.
Turkish[edit]
The Siege of Diu occurred when a combined Turkish-Gujarati force defeated a Portuguese attempt to capture the city of Diu in 1531. The victory was partly the result of Ottoman firepower over the Portuguese besiegers deployed by Mustafa Bayram, an Ottoman expert.[16] The Turks and the Portuguese battled throughout the region for control over import and trade routes.
Other external powers[edit]
The Spanish were briefly given territorial rights to India by Pope Alexander VI on 25 September 1493 by the bull Dudum siquidem before these rights were removed by the Treaty of Tordesillas less than one year later. The Japanese briefly occupied the Andaman and Nicobar Islands during World War II.[citation needed]
Wars[edit]
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Major General Wellesley commanding his troops at the Battle of Assaye, 1803
The Battle of Ferozeshah during the First Anglo-Sikh War, 1845
The wars that took place involving the British East India Company or British India during the Colonial era:
Anglo-Mysore Wars
First Anglo-Maratha War
Second Anglo-Maratha War
Third Anglo-Maratha War
First Anglo-Sikh War
Second Anglo-Sikh War
Gurkha War
Burmese Wars
First Opium War
India's First War of Independence
Second Opium War
First Anglo-Afghan War
Second Anglo-Afghan War
Third Anglo-Afghan War
World War I, see List of Indian divisions in World War I, Bombardment of Madras
World War II.
See also[edit]
Maratha Empire
Sikh Empire
List of Indian Princely States
Economy of India under the British Raj
Economy of India under Company rule
Hyderabad State
Rajput States
Kingdom of Calicut
Kingdom of Mysore
Arakkal Kingdom
Kingdom of Travancore
Political warfare in British colonial India
British Raj
Ancient India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Corn, Charles (1998). The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade. Kodansha. pp. xxi–xxii. ISBN 1-56836-202-1. The ultimate goal of the Portuguese, as with the nations that followed them, was to reach the source of the fabled holy trinity of spices ... while seizing the vital centers of international trade routes, thus destroying the long-standing Muslim control of the spice trade. European colonization of Asia was ancillary to this purpose.
Jump up ^ Donkin, Robin A. (2003). Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans. Diane Publishing Company. pp. xvii–xviii. ISBN 0-87169-248-1. What drove men to such extraordinary feats ... gold and silver in easy abundance ... and, perhaps more especially, merchandise that was altogether unavailable in Europe—strange jewels, orient pearls, rich textiles, and animal and vegetable products of equatorial provenance ... The ultimate goal was to obtain supplies of spices at source and then to meet demand from whatever quarter.
Jump up ^ "The Land That Lost Its History". Time. 20 August 2001. Archived from the original on 13 September 2001.
Jump up ^ Nandakumar Koroth, History of Forts in North Malabar.
^ Jump up to: a b Ferguson 2004, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stanley (1989). A New History of India (3rd ed.), p. 180. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Olson, p. 478.
Jump up ^ Porter, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Olson, p. 293.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/24/india.randeepramesh
Jump up ^ Olson, p.653
Jump up ^ Olson, p. 568
Jump up ^ Ahuja, Ravi (2016-07-26). "State formation and 'famine policy' in early colonial south India". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 39 (4): 351–380. doi:10.1177/001946460203900402.
Jump up ^ Marshall, pp. 133–34.
Jump up ^ Rasmussen, Peter Ravn (1996). "Tranquebar: The Danish East India Company 1616–1669". University of Copenhagen.
Jump up ^ Guns for the sultan: military power and the weapons industry in the Ottoman Empire, Gábor Ágoston, page 194, 2005
References[edit]
Brian, Mac Arthur (1996) The Penguin Book of Historic Speeches ed. Penguin Books.
Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text
Kachru, Braj (1983) The Indianization of English, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moss, Peter (1999) Oxford History for Pakistan, a revised and expanded version of Oxford History Project Book Three Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02329-0. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Olson, James (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-29366-X. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Marshall, PJ (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00254-0. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924678-5. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt
Further reading[edit]
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.
Herbert, William; William Nichelson; Samuel Dunn (1791). A New Directory for the East-Indies. Gilbert & Wright, London.
External links[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Colonial India.
List of archaeological remains of Dutch, Danish and Portuguese India settlements
gateway.for.india: British history
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Flame
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Flame (disambiguation).
Flames of charcoal
Laminar flame of a burning candle
A flame (from Latin flamma) is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic reaction taking place in a thin zone.[1] Very hot flames are hot enough to have ionized gaseous components of sufficient density to be considered plasma.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mechanism
2 Colour
3 Temperature
3.1 Common temperatures
3.2 Hottest temperature
3.3 Cool flames
4 In microgravity
5 Thermonuclear flames
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Mechanism[edit]
Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize. In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to decompose, forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals, and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction. Sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the Methylidyne radical (CH) and Diatomic carbon (C2), which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy (see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors). As the combustion temperature of a flame increases (if the flame contains small particles of unburnt carbon or other material), so does the average energy of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the flame (see Black body).
Other oxidizers besides oxygen can be used to produce a flame. Hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame and in the process emits gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) as the combustion product.[2] Another of many possible chemical combinations is hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide which is hypergolic and commonly used in rocket engines. Fluoropolymers can be used to supply fluorine as an oxidizer of metallic fuels, e.g. in the magnesium/teflon/viton composition.
The chemical kinetics occurring in the flame are very complex and typically involve a large number of chemical reactions and intermediate species, most of them radicals. For instance, a well-known chemical kinetics scheme, GRI-Mech,[3] uses 53 species and 325 elementary reactions to describe combustion of biogas.
There are different methods of distributing the required components of combustion to a flame. In a diffusion flame, oxygen and fuel diffuse into each other; the flame occurs where they meet. In a premixed flame, the oxygen and fuel are premixed beforehand, which results in a different type of flame. Candle flames (a diffusion flame) operate through evaporation of the fuel which rises in a laminar flow of hot gas which then mixes with surrounding oxygen and combusts.
Colour[edit]
See also: Flame test
Spectrum of the blue (premixed, i.e., complete combustion) flame from a butane torch showing molecular radical band emission and Swan bands. Note that virtually all the light produced is in the blue to green region of the spectrum below about 565 nanometers, accounting for the bluish color of sootless hydrocarbon flames.
Different flame types of a Bunsen burner depend on oxygen supply. On the left a rich fuel with no premixed oxygen produces a yellow sooty diffusion flame; on the right a lean fully oxygen premixed flame produces no soot and the flame color is produced by molecular radicals, especially CH and C2 band emission.
Flame color depends on several factors, the most important typically being black-body radiation and spectral band emission, with both spectral line emission and spectral line absorption playing smaller roles. In the most common type of flame, hydrocarbon flames, the most important factor determining color is oxygen supply and the extent of fuel-oxygen pre-mixing, which determines the rate of combustion and thus the temperature and reaction paths, thereby producing different color hues.
In a laboratory under normal gravity conditions and with a closed oxygen valve, a Bunsen burner burns with yellow flame (also called a safety flame) at around 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). This is due to incandescence of very fine soot particles that are produced in the flame. With increasing oxygen supply, less black body-radiating soot is produced due to a more complete combustion and the reaction creates enough energy to excite and ionize gas molecules in the flame, leading to a blue appearance. The spectrum of a premixed (complete combustion) butane flame on the right shows that the blue color arises specifically due to emission of excited molecular radicals in the flame, which emit most of their light well below ≈565 nanometers in the blue and green regions of the visible spectrum.
The colder part of a diffusion (incomplete combustion) flame will be red, transitioning to orange, yellow, and white as the temperature increases as evidenced by changes in the black-body radiation spectrum. For a given flame's region, the closer to white on this scale, the hotter that section of the flame is. The transitions are often apparent in fires, in which the color emitted closest to the fuel is white, with an orange section above it, and reddish flames the highest of all.[4] A blue-colored flame only emerges when the amount of soot decreases and the blue emissions from excited molecular radicals become dominant, though the blue can often be seen near the base of candles where airborne soot is less concentrated.[5]
Specific colors can be imparted to the flame by introduction of excitable species with bright emission spectrum lines. In analytical chemistry, this effect is used in flame tests to determine presence of some metal ions. In pyrotechnics, the pyrotechnic colorants are used to produce brightly colored fireworks.
Temperature[edit]
A flame test for sodium. Note that the yellow color in this gas flame does not arise from the black-body emission of soot particles (as the flame is clearly a blue premixed complete combustion flame) but instead comes from the spectral line emission of sodium atoms, specifically the very intense sodium D lines.
When looking at a flame's temperature there are many factors which can change or apply. An important one is that a flame's color does not necessarily determine a temperature comparison because black-body radiation is not the only thing that produces or determines the color seen; therefore it is only an estimation of temperature. Here are other factors that determine its temperature:
Adiabatic flame; i.e., no loss of heat to the atmosphere (may differ in certain parts).
Atmospheric pressure
Percentage oxygen content of the atmosphere.
The kind of fuel used (i.e., depends on how quickly the process occurs; how violent the combustion is.)
Any oxidation of the fuel.
Temperature of atmosphere links to adiabatic flame temperature (i.e., heat will transfer to a cooler atmosphere more quickly).
How stoichiometric the combustion process is (a 1:1 stoichiometricity) assuming no dissociation will have the highest flame temperature... excess air/oxygen will lower it and likewise not enough air/oxygen.
In fires (particularly house fires), the cooler flames are often red and produce the most smoke. Here the red color compared to typical yellow color of the flames suggests that the temperature is lower. This is because there is a lack of oxygen in the room and therefore there is incomplete combustion and the flame temperature is low, often just 600 to 850 °C (1,112 to 1,562 °F). This means that a lot of carbon monoxide is formed (which is a flammable gas) which is when there is greatest risk of backdraft. When this occurs combustible gasses, already at or above flash point of spontaneous combustion, are exposed to oxygen, carbon monoxide and superheated hydrocarbons combust and temporary temperatures of up to 2,000 °C (3,630 °F) occur.[citation needed]
Flame temperatures of common items include a candle at 829 °C (1,500 °F),[6] a blow torch – at around 1,600 °C (2,900 °F) a propane torch at 1,995 °C (3,620 °F), or a much hotter oxyacetylene combustion at 3,000 °C (5,400 °F).
Common temperatures[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This is a rough guide to flame temperatures for various common substances (in 20 °C (68 °F) air at 1 atm. pressure):
Material burned
Flame temperature
Charcoal fire 750–1,200 °C (1382-2192 °F)
Methane (natural gas) 900–1,500 °C (1652-2732 °F)
Bunsen burner flame 900–1,600 °C (1652-2912 °F) [depending on the air valve, open or close.]
Candle flame ≈1,100 °C (≈2012 °F) [majority], hot spots may be 1300–1400 (2372-2552 °F)
Propane blowtorch 1,200–1,700 °C (2192-3092 °F)
Backdraft flame peak 1,700–1,950 °C (3092-3542 °F)
Magnesium 1,900–2,300 °C (3452-4172 °F)
Hydrogen torch Up to ≈2,000 °C (≈3632 °F)
MAPP gas 2,020 °C (3668 °F)
Acetylene blowlamp/blowtorch Up to ≈2,300 °C (≈4172 °F)
Oxyacetylene Up to 3,300 °C (5972 °F)
Material burned
Max. flame temperature (in air, diffusion flame)[4]
Animal fat 800–900 °C (1472-1652 °F)
Kerosene 990 °C (1814 °F)
Gasoline 1,026 °C (1878.8 °F)
Wood 1,027 °C (1880.6 °F)
Methanol 1,200 °C (2192 °F)
Charcoal (forced draft) 1,390 °C (2534 °F)
Hottest temperature[edit]
Dicyanoacetylene, a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5,260 K (4,990 °C; 9,010 °F), and at up to 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F) in ozone.[7] This high flame temperature is partially due to the absence of hydrogen in the fuel (dicyanoacetylene is not a hydrocarbon) thus there is no water among the combustion products.
Cyanogen, with the formula (CN)2, produces the second-hottest-known natural flame with a temperature of over 4,525 °C (8,177 °F) when it burns in oxygen.[8][9]
Cool flames[edit]
Main article: Cool flame
At temperatures as low as 120 °C (248 °F), fuel-air mixtures can react chemically and produce very weak flames called cool flames. The phenomenon was discovered by Humphry Davy in 1817. The process depends on a fine balance of temperature and concentration of the reacting mixture, and if conditions are right it can initiate without any external ignition source. Cyclical variations in the balance of chemicals, particularly of intermediate products in the reaction, give oscillations in the flame, with a typical temperature variation of about 100 °C (212 °F), or between "cool" and full ignition. Sometimes the variation can lead to an explosion.[10][11]
In microgravity[edit]
In zero-G, convection does not carry the hot combustion products away from the fuel source, resulting in a spherical flame front.
In the year 2000, experiments by NASA confirmed that gravity plays an indirect role in flame formation and composition.[12] The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a flame (such as in a candle in normal gravity conditions), making it yellow. In microgravity or zero gravity environment, such as in orbit, natural convection no longer occurs and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become bluer and more efficient. There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is the hypothesis that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.[13] Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than do diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.[14] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.
Thermonuclear flames[edit]
Flames do not need to be driven only by chemical energy release. In stars, subsonic burning fronts driven by burning light nuclei (like carbon or helium) to heavy nuclei (up to iron group) propagate as flames. This is important in some models of Type Ia supernovae. In thermonuclear flames, thermal conduction dominates over species diffusion, so the flame speed and thickness is determined by the thermonuclear energy release and thermal conductivity (often in the form of degenerate electrons).[15]
See also[edit]
Combustion
Flame detector
Flame test
International Flame Research Foundation
Oxidizing and reducing flames
The Combustion Institute
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Law, C. K. (2006). "Laminar premixed flames". Combustion physics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 300. ISBN 0-521-87052-6. Archived from the original on 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Reaction of Chlorine with Hydrogen". Archived from the original on 2008-08-20.
Jump up ^ Gregory P. Smith; David M. Golden; Michael Frenklach; Nigel W. Moriarty; Boris Eiteneer; Mikhail Goldenberg; C. Thomas Bowman; Ronald K. Hanson; Soonho Song; William C. Gardiner, Jr.; Vitali V. Lissianski; Zhiwei Qin. "GRI-Mech 3.0". Archived from the original on 29 October 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Christopher W. Schmidt; Steve A. Symes (2008). The analysis of burned human remains. Academic Press. pp. 2–4. ISBN 0-12-372510-0. Archived from the original on 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Jozef Jarosinski; Bernard Veyssiere (2009). Combustion Phenomena: Selected Mechanisms of Flame Formation, Propagation and Extinction. CRC Press. p. 172. ISBN 0-8493-8408-7. Archived from the original on 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ How Hot is a Candle Flame? Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. askascientist.co.uk Retrieved on 2016.
Jump up ^ Kirshenbaum, A. D.; A. V. Grosse (May 1956). "The Combustion of Carbon Subnitride, NC4N, and a Chemical Method for the Production of Continuous Temperatures in the Range of 5000–6000°K". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (9): 2020. doi:10.1021/ja01590a075.
Jump up ^ Thomas, N.; Gaydon, A. G.; Brewer, L. (1952). "Cyanogen Flames and the Dissociation Energy of N2". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 20 (3): 369–374. Bibcode:1952JChPh..20..369T. doi:10.1063/1.1700426.
Jump up ^ J. B. Conway; R. H. Wilson Jr.; A. V. Grosse (1953). "THE TEMPERATURE OF THE CYANOGEN-OXYGEN FLAME". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 75 (2): 499. doi:10.1021/ja01098a517.
Jump up ^ Pearlman, Howard; Chapek, Richard M. (24 April 2000). "Cool Flames and Autoignition in Microgravity". NASA. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Jones, John Clifford (September 2003). "Low temperature oxidation". Hydrocarbon process safety: a text for students and professionals. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-59370-004-1.
Jump up ^ Spiral flames in microgravity Archived 19 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine., National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000.
Jump up ^ Candle Flame in Microgravity Archived 26 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. NASA
Jump up ^ C. H. Kim et al. Laminar Soot Processes Experiment Shedding Light on Flame Radiation Archived 11 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. NASA, HTML Archived 20 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ F. X. Timmes and S. E. WoosleyThe conductive propagation of nuclear flames. I - Degenerate C + O and O + NE + MG white dwarfs
External links[edit]
A candle flame strongly influenced and moved about by an electric field due to the flame having ions.
Ultra-Low Emissions Low-Swirl Burner
7 Shades of Fire
Licence, Peter. "Coloured Flames". The Periodic Table of Videos. University of Nottingham.
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