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Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) of the United States Constitution effectively established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States by declaring the production, transport, and sale of alcohol (though not the consumption or private possession) illegal. The separate Volstead Act set down methods for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment, and defined which "intoxicating liquors" were prohibited, and which were excluded from prohibition (e.g., for medical and religious purposes). The Amendment was the first to set a time delay before it would take effect following ratification, and the first to set a time limit for its ratification by the states. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the bill, but the House of Representatives overrode the veto, and the Senate did so as well the next day. The Volstead Act set the starting date for nationwide prohibition for January 17, 1920, which was the earliest day allowed by the Eighteenth Amendment.
The Amendment was in effect for the following 13 years. It was repealed in 1933 by ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment. The Twenty-first Amendment was ratified on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a prior amendment and to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Background
3 The Temperance Movement
4 Proposal and ratification
5 The Volstead Act
6 Positives and negatives
7 Controversies
8 Calls for repeal
9 Impact
10 Bootlegging and organized crime[31]
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Text[edit]
Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all the territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
Background[edit]
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Main article: Prohibition in the United States
The Eighteenth Amendment was the result of decades of effort by the temperance movement in the United States and at the time was generally considered a progressive amendment.[2] Starting in 1906, the Anti-Saloon League (ASL) began leading a campaign to ban the sale of alcohol on a state level. They led speeches, advertisements, and public demonstrations, claiming that banning the sale of alcohol would get rid of poverty and social issues, such as immoral behavior and violence. It would also inspire new forms of sociability between men and women and they believed that families would be happier, fewer industrial mistakes would be made and overall, the world would be a better place.[3] Other groups such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union began as well trying to ban the sale, manufacturing, and distribution of alcoholic beverages.[3] A well-known reformer during this time period was Carrie Amelia Moore Nation, whose violent actions (such as vandalizing saloon property) made her a household name across America.[4] Many state legislatures had already enacted statewide prohibition prior to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment but did not ban the consumption of alcohol in most households. It took some states longer than others to ratify this amendment, especially northern states such as: New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. They violated the law by still allowing some wines and beers to be sold.[3] By 1916, 23 of 48 states had already passed laws against saloons, some even banning the manufacture of alcohol in the first place.[4]
The Temperance Movement[edit]
The Temperance Movement was dedicated to the complete abstinence of alcohol from public life. The movement began in the early 1800s within the church, and was very religiously motivated. The central areas the group was founded out of were in the Saratoga area of New York, as well as in Massachusetts. Churches were also highly influential in gaining new members and support, garnering 6,000 local societies in several different states.[5]
A group that was inspired by the movement was the Anti-Saloon league, who at the turn of the 20th century began heavily lobbying for prohibition in the United States. The group was founded in 1893 in the state of Ohio, gaining massive support from Evangelical Protestants, to becoming a national organization in 1895. The group was successful in helping implement prohibition, through heavy lobbying and having a vast influence. The group following repeal of prohibition fell out of power and in 1950 merged with other groups forming the National Temperance League.[6]
Proposal and ratification[edit]
Amendment XVIII in the National Archives
On August 1, 1917, the Senate passed a resolution containing the language of the amendment to be presented to the states for ratification. The vote was 65 to 20, with the Democrats voting 36 in favor and 12 in opposition; and the Republicans voting 29 in favor and 8 in opposition. The House of Representatives passed a revised resolution[7] on December 17, 1917. This was the first amendment to impose a date in which it had to be ratified in which if the deadline was not met, the amendment would be discarded.[8]
In the House, the vote was 282 to 128, with the Democrats voting 141 in favor and 64 in opposition; and the Republicans voting 137 in favor and 62 in opposition. Four Independents in the House voted in favor and two Independents cast votes against the amendment.[9] It was officially proposed by the Congress to the states when the Senate passed the resolution, by a vote of 47 to 8, the next day, December 18.[10]
The amendment and its enabling legislation did not ban the consumption of alcohol, but made it difficult to obtain alcoholic beverages legally, as it prohibited the sale, manufacturing and distribution of them in U.S. territory. Any one who got caught selling, manufacturing or distributing alcoholic beverages would be arrested.[3] Because prohibition was already implemented by many states, it was quickly ratified into a law.[8] The ratification of the Amendment was completed on January 16, 1919, when Nebraska became the 36th of the 48 states then in the Union to ratify it. On January 29, acting Secretary of State Frank L. Polk certified the ratification.[11]
The following states ratified the amendment:[12]
Mississippi (January 7, 1918)
Virginia (January 11, 1918)
Kentucky (January 14, 1918)
North Dakota (January 25, 1918)[note 1]
South Carolina (January 29, 1918)
Maryland (February 13, 1918)
Montana (February 19, 1918)
Texas (March 4, 1918)
Delaware (March 18, 1918)
South Dakota (March 20, 1918)
Massachusetts (April 2, 1918)
Arizona (May 24, 1918)
Georgia (June 26, 1918)
Louisiana (August 3, 1918)[note 2]
Florida (November 27, 1918)
Michigan (January 2, 1919)
Ohio (January 7, 1919)
Oklahoma (January 7, 1919)
Idaho (January 8, 1919)
Maine (January 8, 1919)
West Virginia (January 9, 1919)
California (January 13, 1919)
Tennessee (January 13, 1919)
Washington (January 13, 1919)
Arkansas (January 14, 1919)
Illinois (January 14, 1919)
Indiana (January 14, 1919)
Kansas (January 14, 1919)
Alabama (January 15, 1919)
Colorado (January 15, 1919)
Iowa (January 15, 1919)
New Hampshire (January 15, 1919)
Oregon (January 15, 1919)
North Carolina (January 16, 1919)
Utah (January 16, 1919)
Nebraska (January 16, 1919)
Missouri (January 16, 1919)
Wyoming (January 16, 1919)
Minnesota (January 17, 1919)
Wisconsin (January 17, 1919)
New Mexico (January 20, 1919)
Nevada (January 21, 1919)
New York (January 29, 1919)
Vermont (January 29, 1919)
Pennsylvania (February 25, 1919)
New Jersey (March 9, 1922)
The following states rejected the amendment:
Connecticut[13][14]
Rhode Island[15][14]
Prohibition agents destroying barrels of alcohol
To define the language used in the Amendment, Congress enacted enabling legislation called the National Prohibition Act, better known as the Volstead Act, on October 28, 1919. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed that bill, but the House of Representatives immediately voted to override the veto and the Senate voted similarly the next day. The Volstead Act set the starting date for nationwide prohibition for January 17, 1920, which was the earliest date allowed by the 18th amendment.[16]
The Volstead Act[edit]
The Volstead Act was passed by Congress as a means of overriding the veto of the 18th amendment put forth by President Woodrow Wilson. The act was conceived and introduced by Wayne Wheeler who was a leader of the Anti-Saloon League, a group which found alcohol responsible for almost all of society's problems, and were also responsible for many campaigns against the sale of alcohol.[17] The law was also heavily supported by Judiciary Chairman at the time, Andrew Volstead from Minnesota and was named in his honor. The act in its written form laid the ground work of prohibition, defining the procedures for banning the distribution of alcohol including their production and distribution.[18]
Volstead had once before introduced an early version of the law to congress. It was first brought to the floor on May 27, 1919 meeting heavy resistance from Democrat senators, introducing instead what was called the "wet law", which was an attempt to end the wartime prohibition laws put into affect much earlier. The debate of prohibition would continue to be fueled even longer in congress, for that entire the House would be divided among what would be known as the "bone-drys and the "wets".
With Republicans in the majority of the House of Representatives, the act was passed July 22, 1919 with 287 in favor and 100 opposed. Unfortunately the act was in large part a failure, being unable to prevent mass distribution of alcoholic beverages and also inadvertently gave way to massive increase in organized crime.[19] The act would go on to be the standard for enforcing prohibition, until the passing of the 21st amendment in 1933 effectively repealed it.
Positives and negatives[edit]
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (January 2018)
Source:[20]
Positives:
During the Prohibition era’s first years, amendment supporters were gratified by a decline in arrests for drunkenness, hospitalization for alcoholism, and instances of liver-related medical problems. These statistics seemed to validate their campaign and to suggest that America’s future might include happier families, fewer industrial accidents, and a superior moral tone.
Most Americans greeted the end of the Prohibition era with relief. While the end of the conflict and lawlessness was a relief there was also a clear benefit that Americans could recognize. The legalization of alcohol meant that alcohol could be taxed by government; the United States was in the midst of the Great Depression and state and federal governments needed revenue to create relief programs.
Negatives:
The rise of mass disobedience to prohibition laws took the amendment's advocates by surprise. People who could afford the high price of smuggled liquor flocked to speakeasies and gin joints. These establishments could be quite glamorous. Whereas pre-Prohibition saloons had seldom welcomed women, the new world of nightclubs invited both the bob-haired "flapper" and her "sheik" to drink cocktails, smoke, and dance to jazz.
Working-class consumption largely moved from saloons into the home. "Bathtub gin" and moonshine took the place of mass-produced liquor, and hosts might use additives to turn grape juice into wine for their guests. Americans who sought to remain in the liquor business found ways to re-distill the alcohol in perfume, paint, and carpentry supplies. They continued redistilling even after learning that many of these products contained poisons meant to deter such transformations.
Ultimately, only a small percentage of liquor distributors found themselves arrested. But even this limited number of accused—there were approximately 65,000 federal criminal actions in the first two years of Prohibition—was enough to cripple the justice system. Prisons grew crowded, and judges tried to incentivize quick "guilty" pleas by promising very small fines. And if a liquor seller did wind up on trial, juries filled with liquor drinkers were often reluctant to find the defendants guilty; only about 60 percent of cases ended with a conviction.
Controversies[edit]
The proposed amendment was the first to contain a provision setting a deadline for its ratification.[21] That clause of the amendment was challenged, with the case reaching the US Supreme Court. It upheld the constitutionality of such a deadline in Dillon v. Gloss (1921). The Supreme Court also upheld the ratification by the Ohio legislature in Hawke v. Smith (1920), despite a petition requiring that the matter go to ballot.
This was not the only controversy around the amendment. The phrase "intoxicating liquor" would not logically have included beer and wine, and their inclusion in the prohibition came as a surprise to the general public, as well as wine and beer makers. This controversy caused many Northern states to not abide by which caused some problems.[3] The brewers were probably not the only Americans to be surprised at the severity of the regime thus created. Voters who considered their own drinking habits blameless, but who supported prohibition to discipline others, also received a rude shock. That shock came with the realization that federal prohibition went much farther in the direction of banning personal consumption than all local prohibition ordinances and many state prohibition statutes. National Prohibition turned out to be quite a different beast than its local and state cousins.
Under Prohibition, the illegal manufacture and sale of liquor–known as "bootlegging"–occurred on a large scale across the United States. In urban areas, where the majority of the population opposed Prohibition, enforcement was generally much weaker than in rural areas and smaller towns. Perhaps the most dramatic consequence of Prohibition was the effect it had on organized crime in the United States: as the production and sale of alcohol went further underground, it began to be controlled by the Mafia and other gangs, who transformed themselves into sophisticated criminal enterprises that reaped huge profits from the illicit liquor trade.
When it came to its booming bootleg business, the Mafia became skilled at bribing police and politicians to look the other way. Chicago’s Al Capone emerged as the most notorious example of this phenomenon, earning an estimated $60 million annually from the bootlegging and speakeasy operations he controlled. In addition to bootlegging, gambling and prostitution reached new heights during the 1920s as well. A growing number of Americans came to blame Prohibition for this widespread moral decay and disorder–despite the fact that the legislation had intended to do the opposite–and to condemn it as a dangerous infringement on the freedom of the individual.[22]
In his important study both of the Eighteenth Amendment and its repeal, Daniel Okrent identifies the powerful political coalition that worked successfully in the two decades leading to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment:
Five distinct, if occasionally overlapping, components made up this unspoken coalition: racists, progressives, suffragists, populists (whose ranks included a small socialist auxiliary), and nativists. Adherents of each group may have been opposed to alcohol for its own sake, but used the Prohibition impulse to advance ideologies and causes that had little to do with it.[1]
Calls for repeal[edit]
If public sentiment had turned against Prohibition by the late 1920s, the advent of the Great Depression only hastened its demise, as some argued that the ban on alcohol denied jobs to the unemployed and much-needed revenue to the government. The efforts of the nonpartisan group Americans Against Prohibition Association (AAPA) added to public disillusionment. In 1932, the platform of Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt included a plank for repealing the 18th Amendment, and his victory that November marked a certain end to Prohibition.
In February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the 21st Amendment to the Constitution, which repealed both the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one-state, one-vote referendum rather than a popular vote contest. That December, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the necessary majority for repeal. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 all of them had abandoned it. Since then, liquor control in the United States has largely been determined at the local level.[22]
Impact[edit]
Just after the Eighteenth Amendment's adoption, there was a significant reduction in alcohol consumption among the general public and particularly among low-income groups. There were fewer hospitalizations for alcoholism and likewise fewer liver-related medical problems. However, consumption soon climbed as underworld entrepreneurs began producing "rotgut" alcohol which was full of dangerous diseases.[4] With the rise of home distilled alcohol, many cases of careless distilling led to the deaths of many citizens. During the ban upwards of 10,000 deaths can be attributed to wood alcohol (methanol) poisoning.[23] Ultimately, during prohibition use and abuse of alcohol ended up higher than before it started.[24][25] The greatest unintended consequence of Prohibition however, was the plainest to see. For over a decade, the law that was meant to foster temperance instead fostered intemperance and excess. The solution the United States had devised to address the problem of alcohol abuse had instead made the problem even worse. The statistics of the period are notoriously unreliable, but it is very clear that in many parts of the United States more people were drinking, and people were drinking more.
Though there were significant increases in crimes involved in the production and distribution of illegal alcohol, there was an initial reduction in overall crime, mainly in types of crimes associated with the effects of alcohol consumption such as public drunkenness.[26] Those who continued to use alcohol, tended to turn to organized criminal syndicates. Law enforcement wasn't strong enough to stop all liquor traffic; however, they used a "sting" operations--"Prohibition agent Elliot Ness famously used wiretapping to discern secret locations of breweries."[3] The prisons became crowded which led to fewer arrests for the distribution of alcohol, as well as those arrested being charged with small fines rather than prison time.[3] The murder rate fell for two years, but then rose to record highs because this market became extremely attractive to criminal organizations, a trend that reversed the very year prohibition ended.[27][28] Overall, crime rose 24%, including increases in assault and battery, theft, and burglary.[29]
Anti-prohibition groups arose and worked to have the amendment repealed, once it became apparent that Prohibition was an unprecedented catastrophe. The Eighteenth Amendment failed because of its sudden, strict enforcement. It didn't allow the people to have a say or let them gradually ease into the complete ban of alcoholic beverages. Instead, the people rebelled and the introduction of speakeasies and "flappers" came about.[3]
The Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933.[30]
Bootlegging and organized crime[31][edit]
Following ratification in 1919 the effects of the amendment were long lasting, leading to increases in crime in many large cities in the United States, like Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles [1]. Along with this came many separate forms of illegal alcohol distribution. Examples of this include speakeasies and bootlegging, as well as illegal distilling operations.
Bootlegging got its start in towns bordering Mexico and Canada, as well as in areas with several ports and harbors, a favorite distribution area for bootleggers being Atlantic City, New Jersey. The alcohol was often supplied from various foreign distributors, like Cuba and the Bahamas, or even Newfoundland and islands under rule by the French.
The government in response employed the Coast Guard to search and detain any ships transporting alcohol into the ports, but with this came several complications such as disputes over where jurisdiction lay on the water. This was what made Atlantic City such a hot spot for smuggling operations, because of a shipping point nearly three miles off shore that U.S. officials could not investigate, further complicating enforcement of the amendment. What made matters even worse for the Coast Guard was that they were not well equipped enough to chase down bootlegging vessels. The Coast Guard however, was able to respond to these issues, and began searching vessels out at sea, instead of when they made port, and upgraded their own vehicles allowing for more efficient and consistent arrests.
But even with the advancements in enforcing the amendment, there were still complications that plagued the government's efforts. One issue came in the form of forged prescriptions for alcoholic beverages. Many forms of alcohol were being sold over the counter at the time, under the guise of being for medical purposes. But in truth, these beverages had falsified the evidence that they were medically fit to be sold to consumers.
Bootlegging itself was the leading factor that developed the organized crime-rings in big cities, given that controlling and distributing liquor was a very difficult task to achieve. From that arose many profitable gangs that would control every aspect of the distribution process, whether it be concealed brewing and storage, or even operating a speakeasy, or selling in restaurants and nightclubs run by a specific syndicate. With organized crime becoming a rising problem in the United States, control of specific territories was a key objective among gangs, leading to many violent confrontations with murder rates and burglaries heavily increasing between 1920 and 1933.[32] Bootlegging was also found to be a gateway crime for many gangs, who would then expand operations into crimes such as prostitution, gambling rackets, narcotics, loan-sharking, extortion and labor rackets, thus causing problems to persist long after the amendment was repealed.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Effective January 28, 1918, the date on which the North Dakota ratification was approved by the state Governor.
Jump up ^ Effective August 9, 1918, the date on which the Louisiana ratification was approved by the state Governor.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The 18th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution". National Constitution Center – The 18th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
Jump up ^ Hamm, Richard F. (1995). Shaping the Eighteenth Amendment: temperance reform, legal culture, and the polity, 1880–1920. UNC Press Books. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-8078-4493-9. OCLC 246711905.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "User account - Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org.
^ Jump up to: a b c "18th and 21st Amendments - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com.
Jump up ^ "temperance movement". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Anti-Saloon League". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ 40 Stat. 1050
^ Jump up to: a b "18th Amendment - constitution - Laws.com". constitution.laws.com.
Jump up ^ David Pietrusza, 1920: The Year of Six Presidents (NY: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 160
Jump up ^ "Prohibition wins in Senate, 47 to 8" (PDF). New York Times. December 19, 1917. p. 6.
Jump up ^ 40 Stat. 1941
Jump up ^ The dates of proposal, ratifications and certification come from The Constitution Of The United States Of America Analysis And Interpretation Analysis Of Cases Decided By The Supreme Court Of The United States To July 1, 2014, United States Senate doc. no. 108-17, at 35 n.10.
Jump up ^ New York Times: "Connecticut Balks at Prohibition," February 5, 1919, accessed July 27, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Cohn, Henry S.; Davis, Ethan (2009). "Stopping the Wind that Blows and the Rivers that Run: Connecticut and Rhode Island Reject the Prohibition Amendment". Quinnipiac Law Review. 27: 327, 328. [I]t took until 1922 for the forty-sixth state, New Jersey, to ratify, and Connecticut and Rhode Island would never do so. – via HeinOnline (subscription required)
Jump up ^ New York Times: "Rhode Island Defeats Prohibition," March 13, 1918, accessed July 27, 2011
Jump up ^ "Woodrow Wilson - U.S. Presidents - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com.
Jump up ^ Smentkowski, Brian P. "Eighteenth Amendment." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 22 Aug. 2017, www.britannica.com/topic/Eighteenth-Amendment
Jump up ^ "The Volstead Act". History, Art & Archives, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "Congress enforces prohibition." History.com, A&E Television Networks, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-enforces-prohibition.
Jump up ^ "Prohibition and Its Effects". The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. 2012-03-03. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
Jump up ^ https://constiution.laws.com/american-history/constiution/constituional-amendments/18th-amendment
^ Jump up to: a b "18th and 21st Amendments - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
Jump up ^ Rothman, Lily (January 14, 2015). "The History of Poisoned Alcohol Includes an Unlikely Culprit: The U.S. Government". Time. Retrieved 2018-01-11.
Jump up ^ http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/ PBS: The Unintended Consequences of Prohibition] and Government, http://time.com/3665643/deadly-drinking/%7Cwebsite=TIME%7Caccessdate=14 November 2017}
Jump up ^ Blum, Deborah (18 February 2010). The Poisoners Handbook. New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. Ch. 2.
Jump up ^ https://object.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa157.pdf
Jump up ^ https://object.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa157.pdf — Cato Institute Policy Analysis No. 157: Alcohol Prohibition Was a Failure
The homicide rate increased from 6 per 100,000 population in the pre-Prohibition period to nearly 10 per 100,000 in 1933. That rising trend was reversed by the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, and the rate continued to decline throughout the 1930s and early 1940s
Jump up ^ "Prohibition = Violence". January 29, 2003.
Jump up ^ Histeropedia - The Eighteenth Amendment’s Contribution to Increased Crime and Societal Disobedience in the 1920s (Fall 2012)
Rather than reducing the crime rates within the United States, prohibition resulted in an increased crime rate of 24% including increased assault and battery by 13%, homicide rates by 12.7%, and burglaries and theft by 9%.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin (December 5, 1933), Proclamation 2065 - Repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment
Jump up ^ "Prohibition." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 21 Aug. 2014. academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Prohibition/610119. Accessed 20 Nov. 2017.
Jump up ^ "Prohibition and the Rise of the American Gangster". January 17, 2012.
External links[edit]
The Constitution Of The United States Of America: Analysis And Interpretation: Analysis Of Cases Decided By The Supreme Court Of The United States To June 28, 2002, United States Senate doc. no. 108-17.
CRS Annotated Constitution: 18th Amendment
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Por una Cabeza
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Por una Cabeza"
Song
Written
1935
Genre
Tango
Length
2:34
Label
RCA Victor
Composer(s)
Carlos Gardel
Lyricist(s)
Alfredo Le Pera
Audio sample
file
help
"Por una Cabeza" is a tango song with music and lyrics written in 1935 by Carlos Gardel and Alfredo Le Pera respectively.[1]
Contents
1 Composition and lyrics
2 Notable uses
3 Lyrics in public domain
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Composition and lyrics[edit]
Carlos Gardel
The name is a Spanish horse-racing phrase meaning "by a head", which refers to a horse winning a race narrowly - by just the length of its head. The lyrics speak of a compulsive horse-track gambler who compares his addiction for horses with his attraction to women.
Alfredo Le Pera was an Argentine, born in Brazil, son of Italian immigrants. Le Pera and Gardel died in an airplane crash in Medellín, on Monday, June 24, 1935.[2]
The starting phrase in the B section may be inspired by Mozart's Rondo for violin and orchestra in C major, K. 373.[3][4][5]
The song was originally composed in A major.[6] It was thereafter adapted to the violin and the piano sometimes in A major,[7][8] sometimes in G major.[9][10]
Notable uses[edit]
Por Una Cabeza was featured in a famous tango scene in Martin Brest's Scent of a Woman (1992), in the opening scene of Steve Spielberg's Schindler's List (1993) and in James Cameron's True Lies (1994).[11][12][13][14]
An arrangement, without vocals, is performed by Nicola Benedetti on her 2012 album The Silver Violin.[15][16]
Lyrics in public domain[edit]
Por una cabeza
de un noble potrillo
que justo en la raya
afloja al llegar,
y que al regresar
parece decir:
No olvidés, hermano,
vos sabés, no hay que jugar.
Por una cabeza,
metejón de un día
de aquella coqueta
y risueña mujer,
que al jurar sonriendo
el amor que está mintiendo,
quema en una hoguera
todo mi querer.
Por una cabeza,
todas las locuras.
Su boca que besa,
borra la tristeza,
calma la amargura.
Por una cabeza,
si ella me olvida
qué importa perderme
mil veces la vida,
para qué vivir.
Cuántos desengaños,
por una cabeza.
Yo juré mil veces,
no vuelvo a insistir.
Pero si un mirar
me hiere al pasar,
su boca de fuego
otra vez quiero besar.
Basta de carreras,
se acabó la timba.
¡Un final reñido
yo no vuelvo a ver!
Pero si algún pingo
llega a ser fija el domingo,
yo me juego entero.
¡Qué le voy a hacer..!
Wikisource has sheet music and full lyrics in Spanish and English:
Por una Cabeza
Por una cabeza,
todas las locuras.
Su boca que besa,
borra la tristeza,
calma la amargura.
Por una cabeza,
si ella me olvida
qué importa perderme
mil veces la vida,
para qué vivir.
See also[edit]
Music of Argentina
Public domain music
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Por una Cabeza". Todo Tango. Retrieved July 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ Clavell, M. (1996) (in Spanish), Biografía. In: Los Mejores Tangos de Carlos Gardel. Alfred Publ. Van Nuys, California.
Jump up ^ http://www.tyalgumfestival.com.au/TFCM/C2_Concert_Notes.html
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-15. Retrieved 2013-07-23. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ http://imslp.org/wiki/Por_una_Cabeza_%28Gardel,_Carlos%29
Jump up ^ YouTube, Carlos Gardel and Alfredo Le Pera - « Por una Cabeza » (in A major)
Jump up ^ Wikisource, Scores of « Por una Cabeza » (in A major)
Jump up ^ YouTube, Miguel Gragera - « Por Una Cabeza » (in A major)
Jump up ^ YouTube, Carlos Gardel - « Por una cabeza » with score (in G major)
Jump up ^ YouTube, « Por Una Cabeza » in True Lies (in G major)
Jump up ^ Schickler, David (2013). The Dark Path. Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-1594486456. ...an instrumental recording of Por una Cabeza used in the films Scent of a Woman and True Lies. The original version of the song, a hit from the 1930s by Carlos Gardel and Alfredo La Pera...
Jump up ^ Scaffidi, Susan (June 15, 2016). "All grown up: Youth symphony to lose a quarter of players after concert". Retrieved December 18, 2017. Hong, a violinist, will perform one of the most famous of tango melodies: “Por una Cabeza” by Carlos Gardel. The tango has been used in several films, most memorably in “Scent of a Woman” and “True Lies.”
Jump up ^ Thompson, Robert (2005). Tango: The Art History of Love. Vintage Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-1400095797. Finally, in Steven Spielburg's Schindler's List (1993), Liam Neeson dances, once again, to "Por una cabeza."
Jump up ^ "She Walks To The Dance Floor And Starts To Tango Like No One Else. This Is Just Delightful!". April 14, 2017. Retrieved June 2, 2018. Easy Virtue...beautifully edited to Carlos Gardel’s “Por una Cabeza.”
Jump up ^ Edwards, Adrian (November 2012). "The Silver Violin. Benedetti in Bournemouth for silver-screen violin classics". Retrieved December 19, 2017. This new release from Nicola Benedetti offers a programme inspired by film music...The bonne bouche of the shorter pieces is Carlos Gardel’s tango Por una cabeza
Jump up ^ Gill, Andy (August 24, 2012). "Album: Nicola Benedetti The Silver Violin (Decca)". The Independent. Retrieved December 19, 2017. Nicola Benedetti believes that film music is the primary contemporary conduit for classical or orchestral music...But the most interesting pieces are Gardel's playful tango from Scent of a Woman, "Por Una Cabeza"
External links[edit]
[1]"Por una cabeza". Comparación con "Rondó para violín y orquesta K 373" (Mozart). Por Marcelo O. Martínez.
Por una Cabeza's Lyrics, music, scores, versions
Por una Cabeza's Lyrics
English translation
Performed by Itzhak Perlman on YouTube
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Por_una_Cabeza&oldid=857958209"
Categories:
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Spanish-language songs
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Songs with lyrics by Alfredo Le Pera
Songs with music by Carlos Gardel
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text:
Central Pacific Railroad
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Jump to: navigation, search
Central Pacific Railroad
Locale
Sacramento, CA-Ogden, Utah
Dates of operation
June 28, 1861–April 1, 1885, but continued as an SP leased line until 30 June 1959
Successor
Southern Pacific
Track gauge
1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) → 1
Headquarters
Sacramento, CA; San Francisco, CA
Main article: First Transcontinental Railroad § Union Pacific Route
Route of the first American transcontinental railroad: The Central Pacific (red) and the Union Pacific (blue) railroads met in Utah in 1869.
The Gov. Stanford locomotive
The Truckee River at Verdi, Nevada. When the Central Pacific Railroad reached its site in 1868, Charles Crocker pulled a slip of paper from a hat and read the name of Giuseppe Verdi ; so, the town was named after the Italian opera composer.[1]
Trestle, Central Pacific Railroad, c.1869. Photo: Carleton Watkins
The Last Spike, by Thomas Hill, (1881)
The Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) was a rail route between California and Utah built eastwards from the West Coast in the 1860s, to complete the western part of the "First Transcontinental Railroad" in North America. It later became part of the Union Pacific Railroad.
Many 19th century national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of the energy consumed by political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation authorizing the railroad, with financing in the form of government railroad bonds. These were all eventually repaid with interest.[2] The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed.[3] The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical "safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores."[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Authorization and construction
2 Financing
3 Museums and archives
4 Locomotives
5 Preserved locomotives
6 Timeline
7 Acquisitions
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Authorization and construction[edit]
Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four" (who called themselves "The Associates"): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. Construction crews comprised 12,000 Chinese emigrant workers by 1868, when they constituted eighty percent of the entire work force.[5][6] They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869.[7] Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.
In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.
The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.
Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Fifty Chinese laborers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865, and soon more and more Chinese men were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese men were compensated less than their white counterparts. Chinese men were paid thirty-one dollars each month, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.[8]
Financing[edit]
Advertisement for CPRR First Mortgage Bonds (1867)
Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras' foothills.[9] Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges.[10] The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.
Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds"[11] in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds.[12] (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km2) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km).[13] These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km2) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.
An 1865 San Francisco Pacific Railroad Bond approved in 1863 but delayed for two years by the opposition of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors
Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863-1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto" (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.
The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle". Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.
Museums and archives[edit]
CPRR Original Chief Assistant Engineer L.M. Clement[14] (l) & Chief Engineer T.D. Judah (r)
A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.
Nearly all the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.
Locomotives[edit]
CPRR#113 FALCON, a Danforth 4-4-0, at Argenta, Nevada, March 1, 1869 (Photo: J.B. Silvis)
The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.
Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.
In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.
Construction of the rails was often dangerous work. Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants. The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the "gang" of workers/specific area on the rails they were working.
Preserved locomotives[edit]
See also: List of preserved Southern Pacific Railroad rolling stock
The following CP engines have been preserved:
Central Pacific 1, Gov. Stanford
CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.
Central Pacific 3, C. P. Huntington
Former Western Pacific Mariposa, Central Pacific's second number 31. Was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.
Virginia and Truckee Railroad, though The Dayton was not built for, nor served on the Central Pacific, the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design.
Central Pacific's numbers 60, Jupiter, and 63 Leviathan. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there were exact, full size operating replicas built in recent years. The Jupiter was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at their Golden Spike National Historic Site. Leviathan was finished in 2009, is privately owned, and travels to various railroads to operate.
Timeline[edit]
1861
June 28, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.[15]
CPRR logo gilded "Staff" uniform button
1862
July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.[16]
1863
January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.[17]
October 26, 1863: First rail laid at Sacramento.
1864
April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles (29 km), where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California
October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California," a new corporation.
1865 CPRR journal cover
End of the track near Humboldt River Canyon, Nevada, 1868
Summit station at Sierra Navada
1865
May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened 36 miles (58 km) to Auburn, California.
September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened 54 miles (87 km) to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown.")
1866
December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened 92 miles (148 km) to Cisco, California.
1867
Summit Tunnel, West Portal (Composite image with the tracks removed in 1993 digitally restored)
August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally "conquered" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel #6 (a.k.a. the "Summit Tunnel").[18]
December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, 105 miles (169 km).
1868
June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake's Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada Territory.
1869
April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date.
May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah.
May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento.
November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland.
1870
June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co. to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June 1870).
August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation.
1876
April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).
1877
July 16, 1877: Start of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.
1883
November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time.
1885
April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.
1888
June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.
1899
July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway".
1959
June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.
Acquisitions[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010)
Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad[19]
Stockton and Visalia Railroad[20]
Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870)
See also[edit]
Railways portal
Rail transport in California
Donner Pass (Sierra Nevada)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "A Brief History of Verdi". Verdihistory.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ Daggett, Stuart (1908). "Union Pacific". Railroad Reorganization (PDF). 4. Harvard University Press. p. 256. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Leo Sheep Co. v. United States , 440 U.S. 668 (1979).
Jump up ^ CPRR.org (2009-09-24). "Pacific Railroad Act of 1862, §2". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ Workers of the Central Pacific Railroad, PBS: The American Experience.
Jump up ^ George Kraus, "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific," Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 1 (Winter 1969), pp. 41-57.
Jump up ^ "Ceremony at "Wedding of the Rails," May 10, 1869 at Promontory Point, Utah". World Digital Library. 1869-05-10. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
Jump up ^ Takaki, Ronald (1989). A History of Asian Americans: Strangers From A Different Shore (Second ed.). New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. p. 84-86. ISBN 978-0-316-83130-7.
Jump up ^ CPRR.org (2009-09-24). "Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §5". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ CPRR.org (2009-09-24). "Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §11". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ CPRR.org. "FIRST MORTGAGE BONDS OF THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD, Business Prospects and Operations of the Company, 1867". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ CPRR.org (2009-09-24). "Pacific Railroad Act of 1864 §10". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ CPRR.org (2009-09-24). "Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §3". Cprr.org. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
Jump up ^ "Lewis Metzler Clement, Central Pacific Railroad Pioneer". cprr.org. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
Jump up ^ By-Laws of the Central Pacific Railroad Company of California, Incorporated: June 28, 1861 "THE INDUSTRIAL AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, as developed by the official returns of the Northern and Southern States and Territories, with an APPENDIX containing a detailed description of Federal, State, and City securities, railroad and canal bonds and shares, bank shares, etc. from statements nearest Jan. 1, 1863, and the CHARTERS OF THE UNION PACIFIC RAILROADS, the GENERAL RAILROAD LAW OF CALIFORNIA, and the BY-LAWS OF THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD CO. OF CALIFORNIA." New York: SAMUEL HALLETT, Banker and Railroad Negotiator. 1864
Jump up ^ "An Act to aid in the construction of a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, and to secure to the government the use of the same for postal, military, and other purposes 12 Stat. 489, July 1, 1862
Jump up ^ Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000). Nothing Like It in the World. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 106. ISBN 0-7432-0317-8.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Bruce C. CPRR Summit Tunnel (#6), Tunnels #7 & #8, Snowsheds, "Chinese" Walls, Donner Trail, and Dutch Flat Donner - Lake Wagon Road at Donner Pass CPRR.org.
Jump up ^ "Tinkham Chapter XVIII". Usgennet.org. Retrieved 2012-05-15.
Jump up ^ "Happy Birthday". Oakdalehistory.net. 2002-10-09. Retrieved 2012-05-15.
Further reading[edit]
Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000). Nothing Like It In The World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84609-8.
Bain, David Haward (1999). Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-80889-X.
Beebe, Lucius (1963). The Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads. Berkeley, CA: Howell-North Books.
Cooper, Bruce C. (2005). Riding the Transcontinental Rails: Overland Travel on the Pacific Railroad 1865-1881. Philadelphia: Polyglot Press. ISBN 1-4115-9993-4.
Cooper, Bruce Clement (2010). The Classic Western American Railroad Routes. New York: Chartwell Books/Worth Press. ISBN 0-7858-2573-8.
Daggett, Stuart (1922). Chapters on the History of the Southern Pacific. New York: The Ronald Press.
Evans, Cerinda W. (1954). Collis Potter Huntington (2 vols.). Newport News, Va.: Mariners' Museum.
Fleisig, Heywood (1975). "The Central Pacific Railroad and the Railroad Land Grant Controversy". Journal of Economic History. 35 (3): 552–566. doi:10.1017/s002205070007563x. Questions whether promoters of the Central Pacific Railroad were oversubsidized. Confirms the traditional view that subsidies were not an economic necessity because they "influenced neither the decision to invest in the railroad nor the speed of its construction." Notes that estimates of rate of return for the railroad developers using government funds range from 71% to 200%, while estimates of private rates of return range from 15% to 25%.
Galloway, John Debo (1950). The First Transcontinental Railroad: Central Pacific, Union Pacific. New York: Simmons-Boardman.
Goldbaum, Howard, and Wendell Huffman (2012). Waiting for the Cars: Alfred A. Hart's Stereoscopic Views of the Central Pacific Railroad, 1863-1869. Carson City: Nevada State Railroad Museum.
Griswold, Wesley (1962). A Work of Giants: Building the First Trans-continental Railroad. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Klein, Maury (1987). Union Pacific (3 vols.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-17728-3.
Kraus, George (1969). High Road to Promontory: Building the Central Pacific (Now the Southern Pacific) across the High Sierra. Palo Alto: American West Pub. Co.
Kraus, George (1975). "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific". Utah Historical Quarterly. 37 (1): 41–57. Shows how Chinese railroad workers lived and worked, and managed the finances associated with their employment. Concludes that CPRR officials who employed the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the policy, came to appreciate the reliability of this group of laborers. There are many quotations from accounts by contemporary observers.
Lake, Holly (1994). "Construction of the CPRR: Chinese Immigrant Contribution". Northeastern Nevada Historical Society Quarterly. 94 (4): 188–199.
Mercer, Lloyd J. (1970). "Rates of Return for Land-grant Railroads: the Central Pacific System". Journal of Economic History. 30 (3): 602–626. Analyzes the impact of land grants from 1864 to 1890 on rates of return from investment in the Central Pacific Railroad. Results suggest that even without land grants, rates of return were high enough to induce investment. Also, land grants did not pay for the construction of the railroad. Land grants, however, did produce large social returns in western states by accelerating construction of the system.
Mercer, Lloyd J. (1969). "Land Grants to American Railroads: Social Cost or Social Benefit?". Business History Review. 43 (2): 134–151. doi:10.2307/3112269. Uses econometrics to determine the value of railroad land grants of the 19th century to the railroads and to society. The author summarizes and criticizes previous treatments of this subject, and discusses his own findings. Using the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific systems as the basis for his investigation, the author concludes that the railroad owners received unaided rates of return that substantially exceeded the private rate of return on the average alternative project in the economy during the same period. Thus, the projects were profitable, although contemporary observers expected that the roads would be privately unprofitable without the land grant aid. The land grants did not have a major effect, increasing the private rate of return only slightly. Nevertheless, he says the policy of subsidizing those railroad systems was beneficial for society since the social rate of return from the project was substantial and exceeded the private rate by a significant margin.
Ong, Paul M. (1985). "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor". Journal of Ethnic Studies. 13 (2): 119–124. Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the CPRR, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Because CPRR set different wages for whites and Chinese (each group had different elasticities of supply) and used the two classes in different types of positions, the two groups were complementary, rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus show higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than found in previous studies.
Saxton, Alexander (1966). "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra". Pacific Historical Review. 35 (2): 141–151. doi:10.2307/3636678.
Tutorow, Norman E. (1970). "Stanford's Responses to Competition: Rhetoric Versus Reality". Southern California Quarterly. 52 (3): 231–247. doi:10.2307/41170298. Leland Stanford and the men who ran the CPRR paid lip-service to the idea of free competition, but in practice sought to dominate competing railroad and shipping lines. Analyzing the period 1869-1893, the author shows how Stanford and his associates repeatedly entered into pooling arrangements to prevent competition, bought out competitors, or forced rivals to agree not to compete. He concludes that Stanford and his partners viewed laissez-faire as applicable only to government controls, and not to businessmen's destruction of competition within the system.
White, Richard (2003). "Information, Markets, and Corruption: Transcontinental Railroads in the Gilded Age". The Journal of American History. 90 (1).
Williams, John Hoyt (1988). A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-1668-9.
Neil Goodwin, Peace River Films (1990). "The Iron Road". The American Experience. PBS.
Best, Gerald M (1969). Iron Horses to Promontory. New York: Golden West.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Central Pacific Railroad.
Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
Railroads in California, handwritten report by L. M. Clement. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
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interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Centralnopacifička željeznica – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Central_Pacific_Railroad rootpage-Central_Pacific_Railroad skin-vector action-view