text:
Civil Rights Act of 1991
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Civil Rights Act of 1991
Long title
Civil Rights Act of 1991
Enacted by
the 102nd United States Congress
Citations
Public law
Pub. L. 102-166
Codification
Acts amended
Civil Rights Act of 1957
Civil Rights Act of 1960
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Titles amended
42
U.S.C. sections amended
1981 et seq.
Legislative history
Introduced in the Senate as S.1745 by Sen. John Danforth (R-MO) on September 24, 1991
Passed the Senate on October 30, 1991[1] (93-5)
Passed the House on November 7, 1991[2] (381 - 38)
Signed into law by President George H.W. Bush on November 21, 1991
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a United States labor law, passed in response to United States Supreme Court decisions that limited the rights of employees who had sued their employers for discrimination. The Act represented the first effort since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to modify some of the basic procedural and substantive rights provided by federal law in employment discrimination cases. It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award.
President Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990. He feared racial quotas would be imposed but later approved the 1991 version of the bill.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Predecessors
2 Background
3 Changes
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
Predecessors[edit]
The 1991 Act combined elements from two different civil right acts of the past: the Civil Rights Act of 1866, better known by the number assigned to it in the codification of federal laws as Section 1981, and the employment-related provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, generally referred to as Title VII. The two statutes, passed nearly a century apart, approached the issue of employment discrimination very differently: Section 1981 prohibited only discrimination based on race or color, but Title VII also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and national origin. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages and trial by jury. Title VII, passed in the 1960s when it was assumed that Southern juries could not render a fair verdict, allowed only trial by the court and provided for only traditional equitable remedies: back pay, reinstatement, and injunctions against future acts of discrimination. By the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys fees.
The 1991 Act expanded the remedies available to victims of discrimination by amending Title VII of the 1964 Act.
Background[edit]
Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. It was moved to overhaul Title VII in 1991 and to harmonize it with Section 1981 jurisprudence, with a series of controversial Supreme Court decisions:
Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, 491 U.S. 164 (1988), which held that an employee could not sue for damages caused by racial harassment on the job because even if the employer's conduct were discriminatory, the employer had not denied the employee the "same right... to make and enforce contracts... as is enjoyed by white citizens," the language that Congress chose in passing the law in 1866.
Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, 490 U.S. 642 (1989), which made it more difficult for employees of Wards Cove Packing Company to prove that an employer's personnel practices, neutral on their face, had an unlawful disparate impact on them by requiring that they identify the particular policy or requirement that allegedly produced inequalities in the workplace and show that it, in isolation, had that effect.
Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989), which held that the burden of proof shifted, once an employee had proved that an unlawful consideration had played a part in the employer's personnel decision, to the employer to prove that it would have made the same decision if it had not been motivated by that unlawful factor, but such proof by the employer would constitute a complete defense for the employer.
Martin v. Wilks, 490 U.S. 755 (1989), which permitted white firefighters who had not been party to the litigation, establishing a consent decree governing hiring and promotion of black firefighters in the Birmingham, Alabama, Fire Department, to bring suit to challenge the decree.
Changes[edit]
The Patterson case had attracted much criticism since it appeared to leave employees who had been victimized by racial harassment on the job with no effective remedies, as they could not prove a violation of Section 1981 and could rarely show any wage losses that they could recover under Title VII. In addition, the Court's narrow reading of the phrase "make or enforce contracts" eliminated any liability under Section 1981 for lost promotions and most other personnel decisions that did not constitute a refusal and that was the end to hire or a discharge on the basis of race or color.
Congress addressed the issue by redefining the phrase "make and enforce contracts" to include "the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship." Congress also clarified that Section 1981 applied to both governmental and private discrimination, the issue that the Supreme Court originally announced it would decide in Patterson.
Congress also believed that the Wards Cove case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. The Act was amended to provide that an employee could prove a case by showing either that an individual practice or group of practices resulted in "a disparate impact on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, and the respondent fails to demonstrate that such practice is required by business necessity." Congress added, however, "The mere existence of a statistical imbalance in an employer's workforce on account of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is not alone sufficient to establish a prima facie case of disparate impact violation."
While the majority in Congress supported the burden-shifting rule in Price Waterhouse, it was uncomfortable with an employer's ability to prove that it would have made the same decision in any event, as a complete defense in a case in which it had been shown that race or gender or another unlawful factor played a significant role in its decision. Congress amended the Act to provide that the employer's proof that it would have made the same decision in any case was a defense to back pay, reinstatement and other remedies but not to liability per se. The practical effect of this change was to allow a party that proved that the employer discriminated but could not show that it made any practical difference in the outcome could still recover attorney's fees after showing that the employer discriminated, even if no other remedy was awarded.
Finally, Congress limited the rights of non-parties to attack consent decrees by barring any challenges by parties who knew or should have known of the decree or who were adequately represented by the original parties.
The Court also authorizes jury trials on Title VII claims and allows Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, while imposing caps on such relief under Title VII. The 1991 Act also made technical changes affecting the length of time allowed to challenge unlawful seniority provisions, to sue the federal government for discrimination, and to bring age discrimination claims, but it allowed successful plaintiffs to recover expert witness fees as part of an award of attorney's fees and to collect interest on any judgment against the federal government.
See also[edit]
US labor law
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "S. 1745 (102nd): Civil Rights Act of 1991". GovTrack.us.
Jump up ^ "S. 1745 (102nd): Civil Rights Act of 1991". GovTrack.us.
Jump up ^ Devroy, Ann. "Bush Vetoes Civil Rights Bill; Measure Said to Encourage Job Quotas; Women, Minorities Sharply Critical." Washington Post 23 October 1990, Print.
External links[edit]
Modified Text of the Civil Rights Act of 1991
Changes in Title VII made by the Civil Rights Act of 1991
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1991&oldid=818818268"
Categories:
1991 in law
102nd United States Congress
Anti-discrimination law in the United States
United States federal civil rights legislation
United States statutes that abrogate Supreme Court decisions
Post–Civil Rights Era African-American history
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Muses
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Ancient Greek goddesses. For other uses, see Muse (disambiguation) and The Muse (disambiguation).
Muse, perhaps Clio, reading a scroll (Attic red-figure lekythos, Boeotia, c. 430 BC)
The Muses (/ˈmjuːzɪz/; Ancient Greek: Μοῦσαι, Moũsai) are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts in Greek mythology. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric songs, and myths that were related orally for centuries in these ancient cultures. They were later adopted by the Romans as a part of their pantheon.
In current English usage, "muse" can refer in general to a person who inspires an artist, musician, or writer.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Number and names
3 Mythology
4 Emblems
5 Functions
5.1 In society
5.2 Invoking the Muse in literature
5.3 From cults to modern museums
6 Modern use
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word "Muses" (/ˈmjuːzɪz/; Ancient Greek: Μοῦσαι, Moũsai) perhaps came from the o-grade of the Proto-Indo-European root *men- ("to think")[2] or from root *men- ("to tower, mountain") since all the most important cult-centres of the Muses were on mountains or hills.[3] R. S. P. Beekes rejects both etymologies and suggests a Pre-Greek origin.[4]
Number and names[edit]
Gustave Moreau: Hesiod and the Muse (1891)—Musée d'Orsay, Paris
The earliest known records of the Nine Muses are from Boeotia, the homeland of Hesiod.
Some ancient authorities thought that the Nine Muses were of Thracian origin.[5]
There, a tradition persisted that the Muses had once been three in number.[6]
In the first century BC, Diodorus Siculus quotes Hesiod to the contrary, observing:
Writers similarly disagree also concerning the number of the Muses; for some say that there are three, and others that there are nine, but the number nine has prevailed since it rests upon the authority of the most distinguished men, such as Homer and Hesiod and others like them.[7]
Diodorus also states (Book I.18) that Osiris first recruited the nine Muses, along with the Satyrs, while passing through Ethiopia, before embarking on a tour of all Asia and Europe, teaching the arts of cultivation wherever he went.
According to Hesiod's account (c. 600 BC), generally followed by the writers of antiquity, the Nine Muses were the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (i. e. "Memory" personified), figuring as personifications of knowledge and the arts, especially literature, dance and music.
The Roman scholar Varro (116–27 BC) relates that there are only three Muses: one born from the movement of water, another who makes sound by striking the air, and a third who is embodied only in the human voice. They were called Melete or "Practice", Mneme or "Memory" and Aoide or "Song". Three ancient Muses were also reported in Plutarch's (46–120 AD) Quaestiones Convivales[8] (9.I4.2–4).[9]
However, the classical understanding of the Muses tripled their triad and established a set of nine goddesses, who embody the arts and inspire creation with their graces through remembered and improvised song and mime, writing, traditional music, and dance. It was not until Hellenistic times that the following systematic set of functions was assigned to them, and even then there was some variation in both their names and their attributes: Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Euterpe (flutes and lyric poetry), Thalia (comedy and pastoral poetry), Melpomene (tragedy), Terpsichore (dance), Erato (love poetry), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), Urania (astronomy).
The nine Muses on a Roman sarcophagus (second century AD)—Louvre, Paris
According to Pausanias in the later second century AD,[10] there were originally three Muses, worshipped on Mount Helicon in Boeotia: Aoidḗ ("song" or "tune"), Melétē ("practice" or "occasion"), and Mnḗmē ("memory"). Together, these three form the complete picture of the preconditions of poetic art in cult practice.
In Delphi three Muses were worshiped as well, but with other names: Nḗtē, Mésē, and Hýpatē, which are assigned as the names of the three cords of the ancient musical instrument, the lyre.
Alternatively, later they were called Kēphisṓ, Apollōnís, and Borysthenís, which names characterize them as daughters of Apollo.
In a later tradition, a set of four Muses were recognized: Thelxinóē, Aoidḗ Archē, and Melétē, said to be daughters of Zeus and Plusia or of Ouranos.
One of the people frequently associated with the Muses was Pierus. By some he was called the father (by a Pimpleian nymph, called Antiope by Cicero) of a total of seven Muses, called Neilṓ (Νειλώ), Tritṓnē (Τριτώνη), Asōpṓ (Ἀσωπώ), Heptápora (Ἑπτάπορα), Achelōís, Tipoplṓ (Τιποπλώ), and Rhodía (Ῥοδία).[11]
Mythology[edit]
Thalia, Muse of comedy, holding a comic mask (detail from the “Muses Sarcophagus”)
Apollo and the Muses on Mount Helicon (1680) by Claude Lorrain
According to Hesiod's Theogony (seventh century BC), they were daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and Mnemosyne, Titan goddess of memory. For Alcman and Mimnermus, they were even more primordial, springing from the early deities Ouranos and Gaia. Gaia is Mother Earth, an early mother goddess who was worshipped at Delphi from prehistoric times, long before the site was rededicated to Apollo, possibly indicating a transfer to association with him after that time.
Sometimes the Muses are referred to as water nymphs, associated with the springs of Helicon and with Pieris. It was said that the winged horse Pegasus touched his hooves to the ground on Helicon, causing four sacred springs to burst forth, from which the Muses were born.[12] Athena later tamed the horse and presented him to the Muses (compare the Roman inspiring nymphs of springs, the Camenae, the Völva of Norse Mythology and also the apsaras in the mythology of classical India).
Classical writers set Apollo as their leader, Apollon Mousagetēs ("Apollo Muse-leader").[13] In one myth, the Muses judged a contest between Apollo and Marsyas. They also gathered the pieces of the dead body of Orpheus, son of Calliope, and buried them in Leivithra. In a later myth, Thamyris challenged them to a singing contest. They won and punished Thamyris by blinding him and robbing him of his singing ability.
According to a myth from Ovid's Metamorphoses—alluding to the connection of the Muses with Pieria — Pierus, king of Macedon, had nine daughters he named after the nine Muses, believing that their skills were a great match to the Muses. He thus challenged the Muses to a match, resulting in his daughters, the Pierides, being turned into chattering magpies for their presumption.[14]
Pausanias records a tradition of two generations of Muses; the first are the daughters of Ouranos and Gaia, the second of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Another, rarer genealogy is that they are daughters of Harmonia (the daughter of Aphrodite and Ares), which contradicts the myth in which they were dancing at the wedding of Harmonia and Cadmus.
Emblems[edit]
Polyhymnia, the Muse of sacred poetry, sacred hymn and eloquence as well as agriculture and pantomime.
Muse
Domain
Emblem
Calliope Epic poetry Writing tablet, Stylus, Lyre
Clio History Scrolls, Books, Cornet, Laurel wreath
Euterpe Music, Song, and Lyric Poetry Aulos (an ancient Greek musical instrument like a flute), panpipes, laurel wreath
Erato Love poetry Cithara (an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre family)
Melpomene Tragedy Tragic mask, Sword (or any kind of blade), Club, Kothornos (boots)
Polyhymnia Hymns Veil, Grapes (referring to her as an agricultural goddess)
Terpsichore Dance Lyre, Plectrum
Thalia Comedy Comic mask, Shepherd's crook (the vaudeville act of pulling someone off the stage with a hook is a reference to Thalia's crook), Ivy wreath
Urania Astronomy Globe and compass
Some Greek writers give the names of the nine Muses as Kallichore, Helike, Eunike, Thelxinoë, Terpsichore, Euterpe, Eukelade, Dia, and Enope.[15]
In Renaissance and Neoclassical art, the dissemination of emblem books such as Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1593 and many further editions) helped standardize the depiction of the Muses in sculpture and painting, so they could be distinguished by certain props. These props, or emblems, became readily identifiable by the viewer, enabling one immediately to recognize the Muse and the art with which she had become associated. Here again, Calliope (epic poetry) carries a writing tablet; Clio (history) carries a scroll and books; Euterpe (song and elegiac poetry) carries a flute, the aulos; Erato (lyric poetry) is often seen with a lyre and a crown of roses; Melpomene (tragedy) is often seen with a tragic mask; Polyhymnia (sacred poetry) is often seen with a pensive expression; Terpsichore (choral dance and song) is often seen dancing and carrying a lyre; Thalia (comedy) is often seen with a comic mask; and Urania (astronomy) carries a pair of compasses and the celestial globe.
Functions[edit]
In society[edit]
The Muses Clio, Euterpe, and Thalia, by Eustache Le Sueur
Greek mousa is a common noun as well as a type of goddess: it literally means "art" or "poetry". According to Pindar, to "carry a mousa" is "to excel in the arts". The word derives from the Indo-European root men-, which is also the source of Greek Mnemosyne and mania, English "mind", "mental" and "monitor", Sanskrit mantra and Avestan Mazda.[16]
The Muses Melpomene, Erato, and Polyhymnia, by Eustache Le Sueur
The Muses, therefore, were both the embodiments and sponsors of performed metrical speech: mousike (whence the English term "music") was just "one of the arts of the Muses". Others included Science, Geography, Mathematics, Philosophy, and especially Art, Drama, and inspiration. In the archaic period, before the widespread availability of books (scrolls), this included nearly all of learning. The first Greek book on astronomy, by Thales, took the form of dactylic hexameters, as did many works of pre-Socratic philosophy. Both Plato and the Pythagoreans explicitly included philosophy as a sub-species of mousike.[17] The Histories of Herodotus, whose primary medium of delivery was public recitation, were divided by Alexandrian editors into nine books, named after the nine Muses.
For poet and "law-giver" Solon,[18] the Muses were "the key to the good life"; since they brought both prosperity and friendship. Solon sought to perpetuate his political reforms by establishing recitations of his poetry—complete with invocations to his practical-minded Muses—by Athenian boys at festivals each year. He believed that the Muses would help inspire people to do their best.
Invoking the Muse in literature[edit]
Melpomene and Polyhymnia, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico
Ancient authors and their imitators invoke Muses when writing poetry, hymns or epic history. The invocation occurs near the beginning of their work. It asks for help or inspiration from the Muses, or simply invites the Muse to sing directly through the author.
Originally, the invocation of the Muse was an indication that the speaker was working inside the poetic tradition, according to the established formulas. For example:
Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns
driven time and again off course, once he had plundered the hallowed heights of Troy.
— Homer, in Book I of The Odyssey (Robert Fagles translation, 1996)
O Muse! the causes and the crimes relate;
What goddess was provok'd, and whence her hate; For what offense the Queen of Heav'n began To persecute so brave, so just a man; [...]
— Virgil, in Book I of the Aeneid (John Dryden translation, 1697)
Besides Homer and Virgil, other famous works that included an invocation of the Muse are the first of the carmina by Catullus, Ovid's Metamorphoses and Amores, Dante's Inferno (Canto II), Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (Book II), Shakespeare's Henry V (Act 1, Prologue), his 38th sonnet, and Milton's Paradise Lost (opening of Book 1).
From cults to modern museums[edit]
The Car of History, a chariot clock by Carlo Franzoni, 1819, depicting Clio.
When Pythagoras arrived at Croton, his first advice to the Crotoniates was to build a shrine to the Muses at the center of the city, to promote civic harmony and learning. Local cults of the Muses often became associated with springs or with fountains. The Muses themselves were sometimes called Aganippids because of their association with a fountain called Aganippe. Other fountains, Hippocrene and Pirene, were also important locations associated with the Muses. Some sources occasionally referred to the Muses as "Corycides" (or "Corycian nymphs") after a cave on Mount Parnassos, called the Corycian Cave. Pausanias referred to the Muses by the surnames "Ardalides" or "Ardaliotides", because of a sanctuary to them at Troezen said to have been built by the mythical Ardalus.
The Muses were venerated especially in Boeotia, in the Valley of the Muses near Helicon, and in Delphi and the Parnassus, where Apollo became known as Mousagetes ("Muse-leader") after the sites were rededicated to his cult.
Often Muse-worship was associated with the hero-cults of poets: the tombs of Archilochus on Thasos and of Hesiod and Thamyris in Boeotia all played host to festivals in which poetic recitations accompanied sacrifices to the Muses. The Library of Alexandria and its circle of scholars formed around a mousaion (i. e. "museum" or shrine of the Muses) close to the tomb of Alexander the Great. Many Enlightenment figures sought to re-establish a "Cult of the Muses" in the 18th century. A famous Masonic lodge in pre-Revolutionary Paris was called Les Neuf Soeurs ("The Nine Sisters", that is, the Nine Muses); Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, Danton, and other influential Enlightenment figures attended it. As a side-effect of this movement the word "museum" (originally, "cult place of the Muses") came to refer to a place for the public display of knowledge.
Modern use[edit]
Not only are the Muses explicitly used in modern English to refer to an artistic inspiration, as when one cites one's own artistic muse, but they also are implicit in words and phrases such as "amuse", "museum" (Latinised from mouseion—a place where the Muses were worshipped), "music", and "musing upon".[19] In current literature, the influential role that the Muse plays has been extended to the political sphere.[20] Along with a majority of the Greek Gods, five of the Muses (Thalia, Clio, Calliope, Melpomene and Terpsicore) appeared in the Walt Disney animated film Hercules (based on Hercules), where they narrate the film through gospel-inspired song and dance. These versions of the Muses are modeled after African American Gospel singers. All nine muses appear in the 1980 film Xanadu, with actress Olivia Newton-John as Terpsicore. All nine Muses appeared in several paintings in the 72-piece art collection of Dante's Inferno by Dino Di Durante, which is printed in books titled Inferno: The Art Collection and available in 33 languages. This said collection was also featured in the medium length film Dante's Hell Animated by Boris Acosta. In New Orleans, Louisiana, there are streets named for all nine Muses, although their names are commonly anglicized in an unusual manner.
Gallery[edit]
Terpsichore
Erato
Clio
Thalia
Polyhymnia
Calliope
Apollo and the Muses
Euterpe
Parnassus
Urania and Melpomene
See also[edit]
Apsara
Artistic inspiration
Divine inspiration
Leibethra
Pimpleia
Saraswati
Muses in popular culture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "muse". The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved February 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ From which mind and mental are also derived; see Oxford English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ * A. B. Cook (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Vol. I, p. 104, Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 772.
Jump up ^ H. Munro Chadwick, Nora K. Chadwick (2010). "The Growth of Literature". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108016155.
Jump up ^ At least, this was reported to Pausanias in the second century AD. Cfr. Karl Kerényi: The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson, London 1951, p. 104 and note 284.
Jump up ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.7.1–2 (on-line text)
Jump up ^ See also the Italian article on this writer.
Jump up ^ Diodorus, Plutarch and Pausanias are all noted by Susan Scheinberg, in reporting other Hellenic maiden triads, in "The Bee Maidens of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83 (1979:1–28), p. 2.
Jump up ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.29.1.
Jump up ^ Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Musae" .
Jump up ^ "Elysium Gates - Historical Pegasus".
Jump up ^ For example, Plato, Laws 653d.
Jump up ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.677–78: "Now their previous eloquence also remained in the birds, as well as their strident chattering and their great zeal for speaking." See also Antoninus Liberalis 9.
Jump up ^ Tzetzes, Scholia in Hesiodi Opera 1,23
Jump up ^ Calvert Watkins, ed., The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 3d ed., p. 56.
Jump up ^ Strabo 10.3.10.
Jump up ^ Solon, fragment 13.
Jump up ^ OED derives "amuse" from French a- ("from") and muser, "to stare stupidly or distractedly".
Jump up ^ Adam J. Sorkin: Politics and the Muse. Studies in the Politics of Recent American Literature. Bowling Green State University Popular Press, Bowling Green/OH 1989 (on-line version).
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article Muses.
Look up Muse#English or Muse in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muses.
Muses in the ancient art
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,000 images of the Muses)
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GND: 118820656
VIAF: 5727734
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muses&oldid=840821350"
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Muse (disambiguation)

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The Muse (disambiguation)

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Cult (religion)

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Greek primordial gods

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Gaia (mythology)

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Pieria (prefecture)

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Norse Mythology

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Harmonia (Greek goddess)

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Lyric Poetry

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Love poetry

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Compass (drafting)

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Thalia (muse)

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Medium (art)

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The Divine Comedy

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Paris, France

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Les Neuf Soeurs

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Gospel singer

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Apollo and the Muses

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Mycenaean deities

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Ananke (mythology)

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Chaos (mythology)

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Phanes (mythology)

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Thalassa (mythology)

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Iapetus (mythology)

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Epimetheus (mythology)

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Menoetius (Greek mythology)

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Potamides (mythology)

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Philotes (mythology)

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Keres (mythology)

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text:
Our Miss Brooks
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the film adaptation, see Our Miss Brooks (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Our Miss Brooks
Eve Arden as Connie Brooks
Country of origin
United States
Language(s)
English
Starring
Eve Arden
Gale Gordon
Announcer
Bob LeMond
Verne Smith
Hy Averback
Created by
Al Lewis
Written by
Al Lewis
Directed by
Al Lewis
Produced by
Larry Berns
Original release
July 19, 1948 (October 3, 1952 on CBS-TV) – July 7, 1957
Our Miss Brooks is an American sitcom starring Eve Arden as a sardonic high-school English teacher. It began as a radio show broadcast on CBS from 1948 to 1957. When the show was adapted to television (1952–56), it became one of the medium's earliest hits. In 1956, the sitcom was adapted for the big screen in the film of the same name.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characters
2 Radio
3 Television
4 Awards
4.1 Television cast
5 List of television episodes
5.1 Season 1: 1952–53
5.2 Season 2: 1953–54
5.3 Season 3: 1954–55
5.4 Season 4: 1955–56
6 References
6.1 Sources
7 External links
7.1 Watch Online
Characters[edit]
Constance "Connie" Brooks (Eve Arden) is an English teacher at fictional Madison High School.
Osgood Conklin (Gale Gordon) is the blustery, gruff, crooked, and unsympathetic principal of Madison High, a near-constant pain to his faculty and students. (Conklin was played by Joseph Forte in the show's first episode; Gordon succeeded him for the rest of the series' run.) Occasionally, Conklin would rig competitions at the school—such as that for prom queen—so that his daughter Harriet would win.
Philip Boynton (Jeff Chandler on radio, billed sometimes under his birth name Ira Grossel; Robert Rockwell on both radio and television), is a Madison High biology teacher, the shy and often clueless object of Miss Brooks' affections.
Walter Denton (Richard Crenna, billed at the time as Dick Crenna), is a Madison High student, well-intentioned and clumsy, with a nasally high, cracking voice, which he can disguise when making mischief, often driving Miss Brooks (his self-professed favorite teacher) to school in a broken-down jalopy. Perfectly aware of Miss Brooks' feelings, he tirelessly tries to help her snare Mr. Boynton, despite the latter's cluelessness.
Margaret Davis (Jane Morgan), Miss Brooks' absentminded landlady, has two trademarks, a cat named Minerva and a penchant for whipping up exotic and often inedible breakfasts.
Harriet Conklin (Gloria McMillan) is a Madison High student and daughter of Osgood Conklin. A sometime love interest for Walter Denton, Harriet is sweet, honest and guileless, unlike her father.
Fabian "Stretch" Snodgrass (Eddie Riley/Leonard Smith)[1] is a dull-witted Madison High athletic star and Walter's best friend.
Daisy Enright (Mary Jane Croft) is a Madison High English teacher and a scheming professional and romantic rival to Miss Brooks.
Ruth Nestor (Isabel Randolph), introduced as the new school principal in the episode "Big Ears" (November 4, 1955)[2]
Radio[edit]
Eve Arden from the CBS Radio version of Our Miss Brooks (1949)
Our Miss Brooks was a hit on radio from the outset; within eight months of its launch as a regular series, the show landed several honors, including four for Eve Arden, who won polls in four individual publications of the time. Arden had actually been the third choice to play the title role. Harry Ackerman, at the time CBS's West Coast director of programming, wanted Shirley Booth for the part, but as he told historian Gerald Nachman many years later, he realized Booth was too focused on the underpaid downside of public school teaching at the time to have fun with the role.[3]
Lucille Ball was believed to have been the next choice, but she was committed to My Favorite Husband and did not audition. Then CBS chairman Bill Paley, who was friendly with Arden, persuaded her to audition for the part. With a slightly rewritten audition script—Osgood Conklin, for example, was originally written as a school board president but was now written as the incoming new Madison principal—Arden agreed to give the newly revamped show a try.[4]
Produced by Larry Berns and written by director Al Lewis, Our Miss Brooks premiered on CBS July 19, 1948. According to radio critic John Crosby, her lines were very "feline" in dialogue scenes with principal Conklin and would-be boyfriend Boynton, with sharp, witty comebacks.[5] The interplay between the cast—blustery Conklin, nebbishy Denton, accommodating Harriet, absentminded Mrs. Davis, clueless Boynton, scheming Miss Enright—also received positive reviews.
Jeff Chandler played Boynton and stayed with the role for five years, even after becoming a movie star. He ultimately resigned because it was too exhausting to juggle a regular radio role with his film commitments.[6][7] Others in the cast included Anne Whitfield as Conklin's daughter, Harriet.[8]
Arden won a radio listeners' poll by Radio Mirror magazine as the top-ranking comedienne of 1948–49, receiving her award at the end of an Our Miss Brooks broadcast that March. "I'm certainly going to try in the coming months to merit the honor you've bestowed upon me, because I understand that if I win this two years in a row, I get to keep Mr. Boynton", she joked. But she was also a hit with the critics; a winter 1949 poll of newspaper and magazine radio editors taken by Motion Picture Daily named her the year's best radio comedienne.[citation needed]
For its entire radio life, the show was sponsored by Colgate-Palmolive-Peet, promoting Palmolive soap, Lustre Creme shampoo, and Toni hair-care products. The radio series continued until 1957, a year after its television life ended. This content is now available for download at the Internet Archive here.
Television[edit]
Mr. Boynton (Robert Rockwell) borrows money from Connie.
Connie said she would eat her hat if Boynton took her out and paid the whole tab. When he did, she prepared to do that.
When Mr. Conklin accidentally glued his hand to his desk, Miss Brooks tried to help, 1952.
Guest star Desi Arnaz and Eve Arden in episode "The King and Brooks" (1955)
The show's full cast, minus Jeff Chandler, played the same characters in the television version (with most of the scripts adapted from radio), which continued to revolve largely around Connie Brooks' daily relationships with Madison High students, colleagues, and principal. Philip Boynton was played by Robert Rockwell, who also succeeded Jeff Chandler on the radio series. The television show, sponsored by General Foods, shifted focus later in its run, moving Connie Brooks and Osgood Conklin from a public high school to an exclusive private school in the fall of 1955. It also changed the title character's romantic focus: Gene Barry was cast as physical education teacher Gene Talbot, and Connie was now the pursued instead of the pursuer, although Mr. Boynton reappeared in several episodes before the season ended.
Our Miss Brooks ran for 130 episodes on television and won an Emmy Award before it was canceled in 1956. In the 1954–55 season, it overpowered Dear Phoebe, its NBC competition, starring Peter Lawford and Charles Lane, which failed to be renewed for a second season. Our Miss Brooks finished in Nielsen ratings that season at number 15 overall after previously ranking at number 23 in 1952–1953 and #14 in 1953–1954.[9] For the 1955–56 season, with the format change and Rockwell (as Boynton) replaced by Gene Barry, the ratings fell. To rectify their mistake, the producers brought back Rockwell as Boynton in midseason, but it did not help. The show was canceled in the spring of 1956. However, in the theatrical film Our Miss Brooks released by Warner Bros. in the same year, Connie and Mr. Boynton were finally engaged to be married. The television series was seen for several years thereafter in rebroadcasts.
Awards[edit]
Both the radio and television shows drew as much attention from professional educators as from radio and television fans, viewers, and critics. In addition to the 1948-49 poll of Radio Mirror listeners and the 1949 poll of Motion Picture Daily critics, Arden's notices soon expanded beyond her media. According to the Museum of Broadcast Communications, she was made an honorary member of the National Education Association and received a 1952 award from the Teachers College of Connecticut's Alumni Association "for humanizing the American teacher."
Our Miss Brooks was considered groundbreaking for showing a woman who was neither a scatterbrained klutz nor a homebody, but rather a working woman who transcended the actual or assumed limits to women's working lives of the time. Connie Brooks was considered a realistic character in an unglamorized profession (she often joked, for example, about being underpaid, as many teachers are), and who showed women could be competent and self-sufficient outside their home lives without losing their femininity or their humanity.
Our Miss Brooks remained Eve Arden's most identifiable and popular role, with numerous surviving recordings of both the radio and television versions continuing to entertain listeners and viewers. (The surviving radio recordings include both its audition shows.) A quarter century after the show ended, Arden told radio historian John Dunning in an on-air interview just what the show and the role came to mean to her:
I originally loved the theater. I still do. And I had always wanted to have a hit on Broadway that was created by me. You know, kind of like Judy Holliday and Born Yesterday. I griped about it a little, and someone said to me, "Do you realize that if you had a hit on Broadway, probably 100 or 200,000 people might have seen you in it, if you'd stayed in it long enough. And this way, you've been in Miss Brooks, everybody loves you, and you've been seen by millions." So, I figured I'd better shut up while I was ahead.[10]
Television cast[edit]
Eve Arden as Connie Brooks
Gale Gordon as Osgood Conklin
Don Porter as Lawrence Nolan
Robert Rockwell as Phillip Boynton
Jane Morgan as Margaret Davis
Jesslyn Fax as Margaret Davis's sister, Angela Devon
Richard Crenna as Walter Denton
Nick Adams as Gary Nolan
Gloria McMillan as Harriet Conklin
Joseph Kearns as Superintendent Stone (eight episodes)
William Ching as Clint Allbright (four episodes) [11]
Gene Barry as Gene Talbot
William Newell as Dr. Henley
Philip Van Zandt as Mr. Webster
Marjorie Bennett as Mrs. J. Boynton
Joseph Forte as Nolan's butler
Orangey as Minerva the cat
List of television episodes[edit]
Season 1: 1952–53[edit]
Nº
Ep
Title
Air date
1
1 "Trying to Pick a Fight" October 3, 1952 (1952-10-03)
2
2 "The Loaded Custodian" October 10, 1952 (1952-10-10)
3
3 "The Embezzled Dress" October 17, 1952 (1952-10-17)
4
4 "The Birthday Bag" October 24, 1952 (1952-10-24)
5
5 "The Wrong Mrs. Boynton" October 31, 1952 (1952-10-31)
6
6 "Living Statues" November 7, 1952 (1952-11-07)
7
7 "Madison Country Club" November 14, 1952 (1952-11-14)
8
8 "Mr. Whipple" November 21, 1952 (1952-11-21)
9
9 "The Big Game" November 28, 1952 (1952-11-28)
10
10 "Blue Goldfish" December 5, 1952 (1952-12-05)
11
11 "The Stolen Aerial" December 12, 1952 (1952-12-12)
12
12 "The Hobby Show" December 19, 1952 (1952-12-19)
13
13 "Christmas Show" December 27, 1952 (1952-12-27)
14
14 "Aunt Mattie Boynton" January 2, 1953 (1953-01-02)
15
15 "The Pet Shop" January 9, 1953 (1953-01-09)
16
16 "The Hurricane" January 16, 1953 (1953-01-16)
17
17 "Monsieur La Blanche" January 30, 1953 (1953-01-30)
18
18 "Old Marblehead" February 6, 1953 (1953-02-06)
19
19 "The Model Teacher" February 13, 1953 (1953-02-13)
20
20 "Wake-Up Plan" February 20, 1953 (1953-02-20)
21
21 "The Cafeteria Strike" February 27, 1953 (1953-02-27)
22
22 "Mister Casey's Will" March 6, 1953 (1953-03-06)
23
23 "Conklin's Love Nest" March 13, 1953 (1953-03-13)
24
24 "The Honest Burglar" March 20, 1953 (1953-03-20)
25
25 "Fisher's Pawn Shop" March 27, 1953 (1953-03-27)
26
26 "Lulu, the Pin-Up Boat" April 3, 1953 (1953-04-03)
27
27 "The Yodar Kritch Award" April 10, 1953 (1953-04-10)
28
28 "Madame Brooks DuBarry" April 17, 1953 (1953-04-17)
29
29 "Marinated Hearing" April 24, 1953 (1953-04-24)
30
30 "The Festival" May 1, 1953 (1953-05-01)
31
31 "Suzy Prentiss" May 8, 1953 (1953-05-08)
32
32 "Conklin Plays Detective" May 15, 1953 (1953-05-15)
33
33 "Public Property on Parade" May 22, 1953 (1953-05-22)
34
34 "Mrs Davis Reads Tea Leaves" May 29, 1953 (1953-05-29)
35
35 "The Stolen Wardrobe" June 5, 1953 (1953-06-05)
36
36 "Cure That Habit" June 12, 1953 (1953-06-12)
37
37 "Capistrano's Revenge" June 19, 1953 (1953-06-19)
38
38 "June Bride" June 26, 1953 (1953-06-26)
Season 2: 1953–54[edit]
Nº
Ep
Title
Air date
39
1 "Clay City Chaperone" October 2, 1953 (1953-10-02)
40
2 "Bones, Son of Cyrano" October 9, 1953 (1953-10-09)
41
3 "Spare the Rod" October 16, 1953 (1953-10-16)
42
4 "Faculty Band" October 23, 1953 (1953-10-23)
43
5 "The Little Visitor" October 30, 1953 (1953-10-30)
44
6 "Trial by Jury" November 6, 1953 (1953-11-06)
45
7 "Phone Book Follies" November 13, 1953 (1953-11-13)
46
8 "Thanksgiving Show" November 20, 1953 (1953-11-20)
47
9 "Vitamin E-4" November 27, 1953 (1953-11-27)
48
10 "Swap Week" December 11, 1953 (1953-12-11)
49
11 "Oh, Dem Golden Slippers" December 18, 1953 (1953-12-18)
50
12 "The Magic Tree" December 25, 1953 (1953-12-25)
51
13 "Hospital Capers" January 8, 1954 (1954-01-08)
52
14 "Postage Due" January 15, 1954 (1954-01-15)
53
15 "Do It Yourself" January 22, 1954 (1954-01-22)
54
16 "Bobsey's Twins in Stir" January 29, 1954 (1954-01-29)
55
17 "The Jockey" February 12, 1954 (1954-02-12)
56
18 "Brook's New Car" February 19, 1954 (1954-02-19)
57
19 "The Hobo Jungle" February 26, 1954 (1954-02-26)
58
20 "The Wild Goose" March 12, 1954 (1954-03-12)
59
21 "Hello, Mr. Chips" March 19, 1954 (1954-03-19)
60
22 "The Parlor Game" March 23, 1954 (1954-03-23)
61
23 "A Dry Scalp Is Better Than None" April 9, 1954 (1954-04-09)
62
24 "The English Test" April 16, 1954 (1954-04-16)
63
25 "Second Hand-First Aid" April 23, 1954 (1954-04-23)
64
26 "The Egg" April 30, 1954 (1954-04-30)
65
27 "The Bakery" May 14, 1954 (1954-05-14)
66
28 "Old Age Plan" May 21, 1954 (1954-05-21)
67
29 "The Hawkins Travel Agency" May 30, 1954 (1954-05-30)
68
30 "The Bicycle Thief" June 11, 1954 (1954-06-11)
69
31 "Just Remember the Red River Valley" June 18, 1954 (1954-06-18)
Season 3: 1954–55[edit]
Nº
Ep
Title
Air date
70
1 "The Miserable Caballeros" October 1, 1954 (1954-10-01)
71
2 "Blood, Sweat and Laugh" October 15, 1954 (1954-10-15)
72
3 "Life Can Be Bones" October 22, 1954 (1954-10-22)
73
4 "Two-Way Stretch Snodgrass" October 29, 1954 (1954-10-29)
74
5 "Angela's Wedding" November 5, 1954 (1954-11-05)
75
6 "Van Gogh, Man Gogh" November 12, 1954 (1954-11-12)
76
7 "The Jewel Robbery" November 26, 1954 (1954-11-26)
77
8 "Space, Who Needs It?" December 3, 1954 (1954-12-03)
78
9 "The Novelist" December 10, 1954 (1954-12-10)
79
10 "Four Leaf Clover" December 17, 1954 (1954-12-17)
80
11 "The Citizen's League" January 7, 1955 (1955-01-07)
81
12 "Buddy" January 14, 1955 (1955-01-14)
82
13 "Noodnick, Daughter of Medic" January 21, 1955 (1955-01-21)
83
14 "The Stuffed Gopher" January 28, 1955 (1955-01-28)
84
15 "Safari O'Toole" February 4, 1955 (1955-02-04)
85
16 "The Weighing Machine" February 11, 1955 (1955-02-11)
86
17 "Public Speaker's Nightmare" February 18, 1955 (1955-02-18)
87
18 "The Auction" February 25, 1955 (1955-02-25)
88
19 "The Mambo" March 4, 1955 (1955-03-04)
89
20 "The Dream" March 11, 1955 (1955-03-11)
90
21 "The Return of Red Smith" March 25, 1955 (1955-03-25)
91
22 "Le chien chaud et le mouton noir" April 8, 1955 (1955-04-08)
92
23 "Kritch Cave" April 15, 1955 (1955-04-15)
93
24 "Mister Fargo's Whiskers" April 22, 1955 (1955-04-22)
94
25 "The Great Baseball Slide" April 29, 1955 (1955-04-29)
95
26 "Turnabout Day" May 6, 1955 (1955-05-06)
96
27 "Here Is Your Past" May 13, 1955 (1955-05-13)
97
28 "Madison Mascot" May 20, 1955 (1955-05-20)
98
29 "The Big Jump" May 27, 1955 (1955-05-27)
99
30 "Home Cooked Meal" June 3, 1955 (1955-06-03)
Season 4: 1955–56[edit]
Nº
Ep
Title
Air date
100
1 "The Blind Date" October 7, 1955 (1955-10-07)
101
2 "Transition Show" October 14, 1955 (1955-10-14)
102
3 "Who's Who?" October 21, 1955 (1955-10-21)
103
4 "Burnt Picnic Basket" October 28, 1955 (1955-10-28)
104
5 "Big Ears" November 4, 1955 (1955-11-04)
105
6 "Have Bed – Will Travel" November 11, 1955 (1955-11-11)
106
7 "Protest Meeting" November 18, 1955 (1955-11-18)
107
8 "The King and Brooks" November 25, 1955 (1955-11-25)
108
9 "Mad Man Munsey" December 2, 1955 (1955-12-02)
109
10 "Connie and Bonnie" December 9, 1955 (1955-12-09)
110
11 "Music Box Revue" December 23, 1955 (1955-12-23)
111
12 "The New Gym Instructor" December 30, 1955 (1955-12-30)
112
13 "The Skeleton in the Closet" January 6, 1956 (1956-01-06)
113
14 "Amalgamation" January 13, 1956 (1956-01-13)
114
15 "Reunion" January 20, 1956 (1956-01-20)
115
16 "Twins at School" January 27, 1956 (1956-01-27)
116
17 "Mrs. Nestor's Boy Friend" February 3, 1956 (1956-02-03)
117
18 "Acting Director" February 10, 1956 (1956-02-10)
118
19 "Mr. Boynton's Return" February 17, 1956 (1956-02-17)
119
20 "White Lies" February 24, 1956 (1956-02-24)
120
21 "The Great Land Purchase" March 2, 1956 (1956-03-02)
121
22 "Raffle Ticket" March 9, 1956 (1956-03-09)
122
23 "Library Quiz" March 16, 1956 (1956-03-16)
123
24 "A Mother for Benny" March 23, 1956 (1956-03-23)
124
25 "Connie and Frankie" March 30, 1956 (1956-03-30)
125
26 "Top Hat, White Tie, and Bridle" April 6, 1956 (1956-04-06)
126
27 "24 Hours" April 13, 1956 (1956-04-13)
127
28 "Geraldine" April 20, 1956 (1956-04-20)
128
29 "The $350,000 Question" April 27, 1956 (1956-04-27)
129
30 "Principal for a Day" May 4, 1956 (1956-05-04)
130
31 "Travel Crazy" May 11, 1956 (1956-05-11)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ According to IMDb, the role is credited to two different actors.
Jump up ^ David C. Tucker Eve Arden: A Chronicle of All Film, Television, Radio and Stage (2011); ISBN 0786488107
"This episode introduces Isabel Randolph as Ruth Nestor."
Jump up ^ Nachman, Gerald (2000). Raised on Radio. University of California Press. p. 544. ISBN 0-520-22303-9.
Jump up ^ Dunning, John (1998). The Encyclopedia of Old Time Radio. Oxford University Press. p. 528. ISBN 0-19-507678-8.
Jump up ^ Bertel, Dick; Corcoran; Ed (February 1972). "Radio Shows of 1947". The Golden Age of Radio. Season 2. Episode 11. Broadcast Plaza, Inc.. WTIC Hartford, Conn.
Jump up ^ 'Our Miss Brooks' Starring Eve Arden to Make Bow Tonight, Chicago Daily Tribune (1923-1963) [Chicago, Ill], September 19, 1948: n12.
Jump up ^ Tony Curtis Trains for Role in Musical, Los Angeles Times (1923-current file) [Los Angeles, Calif], October 24, 1953: 10.
Jump up ^ "Jill Corey's Rise A Success Story; Out-Of-Town Hubber Games On KFYO". Texas, Lubbock. Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. March 11, 1956. p. 70. Retrieved April 15, 2016 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings". www.classictvhits.com.
Jump up ^ Dunning, John. KNUS (Denver) radio interview with Eve Arden, 1982.
Jump up ^ "William Ching". IMDb.
Sources[edit]
Arden, Eve. The Three Phases of Eve (1985)
Buxton, Frank and Bill Owen, The Big Broadcast 1920–1950 (1971) (New York: Avon Books.)
Nachman, Gerald. Raised on Radio (1998) (New York: Pantheon Books.)
Ohmart, Ben, It's That Time Again (2002) (Albany: BearManor Media.) ISBN 0-9714570-2-6
Wertheim, Arthur Frank, Radio Comedy (1979) Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-502481-8
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Our Miss Brooks.
OurMissBrooks.com
EveArden.com
Our Miss Brooks episodes at Outlaws Old Time Radio Corner
Our Miss Brooks on IMDb
Review of radio show at Variety
Watch Online[edit]
Home Cooked Meal
Madison Mascot
The Big Jump
This is Your Past
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Positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Positive ssRNA Virus
Hepatitis C virus
Virus classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)
Orders, Families, and Genera
Nidovirales
Picornavirales
Tymovirales
Unassigned Families
Alphatetraviridae
Alvernaviridae
Astroviridae
Barnaviridae
Benyviridae
Bromoviridae
Caliciviridae
Carmotetraviridae
Closteroviridae
Flaviviridae
Hepeviridae
Leviviridae
Luteoviridae
Narnaviridae
Nodaviridae
Permutotetraviridae
Potyviridae
Sarthroviridae
Solemoviridae
Solinviviridae
Togaviridae
Tombusviridae
Virgaviridae
Unassigned Genera
Albetovirus
Aumaivirus
Blunervirus
Cilevirus
Higrevirus
Idaeovirus
Ourmiavirus
Papanivirus
Polemovirus
Sinaivirus
Virtovirus
A positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus (or (+)ssRNA virus) is a virus that uses positive sense, single-stranded RNA as its genetic material. Single stranded RNA viruses are classified as positive or negative depending on the sense or polarity of the RNA. The positive-sense viral RNA genome can also serve as messenger RNA and can be translated into protein in the host cell. Positive-sense ssRNA viruses belong to Group IV in the Baltimore classification.[1] Positive-sense RNA viruses account for a large fraction of known viruses, including many pathogens such as the hepatitis C virus, West Nile virus, dengue virus, and SARS and MERS coronaviruses, as well as less clinically serious pathogens such as the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold.[2][3][4]
Contents
1 Replication
2 Genome
3 Taxonomic distribution
3.1 Bacteria
3.2 Eukaryotes
4 See also
5 References
Replication[edit]
Positive-sense ssRNA viruses have genetic material that can function both as a genome and as messenger RNA; it can be directly translated into protein in the host cell by host ribosomes.[5] The first proteins to be expressed after infection serve genome replication functions; they recruit the positive-strand viral genome to viral replication complexes (VRCs) formed in association with intracellular membranes. VRCs contain proteins of both viral and host cell origin, and may be associated with the membranes of a variety of organelles, often the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but also including membranes derived from mitochondria, vacuoles, the Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, plasma membranes, autophagosomal membranes, and novel cytoplasmic compartments.[2] The replication of the positive-sense ssRNA genome proceeds through double-stranded RNA intermediates, and the purpose of replication in these membranous invaginations may be the avoidance of cellular response to the presence of dsRNA. In many cases subgenomic RNAs are also created during replication.[5] After infection, the entirety of the host cell's translation machinery may be diverted to the production of viral proteins as a result of the very high affinity for ribosomes of the viral genome's internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements; in some viruses, such as poliovirus and rhinoviruses, normal protein synthesis is further disrupted by viral proteases degrading components required to initiate translation of cellular mRNA.[4]
All positive-sense ssRNA virus genomes encode RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), a viral protein that synthesizes RNA from an RNA template. Host cell proteins recruited by positive-sense ssRNA viruses during replication include RNA-binding proteins, chaperone proteins, and membrane remodeling and lipid synthesis proteins, which collectively participate in exploiting the cell's secretory pathway for viral replication.[2]
Genome[edit]
The genome of a positive-sense ssRNA virus usually contains relatively few genes, usually between three and ten, including an RdRP.[2] Coronaviruses have the largest known RNA genomes, up to 32 kilobases in length, and likely possess replication proofreading mechanisms in the form of a proofreading exoribonuclease, non-structural protein 14, that is otherwise not found in RNA viruses.[6]
Taxonomic distribution[edit]
The (+)ssRNA viruses are classified into 3 orders — the Nidovirales, Picornavirales, and Tymovirales — and 33 families, of which 20 are not assigned to an order. A broad range of hosts can be infected by (+)ssRNA viruses, including bacteria (the Leviviridae), eukaryotic microorganisms, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates.[7] No examples have been described that infect archaea, whose virome is generally much less well-characterized.[7][8]
Bacteria[edit]
Among known (+)ssRNA viruses, only the Leviviridae are bacteriophages (that is, viruses that infect bacteria). Known leviviruses infect enterobacteria. Phage with RNA genomes are relatively rare and poorly understood, with only one other recognized group — a family of double-stranded RNA viruses called the Cystoviridae. However, metagenomics has led to the identification of numerous additional novel examples.[9]
Eukaryotes[edit]
Positive-sense ssRNA viruses are the most common type of plant virus.[10] Members of the (+)ssRNA picornavirus group are also extremely abundant — to the point of "unexpected dominance" — in marine viruses characterized by metagenomics. These viruses likely infect single-celled eukaryotes.[11]
There are eight families of (+)ssRNA viruses that infect vertebrates, of which four are unenveloped (Picornaviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, and Hepeviridae) and four are enveloped (Flaviviridae, Togaviridae, Arteriviridae, and Coronaviridae). All but the arterivirus family contain at least one human pathogen; arteriviruses are known only as animal pathogens.[4] Many pathogenic (+)ssRNA viruses are arthropod-borne viruses (also called arboviruses) — that is, transmitted by and capable of replicating in biting insects which then transfer the pathogen to animal hosts. Recent metagenomics studies have also identified large numbers of RNA viruses whose host range is specific to insects.[12]
See also[edit]
Negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus
Double-stranded RNA virus
Baltimore classification
Sense (molecular biology)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baltimore, D (1971). "Expression of animal virus genomes". Bacteriological Reviews. 35 (3): 235–241. PMC 378387. PMID 4329869.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nagy, Peter D.; Pogany, Judit (19 December 2011). "The dependence of viral RNA replication on co-opted host factors". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 10 (2): 137–149. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2692. PMID 22183253.
Jump up ^ Ahlquist, P.; Noueiry, A. O.; Lee, W.-M.; Kushner, D. B.; Dye, B. T. (1 August 2003). "Host Factors in Positive-Strand RNA Virus Genome Replication". Journal of Virology. 77 (15): 8181–6. doi:10.1128/JVI.77.15.8181-8186.2003. PMC 165243. PMID 12857886.
^ Jump up to: a b c Modrow, Susanne; Falke, Dietrich; Truyen, Uwe; Schätzl, Hermann (2013). "Viruses with Single-Stranded, Positive-Sense RNA Genomes". Molecular virology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 185–349. ISBN 978-3-642-20718-1.
^ Jump up to: a b "Positive stranded RNA virus replication". ViralZone. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Smith, Everett Clinton; Denison, Mark R.; Racaniello, Vincent (5 December 2013). "Coronaviruses as DNA Wannabes: A New Model for the Regulation of RNA Virus Replication Fidelity". PLoS Pathogens. 9 (12): e1003760. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003760. PMC 3857799. PMID 24348241.
^ Jump up to: a b "Positive Strand RNA Viruses". ViralZone. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Koonin, Eugene V; Dolja, Valerian V (October 2013). "A virocentric perspective on the evolution of life". Current Opinion in Virology. 3 (5): 546–557. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2013.06.008. PMC 4326007. PMID 23850169.
Jump up ^ Krishnamurthy, Siddharth R.; Janowski, Andrew B.; Zhao, Guoyan; Barouch, Dan; Wang, David; Sugden, Bill (24 March 2016). "Hyperexpansion of RNA Bacteriophage Diversity". PLOS Biology. 14 (3): e1002409. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002409. PMC 4807089. PMID 27010970.
Jump up ^ Saxena, Pooja; Lomonossoff, George P. (4 August 2014). "Virus Infection Cycle Events Coupled to RNA Replication". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 52 (1): 197–212. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-050205. PMID 24906127.
Jump up ^ Kristensen, David M.; Mushegian, Arcady R.; Dolja, Valerian V.; Koonin, Eugene V. (January 2010). "New dimensions of the virus world discovered through metagenomics". Trends in Microbiology. 18 (1): 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2009.11.003. PMC 3293453. PMID 19942437.
Jump up ^ Vasilakis, Nikos; Tesh, Robert B (December 2015). "Insect-specific viruses and their potential impact on arbovirus transmission". Current Opinion in Virology. 15: 69–74. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2015.08.007. PMC 4688193. PMID 26322695.
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