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Powers of the United States Congress
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This is a subarticle of United States Congress
Congress meets in the United States Capitol.
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Contents
1 General powers
2 Enumerated powers
3 Implied powers and the commerce clause
4 References
5 External links
General powers[edit]
Former US general George Washington presided over the signing of the United States Constitution which included Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has the power of the purse and it can tax citizens, spend money, and authorize the printing of currency such as this bill for $100,000.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes.[1] The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress' primary checks on the executive branch.[1] Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money.[2] Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.[3]
Congress authorizes defense spending.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military.[4] Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's Constitutionally-defined task of declaring war.[5] While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I, and World War II,[6] although President Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent.[6] Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action"[7] and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war.[6] In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times" before 1970.[6] In 1993, one writer noted "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II."[8] President George H. W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post–Cold War decision to start a war" without Congressional approval.[8] Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization.[9][10] Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history.[11]
An enumerated congressional power is to establish post offices including this one in Athens, Georgia, pictured in 1942.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One congressional power is oversight of other branches of the government. In the early 1970s, the Senate investigated the activities of President Richard Nixon regarding Watergate which led to the president's resignation.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch.[12] Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress' subpoena power.[13] Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case.[14] Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.[15]
Congress has the power to impeach officials including the president. In 1868, this committee helped impeach president Andrew Johnson who was almost convicted; Johnson stayed in office.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.[16]
Enumerated powers[edit]
Main article: Enumerated powers
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:

1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law.[17] Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.[18]
Implied powers and the commerce clause[edit]
Representative John A. Bingham of Ohio was a principal framer of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."[19] Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.[20][21]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Davidson (2006), p. 18
Jump up ^ editorial staff (May 30, 2008). "Congress and the Dollar". New York Sun. Retrieved 2010-09-11. ...Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution. ... the founders of America delegated to the Congress the power to, among other things, "coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures."
Jump up ^ John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Unlike some other parliamentary bodies, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative functions and powers with certain exceptions. For example, the Constitution provides that only the House of Representatives may originate revenue bills. By tradition, the House also originates appropriation bills. As both bodies have equal legislative powers, the designation of one as the upper House and the other as the lower House is not applicable.
Jump up ^ KATE ZERNIKE (September 28, 2006). "Senate Passes Detainee Bill Sought by Bush". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The Senate approved legislation this evening governing the interrogation and trials of terror suspects, establishing far-reaching new rules in the definition of who may be held and how they should be treated. ... The legislation sets up rules for the military commissions ...
Jump up ^ "References about Congressional war declaring power".
Dana D. Nelson (October 11, 2008). "The 'unitary executive' question". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
Steve Holland (May 1, 2009). "Obama revelling in U.S. power unseen in decades". Reuters UK. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
"The Law: The President's War Powers". Time Magazine. June 1, 1970. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time Magazine. June 1, 1970. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ The President's News Conference of June 29, 1950
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Kinsley (March 15, 1993). "The Case for a Big Power Swap". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ "Time Essay: Where's Congress?". Time Magazine. May 22, 1972. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time Magazine. June 1, 1970. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Did Richard Nixon "usurp" the constitutional powers of Congress when he unilaterally ordered troops into Cambodia? Swarms of lawyers went to Washington last week to join an increasingly intense debate on the issue (see THE NATION). Their most persuasive arguments raised fundamental questions that go far beyond Cambodia and the Indochina war. Many of the antiwar lawyers conceded that proving the Cambodian "attacks" unconstitutional may be difficult.
Jump up ^ "THE PROCEEDINGS OF CONGRESS.; SENATE". The New York Times. June 28, 1862. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Mr. SUMNER spoke in favor of the House bills, contending that they were entirely free from all constitutional objections. They were just as constitutional as the Constitution itself. They only form a part of the means for the suppression of the rebellion. The war powers of Congress are clearly derived from the Constitution, and Congress has a perfect right to exercise war powers. He protested earnestly against the absurd and tyrannical doctrine that all war powers were centred in the President, and against any attempt to foist such an unconstitutional doctrine into the Constitution, as showing the effrontery with which ignorance and conceit excused unconstitutional doctrines. He contended, at length, that confiscation and liberation were among the war powers of Congress, and he had more hope from liberation than from confiscation.
Jump up ^ David S. Broder (March 18, 2007). "Congress's Oversight Offensive". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-09-11. A Congress under firm Republican control was somnolent when it came to oversight of the executive branch. No Republican committee chairman wanted to turn over rocks in a Republican administration.
Jump up ^ Thomas Ferraro (April 25, 2007). "House committee subpoenas Rice on Iraq". Reuters. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Democratic lawmakers on Wednesday subpoenaed Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice to testify about a central and later refuted administration justification for the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. But the administration said it might fight the subpoena, citing a legal doctrine that can shield a president and his aides from having to answer questions from Congress. "Those matters are covered by executive privilege," said State Department spokesman Sean McCormack, moving toward a possible legal showdown with the Democratic-led Congress.
Jump up ^ James Gerstenzang (July 16, 2008). "Bush claims executive privilege in Valerie Plame Wilson case". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth B. Bazan and Jennifer K. Elsea, legislative attorneys (January 5, 2006). "Presidential Authority to Conduct Warrantless Electronic Surveillance to Gather Foreign Intelligence Information" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ Linda P. Campbell and Glen Elsasser (October 20, 1991). "Supreme Court Slugfests A Tradition". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The Constitution says judges have lifetime appointments "during good behavior" but, like other federal officers, they can be removed from office for "treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors.... It's entirely in Congress' determination what the limitations of the impeachment clause may be," said John Killian, senior specialist in American constitutional law for the Congressional Research Service.
Jump up ^ Davidson (2006), p. 19
Jump up ^ J. LESLIE KINCAID (January 17, 1916). "TO MAKE THE MILITIA A NATIONAL FORCE.; The Power of Congress Under the Constitution "for Organizing, Arming, and Disciplining" the State Troops". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-11. From the many articles which have appeared in the public press the general idea seems to prevail that the militia is essentially a State force. To whatever extent this may be true, at the present time, it has resulted from the failure of Congress adequately to provide for the militia as a national force.
Jump up ^ Stephen Herrington (February 25, 2010). "Red State Anxiety and The Constitution". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The Tenth states, "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." It does not say that laws derived under and consistent with the Articles of the Constitution cannot be enacted over and above the original writing or that State's retain a power to overrule federal law. The authority for doing so is based in implied powers and is among the earliest arguments in Constitutional law. Implied powers are derived from the general welfare and necessary and proper clauses.
Jump up ^ "Timeline". CBS News. 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-11. McCulloch v. Maryland states that the Constitution grants implied powers to Congress, enabling it to carry out explicitly defined powers. The decision vastly augments Congress' power to make laws.
Jump up ^ RANDY E. BARNETT (April 23, 2009). "The Case for a Federalism Amendment". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Finally, Section 5 authorizes judges to keep Congress within its limits by examining laws restricting the rightful exercise of liberty to ensure that they are a necessary and proper means to implement an enumerated power. This section also requires that the Constitution be interpreted according to its original meaning at the time of its enactment. But by expanding the powers of Congress to include regulating all interstate activity, the Amendment greatly relieves the political pressure on courts to adopt a strained reading of Congress's enumerated powers. Monkeys
External links[edit]
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Motor unit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A motor unit is made up of a motor neuron and the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by that motor neuron's axonal terminals.[1] Groups of motor units often work together to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle; all of the motor units within a muscle are considered a motor pool. The concept was proposed by Charles Scott Sherrington.[2]
All muscle fibres in a motor unit are of the same fibre type. When a motor unit is activated, all of its fibres contract. In vertebrates, the force of a muscle contraction is controlled by the number of activated motor units.
The number of muscle fibers within each unit can vary within a particular muscle and even more from muscle to muscle; the muscles that act on the largest body masses have motor units that contain more muscle fibers, whereas smaller muscles contain fewer muscle fibers in each motor unit.[1] For instance, thigh muscles can have a thousand fibers in each unit, while extraocular muscles might have ten. Muscles which possess more motor units (and thus have greater individual motor neuron innervation) are able to control force output more finely.
Motor units are organized slightly differently in invertebrates; each muscle has few motor units (typically less than 10), and each muscle fiber is innervated by multiple neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Thus, while in vertebrates the force of contraction of muscles is regulated by how many motor units are activated, in invertebrates it is controlled by regulating the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Recruitment (vertebrate)
2 Motor unit types (vertebrate)
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Recruitment (vertebrate)[edit]
The central nervous system is responsible for the orderly recruitment of motor neurons, beginning with the smallest motor units.[3] Henneman's size principle indicates that motor units are recruited from smallest to largest based on the size of the load. For smaller loads requiring less force, slow twitch, low-force, fatigue-resistant muscle fibers are activated prior to the recruitment of the fast twitch, high-force, less fatigue-resistant muscle fibers. Larger motor units are typically composed of faster muscle fibers that generate higher forces.[4]
The central nervous system has two distinct ways of controlling the force produced by a muscle through motor unit recruitment: spatial recruitment and temporal recruitment. Spatial recruitment is the activation of more motor units to produce a greater force. Larger motor units contract along with small motor units until all muscle fibers in a single muscle are activated, thus producing the maximum muscle force. Temporal motor unit recruitment, or rate coding, deals with the frequency of activation of muscle fiber contractions. Consecutive stimulation on the motor unit fibres from the alpha motor neuron causes the muscle to twitch more frequently until the twitches "fuse" temporally. This produces a greater force than singular contractions by decreasing the interval between stimulations to produce a larger force with the same number of motor units.
Using electromyography (EMG), the neural strategies of muscle activation can be measured.[5] Ramp-force threshold refers to an index of motor neuron size in order to test the size principle. This is tested by determining the recruitment threshold of a motor unit during isometric contraction in which the force is gradually increased. Motor units recruited at low force (low-threshold units) tend to be small motor units, while high-threshold units are recruited when higher forces are needed and involve larger motor neurons.[6] These tend to have shorter contraction times than the smaller units. The number of additional motor units recruited during a given increment of force declines sharply at high levels of voluntary force. This suggests that, even though high threshold units generate more tension, the contribution of recruitment to increase voluntary force declines at higher force levels.
To test motor unit stimulation, electrodes are placed extracellularly on the skin and an intramuscular stimulation is applied. After the motor unit is stimulated, its pulse is then recorded by the electrode and displayed as an action potential, known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP). When multiple MUAP’s are recorded within a short time interval, a motor unit action potential train (MUAPT) is then noted. The time in between these pulses is known as the inter-pulse interval (IPI).[7] In medical electrodiagnostic testing for a patient with weakness, careful analysis of the MUAP size, shape, and recruitment pattern can help in distinguishing a myopathy from a neuropathy.
Motor unit types (vertebrate)[edit]
Motor units are generally categorized based upon the similarities between several factors:
Physiological[8]
Contraction speed in Isometric contractions
Rate of rise of force
Time to peak of a twitch contraction (response to a single nerve impulse)
FF — Fast fatigable — high force, fast contraction speed but fatigue in a few seconds.
FR — Fast fatigue resistant — intermediate force, fatigue resistant — fast contraction speed and resistant to fatigue.
FI — Fast intermediate — intermediate between FF and FR.
S or SO — Slow (oxidative) — low force, slower contraction speed, highly fatigue resistant.
Biochemical
Histochemical (the oldest form of biochemical fiber typing)[8][9]
Glycolytic enzyme activity (e.g. glycerophosphate dehydrogenase (GPD))
Oxidative enzyme activity (e.g. succinate dehydrogenase -SDH )
Sensitivity of Myosin ATPase to acid and alkali
These generally designate fibers as:
I (Slow oxidative, SO) — Low glycolytic and high oxidative presence. Low(er) myosin ATPase, sensitive to alkali.
IIa (Fast oxidative/glycolytic, FOG)[10] — High glycolytic, oxidative and myosin ATPase presence,sensitive to acid.
IIb (Fast glycolytic, FG) — High glycolytic and myosin ATPase presence, sensitive to acid. Low oxidative presence.
IIi — fibers intermediate between IIa and IIb.
Histochemical and Physiological types correspond as follows:
S and Type I, FR and type IIa, FF and type IIb, FI and IIi.
Immunohistochemical (a more recent form of fiber typing)[11]
Myosin Heavy Chain (MHC)
Myosin Light Chain — alkali (MLC1)
Myosin Light Chain — regulatory (MLC2)
The Immunohistochemical types are as follows, with the type IIa, IIb and slow corresponding to IIa, IIb and slow (type I) histochemical types:
Expressed in
Gene family
Developing
Fast fibers (II)
Slow fibers(I)
MHC
Embryonic MHC
MHC IIa
β/slow MHC
Neonatal MHC
MHC IIb
MHC IIx
MLC1 (alkali)
Embryonic
1f
1s
1f
3f
MLC2 (regulatory)
2f
2f
2s
Table reproduced from[11]
Gene characterization of myosins[12]
There are currently about 15 known different types of MHC genes recognized in muscle, only some of which may be expressed in a single muscle fiber. These genes form one of ~18 classes of myosin genes, identified as class II which should not be confused with the type II myosins identified by immunohistochemistry. The expression of multiple MHC genes in a single muscle fiber is an example of polymorphism.[12] The relative expression of these myosin types is determined partly by genetics and partly by other biological factors such as activity, innervation and hormones.[13]
The typing of motor units has thus gone through many stages and reached a point where it is recognized that muscle fibers contain varying mixtures of several mysosin types that can not easily be classified into specific groups of fibers. The three (or four) classical fiber types represent peaks in the distribution of muscle fiber properties, each determined by the overall biochemistry of the fibers.
Estimates of innervation ratios of motor units in human muscles:
Muscle
Number of Motor Axons
Number of Muscle Fibers
Innervation Ratio
Reference
Biceps 774 580,000 750 Buchtal, 1961
Brachioradialis 315 129,000 410 Feinstein et al
First dorsal interosseous 119 40,500 340 Feinstein et al
Medial gastrocnemius 579 1,120,000 1,934 Feinstein et al
Tibialis anterior 445 250,200 562 Feinstein et al
Table reproduced from[14]
See also[edit]
MYH1, MYH2, MYH3, MYH4, MYH6, MYH7, MYH7B, MYH8, MYH9, MYH10, MYH11, MYH13, MYH14, MYH15, MYH16
tetanic contraction
motor unit number estimation
References[edit]
Altshuler, Douglas; K. Welch; B. Cho; D. Welch; A. Lin; W. Dickinson; M. Dickinson (April 2010). "Neuromuscular control of wingbeat kinematics in Annas hummingbirds". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 213: 2507–2514. doi:10.1242/jeb.043497. PMC 2892424  . PMID 20581280.
^ Jump up to: a b Buchtal, F; H. Schmalbruch (1 January 1980). "Motor Unit of Mammalian Muscle" (PDF). Physiological Reviews. 60 (1): 90–142. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Kandel, Eric (2013). Principles of Neural Science, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. p. 768. ISBN 978-0-07-139011-8.
Jump up ^ Milner-Brown HS, Stein RB, Yemm R (September 1973). "The orderly recruitment of human motor units during voluntary isometric contractions" (PDF). J. Physiol. 230 (2): 359–70. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1973.sp010192. PMC 1350367  . PMID 4350770.
Jump up ^ Robinson R (February 2009). "In mammalian muscle, axonal wiring takes surprising paths". PLoS Biol. 7 (2): e1000050. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000050. PMC 2637923  . PMID 20076726.
Jump up ^ Farina, Dario; Merletti R; Enoka R.M. (2004). "The extraction of neural strategies from the surface EMG". Journal of Applied Physiology. 96: 1486–1495. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01070.2003.
Jump up ^ Spiegel KM.; Stratton J.; Burke JR.; Glendinning DS; Enoka RM (November 2012). "The influence of age on the assessment of motor unit activation in a human hand muscle". J. Experimental Physiology. 81 (5): 805–819.
Jump up ^ De Luca, Carlo; William J. Forrest (December 1972). "Some Properties of Motor Unit Action Potential Trains Recorded during Constant Force Isometric Contractions in Man". Kybernetik. 12: 160–168. doi:10.1007/bf00289169.
^ Jump up to: a b Burke RE, Levine DN, Tsairis P, Zajac FE (November 1973). "Physiological types and histochemical profiles in motor units of the cat gastrocnemius". J. Physiol. 234 (3): 723–48. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1973.sp010369. PMC 1350696  . PMID 4148752.
Jump up ^ Collatos TC, Edgerton VR, Smith JL, Botterman BR (November 1977). "Contractile properties and fiber type compositions of flexors and extensors of elbow joint in cat: implications for motor control". J. Neurophysiol. 40 (6): 1292–300. PMID 925731.
Jump up ^ Altshuler D.; Welch K.; Cho B.; Welch D.; Lin A.; Dickinson W.; Dickinson M. (April 2010). "Neuromuscular control of wingbeat kinematics in Annas hummingbirds". J. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 213: 2507–2514. doi:10.1242/jeb.043497. PMC 2892424  . PMID 20581280.
^ Jump up to: a b Schiaffino S, Reggiani C (August 1994). "Myosin isoforms in mammalian skeletal muscle". J. Appl. Physiol. 77 (2): 493–501. PMID 8002492.
^ Jump up to: a b Caiozzo VJ, Baker MJ, Huang K, Chou H, Wu YZ, Baldwin KM (September 2003). "Single-fiber myosin heavy chain polymorphism: how many patterns and what proportions?". Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 285 (3): R570–80. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00646.2002. PMID 12738613.
Jump up ^ Baldwin KM, Haddad F (January 2001). "Effects of different activity and inactivity paradigms on myosin heavy chain gene expression in striated muscle". J. Appl. Physiol. 90 (1): 345–57. PMID 11133928.
Jump up ^ Karpati, George (2010). Disorders of Voluntary Muscle (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780521876292.
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Warner Wolf
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This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Warner Wolf
Born
Warner William Wolf[1]
(1937-11-11) November 11, 1937 (age 80)
Washington, D.C.
Occupation
Sportscaster
Spouse(s)
Sue
Children
Two daughters
Parent(s)
Jack and Rosemary
Warner William Wolf (born November 11, 1937) is an American television and radio sports broadcaster, perhaps best known as a local news sports anchor in Washington, D.C. and New York City, and for his catchphrase "Let's go to the videotape!"
Contents
1 Early life and career
2 ABC Sports
3 WABC-TV and WCBS-TV
4 Return to WUSA-TV and Imus in the Morning
5 Departure from WCBS-TV
6 Other appearances
7 Books
8 References
9 External links
Early life and career[edit]
Wolf was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Rosemary and Jack Wolf. His father, an actor and comedian who briefly worked as a member of Ted Healy's "stooge" act, was born Jewish and his mother converted to Judaism.[2][3] His earliest experience in broadcasting was on the intercom system of Calvin Coolidge High School in Washington, D.C. in the 1950s. His upbeat, entertaining patter that was to become his trademark made his sports report a welcome treat for the kids. During this period he worked part-time at Baker's Shoe Store downtown, as a salesman. Many customers must have been puzzled at the ball park hawker's refrain of, "Get your hot dogs, get your hot doggies here" coming from the back store room. He was simply entertaining the staff and the customers, something he was to continue throughout his long career.
Wolf began as a radio broadcaster on April 1, 1961, doing news, weather, and sports for WLSI-AM in Pikeville, Kentucky under the name Ken Wolf. He then moved on to radio jobs in Martinsburg, West Virginia at WEPM, and Washington, D.C. at WTOP-AM before landing a sports television role in 1965 at WTOP-TV (now WUSA) in Washington. There he became very well known and popular as the news sports anchor; he also did play-by-play announcing of local college and professional sports. He retained his job as sports director at WTOP-AM throughout the 1960s, even announcing occasionally on radio broadcasts of Washington Senators games.
ABC Sports[edit]
In 1976, Wolf gained an ABC Sports network role, working on Monday Night Baseball telecasts and as a host for coverage of football and the Olympics. Wolf's reception in those jobs was mixed, and he decided that he was best at the local news sports anchor role.
WABC-TV and WCBS-TV[edit]
Still under contract with ABC, Wolf returned to local sportscasting with a job at WABC-TV in New York in 1976, and then in 1980 moved to rival station WCBS-TV. His move to WCBS-TV resulted in a lawsuit, American Broadcasting Co. v. Wolf, in which ABC alleged that Wolf failed to negotiate in good faith and sought specific performance of their contract which would have kept Wolf off the air for two years. The New York Court of Appeals rejected ABC's argument, although they permitted ABC to seek relief in the form of monetary damages. He also broadcast live sports reports for Israeli television during the 1991 Gulf War.
Return to WUSA-TV and Imus in the Morning[edit]
Wolf returned to Washington as the sports anchor at WUSA, the former WTOP-TV, in June 1992. Wolf succeeded Glenn Brenner, who died earlier that year and had replaced Wolf back in 1977 when he joined ABC Sports. He was dismissed in August 1995. Between November 1995 and December 1996, Wolf was the guest host of The Tony Kornheiser Show on Thursdays on WTEM and sometimes he also flew to New York as a substitute sports anchor on Imus in the Morning when the regular sports anchor, Mike Breen, was away. Because of his work on Imus in the Morning and Don Imus' recommendation on the air continuously, Wolf went back to WCBS-TV as the sports anchor on February 3, 1997 (the most recent of his replacements at WCBS, Bernie Smilovitz, had returned to WDIV in Detroit after having been caught in WCBS' infamous 1996 mass firings).
During this time he also continued to do some work in radio, giving sports reports on the nationally syndicated Imus in the Morning program. Wolf broke the news of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the Imus show, when he saw the World Trade Center on fire from his Lower Manhattan apartment. Wolf also covered the story for WCBS-TV (where he was working at the time).
He stayed there until May 2004, returning to WABC (AM) in 2006 as the sports reporter for Curtis and Kuby, and continuing, with a two-week hiatus, on the Imus in the Morning program following Don Imus's arrival at WABC (AM). He served as Imus's sports contributor until November 3, 2016, when Imus decided to replace Wolf with Sid Rosenberg.[4] Wolf sued Imus alleging age discrimination.[5]
Departure from WCBS-TV[edit]
On May 27, 2004 Wolf was fired by WCBS-TV general manager Lew Leone three months before his contract expired, and replaced by a much younger anchor, Chris Wragge. The day after his firing, his picture covered half the front page of the New York Daily News with the other half being covered by the headline "WOLF FANS RAISE A HOWL".
A few months after his firing, which generated much public outcry, Wolf was hired by radio station WABC and he appeared weekday mornings with Curtis Sliwa & Ron Kuby as well as Mark Simone's Saturday morning radio program. When Imus in the Morning returned to WABC in December 2007, Wolf was not the sports anchor: Tony Powell took that position. But after several weeks Wolf returned to his old position and continued as the morning sports anchor for the Imus in the Morning show. Wolf also hosted a Saturday sports talk show on 1050 ESPN Radio. Wolf modified his trademark "Let's go to the videotape!" to "Let's go to the audiotape!"
Wolf's final day with the Imus show was November 4, 2016. He stayed at WABC until December 3, when his current contract expired.[6]
Other appearances[edit]
Wolf played himself in the film Rocky IV and has made several other cameo appearances. He is the author of the books Let's Go to the Videotape and Give Me a Break.
Books[edit]
Wolf, Warner; Taaffe, William (1983). Gimme a Break! Warner Wolf on Sports. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07071-537-8.
Wolf, Warner; Weisman, Larry (2000). Let's Go to the Videotape: All the Plays and Replays from My Life in Sports. Warner Books. ISBN 0-44652-559-6.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wolf, Warner; Weisman, Larry (2000). Let's Go to the Videotape: All the Plays and Replays from My Life in Sports. Grand Central Publishing. p. 20.
Jump up ^ King, Alan (2005). Matzo Balls for Breakfast and Other Memories of Growing Up Jewish. Google Books preview. p. 172. ISBN 0743260740. Chp "Never Too Late to Become a Bar Mitzvah" —Warner Wolf
Warner Wolf is the three-time sportscaster who coined the catchphrase 'Let's go to the videotape!' Wolf was bar mitzvahed in 1986, at the age of 48.
Jump up ^ Matzo Balls for Breakfast and Other Memories of Growing Up Jewish
Jump up ^ Kaplan, Don (November 4, 2016). "Sportscaster Warner Wolf booted from 'Imus in the Morning' show". New York Daily News. Retrieved May 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Warner Wolf suing Don Imus for age discrimination". New York Post. 2018-02-15. Retrieved 2018-02-16.
Jump up ^ Kaplan, Don. "Sportscaster Warner Wolf booted from 'Imus in the Morning' show". NY Daily News. 4 November 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
External links[edit]
Biography portal
"Warner Wolf Biography". WABC Radio. December 10, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2014.
Warner Wolf on IMDb
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warner_Wolf&oldid=842945084"
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Closing milestones of the S&P 500
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This article is a summary of the closing milestones of the S&P 500 Index, a United States stock market index. Since opening at 16.66 on January 3, 1950, the S&P 500 has substantially increased despite several periods of decline.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Milestone highs and lows
2 Records
3 Incremental closing milestones
3.1 The Post-World War II Boom (1949–1966)
3.2 The 1970s Bear Market (1967–1973)
3.3 The Early 1980s Bull Depression (1980–1982)
3.4 The Mid-1980s Bull Market (1982–1987)
3.5 The 1990s Technology Bubble (1989–2000)
3.6 The Mid-2000s Cyclical Bull Market (2007)
3.7 The Mid 2010s Bull Market (2013-Present)
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
S&P 500 Index from 1950 to 2016
Standard & Poor's, initially known as the Standard Statistics Company, created its first stock market index in 1923. It consisted of 233 different stocks and was computed on a weekly basis. Three years later, it developed a 90 component composite price index that was computed on a daily basis; that was expanded over the years. On March 4, 1957, the Standard & Poor's 500 (.INX) (.SPX) was introduced.
Milestone highs and lows[edit]
June 4, 1968: S&P 500 closes above 100 for the first time.
October 19, 1987: S&P 500 registers its largest daily percentage loss, falling 20.47 percent. The one-day crash, known as "Black Monday," was blamed on program trading and those using a hedging strategy known as portfolio insurance. Despite the losses, the S&P 500 still closed positive for the year.
March 24, 1995: The S&P 500 index closes above 500 for the first time. In exactly five years time, the S&P 500 tripled its value, and reached its peak prior to the dot-com bubble.
February 2, 1998: S&P 500 closes above 1,000 for the first time.
March 15, 1999: The S&P 500 closed above 1,300 for the first time. On the next day, the more commonly followed Dow Jones Industrial Average traded above 10,000 points for the first time.
March 24, 2000: The S&P 500 index reaches an all-time intraday high of 1,552.87 during the dot-com bubble.
October 9, 2007: Index closes at a record high of 1,565.15, the highest close prior to the 2008 financial crisis.
October 11, 2007: S&P 500 hits an intraday record high of 1,576.09.
October 13, 2008: S&P 500 marks its best daily percentage gain, rising 11.58 percent. It also registers its largest single-day point increase of 104.13 points.
December 31, 2008: For the year, S&P 500 falls 38.49 percent, its worst yearly percentage loss. In September 2008, Lehman Brothers collapsed as the financial crisis spread.
March 9, 2009: S&P 500 closes at 676.53 (it hit a 666 intraday low on March 6th), its closing low after the onset of the 2008 financial crisis and the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers.
March 28, 2013: S&P 500 ends at 1,569.19, surpassing its previous record closing high set in 2007.
April 10, 2013: S&P 500 hits new all-time intraday record high at 1,589.07, surpassing the previous record of 1,576.09 set during trading on October 11, 2007.
May 3, 2013: S&P 500 closes above 1,600 for the first time, finishing at 1,614.42 after a much better-than-expected April U.S. non-farm payrolls report. The index also hit an all-time intraday high of 1,618.46.
August 1, 2013: S&P 500 closes above 1,700 for the first time, finishing at 1,706.87, as well as reaching an all-time intraday high of 1,707.85.[2]
November 22, 2013: S&P 500 closes above 1,800 for the first time, finishing at 1,804.76 points.
May 23, 2014: S&P 500 closes above 1,900 for the first time, finishing at 1,900.53 points.
August 26, 2014: S&P 500 closes above 2,000 for the first time, finishing at 2,000.02 points.
February 17, 2015: S&P 500 closes above 2,100 for the first time, finishing at 2,100.34 points.[3]
November 22, 2016: S&P 500 closes above 2,200 for the first time, finishing at 2,202.94 points.
February 9, 2017: S&P 500 closes above 2,300 for the first time, finishing at 2,307.87 points.
May 15, 2017: S&P 500 closes above 2,400 for the first time, finishing at 2,402.32 points.
September 15, 2017: S&P 500 closes above 2,500 for the first time, finishing at 2,500.23 points.
November 24, 2017: S&P 500 closes above 2,600 for the first time, finishing at 2,602.42 points.
January 3, 2018: S&P 500 closes above 2,700 for the first time, finishing at 2,713.06 points.
January 17, 2018 S&P 500 closes above 2,800 for the first time, finishing at 2,802.56 points.
Records[edit]
Category
All-time highs
All-time lows
Closing 2,872.87 Friday, January 26, 2018 16.66 Tuesday, January 3, 1950
Intraday 2,872.87 Friday, January 26, 2018 16.66 Tuesday, January 3, 1950
Incremental closing milestones[edit]
The following is a list of the milestone closing levels of the S&P 500. 1-point increments are used up to the 20-point level; 2 to 50; 5 to 100; 10 to 500; 20 to 1,000; 50 to 3,000; and 100-point increments thereafter. Bold formatting is applied to every five milestones, excluding peaks.[4]
The Post-World War II Boom (1949–1966)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
16.66[a] 16.66 January 3, 1950
17 17.08 January 9, 1950
18 18.03 April 18, 1950
19 19.14 June 8, 1950
20 20.00 October 4, 1950
22 22.20 February 5, 1951
24 24.16 January 14, 1952
26 26.04 December 12, 1952
28 28.18 April 29, 1954
30 30.14 July 9, 1954
32 32.00 September 22, 1954
34 34.03 November 23, 1954
36 36.75 January 3, 1955
38 38.27 April 18, 1955
40 40.10 June 17, 1955
42 43.18 July 6, 1955
44 44.19 September 12, 1955
46 46.41 November 14, 1955
48 48.14 March 16, 1956
50 50.06 September 30, 1958
55 55.21 December 31, 1958
60 60.01 July 7, 1959
65 65.06 March 30, 1961
70 70.01 November 6, 1961
75 75.02 December 31, 1963
80 80.02 April 6, 1964
85 85.04 October 8, 1964
90 90.27 May 13, 1965
The 1970s Bear Market (1967–1973)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
94.06[b] 94.32 May 4, 1967
95 95.37 August 1, 1967
100 100.38 June 4, 1968
110 110.18 April 12, 1972
120 120.24 January 11, 1973
The Early 1980s Bull Depression (1980–1982)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
120.24[c] 121.44 July 17, 1980
130 130.40 September 22, 1980
140 140.40 November 20, 1980
The Mid-1980s Bull Market (1982–1987)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
140.52[d] 142.87 November 3, 1982
150 150.88 March 1, 1983
160 160.71 April 20, 1983
170 170.53 June 21, 1983
180 180.35 February 4, 1985
190 190.04 June 4, 1985
200 201.41 November 21, 1985
210 212.02 December 16, 1985
220 222.45 February 18, 1986
230 231.69 March 11, 1986
240 242.22 April 16, 1986
250 250.84 June 30, 1986
260 260.30 January 12, 1987
270 273.91 January 22, 1987
280 281.16 February 5, 1987
290 290.52 March 5, 1987
300 301.16 March 23, 1987
310 310.68 July 14, 1987
320 322.09 August 6, 1987
330 333.99 August 14, 1987
The 1990s Technology Bubble (1989–2000)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
336.77[e] 338.05 July 26, 1989
340 341.99 July 27, 1989
350 351.52 August 24, 1989
360 360.65 May 29, 1990
370 370.47 March 1, 1991
380 380.40 April 12, 1991
390 390.45 April 17, 1991
400 404.84 December 26, 1991
410 415.14 December 30, 1991
420 420.44 January 14, 1992
430 430.16 November 27, 1992
440 441.28 December 18, 1992
450 454.71 March 8, 1993
460 460.13 August 25, 1993
470 470.54 December 27, 1993
480 481.61 January 31, 1994
490 490.05 March 13, 1995
500 500.97 March 24, 1995
520 520.48 May 3, 1995
540 545.22 June 19, 1995
560 560.89 July 12, 1995
580 583.61 September 14, 1995
600 600.07 November 17, 1995
620 620.18 December 6, 1995
640 641.43 February 5, 1996
660 661.45 February 12, 1996
680 680.54 September 13, 1996
700 701.46 October 4, 1996
720 724.59 November 6, 1996
740 742.16 November 19, 1996
760 768.86 January 14, 1997
780 782.72 January 21, 1997
800 802.77 February 12, 1997
820 830.29 May 5, 1997
840 841.88 May 15, 1997
860 862.91 June 9, 1997
880 883.46 June 12, 1997
900 904.03 July 2, 1997
920 925.76 July 15, 1997
940 940.30 July 24, 1997
960 960.32 August 6, 1997
980 983.12 October 7, 1997
1,000 1,001.27 February 2, 1998
1,050 1,052.02 March 3, 1998
1,100 1,105.65 March 24, 1998
1,150 1,157.33 July 6, 1998
1,200 1,202.84 December 21, 1998
1,250 1,272.34 January 6, 1999
1,300 1,307.26 March 15, 1999
1,350 1,358.63 April 12, 1999
1,400 1,403.28 July 9, 1999
1,450 1,458.34 December 23, 1999
1,500 1,500.64 March 22, 2000
The Mid-2000s Cyclical Bull Market (2007)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
1,527.46[f] 1,530.23 May 30, 2007
1,550 1,552.50 July 13, 2007
The Mid 2010s Bull Market (2013-Present)[edit]
[hide]
Milestone
Closing level
Date first achieved
1,565.15[g] 1,569.19 March 28, 2013
1,600 1,614.42 May 3, 2013
1,650 1,650.34 May 14, 2013
1,700 1,706.87 August 1, 2013
1,750 1,754.67 October 22, 2013
1,800 1,804.76 November 22, 2013
1,850 1,854.29 February 27, 2014
1,900 1,900.53 May 23, 2014
1,950 1,951.27 June 9, 2014
2,000 2,000.02 August 26, 2014
2,050 2,051.80 November 18, 2014
2,100 2,100.34 February 17, 2015
2,130.82[h] 2,137.16 July 11, 2016
2,150 2,152.14 July 12, 2016
2,200 2,202.94 November 22, 2016
2,250 2,259.53 December 9, 2016
2,300[i] 2,307.87 February 9, 2017
2,350 2,351.16 February 17, 2017
2,400[j] 2,402.32 May 15, 2017
2,450 2,453.46 June 19, 2017
2,500 2,500.23 September 15, 2017
2,550 2,552.07 October 5, 2017
2,600 2,602.42 November 24, 2017
2,650 2,651.50 December 8, 2017
2,700 2,713.06 January 3, 2018
2,750 2,751.29 January 9, 2018
2,800 2,802.56 January 17, 2018
2,850 2,872.87 January 26, 2018
See also[edit]
Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Closing milestones of the Nasdaq Composite
List of largest daily changes in the S&P 500 Index
Nasdaq-100#Record values
Russell 3000 Index#Record values
Wilshire 5000#Record High Wilshire 5000 Index Values
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's very first close on January 3, 1950.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on February 9, 1966.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on January 11, 1973 before the 1973–74 stock market crash.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on November 28, 1980.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on August 25, 1987 before Black Monday.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on March 24, 2000 before the dot-com crash.[5]
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on October 9, 2007 before the 2008 financial crisis.
Jump up ^ This was the S&P 500's close at the peak on May 21, 2015 before the 2015-16 stock market selloff.
Jump up ^ The S&P first crossed 2,300 during the day on January 26, 2017 before falling below the level at closing. After that, the S&P retreated away from the 2,300-pt milestone for a possible selloff in the next month. It took two weeks for the S&P to finally close above 2,300.
Jump up ^ The S&P first crossed 2,400 during the day on March 1, 2017 before falling below the level at closing. After that, the S&P retreated away from the 2,400-pt milestone and then closed within 1 point of the milestone on May 5, 2017. Then on May 8, 2017, the S&P traded above 2,400 intraday then closed below that milestone again and did it the third time the very next day. However, it took until May 15, 2017 for the S&P to finally close above 2,400.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Yahoo, Inc. "^GSPC Historical Prices | S&P 500 Stock - Yahoo! Finance". Yahoo Finance. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Yahoo, Inc. "^GSPC Historical Prices | S&P 500 Stock - Yahoo! Finance". Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Key dates and milestones in the S&P 500's history". Yahoo Finance. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Yahoo, Inc. "^GSPC Historical Prices | S&P 500 Stock - Yahoo! Finance". Retrieved 3 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Paradis, Tim (May 3, 2007). "Stocks Rise; S&P 500 Passes 1,500". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved July 5, 2014.
External links[edit]
S&P 500 Historical Chart Data
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