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Washington Naval Conference
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Washington Naval Conference. Date: Nov. 12, 1921 or February 6, 1922
The Washington Naval Conference, also called the Washington Arms Conference or the Washington Disarmament Conference, was a military conference called by U.S. President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington, D.C., from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspice of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal[1][2]—regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first arms control conference in history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.
Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington DC,[3] it resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty (more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty), the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but were not renewed in the increasingly hostile world of the Great Depression.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Meeting
3 Policies agreed upon
4 Results
5 Termination
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 See also
9 External links
Background[edit]
The world's popular mood was peace and disarmament throughout the 1920s. Women had just won the right to vote in many countries, and they helped convince politicians that money could be saved, votes won, and future wars avoided by stopping the arms race.[4] Across the world, leaders of the women's suffrage movement formed international organizations such as the International Council of Women, and the Women's Suffrage Alliance. Historian Martin Pugh says they achieved the greatest influence in the 1920s "when they helped to promote women's contribution to the anti-war movement throughout the Western world."[5] In the United States, practically all the major Protestant denominations and highly visible Protestant spokesman were strong supporters of international peace efforts. They collaborated with each other, and worked to educate their local congregations on the need for peace and disarmament. [6]
At the end of the Great War, Britain still had the largest navy afloat but its big ships were becoming obsolete, and the Americans and Japanese were rapidly building expensive new warships. Britain and Japan were allies in a treaty that was due to expire in 1922. Although there were no immediate dangers, observers increasingly pointed to the American-Japanese rivalry for control of the Pacific Ocean as a long-term threat to world peace. By this time, the British realized they had best cast their lot with Washington rather than Tokyo. To stop a needless, expensive and possibly dangerous arms race, the major countries signed a series of naval disarmament agreements.[7]
Meeting[edit]
The American delegation, led by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, included Elihu Root, Henry Cabot Lodge and Oscar Underwood,[1][2] the Democratic minority leader in the Senate. The primary objective of the conference was to restrain Japanese naval expansion in the waters of the west Pacific, especially with regard to fortifications on strategically valuable islands. Their secondary objectives were intended to ultimately limit Japanese expansion, but also to alleviate concerns over possible antagonism with the British. They were: first, to eliminate Anglo-American tension by abrogating the Anglo-Japanese alliance; second, to agree upon a favorable naval ratio vis-à-vis Japan; and, third, to have the Japanese officially accept a continuation of the Open Door Policy in China.
The British, however, took a more cautious and tempered approach. Indeed, British officials brought certain general desires to the conference—to achieve peace and stability in the western Pacific, avoid a naval arms race with the United States, thwart Japanese encroachment into areas under their influence, and preserve the security of Singapore, Hong Kong, and Dominion countries—but they did not enter the conference with a specific laundry list of demands; rather, they brought with them a vague vision of what the western Pacific should look like after an agreement.
Japanese officials were more focused on specifics than the British, and approached the conference with two primary goals: first, to sign a naval treaty with Britain and the United States, and, secondly, to obtain official recognition of Japan’s special interests in Manchuria and Mongolia. Japanese officials also brought other issues to the conference—a strong demand that they remain in control of Yap, Siberia, and Tsingtao, as well as more general concerns about the growing presence of American fleets in the Pacific.
The American hand was strengthened by the interception and decryption of secret instructions from the Japanese government to its delegation. The message revealed the lowest naval ratio that would be acceptable to Tokyo; U.S. negotiators used this knowledge to push the Japanese to it. This success, one of the first in the U.S. government's budding eavesdropping and cryptology efforts, led eventually to the growth of such agencies.[3]
Policies agreed upon[edit]
The Washington Conference was called by President Warren G. Harding and run by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Harding demanded action in order to gain domestic political credit. Hughes—helped by the cryptographers who were reading the Japanese diplomatic secrets—brilliantly engineered a deal that everyone thought best for themselves.[8] To resolve technical disputes about the quality of warships, the conferees adopted a quantitative standard, based on tonnage displacement (a simple measure of the size of a ship.) A ten-year agreement fixed the ratio of battleships at 5:5:3—that is 525,000 tons for the USA, 525,000 tons for Britain, and 315,000 tons for Japan. Smaller limits with a ratio of 1.67 applied to France and Italy.[9] Battleships, the dominant weapons systems of the era, could be no larger than 35,000 tons. The major powers allowed themselves 135,000:135,000:81,000 tons for the newfangled aircraft carriers. The Washington Conference exactly captured the worldwide popular demand for peace and disarmament; without it, the US, Britain and Japan would have engaged in an expensive buildup, with each worried the other two might be getting too powerful. The agreements forced the US to scrap 15 old battleships and 2 new ones, along with 13 ships under construction.
The naval treaty was concluded on February 6, 1922. Ratifications of that treaty were exchanged in Washington on August 17, 1923, and it was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on April 16, 1924.[10] Japan agreed to revert Shandong to Chinese control by an agreement concluded on February 4, 1922. Ratifications of that agreement were exchanged in Beijing on June 2, 1922, and it was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on July 7, 1922.[11][12]
Results[edit]
The Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Numbers of existing capital ships were scrapped. Some ships under construction were turned into aircraft carriers instead.
Even with the Washington Treaty, the major navies remained suspicious of each other, and for a brief while (1927–30) engaged in a race to build cruisers which had been limited to size (10,000 tons) but not numbers.[13] That oversight was resolved on value of cruisers by the London Naval Treaty of 1930, which specified a 10:10:7 ratio for cruisers and destroyers. For the first time submarines were also limited, with Japan given parity with the US and Britain at 53,000 tons each. (Submarines typically displaced 1,000-2,000 tons each.) The U.S. Navy maintained an active building program that replaced obsolescent warships with technically more sophisticated new models in part because its construction yards were important sources of political patronage, and well protected by Congress. During the New Deal, furthermore, relief funds were used to build warships. "The naval program was wholly mine," President Roosevelt boasted.[14]
Termination[edit]
The pacts and treaties that resulted from the Washington Naval Treaty remained in effect for fourteen years until Japan ended participation in 1936.[15]
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
^ Jump up to: a b Thorson, Winston B. (1 January 1946). "Pacific Northwest Opinion on the Washington Conference of 1921-1922". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 37 (2): 109. JSTOR 40486746.
^ Jump up to: a b "Washington Naval Conference". u-s-history.com. Retrieved 2011-12-18.
^ Jump up to: a b On the Trail of Military Intelligence History: A Guide to the Washington, DC, Area
Jump up ^ Michael J. Turner, Britain and the World in the Twentieth Century (2010) p. 10
Jump up ^ Martin Pugh (2000). The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914. Oxford UP. p. 86.
Jump up ^ Robert Moats Miller, "The Attitudes of the Major Protestant Churches in America Toward War and Peace, 1919- 1929," The Historian 19#1 (1956), pp. 13-38 online.
Jump up ^ Richard W. Fanning, Peace and disarmament: naval rivalry & arms control, 1922-1933 (1995) pp 1-24
Jump up ^ Roger Dingman, Power in the Pacific: the origins of naval arms limitation, 1914–1922 (1976) p 217
Jump up ^ Germany was still limited to zero by the Versailles Treaty; the Soviet Union, a pariah nation because of Communism, was not invited.
Jump up ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 25, pp. 202–227.
Jump up ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 10, pp. 310-331.
Jump up ^ text of the agreement
Jump up ^ George W. Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U. S. Navy, 1890-1990 (1994) pp. 108-9.
Jump up ^ Quoted in Harlow A. Hyde, Scraps of paper: the disarmament treaties between the world wars (1988) p 239
Jump up ^ u-s-history.com Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty
Bibliography[edit]
Buell, Raymond Leslie. The Washington Conference (D. Appleton, 1922) online
Field, Andrew. Royal Navy Strategy in the Far East, 1919-1939 (2004)
Dingman, Roger. Power in the Pacific: the origins of naval arms limitation, 1914-1922 (1976)
Fanning, Richard W. Peace and disarmament: naval rivalry & arms control, 1922-1933 (1995)
Goldman, Emily O. Sunken Treaties: Naval Arms Control between the Wars. Pennsylvania State U. Press, 1994. 352 pp.
Goldstein, Erik, and John H. Maurer, eds. The Washington Conference, 1921-22: naval rivalry, East Asian stability and the road to Pearl Harbor (Psychology Press, 1994)
Goldstein, Erik. The Washington Conference, 1921-22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (1994)
Jordan, John (2011). Warships after Washington: The Development of Five Major Fleets 1922–1930. Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 1-84832-117-1.
Kaufman, Robert Gordon. Arms Control during the Prenuclear Era: The United States and Naval Limitation between the Two World Wars. Columbia U. Press, 1990. 289 pp.
Kitching; Carolyn J. Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, 1919-1934 Rutledge, 1999 online
O'Brien; Phillips Payson. British and American Naval Power: Politics and Policy, 1900-1936 (Praeger Studies in Diplomacy and Strategic Thought) (1998)
Seymour, Charles (1922). "Washington Conference". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York.
Willoughby, Westel Woodbury. China at the Conference: A Report. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1922.
Papers Relating to Pacific and Far Eastern Affairs. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1922.
See also[edit]
Washington Naval Treaty
London Naval Treaty (1930)
Second London Naval Treaty
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
External links[edit]
Media related to Washington Naval Treaty at Wikimedia Commons
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Polyandry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about polyandrous marriage practices. For polyandrous animal mating, see polyandry in nature.
Draupadi, a princess and queen in the Indian epic Mahābhārata, with her five husbands (the Pandavas).
Part of a series on the
Anthropology of kinship
Basic concepts[hide]
Affinity
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Incest taboo
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Exogamy
Moiety
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Polygyny
Polygamy
Concubinage
Polyandry
Bride price
Bride service
Dowry
Parallel / cross cousins
Cousin marriage
Levirate
Sororate
Ghost marriage
Joking relationship
Family
Lineage
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Fictive / Milk / Nurture kinship
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Extended
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Terminology[show]
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Classificatory terminologies
By group
Iroquois
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Case studies[show]
Australian Aboriginal
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Polyandry in Tibet / in India
Feminist
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Sexuality
Coming of Age in Samoa
Major theorists[show]
Diane Bell
Tom Boellstorff
Jack Goody
Gilbert Herdt
Don Kulick
Roger Lancaster
Louise Lamphere
Eleanor Leacock
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Bronisław Malinowski
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Related articles[show]
Alliance theory
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Feminist anthropology
Sex and Repression in Savage Society
Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship
Social anthropology
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v
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e

Relationships
（Outline）
Types[hide]
Genetic
Kinship
Family
Sibling
Cousin
By marriage
Husband
Wife
Open marriage
Polyandry
Polygamy
Polygyny
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Activities[show]
Bonding
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Polyandry (/ˈpɒliˌændri, ˌpɒliˈæn-/; from Greek: πολυ- poly-, "many" and ἀνήρ anēr, "man") is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polyamory,[1] group or conjoint marriage.[2] In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage.
Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.[3] Polyandry is less rare than this figure suggests, as it considered only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains (28 societies). More recent studies have found more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry.[4]
Fraternal polyandry is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal, parts of China and part of northern India, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.[5][6] It is associated with partible paternity, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.[4]
Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival.[6][7] It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families but also among the elite families.[8] For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land. The marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were less likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh and Zanskar.[6] In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance. With most siblings disinherited, many of them became celibate monks and priests.[9]
Polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom.
Contents
1 Types
1.1 Polygynandry
1.2 Fraternal polyandry
1.3 Partible paternity
2 Culture
3 Known cases
3.1 Africa
3.2 Asia
3.3 Europe
3.4 North America
3.5 Oceania
3.6 South America
4 Religious attitudes
4.1 Hinduism
4.2 Judaism
4.3 Christianity
4.4 Latter-Day Saints
4.5 Islam
5 In biology
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Types[edit]
Polygynandry[edit]
Main article: Polyandry in India
In the Indian Himalayas, polyandry may be combined with polygyny to produce a system termed "polygynandry". The system results in less land fragmentation, a diversification of domestic economic activities, and lower population growth.[10]
Fraternal polyandry[edit]
Main article: Polyandry in Tibet
Fraternal polyandry (from the Latin frater—brother), also called adelphic polyandry, is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are brothers. Fraternal polyandry was (and sometimes still is) found in certain areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India,[11] where polyandry was accepted as a social practice.[6][12] The Toda people of southern India practice fraternal polyandry, but monogamy has become prevalent recently.[13] In contemporary Hindu society, polyandrous marriages in agrarian societies in the Malwa region of Punjab seem to occur to avoid division of farming land.[14]
Fraternal polyandry achieves a similar goal to that of primogeniture in 19th-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment. Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation.[15] This strategy appears less successful the larger the fraternal sibling group is.[16]
Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a perceived need to retain aristocratic titles or agricultural lands within kin groups, and/or because of the frequent absence, for long periods, of a man from the household. In Tibet the practice was particularly popular among the priestly Sakya class.
The female equivalent of fraternal polyandry is sororate marriage.
Partible paternity[edit]
Anthropologist Stephen Beckerman points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "partible paternity".[17] This often results in the shared nurture of a child by multiple fathers in a form of polyandric relation to the mother, although this is not always the case.[18] One of the most well known examples is that of Trobriand "virgin birth". The matrilineal Trobriand Islanders recognize the importance of sex in reproduction but do not believe the male makes a contribution to the constitution of the child, who therefore remains attached to their mother's lineage alone. The mother's non-resident husbands are not recognized as fathers, although the mother's co-resident brothers are, since they are part of the mother's lineage.
Culture[edit]
According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2300 BC), the earlier custom of polyandry in his country was abolished, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned upon which her crime is written.[19]
An extreme gender imbalance has been suggested as a justification for polyandry. For example, the selective abortion of female fetuses in India has led to a significant margin in sex ratio and, it has been suggested, results in related men "sharing" a wife.[20]
Known cases[edit]
Polyandry in Tibet was a common practice and continues to a lesser extent today. A survey of 753 Tibetan families by Tibet University in 1988 found that 13% practiced polyandry[21]. Polyandry in India still exists among minorities, and also in Bhutan, and the northern parts of Nepal. Polyandry has been practised in several parts of India, such as Rajasthan, Ladakh and Zanskar, in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Uttarakhand, among the Toda of South India.[6][22]
It also occurs or has occurred in Nigeria, the Nymba,[22][clarification needed] and some pre-contact Polynesian societies,[23] though probably only among higher caste women.[24] It is also encountered in some regions of Yunnan and Sichuan regions of China, among the Mosuo people in China (who also practice polygyny as well), and in some sub-Saharan African such as the Maasai people in Kenya and northern Tanzania[25] and American indigenous communities. The Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, practiced polyandry until their disappearance.[26] The Zo'e tribe in the state of Pará on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil, also practice polyandry.[27]
Africa[edit]
In the Lake Region of Central Africa, "Polygyny ... was uncommon. Polyandry, on the other hand, was quite common."[28]
"The Maasai are polyandrous".[29]
Among the Irigwe of Northern Nigeria, women have traditionally acquired numerous spouses called "co-husbands".
Guanches from Gran Canaria practized polyandry before the Spanish conquest. According to European accounts, during a great famine in 14th or 15th century, girls were killed after coming to life in order to equilibrate demography. This resulted in a surplus of males and a shortage of females, which led to the adoption of polyandry, allowing a woman to marry a maximum of five men.
In August 2013, two Kenyan men entered into an agreement to marry a woman with whom they had both been having an affair. Kenyan law does not explicitly forbid polyandry, although it is not common custom.[30]
Asia[edit]
See also: Polyandry in India and Polyandry in Tibet
In the reign of Urukagina of Lagash, "Dyandry, the marriage of one woman to two men, is abolished."[31]
M. Notovitck mentioned polyandry in Ladakh or Little 'Tibet' in his record of his journey to Tibet. ("The Unknown life of Jesus Christ" by Virchand Gandhi).
Polyandry was widely (and to some extent still is) practised in Lahaul-Spiti situated in isolation in the high Himalayas in India.
In Arabia (southern) "All the kindred have their property in common ...; all have one wife" whom they share.[32]
The Hoa-tun (Hephthalites, White Huns) "living to the north of the Great Wall ... practiced polyandry."[33] Among the Hephthalites, "the practice of several husbands to one wife, or polyandry, was always the rule, which is agreed on by all commentators. That this was plain was evidenced by the custom among the women of wearing a hat containing a number of horns, one for each of the subsequent husbands, all of whom were also brothers to the husband. Indeed, if a husband had no natural brothers, he would adopt another man to be his brother so that he would be allowed to marry."[34]
"Polyandry is very widespread among the Sherpas."[35]
In Bhutan in 1914, polyandry was "the prevailing domestic custom".[36] Nowadays polyandry is rare, but still found for instance among the Brokpas of the Merak-Sakten region.[37]
In several villages in Nyarixung Township, Xigaze, Tibet, up to 90% of families practiced polyandry in 2008.[38]
"A 1981 survey ... in Muli found 52% of the marriages engaged in monogamy, 32% practiced polyandry (brothers sharing a wife), and 16% practiced polygyny (sisters sharing a husband)."[39]
Among the Gilyaks of Sakhalein Island "polyandry is also practiced."[40]
Fraternal polyandry is permitted in Sri Lanka under Kandyan Marriage law, often described using the euphemism eka-ge-kama (literally "eating in one house").[41] Associated Polyandry, or polyandry that begins as monogamy, with the second husband entering the relationship later, is also practiced[42] and is sometimes initiated by the wife.[43]
Polyandry was common in Sri Lanka, until it was banned by the British in 1859.
Europe[edit]
Sepulcral inscription for Allia Potestas, Museo Epigrafico, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome
Reporting on the mating patterns in ancient Greece, specifically Sparta, Plutarch writes: "Thus if an older man with a young wife should take a liking to one of the well-bred young men and approve of him, he might well introduce him to her so as to fill her with noble sperm and then adopt the child as his own. Conversely a respectable man who admired someone else’s wife noted for her lovely children and her good sense, might gain the husband’s permission to sleep with her thereby planting in fruitful soil, so to speak, and producing fine children who would be linked to fine ancestors by blood and family."[44]
"According to Julius Caesar, it was customary among the ancient Britons for brothers, and sometimes for fathers and sons, to have their wives in common."[45]
"Polyandry prevailed among the Lacedaemonians according to Polybius."[46] (Polybius vii.7.732, following Timæus)[47]
"The matrons of Rome flocked in great crowds to the Senate, begging with tears and entreaties that one woman should be married to two men."[48]
The gravestone of Allia Potestas, a woman from Perusia, describes how she lived peacefully with two lovers, one of whom immortalized her in this famous epigraphic eulogy, dating (probably) from the second century.[49]
North America[edit]
Aleut people in the 19th century.[50]
Inuit[51]
Oceania[edit]
Among the Kanak of New Caledonia, "every woman is the property of several husbands. It is this collection of husbands, having one wife in common, that...live together in a hut, with their common wife."[52]
Marquesans had "a society in which households were polyandrous".[53]
Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind[54] reported in 1896 that in the New Hebrides there was a kind of convention in cases of widowhood, that two widowers shall live with one widow.
South America[edit]
"The Bororos ... among them...there are also cases of polyandry."[55]
"The Tupi-Kawahib also practice fraternal polyandry."[56]
"...up to 70 percent of Amazonian cultures may have believed in the principle of multiple paternity"[57]
Religious attitudes[edit]
This section uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them. Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources, with multiple points of view. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Hinduism[edit]
Draupadi with her five husbands - the Pandavas. The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two to his left are Bhima and Arjuna . Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are to his right. Their wife, at far right, is Draupadi. Deogarh, Dasavatar temple.
There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata. Draupadi married the five Pandava brothers, as this is what she chose in a previous life. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life.[58] However, in the same epic, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishis) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers), thereby implying a more open attitude toward polyandry in Vedic society.[59]
Judaism[edit]
The Hebrew Bible contains no examples of women married to more than one man,[60][61] but its description of adultery clearly implies that polyandry is unacceptable[62][63] and the practice is unknown in Jewish tradition.[64][65] In addition, the children from other than the first husband are considered illegitimate, unless he has already divorced her or died (i.e., a mamzer),[66] being a product of an adulterous relationship.
Christianity[edit]
Most Christian denominations in the Western world strongly advocate monogamous marriage, and a passage from the Pauline epistles (1 Corinthians 7) can be interpreted as forbidding polyandry.
Latter-Day Saints[edit]
Joseph Smith and Brigham Young, and other early Latter-day Saints, practiced polygynous marriages. The practice was officially ended with the 1890 Manifesto. Polyandrous marriages did exist, albeit in significantly less numbers, in early LDS history.[67][68]
Islam[edit]
Although Islamic marital law allows men to have up to four wives, polyandry is prohibited in Islam.[69][70]
Polyandrous marriages were practiced in pre-Islamic Arabian cultures, but were outlawed during the rise of Islam. Nikah Ijtimah was a pagan tradition of polyandry in older Arab regions which was condemned and abolished during the rise of Islam.[69][71]
In biology[edit]
Main article: Polyandry in nature
Polyandrous behavior is quite widespread in the animal kingdom. It is prominent in many species of insects and fish (for example pipefish; see Polyandry in fish). It is also found in other animals such as birds (for example dunnocks), whales, and in some mammals such as the house mouse.
Among the whales, polyandrous behavior has been noted among the bowhead,[72] harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena),[73] and humpback whales.[74]
Among the relevant insect species are the honeybees, the red flour beetle, the species of spider Stegodyphus lineatus, the crickets Gryllus bimaculatus, and the fruit fly Drosophila pseudoobscura.
Polyandry also occurs in some primates such as marmosets, and in the marsupial genus' Antechinus.
See also[edit]
Legal status of polygamy
Matrilineality
Polyandry in India
Polyandry in Tibet
Sacred prostitution
Sexual conflict
Sexy son hypothesis
Sperm competition
Types of mating, marriage and lifestyle:
Bigamy
Cuckold
Eusociality
Group marriage
Monogamy
Non-monogamy
Open marriage
Polyamory
Polygamy
Polygynandry
Polygyny
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Dreger, A. (2013). "When Taking Multiple Husbands Makes Sense". The Atlantic. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
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Jump up ^ (Linda Stone, Kinship and Gender, 2006, Westview, 3rd ed., ch. 6) The Center for Research on Tibet Papers on Tibetan Marriage and Polyandry (accessed October 1, 2006).
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Jump up ^ Levine, Nancy (1998). The Dynamics of polyandry: kinship, domesticity, and population on the Tibetan border. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Jump up ^ Strabōn : Geographia 16:4:25, C 783. Translated in Robertson Smith: Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 158; quoted in Edward Westermarck: The History of Human Marriage. New York: Allerton Books Co., 1922. vol. 3, p. 154.
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Jump up ^ Wing, AK (2008). "Twenty-First Century Loving: Nationality, Gender, and Religion in the Muslim World". Fordham Law Review. 76 (6): 2900. Muslim women can only marry one man; no polyandry is allowed. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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Further reading[edit]
Levine, Nancy, The Dynamics of Polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-47569-7, ISBN 978-0-226-47569-1
Peter, Prince of Greece, A Study of Polyandry, The Hague, Mouton, 1963.
Beall, Cynthia M.; Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1981). "Tibetan Fraternal Polyandry: A Test of Sociobiological Theory". American Anthropologist. 83 (1): 898–901. doi:10.1525/aa.1982.84.4.02a00170.
Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender Roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In L. L. Adler (Ed.), International handbook on gender roles (pp. 413–437). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Goldstein, M. C. (1971). "Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 27 (1): 64–74. JSTOR 3629185.
Crook, J., & Crook, S. 1994. "Explaining Tibetan polyandry: Socio-cultural, demographic, and biological perspectives". In J. Crook, & H. Osmaston (Eds.), Himayalan Buddhist Villages (pp. 735–786). Bristol, UK: University of Bristol.
Goldstein, M. C. (1971). "Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 27 (1): 64–74. JSTOR 3629185.
Goldstein, M. C. (1976). "Fraternal Polyandry and Fertility in a High Himalayan Valley in Northwest Nepal". Human Ecology. 4 (3): 223–233. doi:10.1007/bf01534287. JSTOR 4602366.
Lodé, Thierry (2006) La Guerre des sexes chez les animaux. Paris: Eds O. Jacob. ISBN 2-7381-1901-8
Smith, Eric Alden (1998). "Is Tibetan polyandry adaptive?" (PDF). Human Nature. 9 (3): 225. doi:10.1007/s12110-998-1004-3.
Trevithick, Alan (1997). "On a Panhuman Preference for Monandry: Is Polyandry an Exception?". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 28 (3): 154–81.
External links[edit]
Look up polyandry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Polyandry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). 1911.
Another example for polyandry in India
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Alcohol laws of New York
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Location of New York
The alcohol laws of New York are among the most lenient of any state in the Atlantic Northeast of the United States[citation needed], but they remain considerably more restrictive than those of Louisiana, Missouri (see alcohol laws of Missouri), Nevada, Illinois, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Contents
1 State Liquor Authority
2 For consumption on-premises
2.1 B.Y.O. Policy
2.2 Research
3 For consumption off-premises
3.1 Ownership restrictions
4 Dry communities
5 Drinking age
6 Drunk driving
6.1 Research
7 Public intoxication
8 See also
9 References
State Liquor Authority[edit]
Further information: New York State Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control
The New York State Liquor Authority (NYSLA) and its agency arm, the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (DABC), were established under New York State Law in 1934 to "regulate and control the manufacture and distribution within the state of alcoholic beverages for the purpose of fostering and promoting temperance in their consumption and respect for and obedience to law." The SLA is also authorized by statute to "determine whether public convenience and advantage will be promoted by the issuance of licenses to traffic in alcoholic beverages … and to carry out the increase or decrease in the number thereof and the location of premises licensed … in the public interest."[1]
For consumption on-premises[edit]
In New York, for the purposes of state law, there are only four hours out of each day of the week (with the exception of Sunday) in which alcohol may not be served: 4:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. This was designed to accommodate New York City nightlife as well as late night workers statewide in general. Some upstate areas such as Buffalo, Albany, and Saratoga Springs retain the 4am closing time although individual counties are free to set an earlier "last call." In Binghamton, this is at 3:00 a.m.; in Syracuse, Plattsburgh, Oneonta, and Rochester, bars close at 2:00 a.m.; and Elmira, Geneva, and Ithaca, have some of the earliest closing times in the state at 1 a.m. For a complete list of closing hours by county, see http://www.sla.ny.gov/provisions-for-county-closing-hours.
B.Y.O. Policy[edit]
The SLA does not permit establishments to allow patrons to "B.Y.O.B." if the establishment does not have a license or permit to sell alcoholic beverages.[2] The only exception to this rule is that establishments with fewer than 20 seats can permit B.Y.O.B.[3][4] However, the SLA does not have authority to take any direct action against an establishment that is not licensed with the SLA, unless the establishment is then or will be in the future applying for a liquor license.[3]
Research[edit]
Research has been conducted into the association between closing times and crime in New York. Counties with later closing times tend to have greater rates of violent crime (except gun violence), but not non-violent crime.[5] This was true even after adjusting for socio-demographic factors.
For consumption off-premises[edit]
Only liquor stores may obtain a license to sell liquor for off-premises consumption. Grocery and drug stores may obtain a license to sell beer alone or beer and "wine products", such as wine coolers (but not wine).[6] Minors visiting a liquor store must be accompanied by an adult at all times; a violation can lead to the owner or manager being charged with second-degree unlawfully dealing with a minor, a Class B misdemeanor.
Until the mid-2000s, sales of beer for off-premises consumption were prohibited statewide before noon on Sundays, a remnant of a royal decree during the Colonial era, and between 3–6 a.m. any day. Changes to the law made in the last years of Governor George Pataki's administration loosened those restrictions, and now beer sales are only prohibited from 3–8 a.m. Sundays. Counties are free to adjust those hours in either direction, all the way to midnight and noon, and allow 24-hour beer sales on other days of the week.[7]
The law also changed for liquor stores. They may now open on Sundays. (although not before noon) They must still remain closed on Christmas, all day.[7]
A few years after those changes, Governor David Paterson sought to allow supermarkets to sell wine as well. He argued that the increase in excise taxes collected would help the state close its budget deficit. The proposed law aroused so much opposition from liquor store owners that it was never voted on by either house of the New York State Legislature.
Ownership restrictions[edit]
A provision unique to New York requires that every license to sell wine or spirits at retail for off-premises consumption be held by a single individual who lives within a few miles of the store and holds no other such licenses in the state. It was intended to prevent any chain liquor stores from doing business in the state, and none have ever done so. However, some proprietors open other stores in the names of their family members while maintaining complete control over the other establishments. Collaboration isn't only limited to families, for example, Premier Group in western New York has three locations each individually owned and operated.
Dry communities[edit]
There are no dry counties in New York as they are not allowed to make that decision. However, individual cities and towns may. In the case of towns, the decision would also be binding on any villages within them, or the parts of villages within them. Cities and towns may become totally dry, forbidding any on- or off-premises alcohol sales, or partially dry by forbidding one or the other or applying those prohibitions only to beer or to wine and spirits.[8]
Currently there are 8 dry towns in the state, all in lightly populated rural areas upstate:[9]
Caneadea in Allegany County
Clymer in Chautauqua
Lapeer in Cortland County.
Orwell in Oswego County
Fremont and Jasper in Steuben County
Berkshire in Tioga County
Argyle in Washington County
Ten towns forbid on-premises consumption but allow off-premises; four allow both only at a hotel open year-round. Seventeen disallow only special on-premises consumption. The town of Spencer in Tioga County allows only off-premises and special on-premises consumption. Williamson, in Wayne County, bans on-premises sale of beer at race tracks, outdoor athletic fields and sports stadia where admission is charged. In all, there are 39 partially dry towns.[9]
Drinking age[edit]
In response to the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which reduced by up to 10% the federal highway funding of any state which did not have a minimum purchasing age of 21, the New York Legislature raised the drinking age from 19 to 21, effective December 1, 1985. (The drinking age had been 18 for many years before the first raise on December 4th, 1982, to 19.) Persons under 21 are prohibited from purchasing alcohol or possessing alcohol with the intent to consume, unless the alcohol was given to that person by their parent or legal guardian. There is no law prohibiting where people under 21 may possess or consume alcohol that was given to them by their parents.[10] Persons under 21 are prohibited from having a blood alcohol level of 0.02% or higher while driving.[11][12]
Drunk driving[edit]
Like every other state in the United States, driving under the influence is a crime in New York, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state's alcohol laws. New York's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08% for persons over the age of 21 and there is a "zero tolerance" policy for persons under 21. Minors caught with any alcohol in the blood (defined legally as 0.02% or more, presumably to avoid false positives) are subject to license revocation for 6 months or more. Other penalties for drunken driving include fines, license suspension/revocation, and possible imprisonment, and in some cases the implementation of an ignition interlock device. A lesser charge, driving with ability impaired (DWAI), may apply when a driver's BAC exceeds 0.05%.[13]
Research[edit]
Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county-based closing times for on-premises licensed venues.[14] Requirements for ignition interlock device's for first-time DWI offending introduced with Leandra's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses.
Public intoxication[edit]
New York State has no law against being intoxicated from alcohol in public, but there is a law prohibiting other substances. Any person found under the influence of a substance other than alcohol in public who is endangering themselves and others is guilty under the New York State Penal Code. This also applies to those found under the influence and bothering others or damaging public or private property.[citation needed]
Drinking in public was outlawed in New York City by Ed Koch in 1979.[15] The law was originally pitched as targeting antisocial derelicts congregating in parks and on sidewalks, with Frederick E. Samuel, one of the measure's proponents in the New York City Council, stating "We do not recklessly expect the police to give a summons to a Con Ed worker having a beer with his lunch".[15] By the end of the year similar laws had spread to municipalities in Westchester County.[16] In March 2016, drinking in public in Manhattan was decriminalized. [17]
See also[edit]
Sumptuary law
Law of New York
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Agency Mission Statement - New York State Liquor Authority - Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control
Jump up ^ http://www.sla.ny.gov/bring-your-own-bottle-byob
^ Jump up to: a b Lisa Fickenscher (March 13, 2009). "Most BYOB restaurants are breaking the law". Crain Communications. Retrieved April 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.gobyo.com/popup.php?act=regulation&ls_id=34
Jump up ^ Schofield, Timothy P.; Denson, Thomas F. (2013). "Alcohol Outlet Business Hours and Violent Crime in New York State" (PDF). Alcohol and Alcoholism. 48: 363–369. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agt003.
Jump up ^ http://www.sla.ny.gov/definition-of-license-classes
^ Jump up to: a b "Provisions for county closing hours". New York State Liquor Authority. Retrieved March 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Laws of New York - ABC Article 9 Local Option". Retrieved November 25, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Local Options: List of Dry Towns and Partially Dry Towns" (PDF). , New York State Liquor Authority;27 February 2013; retrieved 24 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "State University of New York". Retrieved 19 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "New York State "Zero Tolerance Law"". State of New York Governor’s Traffic Safety Committee. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Westchester.gove" (PDF).
Jump up ^ New York State Department of Motor Vehicles: Frequently Asked Questions: Driving While Intoxicated (DWI)
Jump up ^ Schofield, Timothy P.; Denson, Thomas F. (2013). "Temporal Alcohol Availability Predicts First-Time Drunk Driving, but Not Repeat Offending". PLOS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071169.
^ Jump up to: a b Quindlen, Anna (May 10, 1979). "New York to Ban Alcoholic Drinks in Public Areas." The New York Times. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fischer, Arlene (October 21, 1979). "Localities Temper Public Drinking." The New York Times. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "District Attorney Vance, Commissioner Bratton, Mayor De Blasio Announce New Structural Changes to Criminal Summonses Issued in Manhattan" (press release). March 1, 2016.
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Pluvial lake
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Pleistocene pluvial lakes and rivers of the Mojave Desert
Pluvial Lake Manix sediments (Pleistocene) in the Mojave Desert near Barstow, California.
Ice Age pluvial lakes in the western United States
A pluvial lake is a body of water that accumulated in a basin because of a greater moisture availability resulting from changes in temperature and/or precipitation. These intervals of greater moisture availability are not always contemporaneous with glacial periods. Pluvial lakes are typically closed lakes that occupied endorheic basins. Pluvial lakes that have since evaporated and dried out may also be referred to as paleolakes.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Geology
3 Formation
4 See also
5 References
Etymology[edit]
The word comes from the Latin pluvia, which means "rain".[2]
Geology[edit]
Pluvial lakes represent changes in the hydrological cycle: wet cycles generate large lakes, and dry cycles cause the lakes to dry up leaving large flat plains.[citation needed] Accumulated sediments show the variation in water level. During glacial periods, when the lake level is fairly high, mud sediments will settle out and be deposited. At times in between glaciers (interglacial), salt deposits may be present because of the arid climate and the evaporation of lakewater.[3]
Several pluvial lakes formed in what is now the southwestern United States during the glaciation of the late Pleistocene. One of these was Lake Bonneville in western Utah, which covered roughly 19,000 square miles (49,000 km2). When Lake Bonneville was at its maximum water level, it was 1,000 feet (300 m) higher than the Great Salt Lake.
Fresh water mollusks have been found in mud deposits from Searles Lake in California and suggest that the water temperature was about 7 degrees Fahrenheit (or 4 degrees Celsius) cooler than current temperatures. Radiocarbon dating of the youngest mud beds yield dates from 24,000 to 12,000 years ago.[3]
Formation[edit]
When warm air from arid regions meets chilled air from glaciers, cloudy, cool, rainy weather is created beyond the terminus of the glacier. That humid climate was present during the last glacial period in North America and caused more precipitation than evaporation. The increase in rainfall fills the drainage basin and forms a lake.[4]
During interglacial periods, the climate becomes arid once more and causes the lakes to evaporate and dry up.[5]
See also[edit]
Lake Bonneville
Lake Eyre, Australia
Lake Lahontan
Lake Manix
Great Salt Lake
Lake Manly
Neopluvial
Proglacial lake
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Goudie, A.S., 2013. and semi-arid geomorphology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00554-9
Jump up ^ "Pluvial". Dictionary.com. 2010. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Easterbrook, Don J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Jump up ^ Chernicoff, Stanley (1995). Geology, An Introduction to Physical Geology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Jump up ^ Lutgens, Frederick K.; Tarbuck, Edward J. (1987). The Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology. Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pluvial_lake&oldid=795121041"
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Lakes by type
Endorheic lakes
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