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History of photography
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For the journal, see History of Photography (journal).
See also: Timeline of photography technology
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Retouched version of the earliest surviving camera photograph, 1826 or 1827, known as View from the Window at Le Gras
The history of photography began in remote antiquity with the discovery of two critical principles; the camera obscura image projection and the observation that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light. Apart from a very uncertain process used on the Turin Shroud there are no artefacts or descriptions that indicate any attempt to capture images with light sensitive materials prior to the 18th century. Around 1717 Johann Heinrich Schulze captured cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-sensitive slurry, but he apparently never thought of making the results durable. Around 1800 Thomas Wedgwood made the first reliably documented, although unsuccessful attempt at capturing camera images in permanent form. His experiments did produce detailed photograms, but Wedgwood and his associate Humphry Davy found no way to fix these images.
In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce first managed to fix an image that was captured with a camera, but at least eight hours or even several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the first publicly announced and commercially viable photographic process. The daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. The details were introduced as a gift to the world in 1839, a date generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography.[1][2] The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative and salt print processes invented by William Henry Fox Talbot. Subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. New materials reduced the required camera exposure time from minutes to seconds, and eventually to a small fraction of a second; new photographic media were more economical, sensitive or convenient, including roll films for casual use by amateurs. In the mid-20th century, developments made it possible for amateurs to take pictures in natural color as well as in black-and-white.
The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photography. During the first decade of the 21st century, traditional film-based photochemical methods were increasingly marginalized as the practical advantages of the new technology became widely appreciated and the image quality of moderately priced digital cameras was continually improved. Especially since cameras became a standard feature on smartphones, taking pictures (and instantly publishing them online) has become an ubiquitous everyday practice around the world.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Early history of the camera
3 Before 1700: Turin Shroud and light sensitive materials
4 1700 to 1802: earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results
4.1 Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)
4.2 De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)
4.3 Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)
4.4 Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)
4.5 Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)
5 1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images
6 1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes
7 1850 to 1900
8 Popularization
9 Early photography in India
10 Colour process
11 Development of digital photography
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Etymology[edit]
The coining of the word "photography" is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς (phōs), (genitive: phōtós) meaning "light", and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".[3]
Early history of the camera[edit]
Main article: Camera obscura
Principle of a box camera obscura with mirror
A natural phenomenon, known as camera obscura or pinhole image, can project a (reversed) image through a small opening onto an opposite surface. This principle may have been known and used in prehistoric times. The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings called Mozi, dated to the 4th century BCE. Until the 16th century the camera obscura was mainly used to study optics and astronomy, especially to safely watch solar eclipses without damaging the eyes. In the later half of the 16th century some technical improvements were developed: a (biconvex) lens in the opening (first described by Gerolamo Cardano in 1550) and a diaphragm restricting the aperture (Daniel Barbaro in 1568) gave a brighter and sharper image. In 1558 Giambattista della Porta advised using the camera obscura as a drawing aid in his popular and influential books. Della Porta's advice was widely adopted by artists and since the 17th century portable versions of the camera obscura were commonly used - first as a tent, later as boxes. The box type camera obscura was the basis for the earliest photographic cameras when photography was developed in the early 19th century.
Further information: History of the camera
Before 1700: Turin Shroud and light sensitive materials[edit]
The notion that light can affect various substances - for instance the suntanning of skin or fading of textile - must have been around since very early times. Ideas of fixing the image seen in mirrors or other ways of creating images automatically may also have been in people's mind long before anything like photography was developed.[4] However, there seem to be no historical records of any ideas even remotely resembling photography before 1725, despite early knowledge of light-sensitive materials and the camera obscura.[5]
The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face, positive left, digitally processed negative image right
It has been suggested that some lost type of photographic technology must have been applied before 1357: the Shroud of Turin contains an image that resembles a sepia photographic negative and is much clearer when it is converted to a positive image. The actual method that resulted in this image has not yet been conclusively identified. It first appeared in historical records in 1357 and radiocarbon dating tests indicate it was probably made between 1260 and 1390.[6] No other examples of detailed negative images from before the 19th century are known.[citation needed]
Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate and noted that it could blacken skin.[7] Silver nitrate would later be used as a light sensitive material in the photographic emulsion on photographic glass plates and film.
Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride, later used to make photographic paper.[8]
In 1614 Angelo Sala wrote in his paper Septem Planetarum terrestrium Spagirica recensio:[9] "When you expose powdered silver nitrate to sunlight, it turns black as ink". He also noted that paper wrapped around silver nitrate for a year had turned black.[10]
Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[8]
1700 to 1802: earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results[edit]
Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)[edit]
Around 1717[11] German polymath Johann Heinrich Schulze accidentally discovered that a slurry of chalk and nitric acid into which some silver particles had been dissolved was darkened by sunlight. After experiments with threads that had created lines on the bottled substance after he placed it in direct sunlight for a while, he applied stencils of words to the bottle. The stencils produced copies of the text in dark red, almost violet characters on the surface of the otherwise whitish contents. The impressions persisted until they were erased by shaking the bottle or until overall exposure to light obliterated them. Schulze named the substance "Scotophorus", when he published his findings in 1719. He thought the discovery could be applied to detect whether metals or minerals contained any silver and hoped that further experimentation by others would lead to some other useful results.[12][13] Schulze's process resembled later photogram techniques and is sometimes regarded as the very first form of photography.[14]
De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)[edit]
The early science fiction novel Giphantie[15] (1760) by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche described something quite similar to (colour) photography, a process that fixes fleeting images formed by rays of light: "They coat a piece of canvas with this material, and place it in front of the object to capture. The first effect of this cloth is similar to that of a mirror, but by means of its viscous nature the prepared canvas, as is not the case with the mirror, retains a facsimile of the image. The mirror represents images faithfully, but retains none; our canvas reflects them no less faithfully, but retains them all. This impression of the image is instantaneous. The canvas is then removed and deposited in a dark place. An hour later the impression is dry, and you have a picture the more precious in that no art can imitate its truthfulness."[16] De la Roche thus imagined a process that made use of a special substance in combination with the qualities of a mirror, rather than the camera obscura. The hour of drying in a dark place suggests he possibly thought about the light sensitivity of the material, but he attributes the effect to its viscous nature.
Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)[edit]
In 1777, the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was studying the more intrinsically light-sensitive silver chloride and determined that light darkened it by disintegrating it into microscopic dark particles of metallic silver. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride but not the dark particles. This discovery could have been used to stabilize or "fix" a camera image captured with silver chloride, but was not picked up by the earliest photography experimenters.[citation needed]
Scheele also noted that red light did not have much effect on silver chloride (a feature that would later be applied to be able to see while printing black and white photographs in darkrooms).[17]
Although Thomas Wedgwood felt inspired by Scheele's writings in general, he must have missed or forgotten these experiments: he found no method to fix the photogram and shadow images he managed to capture around 1800 (see below).[17]
Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)[edit]
Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura, but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was advised to him as a light-sensitive substance. Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather as well as on paper moistened with a silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity" failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802 an account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the Royal Institution with the title An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Davy added that the method could be used for objects that are partly opaque and partly transparent to create accurate representations of for instance "the woody fibres of leaves and the wings of insects". He also found that solar microscope images of small objects were easily captured on prepared paper. Davy, apparently unaware or forgetful about Scheele's discovery, concluded that substances should be found to get rid of (or deactivate) the unexposed particles in silver nitrate or silver chloride "to render the process as useful as it is elegant".[17] Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments due to his frail and failing health. He died aged 34 in 1805.
Davy seems not to have continued the experiments. Although the journal of the small, infant Royal Institution probably reached its very small group of members, the article eventually must have been read by many more people. It was reviewed by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802, appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803, was translated into French, and published in German in 1811. Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer, because the highly acclaimed scientist Davy had already tried and failed. Apparently the article was not noted by Niépce or Daguerre, and by Talbot only after he had developed his own processes.[17][18]
Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)[edit]
French balloonist/professor/inventor Jacques Charles is believed to have captured fleeting negative photograms of silhouettes on light sensitive paper at the start of the 19th century, prior to Wedgwood. Charles died in 1823 without documenting the process, but purportedly demonstrated it in his lectures at the Louvre. It was not publicized until François Arago mentioned it at his introduction of the details of the Daguerreotype to the world in 1839. He later wrote that the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura or the solar microscope with chemical substances belonged to Charles. Later historians probably only built on Arago's information and much later the unsupported year 1780 was attached to it.[19] Since Arago indicated the first years of the 19th century and a date prior to Wedgwood's process published in 1802, this would mean that Charles' demonstrations took place in 1800 or 1801 - assuming Arago was this accurate almost 40 years later.
1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images[edit]
The earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, made in 1825. It was printed from a metal plate made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his "heliographic process".[20] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from nature taken with a camera obscura.
"Boulevard du Temple", a daguerreotype made by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accepted as the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. Only the two men near the bottom left corner, one of them apparently having his boots polished by the other, remained in one place long enough to be visible.
In 1816 Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated with silver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera, but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic substances.[21]
Robert Cornelius, self-portrait, October or November 1839, an approximately quarter plate size daguerreotype. On the back is written, "The first light picture ever taken".
One of the oldest photographic portraits known, 1839 or 1840,[22] made by John William Draper of his sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper
Not all early portraits are stiff and grim-faced records of a posing ordeal. This pleasant expression was captured by Mary Dillwyn in Wales in 1853.
The oldest surviving photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827.[1] It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use.[23] After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but now believed to be several days),[24] the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light areas represented by hardened bitumen and the dark areas by bare pewter.[23] To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light.[21]
In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in Paris refined the bitumen process,[25] substituting a more sensitive resin and a very different post-exposure treatment that yielded higher-quality and more easily viewed images. Exposure times in the camera, although substantially reduced, were still measured in hours.[21]
1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes[edit]
Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences,[26] and the news quickly spread.[27] At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests.[28] Arrangements were made for the French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce's son and Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain, where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift.[29] Complete instructions were made public on 19 August 1839.[30] Known as the Daguerreotype process, it was the most common commercial process until the late 1850s. It was superseded by the collodion process.
After reading early reports of Daguerre's invention, Henry Fox Talbot, who had succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, worked on perfecting his own process. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called "hypo" and now known formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts.[31] News of this solvent also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his original hot salt water method.[32]
A calotype showing the American photographer Frederick Langenheim, circa 1849. Note that the caption on the photo calls the process "Talbotype".
Talbot's early silver chloride "sensitive paper" experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In 1841, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre's process, used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible "latent" image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera, a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing. The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face[citation needed]. Talbot patented this process,[33] which greatly limited its adoption, and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill will of photographers who were using the related glass-based processes later introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot's developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor.
In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[34] In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.[35]
1850 to 1900[edit]
In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[36] Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this process. (Carroll refers to the process as "Tablotype" in the story "A Photographer's Day Out")[37]
Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer.[citation needed] Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[38]
Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary.The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana.
Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855
The 1866 "Jumelle de Nicour", an early attempt at a small-format, portable camera
Popularization[edit]
The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution.[39][citation needed] This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography.
Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean War pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.
In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10.[40] However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.
Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak Brownie.
General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham by Philip Henry Delamotte, 1854
A mid-19th century "Brady stand" armrest table, used to help subjects keep still during long exposures. It was named for famous US photographer Mathew Brady.
An 1855 Punch cartoon satirized problems with posing for Daguerreotypes: slight movement during exposure resulted in blurred features, red-blindness made rosy complexions look dark.
In this 1893 multiple-exposure trick photo, the photographer appears to be photographing himself. It satirizes studio equipment and procedures that were nearly obsolete by then. Note the clamp to hold the sitter's head still.
A comparison of common print sizes used in photographic studios during the 19th century. Sizes are in inches.
Early photography in India[edit]
Daguerreotype cameras were advertised in Calcutta a year after their invention in France — but photographic societies in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were beginning to pop up from the 1850s onward.[41] As the practice of photography evolved, a contrasting style developed alongside the predominantly European influence on the artform. This turn is most notable in the work of Raja Deen Dayal, India's most celebrated 19th-century photographer, whose appointment as court photographer to the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad allowed him unique access to the inner circles of aristocratic life.[42]
In March 1858, the Venetian photographer Felice Beato traveled to Lucknow on assignment from the British War Department to document the massacres there. His most famous photograph is of corpses inside the walled garden of the Secundra Bagh.[43]
A European woman working in Calcutta in the early 1860s, E. Mayer, was likely the first woman to practice photography professionally in India. She operated a portrait studio for women.[44]
Colour process[edit]
Main article: Color photography
The first durable color photograph, taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861
A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as early as 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light.
The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855.[45] The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s.
Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using them to make full-color prints on paper.[46]
The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the 1890s and commercially introduced in 1907.[47] It was based on one of Louis Ducos du Hauron's ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the filtered projection of three separate photographs.
A color portrait of Mark Twain by Alvin Langdon Coburn, 1908, made by the recently introduced Autochrome process
Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that the colors are merged. The final step was adding a coat of the light capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is, the time required quickly goes up. An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry. This was because the grains absorbed the color fairly slowly and that a filter of a yellowish-orange color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent.[47][48]
Competing screen plate products soon appeared and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive and until the 1930s none was "fast" enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market of affluent advanced amateurs.
A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an "instant" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.
Development of digital photography[edit]
Main article: Digital photography
Walden Kirsch as scanned into the SEAC computer in 1957
In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch's infant son Walden. The resolution was 176x176 pixels with only one bit per pixel, i.e., stark black and white with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also be acquired.[49]
The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component in first-generation digital cameras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed "Charge 'Bubble' Devices". The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS), commonly used in cell phone cameras. These mobile phone cameras are used by billions of people worldwide, dramatically increasing photographic activity and material and also fueling citizen journalism.
1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns.[50]
1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors
1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor.
The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Since then sites and apps such as Facebook, Flickr, Instagram, Picasa (discontinued in 2016), Imgur and Photobucket have been used by many millions of people to share their pictures.
See also[edit]
History of the camera
History of Photography (academic journal)
Albumen print
History of photographic lens design
Timeline of photography technology
Outline of photography
Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas
Women photographers
Movie camera
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hirsch, Robert (2 June 2018). "Seizing the Light: A History of Photography". McGraw-Hill – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ The Michigan Technic 1882 The Genesis of Photography with Hints on Developing
Jump up ^ "photography - Search Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A concise history of photography. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-25128-4
Jump up ^ Batchen (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography.
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (11 November 1993). "Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?" (PDF). The South African Journal of Art History: 23–32.
Jump up ^ Szabadváry, Ferenc (1992). History of analytical chemistry. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 2-88124-569-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Sloane, Thomas O'Conor (1895). Facts Worth Knowing Selected Mainly from the Scientific American for Household, Workshop, and Farm Embracing Practical and Useful Information for Every Branch of Industry. S. S. Scranton and Company.
Jump up ^ "Septem planetarum terrestrium spagirica recensio. Qua perspicue declaratur ratio nominis Hermetici, analogia metallorum cum microcosmo, ..." apud Wilh. Janssonium. 2 June 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Eder, Josef Maria (1932). Geschichte der Photographie [History of Photography]. p. 32.
Jump up ^ The title page dated 1719 of a section (of a 1721 book) containing the original publication can be seen here. In the text Schulze claims he did the experiment two years earlier
Jump up ^ Bibliotheca Novissima Oberservationum ac Recensionum (in Latin). 1721. pp. 234–240.
Jump up ^ Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer, etc., London, Duckworth and Co. Out of copyright and available free at archive.org. In Appendix A (pp. 217-227), Litchfield evaluates assertions that Schulze's experiments should be called photography and includes a complete English translation (from the original Latin) of Schulze's 1719 account of them as reprinted in 1727.
Jump up ^ Susan Watt (2003). Silver. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-0-7614-1464-3. Retrieved 28 July 2013. ... But the first person to use this property to produce a photographic image was German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze.
Jump up ^ de la Roche, Tiphaigne (1760). Giphantie (in French).
Jump up ^ "Tiphaigne de la Roche – Giphantie,1760". wordpress.com. 7 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer. Duckworth and Co. pp. 185–205.
Jump up ^ Batchen, Geoffrey (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography. MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer - Appendix B. Duckworth and Co. pp. 228–240.
Jump up ^ "The First Photograph — Heliography". Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Nicéphore Niépce House Museum inventor of photography - Nicephore Niepce House Photo Museum". www.niepce.org.
Jump up ^ Folpe, Emily Kies (2002). It Happened on Washington Square. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8018-7088-7.
^ Jump up to: a b [1] By Christine Sutton
Jump up ^ Niépce House Museum: Invention of Photography, Part 3. Retrieved 25 May 2013. The traditional estimate of eight or nine hours originated in the 1950s and is based mainly on the fact that sunlight strikes the buildings as if from an arc across the sky, an effect which several days of continuous exposure would also produce.
Jump up ^ "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography". Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2004. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
Jump up ^ (Arago, François) (1839) "Fixation des images qui se forment au foyer d'une chambre obscure" (Fixing of images formed at the focus of a camera obscura), Comptes rendus, 8 : 4-7.
Jump up ^ By mid-February successful attempts to replicate "M. Daguerre's beautiful discovery", using chemicals on paper, had already taken place in Germany and England: The Times (London), 21 February 1839, p.6.
Jump up ^ e.g., a 9 May 1839 showing to John Herschel, documented by Herschel's letter to WHF Talbot. See the included footnote #1 (by Larry Schaaf?) for context. Accessed 11 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Daguerre (1839), pages 1-4.
Jump up ^ See:
(Arago, François) (1839) "Le Daguerreotype", Comptes rendus, 9 : 250-267.
Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839).
Jump up ^ John F. W. Herschel (1839) "Note on the art of photography, or the application of the chemical rays of light to the purposes of pictorial representation," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 4 : 131-133. On page 132 Herschel mentions the use of hyposulfites.
Jump up ^ Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839). On page 11, for example, Daguerre states: "Cette surabondance contribue à donner des tons roux, même en enlevant entièrement l'iode au moyen d'un lavage à l'hyposulfite de soude ou au sel marin." (This overabundance contributes towards giving red tones, even while completely removing the iodine by means of a rinse in sodium hyposulfite or in sea salt.)
Jump up ^ Improvement in photographic pictures, Henry Fox Talbot, United States Patent Office, patent no. 5171, June 26, 1847.
Jump up ^ "Life and work of Janez Puhar | (accessed December 13, 2009)".
Jump up ^ Michael R. Peres (2007). The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital imaging, theory and applications, history, and science. Focal Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-240-80740-9.
Jump up ^ Richard G. Condon (1989). "The History and Development of Arctic Photography". Arctic Anthropology. 26: 52. JSTOR 40316177.
Jump up ^ The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll, from the Random House Modern Library
Jump up ^ Levenson, G. I. P (May 1993). "Berkeley, overlooked man of photo science". Photographic Journal. 133 (4): 169–71.
Jump up ^ Gillespie, Sarah Kate (2016). The Early American Daguearreotype: Cross Currents in Art and Technology. Cambridge: Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0262334097, 9780262334099, 9780262034104, 0262034107 Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help).
Jump up ^ Loke, Margarett (July 7, 2000). "Photography review; In a John Brown Portrait, The Essence of a Militant". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
Jump up ^ Silverman, Rena (18 June 2015). "India's Earliest Photographers". nytimes.com.
Jump up ^ "The New Medium: exhibiting the first photographs ever taken in India – British Journal of Photography". www.bjp-online.com.
Jump up ^ Harrington, Peter (Spring 2018). "Front Man". HistoryNet. MHQ Magazine. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Ghosh, Siddhartha (Spring 2014). "Zenana Studio: Early Women Photographers of Bengal, from Taking Pictures: The Practice of Photography by Bengalis". Trans-Asia Photography Review (in Bengali originally from Ananda Publishers 1988). In Translation, Volume 4, Issue 2, Spring 2014, translated to English by Debjani Sengupta. Retrieved 20 April 2018. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ James Clerk Maxwell (2003). The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. Courier Dover Publications. p. 449. ISBN 0-486-49560-4.
Jump up ^ Brian, Coe (1976). The Birth of Photography. Ash & Grant. ISBN 0-904069-07-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Douglas R. Nickel (1992). "Autochromes by Clarence H. White". Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. 2. 51: 31–32.
Jump up ^ "Potatoes to Pictures". The American Museum of Photography. The American Photography Museum.
Jump up ^ "SEAC and the Start of Image Processing at the National Bureau of Standards – Earliest Image Processing". nist.gov.
Jump up ^ Janesick, James R (2001). Scientific Charge Coupled Devices. SPIE Press. ISBN 0-8194-3698-4.
Further reading[edit]
Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes
Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of "La Technique Photographique"
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of photography.
"Photography". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 845–522.
The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum Bates Lowry, Isabel Barrett Lowry 1998
A History of Photography from its Beginnings Till the 1920s by Dr. Robert Leggat, now hosted by Dr Michael Prichard
The First Photograph at The University of Texas at Austin
Photo Histories, the photographers' history of photography
The Photo History Timeline Collection
Niepce Museum
Video (09:03) – notable historical still images – now colorized.
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text:
Quadriceps femoris muscle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with quadratus femoris.
Quadriceps femoris muscle
Quadriceps femoris, with different muscles in different colors.
rectus femoris - blue
vastus lateralis - yellow
vastus intermedius - green
vastus medialis - red
Details
Origin
Combined rectus femoris and vastus muscles
Insertion
Tibial tuberosity
Artery
Femoral artery
Nerve
Femoral nerve
Actions
Knee extension; Hip flexion (Rectus femoris only)
Identifiers
Latin
Musculus quadriceps femoris
MeSH
D052097
TA
A04.7.02.017
FMA
22428
Anatomical terms of muscle
[edit on Wikidata]
The quadriceps femoris (/ˈkwɒdrɪsɛps ˈfɛmərɪs/, also called the quadriceps extensor, quadriceps or quads), is a large muscle group that includes the four prevailing muscles on the front of the thigh.
It is the great extensor muscle of the knee, forming a large fleshy mass which covers the front and sides of the femur. The name derives from Latin four-headed muscle of the femur.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Nerve supply
2 Function
3 Society and culture
3.1 Training
4 Etymology
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
The quadriceps consists of four separate muscles
It is subdivided into four separate portions or 'heads', which have received distinctive names:
Rectus femoris occupies the middle of the thigh, covering most of the other three quadriceps muscles. It originates on the ilium. It is named from its straight course.
The other three lie deep to rectus femoris and originate from the body of the femur, which they cover from the trochanters to the condyles:
Vastus lateralis is on the lateral side of the femur (i.e. on the outer side of the thigh).
Vastus medialis is on the medial side of the femur (i.e. on the inner part thigh).
Vastus intermedius lies between vastus lateralis and vastus medialis on the front of the femur (i.e. on the top or front of the thigh), but deep to the rectus femoris. Typically, it cannot be seen without dissection of the rectus femoris.
All four parts of the quadriceps muscle ultimately insert into the tuberosity of the tibia via the patella, where the quadriceps tendon becomes the patellar ligament.
There is a fifth muscle of the quadriceps complex that is often forgotten and rarely taught called articularis genus.
In addition, recent cadaver studies have confirmed the presence of a sixth muscle, the tensor vastus intermedius.[1] While the muscle has variable presentations, it consistently originates at the proximal femur, runs between the vastus lateralis and vastus intermedius muscles, and inserts distally at the medial aspect of the patellar base.[1] Historically considered a part of the vastus lateralis, the tensor vastus intermedius muscle is innervated by an independent branch of the femoral nerve and its tendinous belly can be separated from the vasti lateralis and intermedius muscles in most cases.[1]
Nerve supply[edit]
Femoral nerve (L2, L3, L4).
Function[edit]
All four quadriceps are powerful extensors of the knee joint. They are crucial in walking, running, jumping and squatting. Because the rectus femoris attaches to the ilium, it is also a flexor of the hip. This action is also crucial to walking or running as it swings the leg forward into the ensuing step. The quadriceps, specifically the vastus medialis, play the important role of stabilizing the patella and the knee joint during gait.[2]
Society and culture[edit]
Training[edit]
The leg extension is an isolation exercise.
In strength training, the quadriceps are trained by several leg exercises. Effective exercises include the squat and leg press. The isolation movement (i.e. targets solely the quadriceps) is the leg extension exercise.
In body building communities, this muscle is colloquially referred to as the "leg triceps".[3]
Etymology[edit]
The proper Latin plural form of the adjective quadriceps would be quadricipites. In modern English usage, quadriceps is used in both singular and plural. The singular form quadricep, produced by back-formation, is frequently used.
Additional images[edit]
The quadriceps tendon connects to the top part of the kneecap (patella)
Cross-section through the middle of the thigh.
The quadriceps forms the bulk of front part of the thigh.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Hamstring
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Grob, K; Ackland, T; Kuster, MS; Manestar, M; Filgueira, L (6 January 2016). "A newly discovered muscle: The tensor of the vastus intermedius". Clinical Anatomy. 29 (2): 256–263. doi:10.1002/ca.22680.
Jump up ^ Therapeutic Exercises, Carolyn Kisner & Lynn A. Colby, 5th ed. (2002) 692-93.
Jump up ^ Monaghan, L. (2002). Vocabularies of motive for illicit steroid use among bodybuilders. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 55(5), 695-708.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quadriceps femoris muscle.
Quadriceps_muscle at the Duke University Health System's Orthopedics program
Muscles/Quadriceps at exrx.net
"Anatomy diagram: 39960.000-1". Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 2014-01-01.
[hide]
v
t
e
Muscles of the hip and human leg
Iliac region
Iliopsoas
psoas major/psoas minor
iliacus
Buttocks
Gluteal muscles
maximus
medius
minimus
tensor fasciae latae
lateral rotator group:
quadratus femoris
inferior gemellus
superior gemellus
internal obturator
external obturator
piriformis
Thigh /
compartments
Anterior
sartorius
quadriceps
rectus femoris
vastus lateralis
vastus intermedius
vastus medialis
articularis genus
Posterior
hamstring
biceps femoris
semitendinosus
semimembranosus
Medial
pectineus
external obturator
gracilis
adductor
longus
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text:
The Show (Doug E. Fresh song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"The Show"
Single by Doug E. Fresh & The Get Fresh Crew
B-side
"La Di Da Di"
Released
August 13, 1985
Genre
Hip hop
Length
6.40
Label
Reality Records
Songwriter(s)
Douglas Davis
Richard Walters
Producer(s)
Dennis Bell and Ollie Cotton
Doug E. Fresh (co.)
Teddy Riley
Doug E. Fresh & The Get Fresh Crew singles chronology
"The Original Human Beatbox"
(1984) "The Show"
(1985) "All The Way To Heaven"
(1986)
"The Original Human Beatbox"
(1984) "The Show"
(1985) "All The Way To Heaven"
(1986)
"The Show" is a single by Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew. Described as "a reality show of a Hip Hop performance" the track focuses on a conversation between Doug E. Fresh and MC Ricky D (later known as Slick Rick) as they prepare for a show.[1] The song samples the theme song from the animated series Inspector Gadget.[2] The original issue of the song featured a line where Slick Rick mockingly sings a verse from The Beatles' "Michelle" (1965), but all subsequent reissues have removed this line since the rights to the song were never secured.
Originally released as a single, the track was later remixed and included on the 1986 Oh, My God! album.
Reception[edit]
"The Show" was named Spin magazine's top rap single of the year, and in Europe (where it received air time on pop music stations such as BBC Radio 1) it broke the record for the best selling rap single of all time.[3] The song peaked at #7 on the UK Singles Chart in December 1985[4] and was #8 on Jet's top 20 for the same month.[5] The record was produced by Dennis Bell & Ollie Cotton for City Slicker Productions.
While one 1985 critic for Spin included the song in a list of "stupid music"—making fun of Doug E. Fresh's lyrics about his shoes, and calling Slick Rick's sendup of "Michelle" "pathetic"—he still concluded that the single is "the shit".[6] Billboard refused to take it seriously, declaring it the "funniest comedy album of the year".[7] Even when it became only the fourth rap single ever to reach gold record status, the same reviewer stated that it only proved that "talk isn't always cheap".[8]
Legacy[edit]
The song is featured in New Jack City and CB4, but is not included in the soundtrack album of either film. Chris Rock, star of both these films, would later have Slick Rick perform the song live to introduce his HBO special Bigger & Blacker.
In response to the song's popularity, Hurby Azor and his female hip hop group Super Nature recorded a diss track entitled "The Showstopper". While not a hit in its own right, it did become the breakout track for the group that would later be known as Salt-n-Pepa.[9]
Another diss track entitled "No Show" by The Symbolic Three was released in 1985.
The song is briefly sampled in the song "Oodles of O's" by De La Soul, from their 1991 album De La Soul Is Dead.
Some of the lyrics in this song were interpolated by Snoop Doggy Dogg for the chorus of his 1996 song "Sixx Minutes".
In 1997, The Roots covered the song for the compilation album In tha Beginning...There Was Rap.
In 2013, an interpolation of this song was featured on Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP 2, on the track titled "Rap God".
References[edit]
The Show
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Jump up ^ Kool Moe Dee; Chuck D; Ernie Paniccioli (2003). There's a god on the mic: the true 50 greatest MCs. p. 88. ISBN 1-56025-533-1.
Jump up ^ "Rap Songs That Flipped TV Show Themes Lovely". Ego Trip's Book of Rap Lists. 1999. ISBN 0-312-24298-0.
Jump up ^ John Leland (May 1986). Doug Be Fresh. Spin Magazine.
Jump up ^ David Roberts (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 215. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ Jet's Top 20 Singles. Jet. December 19, 1985.
Jump up ^ John Leland (November 1985). When Stupid Music Happens to Smart People: The Sounds of Nonsense. Spin Magazine.
Jump up ^ Nelson George (January 11, 1986). Rhythm & Blues.
Jump up ^ Nelson George (February 8, 1986). Rhythm & Blues.
Jump up ^ Sandy Denton; Karen Hunter (2008). Let's Talk About Pep. p. 46. ISBN 1-4165-5141-7.
[hide]
v
t
e
Doug E. Fresh
Albums
Oh, My God! (1986)
The World's Greatest Entertainer (1988)
Doin' What I Gotta Do (1992)
Play (1995)
Songs
"The Show"
"La Di Da Di"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Show_(Doug_E._Fresh_song)&oldid=830524228"
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text:
Earth's orbit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Earth at different points in its orbit
Earth's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi),[1] and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi).[2] Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day.[nb 1] Earth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.[3]
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of study
2 Influence on Earth
3 Events in the orbit
4 Future
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History of study[edit]
Main article: Heliocentrism
Heliocentric Solar System
Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel)
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe[4] in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution" resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus's groundbreaking book...had been [printed] over a century earlier, [the Dutch mapmaker] Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world."[5]
Influence on Earth[edit]
Main article: Season
Because of Earth's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no sunlight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons.[6]
Events in the orbit[edit]
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices – the two points in the Earth's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun – and the equinoxes – the two points in the Earth's orbit where the Earth's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23.[7] The effect of the Earth's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%[8] in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.[9]
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon.[10][nb 2] This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
Orbital characteristics
epoch J2000.0[nb 3]
aphelion 152.10×10^6 km (94.51×10^6 mi)
1.0167 AU[nb 4]
perihelion 147.10×10^6 km (91.40×10^6 mi)
0.98329 AU[nb 4]
semimajor axis 149.60×10^6 km (92.96×10^6 mi)
1.000001018 AU[11]
eccentricity 0.0167086[11]
inclination 7.155° to Sun's equator
1.578690°[12] to invariable plane
longitude of the ascending node 174.9°[11]
longitude of perihelion 102.9°[11]
argument of periapsis 288.1°[11][nb 5]
period 365.256363004 days[13]
average speed 29.78 km/s (18.50 mi/s)[3]
107,200 km/h (66,600 mph)
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis — nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis — farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23.[7] The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).[14]
Future[edit]
Main article: Stability of the Solar System
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs" of stability for the Solar System.[15] By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.[16]
In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time.[17] Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n-body problem.
See also[edit]
Astronomy portal
Astronomical unit
Barycenter
Earth's axial tilt
Earth's rotation
Geocentric orbit – the orbit of any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or an artificial satellite
Satellite
Space station
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Our planet takes about 365 days to orbit the Sun. A full orbit has 360°. That fact demonstrates that each day, the Earth travels roughly 1° in its orbit. Thus, the Sun will appear to move across the sky relative to the stars by that same amount.
Jump up ^ For the Earth, the Hill radius is
R H = a ( m 3 M ) 1 / 3 , {\displaystyle R_{H}=a\left({\frac {m}{3M}}\right)^{1/3},}
where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an astronomical unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about ( 1 3 ⋅ 332 946 ) 1 / 3 ≈ 0.01 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {1}{3\cdot 332\,946}}\right)^{1/3}\approx 0.01} .[citation needed]
Jump up ^ All astronomical quantities vary, both secularly and periodically. The quantities given are the values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.
^ Jump up to: a b aphelion = a × (1 + e); perihelion = a × (1 – e), where a is the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
Jump up ^ The reference lists the longitude of perihelion, which is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node and the argument of perihelion. Subtracting from that (102.937°) the node longitude of 174.873° gives −71.936°. Adding 360° gives 288.064°. That addition does not change the angle but expresses it in the usual 0–360° range for longitudes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sun: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jean Meeus, Astronomical Algorithms 2nd ed, ISBN 0-943396-61-1 (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1998) 238. See Ellipse#Circumference. The formula by Ramanujan is accurate enough.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, David R. (2004-09-01). "Earth Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Johannes Petreius. 1543.
Jump up ^ Jerry Brotton, A History of the World in Twelve Maps, London: Allen Lane, 2012, ISBN 9781846140990 p. 262.
Jump up ^ "What causes the seasons? (NASA)". Retrieved January 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Date & Time of Solstices & Equinoxes". August 28, 2013. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. See "Orbital characteristics" table. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% of the radiation at aphelion.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Williams, Jack (2005-12-20). "Earth's tilt creates seasons". USAToday. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ Vázquez, M.; Montañés Rodríguez, P.; Palle, E. (2006). "The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets" (PDF). Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Simon, J.L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N. (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer. p. 294. ISBN 0-387-98746-0.
Jump up ^ The figure appears in multiple references, and is derived from the VSOP87 elements from section 5.8.3, p. 675 of the following: Simon, J. L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ "What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle?". Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Laskar, J. (2001). "Solar System: Stability". In Murdin, Paul. Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astropvhysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. article 2198. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Gribbin, John (2004). Deep simplicity : bringing order to chaos and complexity (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6256-0.
Jump up ^ "Earth-Venus smash-up possible". June 11, 2009. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
External links[edit]
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