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Documentary hypothesis
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The documentary hypothesis (DH) is one of three models used to explain the origins and composition of the first five books of the Bible,[Note 1] called collectively the Torah or Pentateuch. The other two theories are the supplementary hypothesis and the fragmentary hypothesis.[1][2] All three agree that the Torah is not a unified work from a single author (traditionally Moses) but is made up of sources combined over many centuries by many hands. They differ on the nature of these sources and how they were combined. According to the documentary hypothesis there were four sources, each originally a separate and independent book (a "document"), joined together at various points in time by a series of editors ("redactors").[3] Fragmentary hypotheses see the Torah as a collection of small fragments, and supplementary hypotheses as a single core document supplemented by fragments taken from many sources.[4]
A version of the documentary hypothesis, frequently identified with the German scholar Julius Wellhausen, was almost universally accepted for most of the 20th century, but the consensus has now collapsed.[5] As a result, there has been a revival of interest in fragmentary and supplementary approaches, frequently in combination with each other and with a documentary model, making it difficult to classify contemporary theories as strictly one or another.[6] Modern scholars increasingly see the completed Torah as a product of the time of the Achaemenid Empire (probably 450–350 BCE), although some would place its production in the Hellenistic period (333–164 BCE) or even the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE).[7] Of its constituent sources, Deuteronomy is generally dated between the 7th and 5th centuries;[8] there is much discussion of the unity, extent, nature, and date of the Priestly material.[9] Deuteronomy continues to be seen as having had a history separate from the first four books, and there is a growing recognition that Genesis developed apart from the Exodus stories until joined to it by the Priestly writer.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Basic approaches: documentary, fragmentary and supplementary hypotheses
2 Table: documentary, fragmentary and supplementary hypotheses
3 Julius Wellhausen and the documentary hypothesis
4 Contemporary approaches: end of the documentary consensus and revival of supplementary and fragmentary models
5 The Torah and the history of Israel's religion
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Basic approaches: documentary, fragmentary and supplementary hypotheses[edit]
11th-century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible.
The Torah (or Pentateuch) is the collective name for the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.[11] According to tradition they were dictated by God to Moses,[12] but when modern critical scholarship began to be applied to the Bible it was discovered that the Pentateuch was not the unified text one would expect from a single author.[13] As a result, the Mosaic authorship of the Torah had been largely rejected by leading scholars by the 17th century, and the modern consensus is that it is the product of a long evolutionary process.[14][15][Note 2]
In the mid-18th century, some authors started a critical study of doublets (parallel accounts of the same incidents), inconsistencies, and changes in style and vocabulary.[14] In 1780 Johann Eichhorn, building on the work of the French doctor and exeget Jean Astruc's "Conjectures" and others, formulated the "older documentary hypothesis": the idea that Genesis was composed by combining two identifiable sources, the Jehovist ("J"; also called the Yahwist) and the Elohist ("E").[16] These sources were subsequently found to run through the first four books of the Torah, and the number was later expanded to three when Wilhelm de Wette identified the Deuteronomist as an additional source found only in Deuteronomy ("D").[17] Later still the Elohist was split into Elohist and Priestly ("P") sources, increasing the number to four.[18]
These documentary approaches were in competition with two other models, the fragmentary and the supplementary.[19] The fragmentary hypothesis argued that fragments of varying lengths, rather than continuous documents, lay behind the Torah; this approach accounted for the Torah's diversity but could not account for its structural consistency, particularly regarding chronology.[4] The supplementary hypothesis was better able to explain this unity: it maintained that the Torah was made up of a central core document, the Elohist, supplemented by fragments taken from many sources.[4] The supplementary approach was dominant by the early 1860s, but it was challenged by an important book published by Hermann Hupfeld in 1853, who argued that the Pentateuch was made up of four documentary sources, the Priestly, Yahwist, and Elohist intertwined in Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers, and the stand-alone source of Deuteronomy.[20] At around the same period Karl Heinrich Graf argued that the Yahwist and Elohist were the earliest sources and the Priestly source the latest, while Wilhelm Vatke linked the four to an evolutionary framework, the Yahwist and Elohist to a time of primitive nature and fertility cults, the Deuteronomist to the ethical religion of the Hebrew prophets, and the Priestly source to a form of religion dominated by ritual, sacrifice and law.[21]
Table: documentary, fragmentary and supplementary hypotheses[edit]
The table is based on that in Walter Houston's "The Pentateuch", with expansions as indicated.[22] Note that the three hypotheses are not mutually exclusive.
Hypothesis
Method of composition
Agency (redactor/collector/author)
Mode of analysis
Strengths and weaknesses
Documentary A small number of continuous documents (traditionally four) combined to form one continuous final text. Combined by editors who altered as little as possible of the texts available to them. Source criticism. Explains both the unity of the Torah (due to the unity of the constituent documents) and its diversity (due to disagreements/repetitions between them). Difficulty distinguishing J from E outside Genesis.[23] Greatest weakness is the role of the redactors (editors), who seem to function as a deus ex machina to explain away difficulties.[24]
Supplementary Produced by the successive addition of layers of supplementary material to a core text or group of texts. Editors are also authors, creating original narrative and interpretation. Redaction criticism. Accounts for the structural consistency of the Pentateuch better than the fragmentary approach, the central core explaining its unity of theme and structure, the fragments embedded in this its diversity of language and style.[4]
Fragmentary The combination of a large number of short texts. Editors also create linking narrative. Form criticism. Has difficulty accounting for the structural consistency of the Pentateuch, especially its chronology.[4]
Julius Wellhausen and the documentary hypothesis[edit]
Julius Wellhausen.
In 1878 Julius Wellhausen published Geschichte Israels, Bd 1 ("History of Israel, Vol 1"); the second edition he printed as Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels ("Prolegomena to the History of Israel"), in 1883, and the work is better known under that name.[25][26] (The second volume, a synthetic history titled Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte ["Israelite and Jewish History"], did not appear until 1894 and remains untranslated.) Crucially, this historical portrait was based upon two earlier works of his technical analysis: "Die Composition des Hexateuchs" ("The Composition of the Hexateuch") of 1876/77 and sections on the "historical books" (Judges–Kings) in his 1878 edition of Friedrich Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte Testament ("Introduction to the Old Testament").
Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis owed little to Wellhausen himself but was mainly the work of Hupfeld, Eduard Eugène Reuss, Graf, and others, who in turn had built on earlier scholarship.[27] He accepted Hupfeld's four sources and, in agreement with Graf, placed the Priestly work last.[18] J was the earliest document, a product of the 900s and the court of Solomon; E was from the 8th century BCE in the northern Kingdom of Israel, and had been combined by a redactor (editor) with J to form a document JE; D, the third source, was a product of the 7th century BC, by 620 BCE, during the reign of King Josiah; P (what Wellhausen first named "Q") was a product of the priest-and-temple dominated world of the 6th century; and the final redaction, when P was combined with JED to produce the Torah as we now know it, took place in the mid-5th century, possible by the hand of the scribe and sacrificator Ezra by 450 BCE, during the reign of Ezra.[28][29]
Wellhausen's explanation of the formation of the Torah was also an explanation of the religious history of Israel.[29] The Yahwist and Elohist described a primitive, spontaneous and personal world, in keeping with the earliest stage of Israel's history; in Deuteronomy he saw the influence of the prophets and the development of an ethical outlook, which he felt represented the pinnacle of Jewish religion; and the Priestly source reflected the rigid, ritualistic world of the priest-dominated post-exilic period.[30]
His work, notable for its detailed and wide-ranging scholarship and close argument, entrenched the newer documentary hypothesis as the dominant explanation of Pentateuchal origins from the late 19th to the late 20th centuries.[18][Note 3]
Contemporary approaches: end of the documentary consensus and revival of supplementary and fragmentary models[edit]
The consensus around the documentary hypothesis has partly collapsed in the last decades of the 20th century.[5] The groundwork was laid with the investigation of the origins of the written sources in oral compositions, implying that the creators of J and E were collectors and editors and not authors and historians.[31] Rolf Rendtorff (1925–2014), building on this insight, argued that the basis of the Pentateuch lay in short, independent narratives, gradually formed into larger units and brought together in two editorial phases, the first Deuteronomic, the second Priestly.[32] This led to the current position which sees only two major sources in the Pentateuch, the Deuteronomist (confined to the Book of Deuteronomy) and the Priestly (confined to the books Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers).[33]
The majority of scholars today continue to recognise Deuteronomy as a source, with its origin in the law-code produced at the court of Josiah as described by De Wette, subsequently given a frame during the exile (the speeches and descriptions at the front and back of the code) to identify it as the words of Moses.[34] Most scholars also agree that some form of Priestly source existed, although its extent, especially its end-point, is uncertain.[35] The remainder is called collectively non-Priestly, a grouping which includes both pre-Priestly and post-Priestly material.[33] The final Torah is increasingly seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BCE, probably 450–350 BCE), although some would place it somewhat later, in the Hellenistic (333–164 BCE) or even Hasmonean (140–37 BCE) periods[36] – the latter remains a minority view, but the Elephantine papyri, the records of a Jewish colony in Egypt dating from the last quarter of the 5th century BCE, show no knowledge of a Torah or of an exodus, though the 'Passover letter' among them gives detailed instructions for properly keeping the passover, which is traditionally tied to the exodus.[37][38][39] There is also a growing recognition that Genesis developed separately from Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers, and was joined to the story of Moses by the Priestly writer.[10]
A revised version of the documentary hypothesis still has adherents, especially in North America and Israel.[40][41][42] The revised or neo-documentary hypothesis distinguishes sources by means of plot and continuity rather than stylistic and linguistic concerns, and does not tie them to stages in the evolution of Israel's religious history.[40] Its resurrection of an E source is probably the single element most often criticised by other scholars, as European scholars have largely rejected it as fragmentary or non-existent (it is rarely distinguishable from the classical J source).[43]
The Torah and the history of Israel's religion[edit]
Julius Wellhausen, the father of the documentary hypothesis that dominated scholarship for much of the 20th century, used the sources of the Torah as evidence of changes in the history of Israelite religion as it moved from free, simple and natural to fixed, formal and institutional.[44] Modern reconstructions of Israel's religion have become much more circumspect in how they use the Old Testament, not least because comparative data (i.e., the comparison of ancient Israel with other cultures) and archaeology have led many to the conclusion that the Bible is not a reliable witness to the religion of ancient Israel and Judah and represents the beliefs of only a small segment of the ancient Israelite community, the members of a late Judean religious tradition centered in Jerusalem and devoted to the exclusive worship of the god Yahweh.[45][46]
See also[edit]
Authorship of the Bible
Biblical criticism
Books of the Bible
Dating the Bible
Mosaic authorship
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The five books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
Jump up ^ The reasons behind the rejection are covered in more detail in the article on Mosaic authorship.
Jump up ^ The two-source hypothesis of Eichorn was the "older" documentary hypothesis, and the four-source hypothesis adopted by Wellhausen was the "newer".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Viviano 1999, p. 38-39.
Jump up ^ Patzia & Petrotta 2010, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Van Seters 2105, p. viii.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Viviano 1999, p. 38.
^ Jump up to: a b Carr 2014, p. 434.
Jump up ^ Van Seters 2015, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Greifenhagen 2003, p. 206-207, 224 fn.49.
Jump up ^ Bos 2013, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Gaines 2015, p. 273.
^ Jump up to: a b Ska 2006, p. viii.
Jump up ^ McDermott 2002, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Kugel 2008, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Campbell & O'Brien 1993, p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b Berlin 1994, p. 113.
Jump up ^ Baden 2012, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Ruddick 1990, p. 246.
Jump up ^ Patrick 2013, p. 31.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barton & Muddiman 2010, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Viviano 1999, p. 38–39.
Jump up ^ Barton & Muddiman 2010, p. 18–19.
Jump up ^ Friedman 1997, p. 24–25.
Jump up ^ Houston 2013, p. 93.
Jump up ^ Houston 2013, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Van Seters 2015, p. 23.
Jump up ^ Kurtz, Paul Michael (2015-03-20). "The Way of War: Wellhausen, Israel, and Bellicose Reiche". Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. 127 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1515/zaw-2015-0002. ISSN 1613-0103.
Jump up ^ Kugel 2008, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Barton & Muddiman 2010, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Viviano 1999, p. 40–41.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaines 2015, p. 260.
Jump up ^ Viviano 1999, p. 51.
Jump up ^ Thompson 2000, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Ska 2015, p. 133-135.
^ Jump up to: a b Otto 2014, p. 609.
Jump up ^ Otto 2015, p. 605.
Jump up ^ Carr 2015, p. 457.
Jump up ^ Greifenhagen 2003, p. 206–207, 224 fn.49.
Jump up ^ Arnold, William R. (1912). "The Passover Papyrus from Elephantine". Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 31, no. 1. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Kratz, Reinhard Gregor. Historical and Biblical Israel: The History, Tradition, and Archives of Israel and Judah. ISBN 978-0-19-872877-1. OCLC 913852781.
Jump up ^ Gmirkin 2006, p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaines 2015, p. 271.
Jump up ^ Gertz, Jan C.; Levinson, Bernard M.; Rom-Shiloni, Dalit; Schmid, Konrad; Mohr Siebeck GmbH & Co. KG. The Formation of the Pentateuch: Bridging the Academic Cultures of Europe, Israel, and North America. ISBN 978-3-16-153883-4. OCLC 951826412.
Jump up ^ Dozeman, Thomas B.; Schmid, Konrad; Schwartz. The Pentateuch: International Perspectives on Current Research. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150613-0. OCLC 754222793. |first3= missing |last3= in Authors list (help)
Jump up ^ Gaines 2015, p. 272.
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, p. 182.
Jump up ^ Stackert 2014, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Wright 2002, p. 52.
Bibliography[edit]
Baden, Joel S. (2012). The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis. Anchor Yale Reference Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-15263-9.
Barton, John (2014). "Biblical Scholarship on the European Continent, in the UK, and Ireland". In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-54022-0.
Barton, John; Muddiman, John (2010). The Pentateuch. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958024-8.
Berlin, Adele (1994). Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-002-6.
Bos, James M. (2013). Reconsidering the Date and Provenance of the Book of Hosea. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-06889-7.
Brettler, Marc Avi (2004). "Torah: Introduction". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-529751-5.
Campbell, Antony F.; O'Brien, Mark A. (1993). Sources of the Pentateuch: Texts, Introductions, Annotations. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1367-0.
Carr, David M. (2007). "Genesis". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-528880-3.
Carr, David M. (2014). "Changes in Pentateuchal Criticism". In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-54022-0.
Gaines, Jason M.H. (2015). The Poetic Priestly Source. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-5064-0046-4.
Gertz, Jan C.; Levinson, Bernard M.; Rom-Shiloni, Dalit (2017). "Convergence and Divergence in Pentateuchal Theory". In Gertz, Jan C.; Levinson, Bernard M.; Rom-Shiloni, Dalit. The Formation of the Pentateuch: Bridging the Academic Cultures of Europe, Israel, and North America. Mohr Siebeck.
Gmirkin, Russell (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-13439-4.
Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-39136-0.
Houston, Walter (2013). The Pentateuch. SCM Press. ISBN 978-0-334-04385-0.
Kawashima, Robert S. (2010). "Sources and Redaction". In Hendel, Ronald. Reading Genesis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49278-2.
Kratz, Reinhard G. (2013). "Rewriting Torah". In Schipper, Bernd; Teeter, D. Andrew. Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of 'Torah' in the Wisdom Literature of the Second Temple Period. BRILL. ISBN 9789004257368.
Kratz, Reinhard G. (2005). The Composition of the Narrative Books of the Old Testament. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567089205.
Kugel, James L. (2008). How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now. FreePress. ISBN 978-0-7432-3587-7.
Levin, Christoph (2013). Re-Reading the Scriptures. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-152207-9.
McDermott, John J. (2002). Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction. Pauline Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4082-4.
McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-88146-101-5.
McKim, Donald K. (1996). Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-25511-4.
Miller, Patrick D. (2000). Israelite Religion and Biblical Theology: Collected Essays. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-84127-142-2.
Monroe, Lauren A.S. (2011). Josiah's Reform and the Dynamics of Defilement. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977536-1.
Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0.
Nicholson, Ernest Wilson (2003). The Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925783-6.
Otto, Eckart (2014). "The Study of Law and Ethics in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament". In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-54022-0.
Patrick, Dale (2013). Deuteronomy. Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-8272-0566-6.
Patzia, Arthur G.; Petrotta, Anthony J. (2010). Pocket Dictionary of Biblical Studies. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-6702-8.
Ruddick, Eddie L. (1990). "Elohist". In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey. Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.
Sharpes, Donald K. (2005). Lords of the Scrolls. Peter Lang. ISBN 0-300-15263-9.
Ska, Jean Louis (2014). "Questions of the 'History of Israel' in Recent Research". In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-54022-0.
Stackert, Jeffrey (2014). A Prophet Like Moses: Prophecy, Law, and Israelite Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933645-6.
Thompson, Thomas L. (2000). Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources. BRILL. ISBN 9004119434.
Van Seters, John (2015). The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary. Bloomsbury T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-65880-7.
Viviano, Pauline A. (1999). "Source Criticism". In Haynes, Stephen R.; McKenzie, Steven L. To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-25784-2.
Wright, J. Edward (2002). The Early History of Heaven. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534849-1.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Bible, English, King James, According to the documentary hypothesis
Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel by Julius Wellhausen full text at sacred-texts.com
Wikiversity – The King James Version according to the documentary hypothesis
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text:
Epsom railway station
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Epsom Downs railway station or Epsom railway station, Victoria.
Epsom
The old station building
Location
Place
Epsom
Local authority
Borough of Epsom and Ewell
Grid reference
TQ206609
Operations
Station code
EPS
Managed by
Southern
Number of platforms
4
DfT category
C1
Live arrivals/departures, station information and onward connections
from National Rail Enquiries
Annual rail passenger usage*
2012/13
3.741 million
– Interchange
0.200 million
2013/14
3.963 million
– Interchange
0.220 million
2014/15
4.117 million
– Interchange
0.214 million
2015/16
4.183 million
– Interchange
0.224 million
2016/17
4.059 million
– Interchange
0.198 million
History
1 February 1859
opened
1929
station rebuilt
National Rail – UK railway stations
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
* Annual estimated passenger usage based on sales of tickets in stated financial year(s) which end or originate at Epsom from Office of Rail and Road statistics. Methodology may vary year on year.
UK Railways portal
View north east from the west end of the down platform with signal box in 1991
Epsom railway station serves the town of Epsom in Surrey. It is located off Waterloo Road and is less than two minutes' walk from the High Street. It is not in the London Oyster card zone unlike Epsom Downs or Tattenham Corner stations. The station building was replaced in 2012/2013 with a new building with apartments above the station (see end of article).
Contents
[hide]
1 Services from this station
2 History
3 Kevin Craswell incident
4 Derailment Incident: 12 September 2006
5 Typical off-peak journey times from Epsom
6 Redevelopment
7 External links
8 References
Services from this station[edit]
Services are operated by South Western Railway and Southern. Trains serve Central London (Waterloo and Victoria), Clapham Junction, Wimbledon, West Croydon, Sutton, Leatherhead, Dorking, Guildford and Horsham.
The typical off-peak service pattern in trains per hour is as follows:
Southern
5tph to London Victoria all via Sutton:
2 fast
2 via Hackbridge
1 via West Croydon and Norbury
2tph to Dorking with one carrying on to Horsham
South Western Railway
4tph to London Waterloo via Wimbledon
2tph to Dorking
2tph to Guildford
Preceding station
National Rail
Following station
Ewell East or Cheam Southern
Sutton & Mole Valley Lines Ashtead
Ewell West South Western Railway
Mole Valley Line Ashtead
On 6 February 2013, Crossrail 2 announced plans to include Epsom in its plans as the most southern terminus of the route.[citation needed]
History[edit]
The railway first reached the town in 1847 when an extension of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR) from West Croydon was opened with a terminus in the former Station Road (now Upper High Street). This station was initially named Epsom, subsequently renamed Epsom Town.
View from the platforms looking north.
In 1859 a joint venture between the LBSCR and the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) extended the LSWR from Wimbledon to Epsom, where it joined with the LBSCR, and then ran on to Leatherhead. The lines were connected south of the LBSCR station and a new Epsom station was established on the present site. However competition between the companies remained and the new station was operated by the LSWR only, with the tracks configured so that LBSCR trains ran non-stop on the central tracks.
In 1867 the line was extended south from Leatherhead to Dorking and Horsham, and in 1885 a branch from Leatherhead was built to Effingham Junction, where it connected to the line from Surbiton to Guildford. These extensions provided greater connections for Epsom to much of the rest of Surrey.
After the First World War, the railway companies were merged into the Southern Railway, which set about removing duplication. In 1929 work was completed on building a completely new station on the site of the former LSWR station and the tracks at Epsom were rearranged so that the two island platforms provided cross-platform interchange, although as late as the 1960s there were survivals of different systems of the lines of the two former railway companies in that the semaphore signals on the up platforms to London were upper quadrant (on platform 3) for trains to Victoria and London Bridge, but were lower quadrant (on platform 4) for the Waterloo line. The former LBSCR station Epsom Town was closed in 1929, (though some of the building remains abandoned and bricked up behind modern developments on Upper High Street, visible from the line from Ewell East). When Thameslink services started in 1988 by British Rail its secondary southern route ran to Epsom via Elephant & Castle, West Croydon and Sutton, continuing to Guildford. However the onset of rail privatisation made it difficult to maintain a line running across two other companies' routes and services to Epsom were withdrawn in 1994. One of the proposals for the "Thameslink 2000" project (later renamed Thameslink Programme) is to restore services from this station as part of a massive expansion of that network.
For many years the southern ends of the platforms had a large signal box above them, dating from 1929. It was not listed, and despite extensive roof repairs it was demolished in March 1992.
Formerly there was a siding adjacent to platform 1 with a dock for the reception of race horses travelling by rail horse box.
Kevin Craswell incident[edit]
On 3 March 2006 many trains were disrupted just before the Friday afternoon rush hour when drunken 48-year-old company director Kevin Craswell, from nearby Ashtead, lay down and rested his head on a rail, a few inches from the electrified (750 V) third rail. Had he touched this while in contact with the ground, he would have been fatally electrocuted. Power had to be cut for approximately 15 minutes over a 3 miles (4.8 km) stretch of track while Craswell was woken and taken to hospital. Network Rail stated that the cost of the disruption exceeded £7,000. Craswell, who was filmed by a police helicopter - the noise of which failed to wake him - pleaded guilty to a charge of obstructing the railway by neglect, and was subsequently fined £560 and ordered to carry out 180 hours of community service.[1][2][3][4][5]
Derailment Incident: 12 September 2006[edit]
Train 2D57, the 19:09 service from London Waterloo to Effingham Junction, became derailed on the approach to Epsom at about 19:42 on Tuesday 12 September 2006. The train was formed of two four-car class 455 electric multiple units (EMUs). The leading bogie of the fourth coach was derailed towards the left as it passed over a set of trailing points on a right-hand curve at about 17 miles per hour (27 km/h). The train came to a stop partially in Epsom station, and passengers were quickly evacuated onto the platform. There were no injuries, and there was only minor damage to the train and the track.
As the train approached Epsom, the driver shut off power and reduced speed to comply with the 20 miles per hour (32 km/h) permanent speed restriction round the curve into the station, entering the curve at 19.2 mph (30.9 km/h). He felt a judder, and looked back, observing blue flashes and smoke from the rear of the train. He assumed there was a fault with the train, and attempted to coast into the station. As the fourth coach came into his field of vision, the driver saw that it was derailed and made an emergency brake application. The train then stopped within five seconds.
In the report by the Rail Accident Investigation Branch into the accident, the maintenance of track and points was heavily criticised. The removal of a remote rail lubricator by Network Rail was also criticised.[6]
Typical off-peak journey times from Epsom[edit]
Based on the December 2006 - May 2007 timetable
Frequency in trains per hour
Destination
Platform
Avg. Journey time
Frequency
Operator
Sutton 1 or 3 10 minutes 5 tph Southern
Worcester Park 2 or 4 10 minutes 4 tph South Western Railway
Wimbledon 2 or 4 18 minutes 4 tph South Western Railway
Clapham Junction 1, 2, 3 or 4 35 minutes 9 tph Southern and South Western Railway
London Victoria 1 or 3 38 minutes 5 tph Southern
London Waterloo 2 or 4 36 minutes 4 tph South Western Railway
Leatherhead 1 or 2 8 minutes 6 tph Southern and South Western Railway
Dorking 1 or 2 14 minutes 4 tph Southern and South Western Railway
Horsham 1 35 minutes 1 tph Southern
Effingham Junction 2 17 minutes 2 tph South Western Railway
Guildford 2 27 minutes 2 tph South Western Railway
Redevelopment[edit]
The main ticket office and station frontage have been completely demolished and rebuilt. The redevelopment includes a new, larger ticket office, new shop units (Tesco and Costa Coffee), flats and a new Travelodge hotel. Redevelopment started in November 2010 and was expected to be completed by June 2012, but was delayed; it was completed in 2013. During the redevelopment the station remained open, with a temporary ticket office on the forecourt. In addition to redevelopment of the ticket hall there will be full refurbishment of the platform buildings and canopies.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Epsom railway station.
External links[edit]
Route Map and Timetable for Sutton & Mole Valley Line
Train times and station information for Epsom railway station from National Rail
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "This is London: The boss who fell asleep on a railway track". Archived from the original on 30 April 2007.
Jump up ^ Iggulden, Amy (16 December 2006). "Telegraph.co.uk: The railway sleeper". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Randall, David; Hodgson, Martin (17 December 2006). "Independent Online: The real story behind the "drunk director" asleep on the track". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "BBC News: Man fell asleep on railway line". 15 December 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "icCroydon: Man asleep on railway track cheated death".
Jump up ^ Rail Accident Investigation Branch Rail Accident Report: Derailment at Epsom 12 September 2006 http://www.raib.gov.uk/cms_resources/070913_R342007_Epsom.pdf
[show]
v
t
e
Thameslink, Great Northern, Southern and Southeastern routes
Southern routes serving this station
Metro via Sutton
London Victoria
Battersea Park
Clapham Junction
Wandsworth Common
Balham
Streatham Hill
West Norwood
Gipsy Hill
Crystal Palace
London Bridge
Norwood Junction
Streatham Common
Norbury
Thornton Heath
Selhurst
West Croydon
Waddon
Wallington
Carshalton Beeches
Mitcham Eastfields
Mitcham Junction
Hackbridge
Carshalton
Sutton
Belmont
Banstead
Epsom Downs
Cheam
Ewell East
Epsom
Ashtead
Leatherhead
Bookham
Effingham Junction
Horsley
Clandon
London Road (Guildford)
Guildford
Box Hill & Westhumble
Dorking
Holmwood
Ockley
Warnham
Horsham
Stations in italics are served on limited occasions, at peak hours or on Sundays only.
Govia
National Rail
Thameslink and Great Northern
Southeastern
Southern
Gatwick Express
South Western Railway
[show]
v
t
e
South Western Railway routes
Main line routes serving this station
None
Suburban and non-main line routes serving this station
Guildford and Dorking via Epsom
London Waterloo
Vauxhall
Clapham Junction
Earlsfield
Wimbledon
Raynes Park
Motspur Park
Worcester Park
Stoneleigh
Ewell West
Epsom
Ashtead
Leatherhead
Box Hill & Westhumble
Dorking
Bookham
Effingham Junction
Horsley
Clandon
London Road (Guildford)
Guildford
Island Line Trains routes serving this station
None
Stations in italics are served on limited occasions, at peak hours or on Sundays only.
South Western Railway - Island Line - National Rail - Southern - CrossCountry - Great Western Railway
Coordinates: 51°20′02″N 0°16′08″W / 51.334°N 0.269°W / 51.334; -0.269
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epsom_railway_station&oldid=814631442"
Categories:
DfT Category C1 stations
Transport in Epsom and Ewell
Railway stations in Surrey
Former London and South Western Railway stations
Railway stations opened in 1859
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Epsom
1859 establishments in England
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Community development
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The United Nations defines community development as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems."[1] It is a broad term given to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.
Community development is also understood as a professional discipline, and is defined by the International Association for Community Development (www.iacdglobal.org), the global network of community development practitioners and scholars, as "a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice, through the organisation, education and empowerment of people within their communities, whether these be of locality, identity or interest, in urban and rural settings".
Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their communities. These skills are often created through the formation of social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.
Community development as a term has taken off widely in anglophone countries i.e. the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and New Zealand and other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is also used in some countries in Eastern Europe with active community development associations in Hungary and Romania. The Community Development Journal, published by Oxford University Press, since 1966 has aimed to be the major forum for research and dissemination of international community development theory and practice.[2]
Community development approaches are recognised internationally. These methods and approaches have been acknowledged as significant for local social, economic, cultural, environmental and political development by such organisations as the UN, WHO, OECD, World Bank, Council of Europe and EU.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions
2 Different approaches
3 History
3.1 In the global North
3.1.1 United States
3.1.2 United Kingdom
3.1.3 Canada
3.1.4 Australia
3.2 In the "Global South"
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Definitions[edit]
There are complementary definitions of community development.
The United Nations defines community development broadly as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems."[1]
The Community Development Challenge report, which was produced by a working party comprising leading UK organizations in the field (including the (now defunct) Community Development Foundation, the (now defunct) Community Development Exchange and the Federation for Community Development Learning) defines community development as:
A set of values and practices which plays a special role in overcoming poverty and disadvantage, knitting society together at the grass roots and deepening democracy. There is a community development profession, defined by national occupational standards and a body of theory and experience going back the best part of a century. There are active citizens who use community development techniques on a voluntary basis, and there are also other professions and agencies which use a community development approach or some aspects of it.[3]
Community Development Exchange defines community development as:
both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Its key purpose is to build communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect.
Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals.
Community development practitioners work alongside people in communities to help build relationships with key people and organizations and to identify common concerns. They create opportunities for the community to learn new skills and, by enabling people to act together, community development practitioners help to foster social inclusion and equality.[4]
Different approaches[edit]
There are numerous overlapping approaches to community development. Some focus on the processes, some on the outcomes/ objectives. They include:
Women Self-help Group; focusing on the contribution of women in settlement groups.[5]
Community capacity building; focusing on helping communities obtain, strengthen, and maintain the ability to set and achieve their own development objectives.[6]
Large Group Capacitation; an adult education and social psychology approach grounded in the activity of the individual and the social psychology of the large group focusing on large groups of unemployed or semi-employed participants, many of whom with Lower Levels of Literacy (LLLs).
Social capital formation; focusing on benefits derived from the cooperation between individuals and groups.
Nonviolent direct action; when a group of people take action to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue which is not being addressed through traditional societal institutions (governments, religious organizations or established trade unions) are not addressing to the satisfaction of the direct action participants.
Economic development, focusing on the "development" of developing countries as measured by their economies, although it includes the processes and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people.
Community economic development (CED); an alternative to conventional economic development which encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic outcomes while improving social conditions.
Sustainable development; which seeks to achieve, in a balanced manner, economic development, social development and environmental protection outcomes.[7]
Community-driven development (CDD), an economic development model which shifts overreliance on central governments to local communities.
Asset-based community development (ABCD); is a methodology that seeks to uncover and use the strengths within communities as a means for sustainable development.[8]
Faith-based community development; which utilizes faith-based organizations to bring about community development outcomes.[9]
Community-based participatory research (CBPR); a partnership approach to research that equitably involves, for example, community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process and in which all partners contribute expertise and share decision making and ownership, which aims to integrate this knowledge with community development outcomes.[10][11]
Community organizing; a term used to describe an approach that generally assumes that social change necessarily involves conflict and social struggle in order to generate collective power for the powerless.
Participatory planning including community-based planning (CBP); involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural.[12][13]
Language-based development; or Language revitalization focuses on the use of a language so that it serves the needs of a community. This may involve the creation of books, films and other media in the language. These actions help a small language community to preserve their language and culture.[14]
Methodologies focusing on the educational component of community development, including the community-wide empowerment that increased educational opportunity creates.
Methodologies addressing the issues and challenges of the Digital divide, making affordable training and access to computers and the Internet, addressing the marginalisation of local communities that cannot connect and participate in the global Online community. In the United States, nonprofit organizations such as Per Scholas seek to “break the cycle of poverty by providing education, technology and economic opportunities to individuals, families and communities” as a path to development for the communities they serve.[15]
There are a myriad of job titles for community development workers and their employers include public authorities and voluntary or non-governmental organisations, funded by the state and by independent grant making bodies. Since the nineteen seventies the prefix word 'community' has also been adopted by several other occupations from the police and health workers to planners and architects, who have been influenced by community development approaches.
History[edit]
Amongst the earliest community development approaches were those developed in Kenya and British East Africa during the 1930s. Community development practitioners have over many years developed a range of approaches for working within local communities and in particular with disadvantaged people. Since the nineteen sixties and seventies through the various anti poverty programmes in both developed and developing countries, community development practitioners have been influenced by structural analyses as to the causes of disadvantage and poverty i.e. inequalities in the distribution of wealth, income, land, etc. and especially political power and the need to mobilise people power to affect social change. Thus the influence of such educators as Paulo Freire and his focus upon this work. Other key people who have influenced this field are Saul Alinsky (Rules for Radicals) and E.F. Schumacher (Small is Beautiful). There are a number of international organisations that support community development, for example, Oxfam, UNICEF, The Hunger Project and Freedom from Hunger, run community development programs based upon community development initiatives for relief and prevention of malnutrition. Since 2006 the Dragon Dreaming Project Management techniques have spread to 37 different countries and are engaged in an estimated 3,250 projects worldwide.
In the global North[edit]
In the 19th century, the work of the Welsh early socialist thinker Robert Owen (1771–1851), sought to create a more perfect community. At New Lanark and at later communities such as Oneida in the USA and the New Australia Movement in Australia, groups of people came together to create utopian or intentional communities, with mixed success.
United States[edit]
In the United States in the 1960s, the term "community development" began to complement and generally replace the idea of urban renewal, which typically focused on physical development projects often at the expense of working-class communities. One of the earliest proponents of the term in the United States was social scientist William W. Biddle[16] In the late 1960s, philanthropies such as the Ford Foundation and government officials such as Senator Robert F. Kennedy took an interest in local nonprofit organizations. A pioneer was the Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation in Brooklyn, which attempted to apply business and management skills to the social mission of uplifting low-income residents and their neighborhoods. Eventually such groups became known as "Community development corporations" or CDCs. Federal laws beginning with the 1974 Housing and Community Development Act provided a way for state and municipal governments to channel funds to CDCs and other nonprofit organizations.
National organizations such as the Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation (founded in 1978 and now known as NeighborWorks America), the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC) (founded in 1980), and the Enterprise Foundation (founded in 1981) have built extensive networks of affiliated local nonprofit organizations to which they help provide financing for countless physical and social development programs in urban and rural communities. The CDCs and similar organizations have been credited with starting the process that stabilized and revived seemingly hopeless inner city areas such as the South Bronx in New York City.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the UK, community development has had two main traditions. The first was as an approach for preparing for the independence of countries from the former British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s. Domestically it first came into public prominence with the Labour Government's anti deprivation programmes of the latter sixties and seventies. The main example of this being the CDP (Community Development Programme), which piloted local area based community development. This influenced a number of largely urban local authorities, in particular in Scotland with Strathclyde Region's major community development programme (the largest at the time in Europe).
The Gulbenkian Foundation was a key funder of commissions and reports which influenced the development of community development in the UK from the latter sixties to the 80's. This included recommending that there be a national institute or centre for community development, able to support practice and to advise government and local authorities on policy. This was formally set up in 1991 as the Community Development Foundation. In 2004 the Carnegie UK Trust established a Commission of Inquiry into the future of rural community development examining such issues as land reform and climate change. Carnegie funded over sixty rural community development action research projects across the UK and Ireland and national and international communities of practice to exchange experiences. This included the International Association for Community Development.
In 1999 a UK wide organisation responsible for setting professional training standards for all education and development practitioners working within local communities was established and recognised by the Labour Government. This organisation was called PAULO – the National Training Organisation for Community Learning and Development. (It was named after Paulo Freire). It was formally recognised by David Blunkett, the Secretary of State for Education and Employment. Its first chair was Charlie McConnell, the Chief Executive of the Scottish Community Education Council, who had played a lead role in bringing together a range of occupational interests under a single national training standards body, including community education, community development and development education. The inclusion of community development was significant as it was initially uncertain as to whether it would join the NTO for Social Care. The Community Learning and Development NTO represented all the main employers, trades unions, professional associations and national development agencies working in this area across the four nations of the UK.
The term 'community learning and development' was adopted to acknowledge that all of these occupations worked primarily within local communities, and that this work encompassed not just providing less formal learning support but also a concern for the wider holistic development of those communities – socio-economically, environmentally, culturally and politically. By bringing together these occupational groups this created for the first time a single recognised employment sector of nearly 300,000 full and part-time paid staff within the UK, approximately 10% of these staff being full-time. The NTO continued to recognise the range of different occupations within it, for example specialists who work primarily with young people, but all agreed that they shared a core set of professional approaches to their work. In 2002 the NTO became part of a wider Sector Skills Council for lifelong learning.
The UK currently hosts the only global network of practitioners and activists working towards social justice through community development approach, the International Association for Community Development (IACD).[17] IACD was formed in the USA in 1953, moved to Belgium in 1978 and was restructured and relaunched in Scotland in 1999.[18]
Canada[edit]
Community development in Canada has roots in the development of co-operatives, credit unions and caisses populaires. The Antigonish Movement which started in the 1920s in Nova Scotia, through the work of Doctor Moses Coady and Father James Tompkins, has been particularly influential in the subsequent expansion of community economic development work across Canada.
Australia[edit]
Community development in Australia have often been focussed upon Aboriginal Australian communities, and during the period of the 1980s to the early 21st century were funded through the Community Employment Development Program, where Aboriginal people could be employed in "a work for the dole" scheme, which gave the chance for non-government organisations to apply for a full or part-time worker funded by the Department for Social Security. Dr Jim Ife, formerly of Curtin University, organised a ground breaking text-book on community development
In the "Global South"[edit]
Community planning techniques drawing on the history of utopian movements became important in the 1920s and 1930s in East Africa, where community development proposals were seen as a way of helping local people improve their own lives with indirect assistance from colonial authorities. [19]
Mohandas K. Gandhi adopted African community development ideals as a basis of his South African Ashram, and then introduced it as a part of the Indian Swaraj movement, aiming at establishing economic interdependence at village level throughout India. With Indian independence, despite the continuing work of Vinoba Bhave in encouraging grassroots land reform, India under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a mixed-economy approach, mixing elements of socialism and capitalism. During the fifties and sixties, India ran a massive community development programme with focus on rural development activities through government support. This was later expanded in scope and was called integrated rural development scheme [IRDP]. A large number of initiatives that can come under the community development umbrella have come up in recent years.
The main objective of community development in India remains to develop the villages and to help the villagers help themselves to fight against poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, etc. The beauty of Indian model of community development lies in the homogeneity of villagers and high level of participation.
Community development became a part of the Ujamaa Villages established in Tanzania by Julius Nyerere, where it had some success in assisting with the delivery of education services throughout rural areas, but has elsewhere met with mixed success. In the 1970s and 1980s, community development became a part of "Integrated Rural Development", a strategy promoted by United Nations Agencies and the World Bank. Central to these policies of community development were:
Adult literacy programs, drawing on the work of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire and the "Each One Teach One" adult literacy teaching method conceived by Frank Laubach.
Youth and women's groups, following the work of the Serowe Brigades of Botswana, of Patrick van Rensburg.
Development of community business ventures and particularly cooperatives, in part drawn on the examples of José María Arizmendiarrieta and the Mondragon Cooperatives of the Basque region of Spain
Compensatory education for those missing out in the formal education system, drawing on the work of Open Education as pioneered by Michael Young.
Dissemination of alternative technologies, based upon the work of E. F. Schumacher as advocated in his book Small is Beautiful: Economics as if people really mattered
Village nutrition programs and permaculture projects, based upon the work of Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren.
Village water supply programs
In the 1990s, following critiques of the mixed success of "top down" government programs, and drawing on the work of Robert Putnam, in the rediscovery of social capital, community development internationally became concerned with social capital formation. In particular the outstanding success of the work of Muhammad Yunus in Bangladesh with the Grameen Bank from its inception in 1976, has led to the attempts to spread microenterprise credit schemes around the world. Yunus saw that social problems like poverty and disease were not being solved by the market system on its own. Thus, he established a banking system which lends to the poor with very little interest, allowing them access to entrepreneurship. [20] This work was honoured by the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize.
The "human scale development" work of Right Livelihood Award-winning Chilean economist Manfred Max Neef promotes the idea of development based upon fundamental human needs, which are considered to be limited, universal and invariant to all human beings (being a part of our human condition). He considers that poverty results from the failure to satisfy a particular human need, it is not just an absence of money. Whilst human needs are limited, Max Neef shows that the ways of satisfying human needs is potentially unlimited. Satisfiers also have different characteristics: they can be violators or destroyers, pseudosatisfiers, inhibiting satisfiers, singular satisfiers, or synergic satisfiers. Max-Neef shows that certain satisfiers, promoted as satisfying a particular need, in fact inhibit or destroy the possibility of satisfying other needs: e.g., the arms race, while ostensibly satisfying the need for protection, in fact then destroys subsistence, participation, affection and freedom; formal democracy, which is supposed to meet the need for participation often disempowers and alienates; commercial television, while used to satisfy the need for recreation, interferes with understanding, creativity and identity. Synergic satisfiers, on the other hand, not only satisfy one particular need, but also lead to satisfaction in other areas: some examples are breastfeeding; self-managed production; popular education; democratic community organizations; preventative medicine; meditation; educational games.
Vietnam
International organizations apply the term community in Vietnam to the local administrative unit, each with a traditional identity based on traditional, cultural, and kinship relations.[21] Community development strategies in Vietnam aim to organize communities in ways that increase their capacities to partner with institutions, the participation of local people, transparency and equality, and unity within local communities.[22]
Social and economic development planning (SDEP) in Vietnam uses top-down centralized planning methods and decision-making processes which do not consider local context and local participation. The plans created by SDEP are ineffective and serve mainly for administrative purposes. Local people are not informed of these development plans.[23] The participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach was introduced to Vietnam in the early 1990s to help reform the way that government approaches local communities and development. PRA was used as a tool for outsiders to learn about the local community, which did not effect substantial change. As a result, the village development (VDP) approach was created to use PRA tools for assessing local context and creating plans to address the specific need of rural communities identified from PRA assessments.[24]
See also[edit]
Community portal
Social Welfare and Social Work portal
Community building
Community education
Community engagement
Community practice
Organization workshop
Rural community development
Urbanism
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Community development". UNTERM. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Community Development Journal- about the journal". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Community Development Challenge Report" (PDF). Produced by Community Development Foundation for Communities and Local Government. Retrieved 2009-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Definition of CD". Community Development Exchange. Archived from the original on 2010-07-14. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
Jump up ^ Chigbu, UE. (2015). Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community. Community, Work & Family, 18, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13668803.2014.981506#.VSmVekI2nFK
Jump up ^ United Nations Development Group. "United Nations Development System- A Collective Approach to Supporting Capacity Development" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Sung, Hyung. "Sustainable development". General Assembly of the United Nations. General Assembly of the United Nations. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Mathie, Alison & Cunningham, Gord (1 Jul 2010). "From clients to citizens: Asset-based Community Development as a strategy for community-driven development". Development in practice. 13 (5): 474–486. doi:10.1080/0961452032000125857. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Faith-Based Organizations in Community Development". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
Jump up ^ Israel, B.A.; Schulz, A.J.; Parker, E.A.; Becker, A.B. (1998). "Review of community-based research: Assessing partnership approaches to improve public health". Annual Review of Public Health. 19: 173–202. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.19.1.173.
Jump up ^ Israel, B.A., Schulz, A.J., Parker, E.A., Becker, A.B., Allen, A., & Guzman, J.R. (2008). Critical issues in developing and following CBPR Principles. In M. Minkler & N. Wallerstein (Eds.), Community-based participatory research for health: From process to outcomes (2nd ed., pp. 47–66). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jump up ^ Lefevre, Pierre; Kolsteren, Patrick; De Wael, Marie-Paule; Byekwaso, Francis; Beghin, Ivan (December 2000). "Comprehensive Participatory Planning and Evaluation" (PDF). Antwerp, Belgium: IFAD. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
Jump up ^ McTague, C.; Jakubowski, S. (2013). "Marching to the beat of a silent drum: Wasted consensus-building and failed neighborhood participatory planning". Applied Geography. 44: 182–191. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.07.019.
Jump up ^ http://www-01.sil.org/sil/global/MDG_booklet.pdf
Jump up ^ "Per Scholas Website". Per Scholas Website. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ List, E. Frederick (1973). "In Memoriam: William W. Biddle". Journal of the Community Development Society. 4 (1): 5. doi:10.1080/00103829.1973.10877482.
Jump up ^ "International Association for Community Development". Retrieved 7 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "IACD- a brief history". Retrieved 7 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Anderson, David (1984). "Depression, Dust Bowl, Demography, and Drought: The Colonial State and Soil Conservation in East Africa during the 1930s". African Affairs. 83 (332): 321–343.
Jump up ^ Gebremariam, Yilma (2010). "Review of Small Loans, Big Dreams: How the Nobel Prize Winner Muhammad Yunus and Microfinance Are Changing the World". Eastern Economic Journal. 36 (1): 142–144.
Jump up ^ Yen, N. T. K.; Luong, P. Van (2008-07-01). "Participatory village and commune development planning (VDP/CDP) and its contribution to local community development in Vietnam". Community Development Journal. 43 (3): 329–340. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn018. ISSN 0010-3802.
Jump up ^ Yen, N. T. K.; Luong, P. Van (2008-07-01). "Participatory village and commune development planning (VDP/CDP) and its contribution to local community development in Vietnam". Community Development Journal. 43 (3): 329–340. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn018. ISSN 0010-3802.
Jump up ^ Yen, N. T. K.; Luong, P. Van (2008-07-01). "Participatory village and commune development planning (VDP/CDP) and its contribution to local community development in Vietnam". Community Development Journal. 43 (3): 329–340. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn018. ISSN 0010-3802.
Jump up ^ Yen, N. T. K.; Luong, P. Van (2008-07-01). "Participatory village and commune development planning (VDP/CDP) and its contribution to local community development in Vietnam". Community Development Journal. 43 (3): 329–340. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn018. ISSN 0010-3802.
Further reading[edit]
Briggs, Xavier de Souza, and Elizabeth Mueller and Mercer Sullivan, From Neighborhood to Community: Evidence on the Social Effects of Community Development Corporation. Community Development Research Center, 1997.
Ferguson, Ronald F. and William T. Dickens, eds., Urban Problems and Community Development. Brookings Institution Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8157-1875-6, ISBN 978-0-8157-1875-8
Grogan, Paul and Tony Proscio, Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival. Westview Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8133-3952-9, ISBN 978-0-8133-3952-8
von Hoffman, Alexander, House by House, Block by Block: The Rebirth of America's Urban Neighborhoods. Oxford University Press, 2003, Ppbck. ed., 2004. ISBN 0-19-517614-6, ISBN 978-0-19-517614-8
James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea (PDF). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kingslow, Marcia E.; Horton, Carol (1998), An Overview of the Major Asset Building and Community Development Literatures (PDF), Chicago, IL: Kingslow Associates, retrieved 16 September 2017
Magee, Liam; James, Paul; Scerri, Andy (2012). "Measuring Social Sustainability: A Community-Centred Approach". Applied Research in the Quality of Life. 7 (3): 239–61. doi:10.1007/s11482-012-9166-x.
McConnell, Charlie, Community Learning and Development: The Making of an Empowering Profession. Community Learning Scotland/PAULO, 2002, ISBN 0 947919 75 9
Silverman, Robert Mark (2003). "Progressive Reform, Gender, and Institutional Structure: A Critical Analysis of Citizen Participation in Detroit's Community Development Corporations (CDCs)". Urban Studies. 40 (13): 2731–2750. doi:10.1080/0042098032000146867.
Sloman, Annie (2011). "Using Participatory Theatre in International Community Development". Community Development Journal (January 2012). 47 (1): 42–57. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsq059.
External links[edit]
The Citizens' Handbook – A large collection practices and activities for citizens' groups
National Civic League – US organization that promotes partnerships between government and citizens' groups
Shelterforce – A nonprofit magazine on community development, affordable housing, and neighborhood stabilization.
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