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Cali Cartel
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Cali Cartel
Founded
1977
Founded by
Brothers: Gilberto and Miguel
Founding location
Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
Years active
1977–1998 [dubious – discuss]
Territory
Colombia, United States, Central America, Mexico, Spain, Argentina, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Panama
Ethnicity
Colombians and international people out of Colombia
Criminal activities
Drug trafficking, bribery, money laundering, prostitution, extortion, kidnapping, murder and arms trafficking
Allies
Los Pepes, The 400, Gulf Cartel
Rivals
Medellín Cartel (defunct), Norte del Valle Cartel (defunct)
Cali Cartel
Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela
Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela
José Santacruz Londoño
Jorge Alberto Rodríguez
Hélmer Herrera Buitrago
Phanor Arizabaleta-Arzayus
Mery Valencia
Jairo Ivan Urdinola-Grajales
Julio Fabio Urdinola-Grajales
Henry Loaiza-Ceballos
Victor Patiño-Fomeque
Raul Grajales-Lemos
Luis Grajales-Posso
Juan Carlos Ortiz Escobar
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The Cali Cartel was based in southern Colombia, around the city of Cali and the Valle del Cauca Department. Its founders were the Rodríguez Orejuela brothers, Gilberto and Miguel, and José Santacruz Londoño, also known as "Chepe". They broke away from Pablo Escobar and his Medellin associates in the late 1980s when Hélmer Herrera, also known as "Pacho", joined what became a four-man executive board that ran the cartel.[1]
With connections to British and Israeli mercenaries, allies among countries, countless spies and informants in the government, and its vast intelligence and surveillance network throughout the city of Santiago de Cali, the cartel was once renowned and compared to the Soviet KGB by the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which called it, "One of the most powerful crime syndicates in history", later dubbed "The Cali KGB".
At the height of the Cali Cartel's reign, they were cited as having control over 90% of the world's cocaine market and were said to be directly responsible for the growth of the cocaine market in Europe, where they also controlled 90% of the market.[2] By the mid-1990s, the trafficking empire of the Cali Cartel was a multibillion-dollar enterprise.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Foundation
2 Organization
3 Activities
3.1 Trafficking
3.2 Financial
3.3 Russian state connections
3.4 Bribery
3.5 Violence
3.5.1 Discipline
3.5.2 Social cleansing
3.5.3 Retaliation
3.6 Counterintelligence
4 Medellín cartel relations
4.1 First InterAmericas Bank
4.2 Muerte a Secuestradores (Death to Kidnappers)
4.3 Los Pepes
5 Law enforcement
5.1 Seizures
5.2 Major arrests
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
Foundation[edit]
Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela
The Cali Cartel was formed by the Rodriguez Orejuela brothers and Santacruz, all coming from what is described as a higher social background than most other traffickers of the time.[5] The recognition of this social background was displayed in the group's nickname as "Los Caballeros de Cali ("Gentlemen of Cali" or "Cali's Gentlemen").[2][3][6]
The group originally assembled as a ring of kidnappers known as Las Chemas, which was led by Luis Fernando Tamayo Garcia. Las Chemas were implicated in numerous kidnappings including those of two Swiss citizens: a diplomat, Herman Buff, and a student, Zack "Jazz Milis" Martin. The kidnappers reportedly received $700,000 in ransom, which is believed to have been used to fund their drug trafficking empire.[7]
The assembled group first involved itself in trafficking marijuana. Due to the product's low profit rate and large amounts required to traffic to cover resources, the fledgling group decided to shift their focus to a more lucrative drug, cocaine.[7]
In the early 1970s, the cartel sent Helmer "Pacho" Herrera to New York City to establish a distribution center. This action came during a time when the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was not fully pursuing cocaine and viewed the drug as less critical than heroin; at one point[when?] they released a report stating cocaine "is not physically addictive ... and does not usually result in serious consequences, such as crime, hospital emergency room admissions or both."[7]
The Cali Cartel leadership comprised Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela El Ajedrecista ("The Chess Player"), Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela El Señor ("The Lord"), José Santacruz Londoño El Estudiante ("The Student") or Chepe Santacruz, Jorge Alberto Rodríguez "Don Cholito", and Helmer Herrera Buitrago Pacho. Some top associates were Victor Patiño-Fomeque El Quimico ("The Chemist") or La Fiera ("The Beast"), Henry Loaiza Ceballos El Alacrán ("The Scorpion"), José Fedor Rey ex-guerrilla, and Phanor Arizabaleta-Arzayus.[8]
Organization[edit]
The relaxed attitude of the DEA towards cocaine is believed to be what allowed the group to prosper. The group developed and organized itself into multiple "cells" that appeared to operate independently yet reported to a "celeno" (manager), who reported to Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, who in turn reported back to Cali.[2] In the mid-1980s, Jorge formed an independent drug cell called The 400 Cartel, which grew to eventually oversee all shipments and distributions of narcotics imported into the United States by the Cali Cartel.
The independent cells structure is what set the Cali Cartel apart from the Medellín Cartel. The Cali Cartel operated as a tight group of independent criminal organizations, as opposed to the Medellíns' structure of a central leader, Pablo Escobar.[3][9]
It was believed each cell would report to a larger group, who would then report to the leaders of the cartel. The groups as cited by former Cali accountant Guillermo Pallomari are:[10]
Narco-trafficking: Control over processing labs, shipping methods and routes
Military: Control over security, punishment/discipline, and bribery in relation to military or police officials
Political: Responsible for establishing governmental links such as with congressional members, federal officials, and local authorities
Financial: Control over money-laundering, front businesses, and legitimate business ventures which they owned
Legal: Control over representation for captured traffickers, hiring of lobbyists, and overseas representation
The Cali Cartel eventually became known by then DEA chief Thomas Constantine as "The biggest, most powerful crime syndicate we've ever known."[2][11]
Activities[edit]
Trafficking[edit]
The Cali Cartel, whose brief roots began in trafficking marijuana, soon shifted to cocaine due to its ease of transporting and greater profit margin. The cartel would be known for innovation in trafficking and production by moving its refining operations out of Colombia to Peru and Bolivia, as well as for pioneering new trafficking routes through Panama. The Cartel also diversified into opium and was reported to have brought in a Japanese chemist to help its refining operation.[9][12]
According to reports and testimony of Thomas Constantine to the United States Congress, "Cali would be the dominant group in trafficking South American heroin due to their access to the opium growing areas of Colombia." Debate over the cartel's participation in heroin trafficking remains. It is believed the cartels leaders were not involved in heroin trading; however close associates to them were, such as Ivan Urdinola-Grajales.[2] It is believed that their relationships led to cooperation with heroin distribution centers.[7]
At the height of the Cali Cartel's reign, they were cited as having control over 90% of the world's cocaine market and for being directly responsible for the growth of the cocaine market in Europe, controlling 90% of the market.[2] By the mid-1990s, the trafficking empire of the Cali Cartel was a multibillion-dollar enterprise.[3][4]
Financial[edit]
Cali Cartel money laundering chart (click to enlarge)
In order to launder the incoming money of the trafficking operations, the Cali cartel heavily invested its funds into legitimate business ventures as well as front companies to mask the money. In 1996, it was believed the Cartel was grossing $7 billion in annual revenue from the US alone.[3][13][14]
With the influx of cash comes the need to launder the funds. One of the first instances of the Cali Cartel's laundering operations came when Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela was able to secure the position of Chairman of the Board of Banco de Trabajadores. The bank was believed to have been used to launder funds for the Cali cartel, as well as Pablo Escobar's Medellín Cartel. Cartel members were permitted, through their affiliation with Gilberto, to overdraft accounts and take out loans without repayment.[2][7][13]
Capitalizing on this basis, Gilberto was able to found the First InterAmericas Bank operating out of Panama.[7] In an interview with Time, Gilberto admitted to money's being laundered through the bank; however, he attributed the process to only legal actions. The laundering, which Gilberto states was "in accordance with Panamanian law", is what led to the US authorities' pursuing him. Gilberto later started, in 1979, the Grupo Radial Colombiano, a network of over 30 radio stations and a pharmaceutical chain named Drogas la Rebaja, which at its height amassed over 400 stores in 28 cities, employing 4200. The pharmaceutical chain's value was estimated at $216 million.[2][13][15] As a consequence of the Cali Cartel's ownership of the chain, from January 1988 to May 4, 1990 it was targeted for 85 bombings by Pablo Escobar and the Medellin Cartel, leaving a combined total of 27 people dead.[16]
Russian state connections[edit]
St. Petersburg Immobilien und Beteiligungs AG or SPAG is a real estate company registered in Germany in 1992 and suspected by German police of facilitating Saint Petersburg mobsters, Colombian drug lords, and transcontinental money laundering. The company's co-founder Rudolf Ritter was arrested in Liechtenstein for laundering cocaine cash for the Cali cartel.[17]
Former Ukrainian presidential bodyguard Nikolai Melnichenko bugged the following conversation between Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma and his security chief Leonid Derkach about SPAG:[17][18]
Leonid Derkach: Leonid Danilovich. We've got some interesting material here from the Germans. One of them has been arrested.
Leonid Kuchma (reading aloud): Ritter, Rudolf Ritter.
Leonid Derkach: Yes, and about that affair, the drug smuggling. Here are the documents. They gave them all out. Here's Vova Putin, too.
Leonid Kuchma: There's something about Putin there?
Leonid Derkach: The Russians have already been buying everything up. Here are all the documents. We're the only ones that still have them now. I think that [FSB chief] Nikolai Patrushev is coming from the 15th to the 17th. This will give him something to work with. This is what we'll keep. They want to shove the whole affair under the carpet.
Later in the conversation Derkach states that "they've bought up all these documents throughout Europe and only the rest are in our hands".[18]
Bribery[edit]
See also: 8000 Process
This section needs expansion with: text. You can help by adding to it. (June 2015)
Violence[edit]
Discipline[edit]
Political violence was largely discounted by the Cali Cartel, as the threat of violence often sufficed. The organization of the cartel was structured so that only people who had family in Colombia would handle operations that involved both Cali and U.S. sites, keeping the family within reach of the cartel. Family members became the cartel's insurance against members going to assisting officials or refusing payments of product received. The threat of death also hung over those who made mistakes. It is believed the cartel would often kill junior members who made gross errors.[9]
Social cleansing[edit]
In his book End of Millennium, Manuel Castells states the Cali Cartel had participated in social cleansing of hundreds of "desechables" (English: discardables). The desechables included prostitutes, street children, petty thieves, homosexuals and the homeless.[19] Along with some of the locals, the Cali Cartel formed parties self-named grupos de limpieza social (English: social cleansing groups) who murdered the "desechables," often leaving them with signs on them stating: "Cali limpia, Cali linda" (English: clean Cali, beautiful Cali). The bodies of those murdered were often tossed into the Cauca River, which later became known as the River of Death. The municipality of Marsella in Risaralda was eventually bankrupted by the cost of recovering corpses and conducting autopsies.[5][19]
Retaliation[edit]
José Santacruz Londoño
In the early 1980s and 1990s, the communist guerrillas had struck at the drug cartels. In 1981, the then-guerrilla group, Movimiento 19 de Abril (English: 19th of April Movement) (M-19), kidnapped Marta Nieves Ochoa, the sister of the Medellín Cartel's Ochoa brothers, Jorge, Fabio and Juan David. M-19 demanded a ransom of $15 million for Marta's safe release, but were rejected. In response to the kidnapping, the Medellín and Cali cartels, as well as associated traffickers, formed the group Muerte a Secuestradores (English: Death to Kidnappers) (MAS). Traffickers contributed funds, rewards, equipment and manpower for MAS operations. Leaflets soon after were dropped in a football pitch in Cali announcing the formation of the group. MAS began to capture and torture M-19 members in retaliation. Within 3 days, Marta Nieves was released. The group MAS, however, would continue to operate, with hundreds of killings attributed to them.[7][20]
In 1992, the guerrilla faction Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (English: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) (FARC) kidnapped Christina Santa Cruz, the daughter of Cali Cartel leader José Santacruz Londoño. FARC demanded in exchange for the safe return of Christina a ransom of $10 million. In response, the Cali Cartel kidnapped 20 or more members of the Colombian Communist Party, Patriotic Union, the United Workers Union, and the sister of Pablo Catatumbo, a representative of the Simón Bolívar Guerrilla Coordinating Board. Eventually, after talks, Christina and the sister of Catatumbo were released. It is unknown what happened to the other hostages taken by the cartel.[7][20][21]
During the narco-terror war waged by Pablo Escobar on the Colombian government, it is believed a hired assassin attempted to kill Herrera while he was attending a sports event. The gunman opened fire using a machine gun on the crowd where Herrera was sitting, killing 19. However, he did not hit Herrera. Herrera is believed to be a founding member of Los Pepes, a group who operated alongside authorities with the intention of killing or capturing Pablo Escobar.[22]
The Cali cartel then hired a member of Colombia's military and civil engineer named Jorge Salcedo.[23][24] They wanted him to help them plot an assassination on Pablo Escobar. They hired him because they heard that Salcedo had in the past, befriended and hired a group of mercenaries to wage war against the left-wing guerrilla forces in an operation sanctioned by Colombia's military. The mercenary group was made up of twelve former special operations soldiers, including the British Special Air Service.[23] Jorge Salcedo felt it was his patriotic duty and accepted the deal to bring the mercenaries back to Colombia and help plan the operation to kill Pablo Escobar.[24] The group of British ex-soldiers accepted the offer. The cartel provided food, housing, and weapons to the mercenaries. The plan was to attack Escobar at his Hacienda Nápoles compound. They trained for a few months until they heard Escobar was going to be staying at the compound, celebrating the fact that his football team had won a tournament. They were going to be inserted by use of two heavily armed Hughes 500 helicopters and surprise-attack Escobar during the early morning. They painted the helicopters to look like police helicopters to further confuse them. They took off and headed towards the compound but one of the helicopters ended up crashing onto a mountainside, minutes away from the compound.[23] The pilot was killed during the crash. The plan was aborted and they had to conduct a rescue mission up the dense mountainside.[23][24]
One plan included the use of a privately owned A-37 jet to bomb the prison holding Escobar.
Finally, Escobar went to prison, where he continued to run his Medellin Cartel and menace rivals from his cell.[24] The second plot to kill Escobar was to bomb the prison by using an A-37 Dragonfly surplus ground-attack jet bomber in private ownership.[24][25] The Cali Cartel had a connection in El Salvador, a general of El Salvador's military who illegally sold them four 500 pound bombs for about half a million dollars.[23][24] Jorge Salcedo flew over to El Salvador to oversee the plan to pick up the bombs and take them to an airfield where a civilian jet would land to pick them up and take them to Colombia. But when the jet landed at the airfield they found that it was a small executive jet. They attempted to load the four bombs, and what was planned to be a few minutes, it took them over 20 minutes. By this time there was a crowd of civilians that had gathered at the airfield curious about what was happening. Only three bombs fit, stacked in the small passenger cabin.[24] The jet took off and Salcedo abandoned the fourth bomb and went back to his hotel. The morning after, the activities of the night before were all over the news.[23] Salcedo barely escaped El Salvador and arrest before the botched pickup was exposed.[24] Law enforcement had discovered the bomb and some of the people involved in the operation were arrested, and they told authorities about the plot to kill Escobar with the bombs. The Cali Cartel then decided to abort the air bombing plot.[23][24]
There was no turning back for Salcedo. The Colombian government labeled him a criminal now working for the Cali Cartel, and his employers would not let him go anyway.[23][24] Salcedo then settled into managing security for the Orejuela family, but then he was forced to witness an execution of four Panamenians, and tasked with organizing the murder of Guillermo Pallomari, their own cartel accountant.[24] Salcedo faced a choice: to kill or risk being killed along with his family.[24] Salcedo then decided to retaliate and save Pallomari and himself by contacting the US Central Intelligence Agency and work as an informant.[23][24] This proved to be the death blow to the Cali Cartel.[23] For his service, Salcedo and his extended family were relocated to the US and he received rewards of about $1.7 million.[23][24]
Counterintelligence[edit]
The counter-intelligence TN Education Centre of the Cali Cartel often surprised the DEA and Colombian officials. It was discovered in a 1995 raid of Cali Cartel offices, that the cartel had been monitoring all phone calls made in and out of Bogotá and Cali including the U.S. Embassy in Bogotá and the Ministry of Defense. The laptop allowed Londoño to eavesdrop on phone calls being made as well as analyze phone lines for wiretaps. While officials were able to discover the use of the laptop, it is reported they were unable to decrypt many of the files due to sophisticated encryption techniques.[5] Londoño was also believed to have a person within the phone company itself, which the officials realized when he was able to recognize a phone tap, one that had been placed directly at the phone company, instead of at his residence. Londoño's lawyer soon sent an official notice requesting the legality and requesting the warrant if one was produced.[5][26]
Included in the list of government officials and officers on the Cali Cartel payroll were a reported 5,000 taxi drivers. The taxi drivers would allow the cartel to know who was arriving in the city and when, as well as where they were staying. By having numerous taxi drivers on the payroll, the cartel was able to monitor the movements of officials and dignitaries. It is reported by Time magazine, in 1991, DEA and U.S. Customs Service (now ICE) agents were monitoring a shipment being offloaded in Miami, only to find out later that the DEA agents were the target of Cali surveillance at the same time.[26]
Jorge Salcedo, a member of Colombia's military, was put in charge of the cartel's intelligence and later provide security to Miguel. He would later, ironically, be crucial in helping destroy the cartel and pinpointing where Miguel was hiding. He designed and set up a large hidden radio network across the city allowing members to communicate wherever they were. They also had many people inside law enforcement working for them. Including a high-ranking member of the Bloque de Búsqueda (search block) who were looking for the Cali Cartel's top leaders. When law enforcement had finally cornered Miguel inside an apartment, the double agent was there (along with other law enforcement including two DEA agents) trying to find the secret compartment in which Miguel was hiding. Law enforcement failed to find him in time and were forced to leave the apartment. They maintained a perimeter around the building to prevent his escape. The double agent was crucial in helping Miguel escape, as he hid Miguel in his car and drove away from the scene untroubled.[23]
Medellín cartel relations[edit]
First InterAmericas Bank[edit]
Jorge Ochoa, a high ranking Medellín financier and the godfather to Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, and Gilberto Rodriguez had been childhood friends who years later co-owned the Panamanian First InterAmericas Bank. The institution was later cited by United States officials as a money laundering operation, which allowed both the Cali Cartel and the Medellín Cartel to move and launder large amounts of funds. Only through diplomatic pressure on then Panamanian Dictator Manuel Noriega could the U.S. put an end to the bank's use as a money laundering front.[20] In a TIME magazine interview, Gilberto Rodriguez admitted to laundering money through the bank but noted that the process broke no Panamanian laws.[13]
Muerte a Secuestradores (Death to Kidnappers)[edit]
Main article: Muerte a Secuestradores
The two cartels participated in other joint ventures in later years, such as the founding of Muerte a Secuestradores (MAS), who successfully returned Ochoa's kidnapped sister, Marta Nieves Ochoa. Expanding on the prior success of MAS, the cartels and independent traffickers would meet again.
The second meeting is believed to have been the start of an organization trafficking between the primary participants, the Medellín Cartel and Cali Cartel. The two cartels divided up the major United States distribution points: the Cali Cartel took New York City and the Medellín Cartel took South Florida and Miami; Los Angeles was left up for grabs.
Through their affiliation in MAS, it is also believed the cartels decided to work together to stabilize prices, production, and shipments of the cocaine market. However, the strategic alliance formed with the foundation of MAS in 1981 began to crumble by 1983-1984, due to the ease of competition. As the cartels set up infrastructure, routes, transport methods, and bribes, it became easier for competitors to either establish similar deals or make use of those already put in place by other cartels. By 1987, the cooperation forged by the formation of MAS no longer existed. Contributing to the demise was the Medellín Cartel's Rodriguez Gacha, who attempted to move in on the New York City market, previously ceded to the Cali Cartel, and the 1986 arrest of Jorge Ochoa at a police roadblock, which arrest the Medellín Cartel deemed suspicious and attributed partly to the Cali Cartel.[20]
Los Pepes[edit]
Main article: Los Pepes
In later years as Pablo Escobar's narco-terror war escalated against the Colombian government, the government began to strike back in ever escalating battles. As the Medellín Cartel weakened due to the fighting and constant pressure, the Cali Cartel grew in strength, eventually founding Los Pepes or Perseguidos por Pablo Escobar (English: People Persecuted by Pablo Escobar). Los Pepes was specifically formed to target the Medellín Cartel and bring about the downfall of Pablo Escobar. It is believed Los Pepes provided information to Bloque de Busqueda (English: Search Bloc) a joint police and army unit specifically created to track down Medellín leaders. In exchange for information, Los Pepes received assistance from the United States counter-terrorism unit, Delta Force, through its links to Search Bloc. By the time of Escobar's capture and eventual death in December 1993, Los Pepes had been responsible for the deaths or executions of over 60 associates or members of the Medellín Cartel. The death of Pablo Escobar led to the dismantling of the Medellín Cartel and the rise of the Cali Cartel.[20][27]
Law enforcement[edit]
Seizures[edit]
In 1992, 500 pounds of cocaine belonging to imprisoned drug lord Jorge Alberto Rodríguez were found in a Texas oil field pump.
While the Cali Cartel operated with a degree of immunity early on, due to its ties to the government, and the Medellín Cartel's narco-terrorism war on the Colombian government, they were still subjected to drug seizures. In 1991 alone, law enforcement agencies seized 67 tons of cocaine, 75% originating from the Cali Cartel. In total, the US Customs Service (USCS) alone had spent 91,855 case hours and 13 years in investigations against the Cali Cartel, seizing 50 tons of cocaine and $15 million in assets.[28]
The involvement of U.S. Customs Service in the Cali Cartel's trafficking came in July 1990 after Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, under federal investigation, was arrested after attempting to import 100 kilos of cocaine into Tallahassee, Florida through the assistance of an undercover U.S. Customs agent. Jorge was brought to trial in October 1990, and refused to testify or identify anyone he was criminally affiliated with. He was convicted and sentenced to serve 25 years in federal prison, where he continued to operate and manage his criminal empire. In 1991 a shipment was intercepted with the aid of a drug sniffing dog. The cocaine was hidden inside concrete posts. The interception of the concrete posts at the Miami seaport led to seizure of 12,000 kilograms of cocaine and several arrests, as well as the beginning of what the US Customs Service would dub "Operation Cornerstone". A year later in another seizure, an USCS wiretap on Harold Ackerman, whose affiliation was derived from the '91 seizure, enabled the arrest of 7 individuals and 6,000 kilograms of cocaine hidden in a load of broccoli.[7] Accounting ledgers were seized in related arrests which allowed the identification of another shipment being sent to Panama hidden in tiles, this information was passed to Panamanian authorities and led to the seizure of 5,100 kilograms.[28]
The following year in 1993, the US Customs Service struck again at the Cali cartel, this time seizing 5,600 kilograms while pursuing Raul Marti, the only member of the defunct Miami cell to remain. It is believed these successive raids forced the cartel to funnel its shipments through Mexico, however that did not stop the US Customs Service. Three maritime ships were intercepted in '93 with a total of 17,000 kilograms. Operation Cornerstone lasted 14 years, targeting the Cali Cartel's drug trafficking operations.[28]
Major arrests[edit]
Miguel Rodriguez-Orejuela being escorted by DEA and US Customs agents.
Between June and July 1995, the remaining six of the seven heads of the cartel were arrested.[12] Gilberto was arrested in his home, and Henry Loaiza-Ceballos, Victor Patiño-Fomeque and Phanor Arizabaleta-Arzayus surrendered to authorities. Jose Santa Cruz Londoño was captured in a restaurant, and a month later Miguel Rodriguez was apprehended during a raid. It is widely believed that the cartel continued to operate and run trafficking operations from within prison.[14][15][21]
The Rodríguez brothers were extradited in 2006 to the United States and pleaded guilty in Miami, Florida to charges of conspiracy to import cocaine into the United States. Upon their confession they agreed to forfeit $2.1 billion in assets. The agreement, however, did not require them to cooperate in other investigations. They were solely responsible for identification of assets stemming from their cocaine trafficking. Colombian officials raided and seized the Drogas la Rebaja pharmacy chain, replacing 50 of its 4,200 workers on grounds they were "serving the interests of the Cali Cartel".[15][29]
See also[edit]
Cocaine Cowboys, a 2006 documentary film
Medellín Cartel
Mexican Drug War
Narcotrafficking in Colombia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rempel, William (2011). At the Devil's Table: The Untold Story of the Insider Who Brought Down the Cali Cartel. Random House Pub.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Felia Allum & Renate Siebert (2003). Organized Crime and the Challenge to Democracy. Routledge. pp. 98, 99, 100, 103.
^ Jump up to: a b Juan E. Méndez (1992). Political Murder and Reform in Colombia: The Violence Continues. Americas Watch Committee (U.S.). pp. 76, 82, 83.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Enid Mumford (1999). Dangerous Decisions: Problem Solving in Tomorrow's World. Springer. pp. 81, 83, 84, 85.
Jump up ^ Rahman, Ray (August 31, 2017). "Narcos season 3: Pedro Pascal previews battle against 'Cocaine Inc.'". EW.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Ron Chepesiuk (2003). The Bullet or the Bribe: Taking Down Colombia's Cali Drug Cartel. Praeger Publishers. pp. 23–26, 32, 64, 68, 118.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Richard Peter Treadwell Davenport-Hines (2004). The Pursuit of Oblivion: a Global History of Narcotics. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 435.
Jump up ^ Coghlan, Nicholas (2004). Saddest Country: On Assignment in Colombia. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 132.
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^ Jump up to: a b Krzysztof Dydynski (2003). Lonely Planet: Colombia. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d John Moody, Pablo Rodriguez Orejuela & Tom Quinn (1991-07-01). "A Day with the Chess Player". Time.
^ Jump up to: a b Kevin Fedarko (1995-07-17). "Outwitting Cali's Professor Moriarty". Time.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Colombia takes charge of pharmacy chain linked to Cali cartel". USA Today. 2004-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Pablo Escobar fue dejando a su paso un rasario de muerte y terror". El Tiempo (in Spanish). June 20, 1991. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b New Book Poses Question of Putin's Links with Underworld. The St. Petersburg Times
^ Jump up to: a b J.V. Koshiw (12–13 October 2007). "Kuchma's "Parallel Cabinet" - The center of President Kuchma's authoritarian rule based on the Melnychenko recordings" (PDF). Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Manuel Castells (2000). End of Millennium. Blackwell Publishing. p. 204.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kevin Jack Riley (1996). Snow Job?: The War Against International Cocaine Trafficking. Transaction Publishers. pp. 170, 178, 181.
^ Jump up to: a b Patrick L. Clawson & Rensselaer W. Lee (1998). The Andean Cocaine Industry. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 58–61.
Jump up ^ Dominic Streatfeild (2002). Cocaine: An Unauthorized Biography. Thomas Dunne Books. p. 360.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Rempel, William C. (February 24, 2007). "The man who took down Cali". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2015-06-12.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Rempel, William C. (June 2011). "At the Devil's Table - Untold Story of Insider Who Brought Down the Cali Cartel". At the Devil's Table.com. Retrieved 2015-06-12.
Jump up ^ Dirty Combat: Secret Wars and Serious Misadventures by David Tomkins.
^ Jump up to: a b Elizabeth Gleick (1995-06-19). "Kingpin Checkmate". Time.
Jump up ^ William Avilés (2006). Global Capitalism, Democracy, and Civil-Military Relations in Colombia. SUNY Press. p. 115.
^ Jump up to: a b c "History of the US Customs Service Investigation into Colombia's Cali Drug Cartel and the Rodriguez-Orejuela Brothers". United States Customs Service.
Jump up ^ "Transcript of Press Conference Announcing Guilty Pleas by Cali Cartel". United States Department of Justice. 2016-10-23.
Bibliography[edit]
Chepesiuk, Ron (2005). Drug Lords: The Rise and Fall of the Cali Cartel. Milo Books.
Chepesiuk, Ron. The Bullet Or the Bribe: Taking Down Colombia's Cali Drug Cartel.
Rempel, William (2011). At the Devil's Table: The Untold Story of the Insider Who Brought Down the Cali Cartel. Random House.
U.S. vs Jorge Alberto Rodríguez. 981 Federal Reporter 2d. p. 1199.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cali_Cartel&oldid=828109551"
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Overall equipment effectiveness
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Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a term coined by Seiichi Nakajima[1] in the 1960s to evaluate how effectively a manufacturing operation is utilized. It is based on the Harrington Emerson way of thinking regarding labor efficiency.[citation needed] The results are stated in a generic form which allows comparison between manufacturing units in differing industries. It is not however an absolute measure and is best used to identify scope for process performance improvement, and how to get the improvement.[2] If for example the cycle time is reduced, the OEE will increase i.e. more product is produced for less resource. Another example is if one enterprise serves a high volume, low variety market, and another enterprise serves a low volume, high variety market. More changeovers (set-ups) will lower the OEE in comparison, but if the product is sold at a premium, there could be more margin with a lower OEE.
OEE measurement is also commonly used as a key performance indicator (KPI) in conjunction with lean manufacturing efforts to provide an indicator of success. OEE can be illustrated by a brief discussion of the six metrics that comprise the system. The hierarchy consists of two top-level measures and four underlying measures.
Contents
[hide]
1 Top-level metrics
2 Underlying metrics
3 Calculations for OEE and TEEP
3.1 Overall equipment effectiveness
3.2 Total effective equipment performance
3.3 Loading
3.4 Availability
3.5 Performance and productivity
3.6 Quality
4 "Six Big Losses"
5 Heuristic
6 Further reading
7 See also
8 References
Top-level metrics[edit]
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) and total effective equipment performance (TEEP) are two closely related metrics that report the overall utilization of facilities, time and material for manufacturing operations. These top view metrics directly indicate the gap between actual and ideal performance.
Overall equipment effectiveness quantifies how well a manufacturing unit performs relative to its designed capacity, during the periods when it is scheduled to run.
Total effective equipment performance (TEEP) measures OEE against calendar hours, i.e.: 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.
Underlying metrics[edit]
In addition to the above measures, there are four underlying metrics that provide understanding as to why and where the OEE and TEEP gaps exist.
The measurements are described below
Loading: The portion of the TEEP Metric that represents the percentage of total calendar time that is actually scheduled for operation.
Availability: The portion of the OEE Metric that represents the percentage of scheduled time that the operation is available to operate. Often referred to as Uptime.
Performance: The portion of the OEE Metric that represents the speed at which the Work Center runs as a percentage of its designed speed.
Quality: The portion of the OEE Metric that represents the Good Units produced as a percentage of the Total Units Started. It is commonly referred to as the first pass yield (FPY).
Calculations for OEE and TEEP[edit]
What follows is a detailed presentation of each of the six OEE / TEEP Metrics and examples of how to perform calculations. The calculations are not particularly complicated, but care must be taken as to standards that are used as the basis. Additionally, these calculations are valid at the work center or part number level but become more complicated if rolling up to aggregate levels.[3]
Overall equipment effectiveness[edit]
OEE breaks the performance of a manufacturing unit into three separate but measurable components: Availability, Performance, and Quality. Each component points to an aspect of the process that can be targeted for improvement. OEE may be applied to any individual Work Center, or rolled up to Department or Plant levels. This tool also allows for drilling down for very specific analysis, such as a particular Part Number, Shift, or any of several other parameters. It is unlikely that any manufacturing process can run at 100% OEE. Many manufacturers benchmark their industry to set a challenging target; 85% is not uncommon.
OEE is calculated with the formula (Availability)*(Performance)*(Quality)
Using the examples given below:
(Availability= 86.6%)*(Performance=93%)*(Quality=91.3%)= (OEE=73.6%)
Alternatively, and often easier, OEE is calculated by dividing the minimum time needed to produce the parts under optimal conditions by the actual time needed to produce the parts. For example:
Total Time: 8 hour shift or 28,800 seconds, producing 14,400 parts, or one part every 2 seconds.
Fastest possible cycle time is 1.5 seconds, hence only 21,600 seconds would have been needed to produce the 14,400 parts. The remaining 7,200 seconds or 2 hours were lost.
The OEE is now the 21,600 seconds divided by 28,800 seconds (same as minimal 1.5 seconds per part divided by 2 actual seconds per part), or 75%.
Total effective equipment performance[edit]
Where OEE measures effectiveness based on scheduled hours, TEEP measures effectiveness against calendar hours, i.e.: 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.
TEEP, therefore, reports the 'bottom line' utilization of assets.
TEEP = Loading * OEE[3]
Loading[edit]
The Loading portion of the TEEP Metric represents the percentage of time that an operation is scheduled to operate compared to the total Calendar Time that is available. The Loading Metric is a pure measurement of Schedule Effectiveness and is designed to exclude the effects how well that operation may perform.
Calculation: Loading = Scheduled Time / Calendar Time
Example:
A given Work Center is scheduled to run 5 Days per Week, 24 Hours per Day.
For a given week, the Total Calendar Time is 7 Days at 24 Hours.
Loading = (5 days x 24 hours) / (7 days x 24 hours) = 71.4%
Availability[edit]
The Availability portion of the OEE Metric represents the percentage of scheduled time that the operation is available to operate. The Availability Metric is a pure measurement of Uptime that is designed to exclude the effects of Quality, Performance, and Scheduled Downtime Events. The losses due to wasted availability are called availability losses.[4]
Example: A given Work Center is scheduled to run for an 8-hour (480 minute) shift with a 30-minute scheduled break and experiences 60 minutes of unplanned (breakdown) time. In this case, the 30 minute break should be considered "scheduled time" although it is planned downtime.
Operating Time = 480 Minutes Scheduled – 30 Minutes Scheduled Downtime – 60 Minutes Unscheduled Downtime = 390 Minutes
Calculation: Availability = operating time / scheduled time[5]
Availability = 390 minutes / 480 minutes = 81.25%
Performance and productivity[edit]
Also known as "process rate", the Performance portion of the OEE Metric represents the speed at which the Work Center runs as a percentage of its designed speed. The Performance Metric is a pure measurement of speed that is designed to exclude the effects of Quality and Availability. The losses due to wasted performance are also often called speed losses. In practice it is often difficult to determine speed losses, and a common approach is to merely assign the remaining unknown losses as speed losses.
Calculation: Performance (Productivity) = (Parts Produced * Ideal Cycle Time) / Operating time [6]
Example:
A given Work Center is scheduled to run for an 8-hour (480 minute) shift with a 30-minute scheduled break.
Operating Time = 450 Min Scheduled – 60 Min Unscheduled Downtime = 390 Minutes
The Standard Rate for the part being produced is 40 Units/Hour or 1.5 Minutes/Unit
The Work Center produces 242 Total Units during the shift. Note: The basis is Total Units, not Good Units. The Performance metric does not penalize for Quality.
Time to Produce Parts = 242 Units * 1.5 Minutes/Unit = 363 Minutes
Performance (Productivity) = 363 Minutes / 390 Minutes = 93.0%
Quality[edit]
The Quality portion of the OEE Metric represents the Good Units produced as a percentage of the Total Units Started. The Quality Metric is a pure measurement of Process Yield that is designed to exclude the effects of Availability and Performance. The losses due to defects and rework are called quality losses.
Calculation: Quality = (Units produced - defective units) / (Units produced)[5]
Example:
242 Units are produced. 21 are defective.
(242 units produced - 21 defective units) = 221 units
221 good units / 242 total units produced = 91.32%
"Six Big Losses"[edit]
Example of OEE and Six Loss calculation
To be able to better determine what is contributing to the greatest loss and so what areas should be targeted to improve the performance, these categories (Availability, Performance and Quality) have been subdivided further into what is known as the ‘Six Big Losses’ to OEE.
These are categorized as follows:
Availability
Performance
Quality
Planned Downtime Minor Stops Production Rejects
Breakdowns Speed Loss Rejects on Start up
The reason for identifying the losses in these categories is so that specific countermeasures can be applied to reduce the loss and improve the overall OEE.
Heuristic[edit]
OEE is useful as a heuristic, but can break down in several circumstances. For example, it may be far more costly to run a facility at certain times. Performance and quality may not be independent of each other or of availability and loading. Experience may develop over time. Since the performance of shop floor managers is at least sometimes compared to the OEE, these numbers are often not reliable, and there are numerous ways to fudge these numbers.[7]
OEE has properties of a geometric mean. As such it punishes variability among its subcomponents. For example, 20% * 80% = 16%, whereas 50% * 50% = 25%. When there are asymmetric costs associated with one or more of the components, then the model may become less appropriate.
Consider a system where the cost of error is exceptionally high. In such a condition, higher quality may be far more important in a proper evaluation of effectiveness than performance or availability. OEE also to some extent assumes a closed system and a potentially static one. If one can bring in additional resources (or lease out unused resources to other projects or business units) then it may be more appropriate for example to use an expected net present value analysis.
Variability in flow can also introduce important costs and risks that may merit further modeling. Sensitivity analysis and measures of change may be helpful.
Further reading[edit]
Hansen, Robert C (2005). Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE). Industrial Press. ISBN 978-0-8311-3237-8.
Koch, Arno (2007). OEE for the Production Team. Makigami. ISBN 978-90-78210-08-5. (English). ISBN 978-90-78210-07-8 (Dutch)., ISBN 978-3-940775-04-7 (German).
Productivity Press Development Team (1999), OEE for Operators: Overall Equipment Effectiveness, Productivity Press, ISBN 978-1-56327-221-9
See also[edit]
Total productive maintenance
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Origin of OEE". OEE Foundation. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Understanding OEE". Retrieved 7 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "OEE Overview - with Calculation Methods" (PDF). Retrieved 23 Sep 2013.
Jump up ^ "Understanding Availability". Retrieved 9 Oct 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Calculate OEE - Simple Calculator & OEE Formulas". SensrTrx | Cloud Manufacturing Analytics. Retrieved 2016-10-15.
Jump up ^ "OEE Primer: Calculating OEE". Retrieved 9 Jul 2013.
Jump up ^ "Top Three Methods on how to Fudge Your OEE". Retrieved 5 Jan 2014.
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Major religious groups
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"World religions" redirects here. For other uses, see World religions (disambiguation). For breakdown by religion, see List of religions and spiritual traditions.
The world's principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups, although this is by no means a uniform practice. This theory began in the 18th century with the goal of recognizing the relative levels of civility in societies.[1]
World map color-coded to denote major religion affiliations (as of 2011[update])
Contents
[hide]
1 History of religious categories
2 Classification
3 Religious demographics
3.1 Largest religions
3.2 Medium-sized religions
4 By region
5 Trends in adherence
5.1 World Christian Encyclopedia
6 Maps of self-reported adherence
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Sources
11 External links
History of religious categories
An 1821 map of the world, where "Christians, Mahometans, and Pagans" correspond to levels of civilization (the map makes no distinction between Buddhism and Hinduism).
An 1883 map of the world divided into colors representing "Christians, Buddhists, Hindus, Mohammedans and Pagans".
In world cultures, there have traditionally been many different groupings of religious belief. In Indian culture, different religious philosophies were traditionally respected as academic differences in pursuit of the same truth. In Islam, the Quran mentions three different categories: Muslims, the People of the Book, and idol worshipers. Initially, Christians had a simple dichotomy of world beliefs: Christian civility versus foreign heresy or barbarity. In the 18th century, "heresy" was clarified to mean Judaism and Islam;[citation needed][2] along with paganism, this created a fourfold classification which spawned such works as John Toland's Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity,[3] which represented the three Abrahamic religions as different "nations" or sects within religion itself, the "true monotheism."
Daniel Defoe described the original definition as follows: "Religion is properly the Worship given to God, but 'tis also applied to the Worship of Idols and false Deities."[4] At the turn of the 19th century, in between 1780 and 1810, the language dramatically changed: instead of "religion" being synonymous with spirituality, authors began using the plural, "religions," to refer to both Christianity and other forms of worship. Therefore, Hannah Adams's early encyclopedia, for example, had its name changed from An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects... to A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations.[5][6]
In 1838, the four-way division of Christianity, Judaism, Mahommedanism (archaic terminology for Islam) and Paganism was multiplied considerably by Josiah Conder's Analytical and Comparative View of All Religions Now Extant among Mankind. Conder's work still adhered to the four-way classification, but in his eye for detail he puts together much historical work to create something resembling our modern Western image: he includes Druze, Yezidis, Mandeans, and Elamites[clarification needed] [7] under a list of possibly monotheistic groups, and under the final category, of "polytheism and pantheism," he listed Zoroastrianism, "Vedas, Puranas, Tantras, Reformed sects" of India as well as "Brahminical idolatry," Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Lamaism, "religion of China and Japan," and "illiterate superstitions" as others.[8][9]
The modern meaning of the phrase "world religion," putting non-Christians at the same level as Christians, began with the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago. The Parliament spurred the creation of a dozen privately funded lectures with the intent of informing people of the diversity of religious experience: these lectures funded researchers such as William James, D. T. Suzuki, and Alan Watts, who greatly influenced the public conception of world religions.[10]
In the latter half of the 20th century, the category of "world religion" fell into serious question, especially for drawing parallels between vastly different cultures, and thereby creating an arbitrary separation between the religious and the secular.[11] Even history professors have now taken note of these complications and advise against teaching "world religions" in schools.[12] Others see the shaping of religions in the context of the nation-state as the "invention of traditions."
Classification
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Further information: Comparative religion and Sociological classifications of religious movements
Religious traditions fall into super-groups in comparative religion, arranged by historical origin and mutual influence. Abrahamic religions originate in West Asia,[13][14] Indian religions in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia)[15] and East Asian religions in East Asia.[16] Another group with supra-regional influence are Afro-American religion,[17] which have their origins in Central and West Africa.
Middle Eastern religions:[18]
Abrahamic religions are the largest group, and these consist mainly of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith. They are named for the patriarch Abraham, and are unified by the practice of monotheism. Today, at least 3.8 billion people are followers of Abrahamic religions [19] and are spread widely around the world apart from the regions around East and Southeast Asia. Several Abrahamic organizations are vigorous proselytizers.[20]
Iranian religions, partly of Indo-European origins,[21][22] include Zoroastrianism, Yazdânism, Ætsæg Din, Ahl-e Haqq and historical traditions of Gnosticism (Mandaeism, Manichaeism).
Indian religions, originated in Greater India and partly of Indo-European origins, they tend to share a number of key concepts, such as dharma, karma, reincarnation among others. They are of the most influence across the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Southeast Asia, as well as isolated parts of Russia. The main Indian religions are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
East Asian religions consist of several East Asian religions which make use of the concept of Tao (in Chinese) or Dō (in Japanese or Korean). They include many Chinese folk religions, Taoism and Confucianism, as well as Korean and Japanese religion influenced by Chinese thought.
African religions:[18]
The religions of the tribal peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa, but excluding ancient Egyptian religion, which is considered to belong to the ancient Middle East;[18]
African diasporic religions practiced in the Americas, imported as a result of the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 18th centuries, building on traditional religions of Central and West Africa.
Indigenous ethnic religions, found on every continent, now marginalized by the major organized faiths in many parts of the world or persisting as undercurrents (folk religions) of major religions. Includes traditional African religions, Asian shamanism, Native American religions, Austronesian and Australian Aboriginal traditions, Chinese folk religions, and postwar Shinto. Under more traditional listings, this has been referred to as "paganism" along with historical polytheism.
New religious movement is the term applied to any religious faith which has emerged since the 19th century, often syncretizing, re-interpreting or reviving aspects of older traditions such as Ayyavazhi, Mormonism, Ahmadiyya, Pentecostalism, polytheistic reconstructionism, and so forth.
Religious demographics
Further information: List of religious populations
Main category: Religious demographics
One way to define a major religion is by the number of current adherents. The population numbers by religion are computed by a combination of census reports and population surveys (in countries where religion data is not collected in census, for example the United States or France), but results can vary widely depending on the way questions are phrased, the definitions of religion used and the bias of the agencies or organizations conducting the survey. Informal or unorganized religions are especially difficult to count.
There is no consensus among researchers as to the best methodology for determining the religiosity profile of the world's population. A number of fundamental aspects are unresolved:
Whether to count "historically predominant religious culture[s]"[23]
Whether to count only those who actively "practice" a particular religion[24]
Whether to count based on a concept of "adherence"[25]
Whether to count only those who expressly self-identify with a particular denomination[26]
Whether to count only adults, or to include children as well.
Whether to rely only on official government-provided statistics[27]
Whether to use multiple sources and ranges or single "best source(s)"
Largest religions
Worldwide percentage of Adherents by Religion, 2010[28]
Christianity (31.5%)
Islam (23.2%)
Irreligion (16.3%)
Hinduism (15.0%)
Buddhism (7.1%)
Folk religions (5.9%)
Other religions (1%)
The table (below) and the pie chart list religions classified by philosophy; however, religious philosophy is not always the determining factor in local practice. Please note that this table includes heterodox movements as adherents to their larger philosophical category, although this may be disputed by others within that category. For example, Christianity and Islam include those who are culturally Christian and Muslim as well as indigenous people combining folk religions or shamanism with either.
The population numbers below are computed by a combination of census reports, random surveys (in countries where religion data is not collected in census, for example the United States or France), and self-reported attendance numbers, but results can vary widely depending on the way questions are phrased, the definitions of religion used and the bias of the agencies or organizations conducting the survey. Informal or unorganized religions are especially difficult to count. Some organizations may wildly inflate their numbers.
Religion
Number of followers
(in millions)
Cultural tradition
Founded
References
Christianity 01 !2,420 01 !Abrahamic religions Middle East [28][29]
Islam 02 !1,800 02 !Abrahamic religions Middle East [30]
Hinduism 03 !1,150 03 !Indian religions (Dharmic) Indian subcontinent [28]
Buddhism 05 !520 05 !Indian religions (Dharmic) Indian subcontinent [31]
Folk religion 04 !400 04 !Organized religion Worldwide [32]
Medium-sized religions
The following are medium-sized world religions:
Religion
Number of followers
(in millions)
Cultural tradition
Founded
References
Taoism 01 !12–173 01 !Chinese religions China [33]
Shinto 02 !100 02 !Japanese religions Japan [34][35]
Falun Gong 03 !80–100 03 !Chinese religions China, 20th century [36]
Sikhism 04 !30 04 !Indian religions (Dharmic) Indian subcontinent, 15th century [37]
Judaism 05 !17 05 !Abrahamic religions Levant (Middle East) [28]
Korean shamanism 06 !5–15 06 !Korean religions Korea [38]
Caodaism 07 !5–9 07 !Vietnamese religions Vietnam, 20th century [39]
Bahá'í Faith 08 !5–7.3 08 !Abrahamic religions Iran, 19th century [40][41][nb 1]
Tenriism 09 !5 09 !Japanese religions Japan, 19th century [42]
Jainism 10 !4 10 !Indian religions (Dharmic) Indian subcontinent, 7th to 9th century BC [43]
Cheondoism 11 !3–4 11 !Korean religions Korea, 19th century [44]
Hoahaoism 12 !1.5–3 12 !Vietnamese religions Vietnam, 20th century [45]
By region
Further information: Religions by country
Religions by country according to The World Factbook - CIA [46]
Religion by region
Religion in Africa
Religion in Antarctica
Religion in Asia
Religion in the Middle East
Muslim world (SW Asia and N Africa)
Religion in Europe
Religion in the European Union
Religion in North America
Religion in Oceania
Religion in South America
Trends in adherence
Further information: Growth of religion
Since the late 19th century, the demographics of religion have changed a great deal. On the one hand, since the 19th century, large areas of Sub-Saharan Africa have been converted to Christianity, and this area of the world has the highest population growth rate. On the other hand, some countries with a historically large Christian population have experienced a significant decline in the numbers of professed active Christians: see demographics of atheism. Symptoms of the decline in active participation in Christian religious life include declining recruitment for the priesthood and monastic life, as well as diminishing attendance at church. In the realm of Western culture, there has been an increase in the number of people who identify themselves as secular humanists. In many countries, such as the People's Republic of China, communist governments have discouraged religion, making it difficult to count the actual number of believers. However, after the collapse of communism in numerous countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, religious life has been experiencing resurgence there, both in the form of traditional Eastern Christianity and particularly in the forms of Neopaganism and East Asian religions.[citation needed]
World Christian Encyclopedia
Following is some available data based on the work of the World Christian Encyclopedia:[47]
Trends in annual growth of adherence
1970–1985[48]
1990–2000[49][50]
2000–2005[51]
% change 1970–2010 (40 yrs)[41]
3.65%: Bahá'í Faith 2.65%: Zoroastrianism 1.84%: Islam 9.85%: Daoism
2.74%: Islam 2.28%: Bahá'í Faith 1.70%: Bahá'í Faith 4.26%: Bahá'í Faith
2.34%: Hinduism 2.13%: Islam 1.62%: Sikhism 4.23%: Islam
1.67%: Buddhism 1.87%: Sikhism 1.57%: Hinduism 3.08%: Sikhism
1.64%: Christianity 1.69%: Hinduism 1.32%: Christianity 2.76%: Buddhism
1.09%: Judaism 1.36%: Christianity 2.62%: Hinduism
1.09%: Buddhism 2.60%: Jainism
2.50%: Zoroastrianism
across 40 yrs, world total 2.16%
2.10%: Christianity
0.83%: Confucianism
0.37%: unaffiliated (inc. atheists, agnostics, religious but not affiliated)
-0.03%: Judaism
-0.83%: Shintoism
Maps of self-reported adherence
Map showing self-reported religiosity by country. Based on a 2006–2008 worldwide survey by Gallup.
World map showing the percentages of people who regard religion as "non-important" according to a 2002 Pew survey
Religions of the world, mapped by distribution.
Predominant religions of the world, mapped by state
Map showing the prevalence of "Abrahamic religion" (purple), and "Indian religion" (yellow) religions in each country.
Map showing the relative proportion of Christianity (red) and Islam (green) in each country as of 2006
Map showing the distribution of world religions by country/state, and by smaller administrative regions for the largest countries (China, India, Russia, United States), according to the most recent data available (2012).
Christianity
Islam
Buddhism, Chinese religions, Hinduism, indigenous religions
See also
Religion portal
See also: Category:Religion by country.
Dharma
Irreligion
List of religious populations
Numinous
Religious conversion
Religious text
State religion
Notes
Jump up ^ Historically, the Bahá'í Faith arose in 19th century Persia, in the context of Shia Islam, and thus may be classed on this basis as a divergent strand of Islam, placing it in the Abrahamic tradition. However, the Bahá'í Faith considers itself an independent religious tradition, which draws from Islam but also other traditions. The Bahá'í Faith may also be classed as a new religious movement, due to its comparatively recent origin, or may be considered sufficiently old and established for such classification to not be applicable.
References
Jump up ^ Masuzawa, Tomoko (2005). The Invention of World Religions. Chicago University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-50989-1.
Jump up ^ Glaser, Daryl; Walker, David M. (2007-09-12). Twentieth-Century Marxism: A Global Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 9781135979744.
Jump up ^ Toland, John; La Monnoye, Bernard de (1718-01-01). Nazarenus, or, Jewish, gentile, and Mahometan Christianity : containing the history of the antient Gospel of Barnabas, and the modern Gospel of the Mahometans ... also the original plan of Christianity explain'd in the history of the Nazarens ... with the relation of an Irish manuscript of the four Gospels, as likewise a summary of the antient Irish Christianity. London : J. Brotherton, J. Roberts and A. Dodd.
Jump up ^ Masuzawa, Tomoko (2012-04-26). The Invention of World Religions: Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226922621.
Jump up ^ Masuzawa 2005. pp. 49–61
Jump up ^ Masuzawa, Tomoko (2012-04-26). The Invention of World Religions: Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226922621.
Jump up ^ Masuzawa, Tomoko (2012-04-26). The Invention of World Religions: Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226922621.
Jump up ^ Masuzawa 2005, pp. 65–6
Jump up ^ Masuzawa, Tomoko (2012-04-26). The Invention of World Religions: Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226922621.
Jump up ^ Masuzawa 2005, 270–281
Jump up ^ Stephen R. L. Clark. "World Religions and World Orders". Religious studies 26.1 (1990).
Jump up ^ Joel E. Tishken. "Ethnic vs. Evangelical Religions: Beyond Teaching the World Religion Approach". The History Teacher 33.3 (2000).
Jump up ^ Spirituality and Psychiatry - Page 236, Chris Cook, Andrew Powell, A. C. P. Sims - 2009
Jump up ^ "Abraham, Father of the Middle East". www.dangoor.com. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
Jump up ^ "The Religions of the Indian Subcontinent Stretch Back for Millennia". About.com Education. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob (2009-10-07). World Religions in America, Fourth Edition: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9781611640472.
Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob (2009-10-07). World Religions in America, Fourth Edition: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9781611640472.
^ Jump up to: a b c Charles Joseph Adams, Classification of religions: geographical, Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Statistician, Howard Steven Friedman; Teacher, health economist for the United Nations;; University, Columbia (2011-04-25). "5 Religions With The Most Followers | Huffington Post". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
Jump up ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, Minnesota: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
Jump up ^ Samuel 2010.
Jump up ^ Anthony 2007.
Jump up ^ Pippa Norris; Ronald Inglehart (2007-01-06), Sacred and Secular, Religion and Politics Worldwide, Cambridge University Press, pp. 43–44, retrieved 2006-12-29
Jump up ^ Pew Research Center (2002-12-19). "Among Wealthy Nations U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2006-10-12.
Jump up ^ adherents.com (2005-08-28). "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". adherents.com. Retrieved 2006-10-12.
Jump up ^ worldvaluessurvey.org (2005-06-28). "World Values Survey". worldvaluessurvey.org. Retrieved 2006-10-12.
Jump up ^ unstats.un.org (2007-01-06). "United Nations Statistics Division - Demographic and Social Statistics". United Nations Statistics Division. Retrieved 2007-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Global Religious Landscape". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew Research center. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
Jump up ^ "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
Jump up ^ "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
Jump up ^ "Folk Religionists". Pew Research Center. December 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
Jump up ^ 2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by the Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. On: Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29-54, ISSN 2192-9289.
Jump up ^ "Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Japan: International Religious Freedom Report 2006". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor; U.S. Department of State. 15 September 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Jessica Gelt, "Falun Gong, banned in China, finds a loud protest voice in the U.S. through Shen Yun dance troupe", Los Angeles Times, 9 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sikhism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Self-reported figures from 1999; North Korea only (South Korean followers are minimal according to census). In The A to Z of New Religious Movements by George D. Chryssides. ISBN 0-8108-5588-7.
Jump up ^ Sergei Blagov. "Caodaism in Vietnam : Religion vs Restrictions and Persecution". IARF World Congress, Vancouver, Canada, July 31, 1999.
Jump up ^ Other Religions. Pew Forum report.
^ Jump up to: a b Grim, Brian J (2012). "Rising restrictions on religion" (PDF). International Journal of Religious Freedom. 5 (1): 17–33. ISSN 2070-5484. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
Jump up ^ Self-reported figures printed in Japanese Ministry of Education's 宗教年間 Shuukyou Nenkan, 2003
Jump up ^ "Jainism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Self-reported figures from North Korea (South Korean followers are minimal according to census): "Religious Intelligence UK report". Religious Intelligence. Religious Intelligence. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Janet Alison Hoskins. What Are Vietnam's Indigenous Religions?. Center for Southeast Asian Studies Kyoto University.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
Jump up ^ The results have been studied and found "highly correlated with other sources of data", but "consistently gave a higher estimate for percent Christian in comparison to other cross-national data sets." Hsu, Becky; Reynolds, Amy; Hackett, Conrad; Gibbon, James (2008-07-09). "Estimating the Religious Composition of All Nations" (PDF). Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2008.00435.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2010.
Jump up ^ International Community, Bahá'í (1992). "How many Bahá'ís are there?". The Bahá'ís. p. 14. .
Jump up ^ Barrett, David A. (2001). World Christian Encyclopedia. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-507963-9.
Jump up ^ Barrett, David; Johnson, Todd (2001). "Global adherents of the World's 19 distinct major religions" (PDF). William Carey Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-28. Retrieved 2006-10-12.
Jump up ^ Staff (May 2007). "The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions". Foreign Policy. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
Sources
Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
External links
Animated history of World Religions—from the "Religion & Ethics" part of the BBC website, interactive animated view of the spread of world religions (requires Flash plug-in).
BBC A-Z of Religions and Beliefs
Major World Religions
International Council for Inter-Religious Cooperation
International Imam Organization
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World religions (disambiguation)

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Abrahamic religion

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values: Донъя диндәре – Bashkir

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