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Wage labour
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Wage labour (also wage labor in American English) is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells his or her labour under a formal or informal employment contract.[1] These transactions usually occur in a labour market where wages are market determined.[2].
In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the employee personally responsible for the invention. A wage labourer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labour in this way.
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 Types
3 Criticisms
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Characteristics[edit]
In modern mixed economies such as those of the OECD countries, it is currently the most common form of work arrangement. Although most labour is organised as per this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labour" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labour. Various studies have shown that employees generally spend 1.5 to 3 hours a day on non-work related activities.[3]
Types[edit]
The most common form of wage labour currently is ordinary direct, or "full-time". This is employment in which a free worker sells his or her labour for an indeterminate time (from a few years to the entire career of the worker), in return for a money-wage or salary and a continuing relationship with the employer which it does not in general offer contractors or other irregular staff. However, wage labour takes many other forms, and explicit as opposed to implicit (i.e. conditioned by local labour and tax law) contracts are not uncommon. Economic history shows a great variety of ways, in which labour is traded and exchanged. The differences show up in the form of:
Employment status – a worker could be employed full-time, part-time, or on a casual basis. He or she could be employed for example temporarily for a specific project only, or on a permanent basis. Part-time wage labour could combine with part-time self-employment. The worker could be employed also as an apprentice.
Civil (legal) status – the worker could for example be a free citizen, an indentured labourer, the subject of forced labour (including some prison or army labour); a worker could be assigned by the political authorities to a task, they could be a semi-slave or a serf bound to the land who is hired out part of the time. So the labour might be performed on a more or less voluntary basis, or on a more or less involuntary basis, in which there are many gradations.
Method of payment (remuneration or compensation) – The work done could be paid "in cash" (a money-wage) or "in kind" (through receiving goods and/or services), or in the form of "piece rates" where the wage is directly dependent on how much the worker produces. In some cases, the worker might be paid in the form of credit used to buy goods and services, or in the form of stock options or shares in an enterprise.
Method of hiring – the worker might engage in a labour-contract on his or her own initiative, or he or she might hire out their labour as part of a group. But he or she may also hire out their labour via an intermediary (such as an employment agency) to a third party. In this case, he or she is paid by the intermediary, but works for a third party which pays the intermediary. In some cases, labour is subcontracted several times, with several intermediaries. Another possibility is that the worker is assigned or posted to a job by a political authority, or that an agency hires out a worker to an enterprise together with means of production.
Criticisms[edit]
Main article: Wage slavery
Wage labour has long been compared to slavery by socialists.[4][5][6][7] As a result, the term "wage slavery" is often utilised as a pejorative for wage labour.[8] Similarly, advocates of slavery looked upon the "comparative evils of Slave Society and of Free Society, of slavery to human Masters and slavery to Capital,"[9] and proceeded to argue persuasively that wage slavery was actually worse than chattel slavery.[10] Slavery apologists like George Fitzhugh contended that workers only accepted wage labour with the passage of time, as they became "familiarized and inattentive to the infected social atmosphere they continually inhale[d]."[9]
The slave, together with his labour-power, was sold to his owner once for all.... The [wage] labourer, on the other hand, sells his very self, and that by fractions.... He [belongs] to the capitalist class; and it is for him ... to find a buyer in this capitalist class.[11]
—Karl Marx
According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book On the Limits of State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how "whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness" and so when the labourer works under external control, "we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is."[12] Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations.[13] Additionally, as per anthropologist David Graeber, the earliest wage labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with which to maintain his or her living expenses.) Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the United States or Brazil.[14] C. L. R. James argued in The Black Jacobins that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were first developed on slave plantations.[15]
For Marxists, labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour,[16] provides a fundamental point of attack against capitalism.[17] "It can be persuasively argued," noted one concerned philosopher, "that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it."[18] That this objection is fundamental follows immediately from Marx's conclusion that wage labour is the very foundation of capitalism: "Without a class dependent on wages, the moment individuals confront each other as free persons, there can be no production of surplus value; without the production of surplus-value there can be no capitalist production, and hence no capital and no capitalist!"[19]
See also[edit]
Capitalism
Capitalist mode of production
Child labour
Eight-hour day
Full employment
Immiseration thesis
Labour (economics)
Labour theory of value
Marx's theory of alienation
Marxian economics
Reserve army of labour
Rate of exploitation
Surplus value
Sweatshop
Unfree labour
Wage slavery
Working class
Working poor
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Steinfeld 2009, p. 3: "All labor contracts were/are designed legally to bind a worker in one way or another to fulfill the labor obligations the worker has undertaken. That is one of the principal purposes of labor contracts."
Jump up ^ Deakin & Wilkinson 2005
Jump up ^ Paulsen, Roland (2013-12-26). "Non-work at work: Resistance or what?". Organization. 22 (3): 351–367. doi:10.1177/1350508413515541.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
Jump up ^ Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Hallgrimsdottir & Benoit 2007; Roediger 2007a.
The term is not without its critics, as Roediger 2007b, p. 247, notes: "[T]he challenge to loose connections of wage (or white) slavery to chattel slavery was led by Frederick Douglass and other Black, often fugitive, abolitionists. Their challenge was mercilessly concrete. Douglass, who tried out speeches in work places before giving them in halls, was far from unable to speak to or hear white workers, but he and William Wells Brown did challenge metaphors regarding white slavery sharply. They noted, for example, that their escapes from slavery had left job openings and wondered if any white workers wanted to take the jobs."
^ Jump up to: a b Fitzhugh 1857, p. xvi.
Jump up ^ Carsel 1940.
Jump up ^ Marx 1847, Chapter 2.
Jump up ^ Chomsky 1993, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Thye & Lawler 2006.
Jump up ^ Graeber 2004, p. 71.
Jump up ^ Graeber 2007, p. 106.
Jump up ^ Marx 1990, p. 1006: "[L]abour-power, a commodity sold by the worker himself."
Jump up ^ Another one, of course, being the capitalists' theft from workers via surplus-value.
Jump up ^ Nelson 1995, p. 158. This Marxist objection is what motivated Nelson's essay, which argues that labour is not, in fact, a commodity.
Jump up ^ Marx 1990, p. 1005. Emphasis in the original.
See also p. 716: "[T]he capitalist produces [and reproduces] the worker as a wage-labourer. This incessant reproduction, this perpetuation of the worker, is the absolutely necessary condition for capitalist production."
Bibliography[edit]
Articles
Carsel, Wilfred (1940). "The Slaveholders' Indictment of Northern Wage Slavery". Journal of Southern History. 6 (4): 504–520. JSTOR 2192167.
Hartmann, Heidi (1979). "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a more Progressive Union". Capital & Class. 3 (4): 1–33.
Graeber, David (2004). Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology. Prickly Paradigm Press. ISBN 978-0-9728196-4-0.
Graeber, David (2007). Possibilities: Essays on Hierarchy, Rebellion and Desire. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-66-6.
Hallgrimsdottir, Helga Kristin; Benoit, Cecilia (2007). "From Wage Slaves to Wage Workers: Cultural Opportunity Structures and the Evolution of the Wage Demands of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, 1880–1900". Social Forces. 85 (3): 1393–1411. doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0037. JSTOR 4494978.
Nelson, John O. (1995). "That a Worker's Labour Cannot Be a Commodity". Philosophy. 70 (272): 157–165. doi:10.1017/s0031819100065359. JSTOR 3751199.
Roediger, David (2007b). "An Outmoded Approach to Labour and Slavery". Labour/Le Travail. 60: 245–250. JSTOR 25149808.
Steinfeld, Robert (2009). Coercion/Consent in Labor (PDF). COMPAS Working Paper No. 66. Oxford: University of Oxford. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
Books
Deakin, Simon; Wilkinson, Frank (2005). The Law of the Labour Market: Industrialization, Employment, and Legal Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815281-1.
Elkins, Caroline (2005). Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-07363-9.
Fitzhugh, George (1857). Cannibals All! or, Slaves Without Masters. Richmond, VA: A. Morris.
Krahn, Harvey J., and Graham S. Lowe (1993). Work, Industry, and Canadian Society. Second ed. Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Canada. xii, 430 p. ISBN 0-17-603540-0.
Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23141-6.
Marx, Karl (1847). Wage Labour and Capital.
Marx, Karl (1990) [1867]. Capital, Volume I. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-140-44568-8.
Roediger, David (2007a) [1991]. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (revised and expanded ed.). London & New York: Verso. ISBN 978-1-844-67145-8.
Young, John (1997). Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975–1991. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02606-2.
External links[edit]
Barbrook, Richard (2006). The Class of the New (paperback ed.). London: OpenMute. ISBN 0-9550664-7-6.
LaborFair Resources – link to Fair Labor Practices
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text:
The Polar Express
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the book. For the film adaptation, see The Polar Express (film). For the video game, see The Polar Express (video game). For the soundtrack, see The Polar Express (soundtrack).
The Polar Express
The Polar Express cover
Author
Chris Van Allsburg
Illustrator
Chris Van Allsburg
Cover artist
Chris Van Allsburg
Country
United States
Genre
Children's picture book
Publisher
Houghton Mifflin
Publication date
1985
Media type
Print (hardcover)
Pages
32
ISBN
978-0-395-38949-2
OCLC
12162097
Dewey Decimal
[E] 19
LC Class
PZ7.V266 Po 1985
Preceded by
The Mysteries of Harris Burdick
Followed by
The Stranger
The Polar Express is a children's book written and illustrated by Chris Van Allsburg and published by Houghton Mifflin in 1985. The book is now widely considered to be a classic Christmas story for young children although the point has been challenged.[a] It was praised for its detailed illustrations and calm, relaxing storyline. For the work Van Allsburg won the annual Caldecott Medal for illustration of an American children's picture book in 1986, his second.[1][2]
The book is set partially in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the author's home town, which was inspired by the Herpolsheimer's and Wurzburg's department stores.[3] It was adapted as an Oscar-nominated motion-capture film in 2004 starring Tom Hanks and directed by Robert Zemeckis with Van Allsburg serving as an executive producer on the film.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Development
3 Reception
4 Film adaptation
5 Notes
6 References
Plot summary[edit]
A young boy, who used to adore Christmas, hears a train whistle roar. To his astonishment, he finds the train is waiting for him. He sees a conductor who then proceeds to look up at his window. He runs downstairs and goes outside. The conductor explains the train is called the Polar Express, and is journeying to the North Pole. The boy then boards the train, which is filled with chocolate and candy, as well as many other children in their pajamas.
As the train reaches the North Pole, the boy and the other children see thousands of Christmas elves gathered at the center of town waiting to send Santa Claus on his way. The boy is handpicked by Santa to receive the first gift of Christmas. Realizing that he could choose anything in the world, the boy asks for one bell from one of the reindeer's harnesses. The boy places the bell in the pocket of his robe and all the children watch as Santa takes off into the night for his annual deliveries.
Later, on the train ride home, the boy discovers that the bell has fallen through a hole in his pocket. The boy arrives home and goes to his bedroom as the train pulls away. On Christmas morning, his sister finds a small package for the boy under the tree, behind all of the other gifts. The boy opens the box and discovers that it is the bell, delivered by Santa who found it on the seat of his sleigh. When the boy rings the bell, both he and his sister marvel at the beautiful sound. His parents, however, are unable to hear the bell and remark that it must be broken. The book ends with the following line:
At one time, most of my friends could hear the bell, but as years passed, it fell silent for all of them. Even Sarah found one Christmas that she could no longer hear its sweet sound. Though I've grown old, the bell still rings for me, as it does for all who truly believe.
Development[edit]
Van Allsburg based the story on a mental image of a child wandering into the woods on a foggy night and wondering where a train was headed.[4]
At the premiere of the movie, Van Allsburg stated that Pere Marquette 1225, formerly owned by Michigan State University and now owned by the Steam Railroading Institute in Owosso, Michigan, was the inspiration for the story line.[citation needed] He played on the engine as a child when it was on display and was inspired by the number 1225, which to him was 12/25 - Christmas Day. The real 1225 was used to create the animated image of the engine and all the locomotive sounds were recorded from the 1225. The only exception to this is the whistle, whose sound is cherished by fans for its unique sound and unknown origin as it does not belong to the 1225 Pere Marquette.[citation needed]
Reception[edit]
In 1986, The Polar Express was awarded the Caldecott Medal and appeared on the New York Times bestseller list.[1][2] By 1989 a million copies had been sold - more each year than the last - and the book had made the bestseller list four years in a row.[5][6]
Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association named the book one of its "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children."[7] It was one of the "Top 100 Picture Books" of all time in a 2012 poll by School Library Journal.[8]
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: The Polar Express (film)
The Polar Express is a 2004 American 3D computer animated musical fantasy film based on the book. Written, produced, and directed by Robert Zemeckis, the film features human characters animated using the live action performance capture technique.
The film stars Daryl Sabara, Nona Gaye, Jimmy Bennett, Michael Jeter (who died in 2003 during production) , and Eddie Deezen, with Tom Hanks in six distinct roles. The film also included a performance by Tinashe at age 9, who later gained exposure as a pop singer in 2010, as the CGI-model for the female protagonist. Castle Rock Entertainment produced the film in association with Shangri-La Entertainment, ImageMovers, Playtone and Golden Mean, for Warner Bros. Pictures. The visual effects and performance capture were done at Sony Pictures Imageworks. The film was made at a budget of $165 million, a record-breaking sum for an animated feature at the time. The studio first released the film in both conventional and IMAX 3D theaters November 10, 2004. It grossed $307 million worldwide.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ On the occasion of the 30th Anniversary Edition, Vicki Smith observed for Kirkus Reviews online that the real audience of the book may be nostalgic adults rather than young children who presumably believe in Santa Claus. In effect it questions the existence of Santa Claus, for the plot turns on who does and who doesn't believe.[9]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Sullivan, Kathleen (November 12, 2004). "'Polar Express' author to discuss book's trip to screen". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Association for Library Service to Children. "Caldecott Medal & Honor Books, 1938-Present". American Library Association. Retrieved August 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kaczmarczyk, Jeffrey (17 November 2015). "'Polar Express' author Chris Van Allsburg on how Christmas in Grand Rapids inspired beloved book". The Grand Rapids Press. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "A Conversation with Chris Van Allsburg by Anita Silvey | The Polar Express". polarexpress.com. Retrieved 2016-02-01.
Jump up ^ Magazine, Kim Herron; Kim Heron Is An Editor Of This (1989-12-24). "VAN ALLSBURG'S EXPRESS". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-02-04.
Jump up ^ "Book Notes". New York Times. 25 October 1989. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Jump up ^ National Education Association (2007). "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children". Retrieved August 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bird, Elizabeth (July 6, 2012). "Top 100 Picture Books Poll Results". School Library Journal "A Fuse #8 Production" blog. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Who's Hearing Those Christmas Bells?: Wondering about the real readership of THE POLAR EXPRESS". Vicki Smith. September 10, 2015. Kirkus (kirkusreviews.com). Retrieved 2016-01-22.
Awards
Preceded by
Saint George and the Dragon Caldecott Medal recipient
1986 Succeeded by
Hey, Al
[hide]
v
t
e
Works by Chris Van Allsburg
Picture books
The Garden of Abdul Gasazi (1979)
Jumanji (1981)
The Wreck of the Zephyr (1983)
The Mysteries of Harris Burdick (1984)
The Enchanted World: Ghosts (1984)
The Polar Express (1985)
The Enchanted World: Dwarfs (1985)
The Stranger (1986)
The Z Was Zapped (1987)
Two Bad Ants (1988)
The Wretched Stone (1991)
The Widow's Broom (1992)
The Sweetest Fig (1993)
The Mysteries of Harris Burdick (1994)
Bad Day at Riverbend (1995)
Zathura (2002)
Probuditi! (2006)
Queen of the Falls (2011)
Books illustrated
A City in Winter (1996)
Film credits
Jumanji (1995)
The Polar Express (2004)
Zathura: A Space Adventure (2005)
Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Polar_Express&oldid=815780350"
Categories:
1985 children's books
Fictional trains
Caldecott Medal-winning works
American children's picture books
Novels by Chris Van Allsburg
Picture books by Chris Van Allsburg
Christmas children's books
Children's books about rail transport
Fictional locomotives
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Houghton Mifflin books
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text:
Book of Jubilees
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"Jubilees" redirects here. For the Jewish legal concept, see Jubilee (biblical).
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The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters, considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is known as the Book of Division (Ge'ez: መጽሃፈ ኩፋሌ Mets'hafe Kufale). Jubilees is considered one of the pseudepigrapha by Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Churches.[1]
It was well known to Early Christians, as evidenced by the writings of Epiphanius, Justin Martyr, Origen, Diodorus of Tarsus, Isidore of Alexandria, Isidore of Seville, Eutychius of Alexandria, John Malalas, George Syncellus, and George Kedrenos. The text was also utilized by the community that originally collected the Dead Sea Scrolls. No complete Hebrew, Greek or Latin version is known to have survived.
The Book of Jubilees claims to present "the history of the division of the days of the Law, of the events of the years, the year-weeks, and the jubilees of the world" as revealed to Moses (in addition to the Torah or "Instruction") by angels while he was on Mount Sinai for forty days and forty nights.[2] The chronology given in Jubilees is based on multiples of seven; the jubilees are periods of 49 years, seven "year-weeks", into which all of time has been divided.
Contents
[hide]
1 Manuscripts
2 Origins
3 Subsequent use
4 Content
5 Sources
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Manuscripts[edit]
Until the discovery of extensive fragments among the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), the only surviving manuscripts of Jubilees were four complete Ge'ez texts dating to the 15th and 16th centuries, and several quotations by the Church fathers such as Epiphanius, Justin Martyr, Origen as well as Diodorus of Tarsus, Isidore of Alexandria, Isidore of Seville, Eutychius of Alexandria, John Malalas, George Syncellus, and George Kedrenos. There is also a preserved fragment of a Latin translation of the Greek that contains about a quarter of the whole work.[3] The Ethiopic texts, now numbering twenty-seven, are the primary basis for translations into English. Passages in the texts of Jubilees that are directly parallel to verses in Genesis do not directly reproduce either of the two surviving manuscript traditions.[4] Consequently, even before the Qumran discoveries, R.H. Charles had deduced that the Hebrew original had used an otherwise unrecorded text for Genesis and for the early chapters of Exodus, one independent either of the Masoretic text or of the Hebrew text that was the basis for the Septuagint. According to one historian, the variation among parallel manuscript traditions that are exhibited by the Septuagint compared with the Masoretic text, and which are embodied in the further variants among the Dead Sea Scrolls, demonstrates that even canonical Hebrew texts did not possess any single "authorized" manuscript tradition in the first centuries BC.[5] However, others write about the existence of three main textual manuscript traditions (namely the Babylonian, Samarian and Pre-Masoretic "proto" textual traditions). Although the Pre-Masoretic text may have indeed been authoritative back then, arguments can be made for and against this concept.[6]
Between 1947 and 1956 approximately 15 Jubilees scrolls were found in five caves at Qumran, all written in Hebrew. The large quantity of manuscripts (more than for any biblical books except for Psalms, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Exodus, and Genesis, in descending order) indicates that Jubilees was widely used at Qumran. A comparison of the Qumran texts with the Ethiopic version, performed by James VanderKam, found that the Ethiopic was in most respects an accurate and literalistic translation.[7]
Origins[edit]
The first biblical scholar to propose an origin for Jubilees was Robert Henry Charles (1855–1931). Charles proposed the author of Jubilees may have been a Pharisee and that Jubilees was the product of the midrash which had already been worked on in the Tanakh/Old Testament Books of Chronicles.[3] However, with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) at Qumran in 1947, Charles' Pharisaic hypothesis of the origin of Jubilees has been almost completely abandoned.
The dating of Jubilees has been problematic for biblical scholars. While the oldest extant copies of Jubilees can be assigned on the basis of the handwriting to about 100 BC, there is much evidence to suggest Jubilees was written prior to this date.[8]
But Jubilees could not have been written very long prior. Jubilees at 4:17-25 records that Enoch "saw in a vision what has happened and what will occur" and the book contains many points of information otherwise found earliest in the Enochian "Animal Apocalypse" (1 Enoch chapters 83-90), such as Enoch's wife being Edna.[9] The Animal Apocalypse pretends to predict the Maccabean Revolt and is commonly dated to that time.[10] The direction of dependence has been controversial,[11] but the consensus since 2008 has been that the Animal Apocalypse was first and Jubilees after.[12]
As a result, general reference works such as the Oxford Annotated Bible and the Mercer Bible Dictionary conclude the work can be dated to 160–150 BC.[13]
Subsequent use[edit]
The Hasmoneans adopted Jubilees immediately, and it became a source for the Aramaic Levi Document.[14] Jubilees remained a point of reference for priestly circles (although they disputed its calendric proposal), and the Temple Scroll and "Epistle of Enoch" (1 Enoch 91:1–10, 92:3–93:10, 91:11–92:2, 93:11–105:3) are based on Jubilees.[15] It is the source for certain of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, for instance that of Reuben.[16]
There is no official record of it in Pharisaic or Rabbinic sources, and it was among several books that the Sanhedrin and Rabbi Akiva left out of the canon they established in the late first century. Sub rosa, many of the traditions which Jubilees includes for the first time are echoed in later Jewish sources, including some 12th-century midrashim which may have had access to a Hebrew copy. The sole exception within Judaism, the Beta Israel Jews formerly of Ethiopia, regard the Ge'ez text as canonical.[17]
Some Early Church Fathers evidently held the book of Jubilees was in high regard, and sometimes quoted it at length.[citation needed]
The Book of Jubilees had great influence on the formation of Islam.[18] In the Book of Jubilees there is the very same concept of revelation as in Islam: God's words and commandments are eternally written on celestial tablets. An angel reveals their content to a prophet (2, 1; 32, 21 f.). Abaham's role in the Book of Jubilees corresponds to Abraham's role in the Quran in more than one way. The interpretation of biblical figures as prophets, is also rooted in the Book of Jubilees. Also numerology, the emphasis on angels, and the symbolism of anniversaries found their way into Islam, such as the fact that many important events in the prophet's biography as presented by Ibn Ishaq happen on the same date.
Content[edit]
Jubilees covers much of the same ground as Genesis, but often with additional detail, and addressing Moses in the second person as the entire history of creation, and of Israel up to that point, is recounted in divisions of 49 years each, or "Jubilees". The elapsed time from the creation, up to Moses receiving the scriptures upon Sinai during the Exodus, is calculated as fifty Jubilees, less the 40 years still to be spent wandering in the desert before entering Canaan – or 2,410 years.
Four classes of angels are mentioned: angels of the presence, angels of sanctifications, guardian angels over individuals, and angels presiding over the phenomena of nature. Enoch was the first man initiated by the angels in the art of writing, and wrote down, accordingly, all the secrets of astronomy, of chronology, and of the world's epochs. As regards demonology, the writer's position is largely that of the deuterocanonical writings from both New and Old Testament times.
The Book of Jubilees narrates the genesis of angels on the first day of Creation and the story of how a group of fallen angels mated with mortal females, giving rise to a race of giants known as the Nephilim, and then to their descendants, the Elioud. The Ethiopian version states that the "angels" were in fact the disobedient offspring of Seth (Deqiqa Set), while the "mortal females" were daughters of Cain.[19] This is also the view held by Simeon bar Yochai, Clementine literature, Sextus Julius Africanus, Ephrem the Syrian, Augustine of Hippo, and John Chrysostom among many other early authorities. Their hybrid children, the Nephilim in existence during the time of Noah, were wiped out by the great flood. However, Jubilees also states that God granted ten percent of the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim to try to lead mankind astray after the flood.
Jubilees makes an incestuous reference regarding the son of Adam and Eve, Cain, and his wife. In chapter iv (1–12) (Cain and Abel), it mentions that Cain took his sister Awan to be his wife and Enoch was their child. It also mentions that Seth (the third son of Adam and Eve) married his sister Azura.[20]
According to this book, Hebrew is the language of Heaven, and was originally spoken by all creatures in the Garden, animals and man; however, the animals lost their power of speech when Adam and Eve were expelled. Following the Deluge, the earth was apportioned into three divisions for the three sons of Noah, and his sixteen grandsons. After the destruction of the Tower of Babel, their families were scattered to their respective allotments, and Hebrew was forgotten, until Abraham was taught it by the angels.
Jubilees also contains a few scattered allusions to the Messianic kingdom. Robert Henry Charles wrote in 1913: "This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung, not from Levi – that is, from the Maccabean family – as some of his contemporaries expected – but from Judah. This kingdom would be gradually realized on earth, and the transformation of physical nature would go hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man until there was a new heaven and a new earth. Thus, finally, all sin and pain would disappear and men would live to the age of 1,000 years in happiness and peace, and after death enjoy a blessed immortality in the spirit world."[3]
Jubilees insists (in Chapter 6) on a 364-day year made up of four quarters of 13 weeks each, rather than a year of 12 lunar months, which it says is off by 10 days per year. It also insists on a "Double Sabbath" each year being counted as only one day to arrive at this computation.
Jubilees 7:20–29 is possibly an early reference to the Noahide laws.[21]
Sources[edit]
Jubilees bases its take on Enoch on the "Book of Watchers", 1 Enoch 1–36.[22]
Its sequence of events leading to the Flood match those of the "Dream Visions", 1 Enoch 83–90.
See also[edit]
Generations of Adam
Wives aboard Noah's Ark
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
Jump up ^ Book of Jubilees "Jublees 1:4"
^ Jump up to: a b c The Book of Jubilees Archived February 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. (Int., tr.), from "The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament", by R. H. Charles. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913
Jump up ^ "A minute study of the text shows that it attests an independent form of the Hebrew text of Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. Thus it agrees with individual authorities such as the Samaritan or the LXX, or the Syriac, or the Vulgate, or the Targum of Onkelos against all the rest. Or again it agrees with two or more of these authorities in opposition to the rest, as for instance with the Massoretic and Samaritan against the LXX, Syriac and Vulgate, or with the Massoretic and Onkelos against the Samaritan, LXX, Syriac, and Vulgate, or with the Massoretic, Samaritan and Syriac against the LXX or Vulgate." R.H. Charles, "Textual affinities", in his introduction to his edition of Jubilees, 1913 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-02-24. Retrieved 2009-02-24. .
Jump up ^ Robin Lane Fox, a classicist and historian, discusses these multifarious sources of Old and New Testaments in layman's terms in Unauthorized Version (1992).
Jump up ^ Hershel Shanks, a Historian and Archaeological Scholar, provides different articles that explore this issue in great depth - from different experts in the field of Dead Sea Scrolls research, in his book "Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: Biblical Archaeology Review, June 29, 1993"
Jump up ^ VanderKam, "Jubilees, Book of" in L. H. Schiffman and J. C. VanderKam (eds.), Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford University Press (2000), Vol. I, p. 435.
Jump up ^ VanderKam (1989, 2001), p.18; Gabriele Boccaccini (1998). Beyond the Essene Hypothesis. Eerdmans. , 86f.
Jump up ^ Todd Russell Hanneken (2008). The Book of Jubilees Among the Apocalypses. , 156.
Jump up ^ Boccaccini, 81f. Philip L.Tite. "Textual and Redactional Aspects of the Book of Dreams (1 Enoch 83-90)". Biblical Theology Bulletin. 31: 106f. . Independently of one another.
Jump up ^ Kugel, 252, n.37; Hanneken, 143.
Jump up ^ Daniel C Olson (2013). A New Reading of the Animal Apocalypse of 1 Enoch: All Nations Shall Be Blessed" / With a New Translation and Commentary". Brill. pp. 108–9 n. 63.
Jump up ^ VanderKam (1989, 2001), pp. 17–21
Jump up ^ Kugel, 167
Jump up ^ Boccacini 99–101, 104–113 respectively
Jump up ^ Kugel, 110
Jump up ^ Wolf Leslau, Falasha Anthology (Yale 1951), xxvii, xxxviii, xlii, 9
Jump up ^ Jan M.F. van Reeth, Le Prophète musulman en tant que Nâsir Allâh et ses antécédents: le "Nazôraios" évangélique et le livre des jubilés, in: Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (OLP) (1992) vol. 23, pp. 251-274. Cf. also: Klaus Berger, Die Urchristen (2008) p. 340; Andrew Rippin, Roberto Tottoli (Hrsg.), Books and Written Culture of the Islamic World: Studies Presented to Claude Gilliot on the Occasion of his 75th Birthday, Brill (2015) p. 280 ff.
Jump up ^ Ethiopian Orthodox Church's canonical Amharic version of Jubilees, 5:21 – readable on p. 14 of this file.
Jump up ^ "Book of Jubilees". virtualreligion.net.
Jump up ^ "JUBILEES, BOOK OF - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ Gabriele Boccacini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis (Eerdmans: 1998)
References[edit]
Martin Jr. Abegg. The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1999. ISBN 0-06-060063-2.
Chanoch Albeck. Das Buch der Jubiläen und die Halacha Berlin: Scholem, 1930.
Robert Henry Charles. The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees. Oxford: Clarendon, 1895.
Robert Henry Charles. The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis, Translated from the Editor's Ethiopic Text, and Edited with Introduction, Notes, and Indices (London: 1902).
Gene L. Davenport. The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees (SPB 20) Leiden: Brill, 1971.
Albert-Marie Denis. Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive parva Genesis (Informatique et étude de textes 4; Louvain: CETEDOC, 1973)
August Dillmann. "Mashafa kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum... aethiopice". Kiel, and London: Van Maack, Williams &Norgate, 1859.
August Dillmann, and Hermann Rönsch. Das Buch der Jubiläen; oder, Die kleine Genesis. Leipzig: 1874.
John C. Endres. Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees (Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 18) Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987. ISBN 0-915170-17-5.
Jan M.F. van Reeth. Le Prophète musulman en tant que Nâsir Allâh et ses antécédents: le "Nazôraios" évangélique et le livre des jubilés, in: Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (OLP) (1992) vol. 23, pp. 251–274.
Michel Testuz. Les idées religieuses du livre des Jubilés Geneva: Droz, 1960.
James C. VanderKam. Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees (Harvard Semitic monographs, no. 14) Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977.
James C. VanderKam. The Book of Jubilees. A Critical Text. Leuven: Peeters, 1989. ISBN 978-90-429-0551-1.
James C. VanderKam. The Book of Jubilees. Translation. Leuven: Peeters, 1989. ISBN 978-90-429-0552-8.
James C. VanderKam. The Book of Jubilees (Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. ISBN 1-85075-767-4. ISBN 978-1-85075-767-2.
Orval S. Wintermute, "Jubilees", in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985) 2:35–142
External links[edit]
The text translated by R.H. Charles, 1913, preceded by an account of the manuscript tradition.
Jewish Encyclopedia entry
The Catholic Encyclopedia view
Development of the Canon
Jubilees at earlyjewishwritings.com
Ge'ez text of Jubilees (first page)
Ethiopic Jubilees Reading Guide: 11:1-10
Ethiopic Jubilees Reading Guide: 17:15-18:16
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Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence
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Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence
Formation
1993 (1993)
Founded at
San Francisco, California, United States
Type
501(c)(3)
Headquarters
San Francisco, California, United States
The Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence (Giffords Law Center), previously known as the Legal Community Against Violence and as the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence (LCPGV), is a national public interest law center which provides legal assistance to elected officials, government attorneys, and activists in the United States to promote gun control and to oppose gun violence. The Giffords Law Center publishes information about gun laws and gun control. The organization has been active in promoting gun control ordinances in California and elsewhere, as well as conducting litigation to defend gun control laws against challenges.[1]
History[edit]
LCPGV was established in the wake of a shooting attack on a law firm in downtown San Francisco on July 1, 1993. A gunman armed with several weapons, including a semi-automatic pistol, shot 14 people at the law firm of Pettit and Martin at 101 California Street in San Francisco before turning a gun on himself. In response, Bay Area lawyers established LCPGV.[2]
LCPGV started in 1993 by focusing on the local regulation of firearms in California, adopting a "local ordinance project" that successfully promoted the adoption of local gun laws in many municipalities.[3][4] By 1999, the organization began to develop a national strategy,[5] initially focusing on Colorado, Illinois, and Ohio, where state law permitted broad local regulation of firearms.[1]
In 2001, LCPGV launched a website to provide access to detailed gun law and policy-related materials such as summaries of federal, state and local firearms laws; detailed discussion of the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; summaries of firearm-related policies; research and analysis on firearms law and policy; amicus curiae briefs filed in firearm-related litigation; and model legislation for states and localities. The website, also called the Firearms Law Center, was designed to aid local efforts to adopt new gun control ordinances.[6][7]
With the launch of the site, LCPGV formally began offering legal support to activists and officials across the country. LCPGV launched a membership program to strengthen the legal community’s role in helping to promote gun control and continues to publish comprehensive reports and analyses of gun violence. Following the landmark U.S. Supreme Court cases District of Columbia v. Heller and McDonald v. Chicago, which ruled that the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to possess a firearm for lawful purposes, LCPGV has become increasingly involved in Second Amendment litigation by tracking cases raising Second Amendment claims.[8]
In 2016, the organization merged with Americans for Responsible Solutions, led by former Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords and Navy combat veteran and retired NASA astronaut Captain Mark Kelly. In 2017, the organization changed its name to the Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Carter, Terry (April 2001). "Battles Won, War Continues: Lawyers' group succeeds locally with firearms initiatives, looks to branch out". ABA Journal. American Bar Association. 87: 24–25.
Jump up ^ Richard C. Paddock, "Gun Control Push Begun at Law Firm : Massacre: Employees return to San Francisco building targeted by gunman. Some have formed a group that will call for stricter legislation." Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1993.
Jump up ^ Laura Linden, "Disarming Tactics: Why is a group of well-heeled lawyers helping empower local communities to pass stricter gun control ordinances? Take a look behind-the-scenes of the unusual grass roots organizing project that's been successfully outwitting the California gun lobby." Mother Jones, March 3, 1997.
Jump up ^ Kristin A. Goss, Disarmed: The Missing Movement for Gun Control in America (Princeton University Press, 2006), ISBN 978-0691124247, pp. 180-182. Excerpts available at Google Books.
Jump up ^ Gregg Lee Carter, ed., Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law, (ABC-CLIO, 2002) ISBN 978-1576072684, vol. 1, pp. 354-355. Excerpts available at Google Books.
Jump up ^ Mark Mead, "Gun Control Group Empowers Anti-Gun Citizens" Archived 2012-08-31 at the Wayback Machine., CNSNews.com, July 7, 2008.
Jump up ^ Nancy McCarthy, "10 years after 101 California Street shooting, repercussions reverberate", California Bar Journal, July 2003.
Jump up ^ "About Us", Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence official website (accessed 2013-02-14).
[hide]
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This page was last edited on 4 April 2018, at 20:31.
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