text:
I Think She Like Me
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"I Think She Like Me"
Single by Rick Ross featuring Ty Dolla $ign
from the album Rather You Than Me
Released
January 26, 2017 (2017-01-26)
Format
Digital download
Recorded
2016
Genre
Hip hop
R&B
Length
4:02
Label
Maybach
Epic
Songwriter(s)
William Roberts II
Jorge Pilot
Cordale Quinn
Tyrone Griffin, Jr.
Thomas Bell
Linda Epstein
Producer(s)
C-Gutta
J-Pilot
Rick Ross singles chronology
"Buy Back the Block"
(2016) "I Think She Like Me"
(2017) "Trap Trap Trap"
(2017)
"Buy Back the Block"
(2016) "I Think She Like Me"
(2017) "Trap Trap Trap"
(2017)
Ty Dolla Sign singles chronology
"Are You Sure?"
(2016) Are You Sure?2016 "I Think She Like Me"
(2017) I Think She Like Me2017 "Blessings"
(2017) Blessings2017
"I Think She Like Me" is a song by American hip hop recording artist Rick Ross, featuring vocals from American singer Ty Dolla $ign. Was released on January 26, 2017 as the lead single of his ninth studio album Rather You Than Me, with the record labels Maybach Music Group and Epic Records.[1] The song was produced by C-Gutta and J-Pilot.
The song contains a sample of "People Make the World Go Round" by The Stylistics.[2]
Music video[edit]
On January 26, 2017 Ross uploaded the music video for "I Think She Like Me" on his YouTube and Vevo account.[3]
Charts[edit]
Chart (2017)
Peak
position
US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles (Billboard)[4]
13
US Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles (Billboard)[5]
5
US R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay (Billboard)[6]
31
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "See Rick Ross' Luxurious 'I Think She Like Me' Video With Ty Dolla $ign". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rick Ross feat. Ty Dolla $ign's 'I Think She Like Me' sample of The Stylistics's 'People Make the World Go Round'". Who Sampled. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rick Ross - I Think She Like Me ft. Ty Dolla $ign - YouTube". YouTube. January 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rick Ross Chart History (Bubbling Under Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rick Ross – Chart History: Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rick Ross Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay)". Billboard. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
hide
v
t
e
Rick Ross
Discography
Studio albums
Port of Miami
Trilla
Deeper Than Rap
Teflon Don
God Forgives, I Don't
Mastermind
Hood Billionaire
Black Market
Rather You Than Me
Compilation albums
Rise to Power
Self Made Vol. 1 (with MMG)
Self Made Vol. 2 (with MMG)
Self Made Vol. 3 (with MMG)
Mixtapes
Ashes to Ashes
Rich Forever
The Black Bar Mitzvah
Black Dollar
Singles
"Hustlin' "
"Push It"
"Speedin' "
"The Boss"
"Here I Am"
"Magnificent"
"Maybach Music 2"
"Super High"
"B.M.F. (Blowin' Money Fast)"
"Aston Martin Music"
"9 Piece"
"You the Boss"
"Stay Schemin'"
"Touch'N You"
"So Sophisticated"
"Diced Pineapples"
"100 Black Coffins"
"No Games"
"The Devil Is a Lie"
"Thug Cry"
"Sorry"
"I Think She Like Me"
Featured singles
"Holla at Me"
"Born-N-Raised"
"We Takin' Over"
"I'm So Hood"
"100 Million"
"Cash Flow"
"Out Here Grindin"
"You're Everything"
"Welcome to the World"
"Til da Sun Come Up"
"Champion"
"Fed Up"
"Put Your Hands Up"
"All I Do Is Win"
"Monster"
"Rap Song"
"Living Better Now"
"Welcome to My Hood"
"Swagger Right"
"Can a Drummer Get Some?"
"Hustle Hard (Remix)"
"John"
"Tupac Back"
"Ima Boss"
"I'm on One"
"Anything (To Find You)"
"Fly Together"
"Think Like a Man"
"Take It to the Head"
"Bag of Money"
"Why"
"Lemme See"
"Born Stunna"
"Pop That"
"I Wish You Would"
"Beautiful Onyinye"
"Triumphant (Get 'Em)"
"Dope"
"Bugatti"
"Millions"
"Believe It"
"U.O.E.N.O."
"Pour It Up (Remix)"
"No New Friends"
"Poor Decisions"
"I Wanna Be With You"
"They Don't Love You No More"
"Options"
"New Flame"
"When You Feel This"
"Do You Mind"
Other songs
"Make It Rain (Remix)"
"Devil in a New Dress"
"Deuces (Remix)"
"The Way You Love Me"
"I Am Your Leader"
"Ali Bomaye"
"FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt"
"Nobody"
"Sanctified"
"I'm Ya Dogg"
"On Everything"
Related articles
Triple C's
Custom Cars & Cycles (with Triple C's)
Maybach Music Group
hide
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Ty Dolla Sign
Discography
Studio albums
Free TC
Beach House 3
EPs
Beach House EP
Talk About It in the Morning
Commercial "mixtape"
Campaign
Singles
"Paranoid"
"Or Nah"
"Shell Shocked"
"Stand For"
"Drop That Kitty"
"Blasé"
"Saved"
"Wavy"
"Sucker for Pain"
"Campaign"
"Zaddy"
"Love U Better"
"So Am I"
"OTW"
Featured singles
"Toot It and Boot It"
"Nobody"
"You and Your Friends"
"My Main"
"Play No Games"
"Work from Home"
"Bacon"
"Fade"
"Money Showers"
"Are You Sure?"
"I Think She Like Me"
"Blessings"
"Fallen"
"So Good"
"Swalla"
"It's a Vibe"
"Vitamin D"
"F with U"
"Whatever You Need"
"Something New"
"Say Less"
"Psycho"
"Me So Bad"
"Accelerate"
Other songs
"Real Friends"
Related articles
Atlantic Records
Taylor Gang Records
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Think_She_Like_Me&oldid=798270247"
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Song recordings produced by Scott Storch
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Cole Turner
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cole Turner
Charmed character
Julian McMahon as Cole Turner
First appearance
October 5, 2000
(episode 3.01; "The Honeymoon's Over")
Last appearance
April 10, 2005
(episode 7.16; "The Seven Year Witch")
Created by
Brad Kern
Portrayed by
Julian McMahon (human form)
Michael Bailey Smith (demon form)
Information
Aliases
Belthazor and The Source of All Evil
Species
Human
Demon
Occupation
Lawyer
Family
Benjamin Turner
(father; deceased)
Elizabeth Turner
(mother; deceased)
Penny 'Grams' Halliwell
(ex-grandmother-in-law; deceased)
Allen Halliwell
(ex-grandfather-in-law; deceased)
Patricia 'Patty' Halliwell
(ex-mother-in-law; deceased)
Victor Bennett
(ex-father-in-law)
Prue Halliwell
(ex-sister-in-law; deceased)
Piper Halliwell
(ex-sister-in-law)
Paige Matthews
(ex-sister-in-law)
Leo Wyatt
(ex-brother-in-law)
Spouse(s)
Phoebe Halliwell
(ex-wife)
Cole Turner is a fictional character on the WB television series Charmed, portrayed by series regular Julian McMahon between seasons three and five. McMahon returned for a guest appearance in the show's seventh season, for its 150th episode. Charmed is a series which focuses on three good witches, the prophesied "Charmed Ones", sisters who battle the forces of evil. Cole is an adversary-turned-ally of the sisters introduced in the third season and a love interest of main character Phoebe Halliwell, portrayed by Alyssa Milano. Like the show's main characters, Cole also possessed a number of magical abilities; the most commonly used were the power to teleport and the power to throw projective energy balls which could stun or kill.
Within the series' narrative, Cole is half-human and half-demon by blood, and better known to the demonic world for over a hundred years as the legendary demonic assassin Belthazor. Cole is dispatched by the Source of all Evil himself to kill the Charmed Ones only to fall in love with then-youngest sister Phoebe, renounce evil and become a close ally of the Charmed Ones. Though Cole eventually completely rids himself of his demonic nature, and marries Phoebe in the fourth season, he never gains the trust of new youngest sister Paige (Rose McGowan).
As part of his storyline, the character later returns to evil after unwillingly becoming the new Source. As the Source, Cole is eventually vanquished by the Charmed Ones, only to come back from death itself in his attempts to win Phoebe back. By this point he is one of the most powerful beings to ever exist. Driven insane, Cole is, through his own doing, once again killed by the sisters in the fifth season. When the character returns for a guest appearance in the seventh season, it is unclear what kind of being he is, but he states that he is caught somewhere between life and death, atoning for his sins.
Contents
[hide]
1 Character arc
1.1 Season three (2000–01)
1.2 Season four (2001–02)
1.3 Season five (2002–03) and other appearances
2 Analysis
3 Influence
4 References
Character arc[edit]
Season three (2000–01)[edit]
Cole Turner makes his first appearance in the third-season (2000–01) premiere episode, "The Honeymoon's Over". Charmed Ones Phoebe (Alyssa Milano) and Prue (Shannen Doherty) run into Assistant District Attorney Cole Turner at the site where they killed a demon, and cover their tracks. Over the course of the episode, it becomes apparent to the audience that Cole is himself a very powerful demon, pursuing Phoebe romantically and deceiving the sisters as to his true nature in order to finally kill them.
In "Power Outage", Cole's superiors, the demonic Triad, learn that he may have developed genuine romantic feelings for Phoebe; Cole responds by killing them, forcing him into hiding. Meanwhile, the sisters acquire a target in the red-and-black-skinned demon Belthazor (Michael Bailey Smith). In "Sleuthing with the Enemy", the Charmed Ones discovers Cole and Belthazor are one and the same, but when Cole convinces Phoebe that he, being half human, truly loves her, she fakes his death so that her sisters Piper (Holly Marie Combs) and Prue will not hunt for him.
When Cole re-emerges, causing a rift between Phoebe and her sisters, he attempts to re-ingratiate himself with his demonic peers, the Brotherhood of the Thorn, as the sisters' double agent. When Prue and Piper are both killed following a successful mission by the Source's assassin Shax (Michael Bailey Smith) in the season finale "All Hell Breaks Loose", Cole begs the Source (again, Michael Bailey Smith) to turn back time and prevent the exposure of magic. The Source agrees on the condition that Phoebe remain in the Underworld under his command, though he secretly orders her to be killed. Shax attacks the Halliwell Manor once more after time is reversed, but this time Leo (Brian Krause), Piper's husband who is also the sisters' guardian angel (whitelighter) is not available to heal either Piper or Prue, who lie gravely wounded.
Season four (2001–02)[edit]
The season four premiere "Charmed Again" reveals Leo arrived in time to heal Piper, but Prue died of her injuries, reflecting Doherty's departure from the series. Leo assisted Phoebe to escape the Underworld, absconding on the Source's deal. With Prue dead, the sisters are no longer the Charmed Ones, and Cole does what he can to assist Phoebe and Piper from Shax's continued attacks. Piper and Phoebe regain their full abilities—becoming Charmed Ones once again—when they discover their younger half-sister, Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan), alongside whom they finally destroy Shax.
In "Black as Cole", Cole proposes to Phoebe whilst they vanquish a low level demon. Later they find that Sykes has been mimicking Belthazor and in a bid to vanquish him Cole takes on his demonic form but has Phoebe create a potion to kill his demonic half if he can not change back. Before he can change back, a woman looking to revenge his killing of her love picks up the potion and throws it at him, causing Belthazor to die. In "Lost and Bound", Paige gets Cole a job as a legal aid lawyer. However he can't control his emotions and soon quits but not before the landlord who he was arguing with agrees to put the heating back on.
In "Charmed and Dangerous", the Source (Peter Woodward) breaks an aged old agreement and consumes the hollow. The Seer (Debbi Morgan) tricks Cole into consuming the hollow which allows him to assist the Charmed Ones in vanquishing the physical version of the Source. It is revealed that the Seer tricked Cole into absorbing the old Source's power, eventually causing him to become the new Source of Evil in "The Three Faces of Phoebe". An older version of Phoebe has turned bitter because of what he has done and warns her to save herself and states that they never got married but she can't help but think what might have been. Present-day Phoebe asks him if he is hiding anything; he says he is not.
The Source takes over Cole completely in "Marry-Go-Round". The Seer warns him that marrying Phoebe would be the worst thing possible as they would have a son, the most powerful magical creature ever, who would be on the side of good, following the Charmed Ones' destiny. She tells him the only way the child will grow up evil is if Cole marries Phoebe in a dark ceremony. As the Source, he puts a spell on the Charmed Ones which makes Phoebe spotty and Piper and Paige over sleep. Paige and Phoebe argue as the latter suspects the former of trying to disrupt the wedding, having already made a mistake with the dress. When Paige tries to make an amends with Phoebe's spots it causes her to become invisible.
Suspecting evil magic to be involved, the sisters try and reverse it without success but pass the invisibility on to Paige. Cole asks the Seer to send a Lazarus demon (who she summoned to lure Phoebe to a cemetery for the purposes of a dark ceremony) to attack at the wedding which causes Phoebe to call it off, thus reversing the magic on her, which had been switched to Paige. When the Charmed Ones question the demon, he accuses Cole of betraying him and tells them that he sent him to attack them. But before he can out Cole as the Source, Cole vanquishes him and pretends to be the Seer before teleporting and pretending to be unconscious after she attacked him. Cole marries Phoebe in a dark wedding at the end of the episode, without her suspecting drinking her blood when a throne pricks her with the ceremony held at night with a dark priest.
Cole pretends to be the perfect husband by sending Leo and Piper on honeymoon to Hawaii and buying expensive gifts such as a new car in "The Fifth Halliwheel". Paige begins to suspect that Cole is a demon again especially when she catches Cole using powers on an innocent but is not sure of what she has seen. Cole as Leo calms Paige's fears before sending the power broker demon who had already gone after the innocent after her. The Seer also puts in a plan to make Phoebe pregnant using the full moon and a tonic. The Seer and Cole create a tonic which will ensure that the child is evil. From taking the tonic, the child will take over Phoebe's body and ensure that she remains by his side when she finds out that he is the Source. Phoebe eventually takes the tonic laced with chocolate to make the plan work.
In "Bite Me" different factions have tried to become ruler of the Underworld so Cole tries to make them all work together to beat good. However one of the leaders encourages a group of vampires to rise up and rebel, which they do so after Cole refuses to listen to them. He almost gets exposed by Paige when she orbs in his home but he quickly covers this up by saying he has a migraine, hence why the blinds were down. The vampires try to turn Paige into one to get the other sisters and then overthrow the Source and become the new leaders. To keep himself on top, Cole kills the Queen after Phoebe and Piper inadvertently tell him what to do. Phoebe later discovers that she is pregnant before informing him in "We're Off to See the Wizard."
Cole tries to give up the Source to the Wizard after his human side becomes strong and Phoebe learns through a premonition that he is a demon again. But before the ritual is complete, the Seer, who has manipulated Phoebe, interrupts and vanquishes the Wizard. Cole is crowned the new Source with Phoebe as his Queen. Cole faces a coup in "Long Live the Queen" when Phoebe stops the killing of an innocent. Cole demands she make a choice. Phoebe later learns from the Seer and Cole that the tonic they were giving her was turning her evil. Phoebe eventually sides with her sisters and before Cole can destroy them she traps him in a crystal cage which allows the Charmed Ones to vanquish him.
In the season finale "Witch Way Now?", Phoebe discovers Cole is able to linger in the Demonic Wasteland, where vanquished demons go, because of his human soul. Phoebe visits him there, insisting to him that he move on to his afterlife. After she leaves, he accidentally discovers he can acquire the powers of other demons vanquished there. He becomes powerful enough to kill the beast that consumes the essence of those vanquished there and, finally, to escape. Once back in the real world, he saves the sisters' lives from a witch hunter.
Season five (2002–03) and other appearances[edit]
In the season-five premiere "A Witch's Tail", Cole returns with numerous new abilities, making him more powerful than ever. Though he still loves Phoebe, she wants to move on from him and is frustrated by his attempts to win her back. In "Siren Song," he saves the life of a young future whitelighter named Melissa in a failed attempt to impress Phoebe. When he tries to confront the demonic Siren the sisters are pursuing, the Siren puts him under her control. Under this influence, he tries to strangle Phoebe to death before the Siren is ultimately vanquished, and Phoebe nearly dies. As a result, Cole finally understands the threat he poses to Phoebe and promises to stop using his powers, but succumbs to temptation and kills again when confronted by a sleazy landlord.
In "Sympathy for the Demon", Cole is taunted by the spirit of the demon Barbas (Billy Drago), who convinces him to use a power-stripping potion, inadvertently granting Barbas his powers and a corporeal form. To stop the threat of Barbas or anyone else possessing Cole's powers, Paige strips Barbas of Cole's powers and Cole takes them back. The sisters, however, fear that these abilities will make him evil again. In "Sam, I Am", Cole misuses his abilities and incinerates two robbers/murderers, and is later visited by two mysterious beings who identify themselves as Avatars. Neither good or evil, the Avatars offer Cole the opportunity to join their ranks and enjoy their powers; he refuses.
Instead, Cole tries to provoke the sisters to kill him by sending an assassin after them, knowing that they will be able to recover thanks to their recent contact with Paige's father, whitelighter Sam Wilder (Scott Jaeck). He is distraught to learn he cannot be killed, and is pushed over the edge into insanity. Cole reverts to malevolent means of winning Phoebe back, striking at the Charmed Ones in various underhand ways over several episodes. In Charmed's 100th episode "Centennial Charmed", Cole accepts the Avatars' offer and uses their powers to create an alternate reality where Piper and Phoebe never met Paige, who was instead killed by the Source before the Elders discovered her. In the new reality, Cole is once again Belthazor and no longer indestructible. He acts as the right-hand man of the Source and owns Halliwell Manor with Phoebe, but they are unhappy together. Paige however is accidentally brought along from the real world and teams up with Piper and Leo to destroy Cole. After convincing Phoebe to join their side, the Charmed Ones vanquish Cole for good.
Cole makes a guest appearance in the 150th episode, "The Seven Year Witch", in season seven; Piper's disembodied spirit receives advice from Cole, who claims to be in limbo atoning for his sins. However, it is later revealed that Cole, watching over the sisters, orchestrated Piper's illness and sent Phoebe's short-lived boyfriend Drake (Billy Zane) to her, all so that Phoebe could learn to believe in love again. However he also did this to get Piper and Leo back together so that they could be a beacon for Phoebe not to give up on love and turn into the bitter old woman as seen in "The Three Faces of Phoebe". In 2010, Cole returned in the Charmed Season 9 comic book series. This time he has a minor role and only supporting in the spirit realm with Prue.
Analysis[edit]
As a lawyer and a demon, one writer notes that Cole is part of the same "corporate" metaphor as the Wolfram & Hart firm in the television series Angel.[1]
Influence[edit]
The erotic romance novels and novellas of Jennifer Dunne feature a heroine "obsessed" with Julian McMahon's portrayal of Cole in her book Dancing in the Dark.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Day, Peter (2006). "Piercing the corporate veil". Vampires: myths and metaphors of enduring evil. Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 90-420-1669-8.
Jump up ^ Dunne, Jennifer (2005). "Will the Real Phoebe Please Stand up". In Jennifer Crusie. Totally Charmed: Demons, Whitelighters and the Power of Three. BenBella Books. ISBN 1-932100-60-1.
[hide]
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Charmed
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8
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Characters
Prue Halliwell
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Phoebe Halliwell
Paige Matthews
Darryl Morris
Leo Wyatt
Cole Turner
Billie Jenkins
Coop
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"How Soon Is Now?"
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The Book of Shadows
Related articles
Power of Three
Book of Shadows
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Category:Charmed (TV series)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cole_Turner&oldid=789245539"
Categories:
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Works Progress Administration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Works Progress Administration
Agency overview
Formed
May 6, 1935 (1935-05-06)
Preceding
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
Dissolved
June 30, 1943
Employees
8.5 million 1935–1943
3.3 million in November 1938 (peak)
Annual budget
$1.3 billion (1935)
Key document
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935
The Works Progress Administration (WPA; renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration) was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects,[1] including the construction of public buildings and roads. In a much smaller project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects.[1]
Almost every community in the United States had a new park, bridge or school constructed by the agency. The WPA's initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion (about 6.7 percent of the 1935 GDP).[2]
Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided paid jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people.[3] Most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity.[4] Hourly wages were typically set to the prevailing wages in each area.[5]:70 Full employment, which was reached in 1942 and emerged as a long-term national goal around 1944, was not the goal of the WPA; rather, it tried to provide one paid job for all families in which the breadwinner suffered long-term unemployment.[6]:64, 184
"The stated goal of public building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects," sociologist Robert D. Leighninger asserted. "Millions of people needed subsistence incomes. Work relief was preferred over public assistance (the dole) because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp."[7]:228
The WPA was a national program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments, which provided 10–30% of the costs. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, with the WPA responsible for wages (and for the salaries of supervisors, who were not on relief). WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs.[6]:63
It was liquidated on June 30, 1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the worker shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years.[6]:71
Contents
[hide]
1 Establishment
2 Employment
3 Projects
3.1 Federal Project Number One
3.1.1 Federal Art Project
3.1.2 Federal Music Project
3.1.3 Federal Theatre Project
3.1.4 Federal Writers' Project
3.1.5 Historical Records Survey
4 Relief for African Americans
5 Women
6 Criticism
7 Evolution
8 Termination
9 Legacy
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Establishment[edit]
FDR prepares to speak about the establishment of the work relief program and Social Security at his fireside chat of April 28, 1935.
FERA administrator and WPA head Harry Hopkins speaking to reporters (November 1935)
A joint resolution introduced January 21, 1935,[8] the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 8, 1935.[9] On May 6, 1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration.[10][11] The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, which was dissolved. Direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA.[12]
The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and close adviser to Roosevelt. Both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA.[6]:56–57 Hallie Flanagan, national director of the Federal Theatre Project, wrote that "for the first time in the relief experiments of this country the preservation of the skill of the worker, and hence the preservation of his self-respect, became important."[13]:17
The WPA was organized into the following divisions:
The Division of Engineering and Construction, which planned and supervised construction projects including airports, dams, highways and sanitation systems.[14]
The Division of Professional and Service Projects (called the Division of Women's and Professional Projects in 1937), which was responsible for white-collar projects including education programs, recreation programs, and the arts projects. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division.[15]
The Division of Finance.[16]
The Division of Information.[17]
The Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty.[18]
The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research.[19]
The Project Control Division, which processed project applications.[20]
Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, and Training and Reemployment.[21]
Employment[edit]
WPA road development project
These ordinary men and women proved to be extraordinary beyond all expectation. They were golden threads woven in the national fabric. In this, they shamed the political philosophy that discounted their value and rewarded the one that placed its faith in them, thus fulfilling the founding vision of a government by and for its people. All its people.
—  Nick Taylor, American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA[22]:530
The goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered. Harry Hopkins testified to Congress in January 1935 why he set the number at 3.5 million, using Federal Emergency Relief Administration data. Estimating costs at $1,200 per worker per year ($21.4 thousand in present-day terms[23]), he asked for and received $4 billion ($71.4 billion in present-day terms[23]). Many women were employed, but they were few compared to men.
In 1935 there were 20 million people on relief in the United States. Of these, 8.3 million were children under 16 years of age; 3.8 million were persons between the ages of 16 and 65 who were not working or seeking work. These included housewives, students in school, and incapacitated persons. Another 750,000 were person age 65 or over.[24]:562 Thus, of the total of 20 million persons then receiving relief, 13 million were not considered eligible for employment. This left a total of 7 million presumably employable persons between the ages of 16 and 65 inclusive. Of these, however, 1.65 million were said to be farm operators or persons who had some non-relief employment, while another 350,000 were, despite the fact that they were already employed or seeking work, considered incapacitated. Deducting this 2 million from the total of 7.15 million, there remained 5.15 million persons age 16 to 65, unemployed, looking for work, and able to work.[24]:562
FDR and Hopkins (September 1938)
Because of the assumption that only one worker per family would be permitted to work under the proposed program, this total of 5.15 million was further reduced by 1.6 million—the estimated number of workers who were members of families with two or more employable people. Thus, there remained a net total of 3.55 million workers in as many households for whom jobs were to be provided.[24]:562
The WPA reached its peak employment of 3,334,594 people in November 1938.[22]:547 To be eligible for WPA employment, an individual had to be an American citizen, 18 or older, able-bodied, unemployed, and certified as in need by a local public relief agency approved by the WPA. The WPA Division of Employment selected the worker's placement to WPA projects based on previous experience or training. Worker pay was based on three factors: the region of the country, the degree of urbanization, and the individual's skill. It varied from $19 per month to $94 per month, with the average wage being about $52.50—$913.00 in present-day terms.[23][25] The goal was to pay the local prevailing wage, but limit the hours of work to 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week; the stated minimum being 30 hours a week, or 120 hours a month.[24]:213
Projects[edit]
Typical plaque on a WPA project
Griffith Observatory
Timberline Lodge
WPA projects were administered by the Division of Engineering and Construction and the Division of Professional and Service Projects. Most projects were initiated, planned and sponsored by states, counties or cities. Nationwide projects were sponsored until 1939.[26]
The WPA built traditional infrastructure of the New Deal such as roads, bridges, schools, courthouses, hospitals, sidewalks, waterworks, and post-offices, but also constructed museums, swimming pools, parks, community centers, playgrounds, coliseums, markets, fairgrounds, tennis courts, zoos, botanical gardens, auditoriums, waterfronts, city halls, gyms, and university unions. Most of these are still in use today.[7]:226 The amount of infrastructure projects of the WPA included 40,000 new and 85,000 improved buildings. These new buildings included 5,900 new schools; 9,300 new auditoriums, gyms, and recreational buildings; 1,000 new libraries; 7,000 new dormitories; and 900 new armories. In addition, infrastructure projects included 2,302 stadiums, grandstands, and bleachers; 52 fairgrounds and rodeo grounds; 1,686 parks covering 75,152 acres; 3,185 playgrounds; 3,026 athletic fields; 805 swimming pools; 1,817 handball courts; 10,070 tennis courts; 2,261 horseshoe pits; 1,101 ice-skating areas; 138 outdoor theatres; 254 golf courses; and 65 ski jumps.[7]:227 Total expenditures on WPA projects through June 1941 totaled approximately $11.4 billion—the equivalent of $190 billion today.[23] Over $4 billion was spent on highway, road, and street projects; more than $1 billion on public buildings, including the iconic Dock Street Theatre in Charleston, the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, and Timberline Lodge in Oregon's Mount Hood National Forest.[27]:252–253
More than $1 billion—$16.6 billion today[23]—was spent on publicly owned or operated utilities; and another $1 billion on welfare projects, including sewing projects for women, the distribution of surplus commodities, and school lunch projects.[24]:129 One construction project was the Merritt Parkway in Connecticut, the bridges of which were each designed as architecturally unique.[28] In its eight-year run, the WPA built 325 firehouses and renovated 2,384 of them across the United States. The 20,000 miles of water mains, installed by their hand as well, contributed to increased fire protection across the country.[6]:69
The direct focus of the WPA projects changed with need. In 1935 priority projects were to improve infrastructure; roads, extension of electricity to rural areas, water conservation, sanitation and flood control. In 1936, as outlined in that year’s Emergency Relief Appropriations Act, public facilities became a focus; parks and associated facilities, public buildings, utilities, airports, and transportation projects were funded. The following year, saw the introduction of agricultural improvements, such as the production of marl fertilizer and the eradication of fungus pests. As the Second World War approached, and then eventually began, WPA projects became increasingly defense related.[6]:70
One project of the WPA was funding state-level library service demonstration projects, to create new areas of library service to underserved populations and to extend rural service.[29] Another project was the Household Service Demonstration Project, which trained 30,000 women for domestic employment. South Carolina had one of the larger statewide library service demonstration projects. At the end of the project in 1943, South Carolina had twelve publicly funded county libraries, one regional library, and a funded state library agency.[30]
Federal Project Number One[edit]
A significant aspect of the Works Progress Administration was the Federal Project Number One, which had five different parts: the Federal Art Project, the Federal Music Project, the Federal Theatre Project, the Federal Writers Project, and the Historical Records Survey. The government wanted to provide new federal cultural support instead of just providing direct grants to private institutions. After only one year, over 40,000 artists and other talented workers had been employed through this project in the United States.[31] Cedric Larson stated that "The impact made by the five major cultural projects of the WPA upon the national consciousness is probably greater in toto than anyone readily realizes. As channels of communication between the administration and the country at large, both directly and indirectly, the importance of these projects cannot be overestimated, for they all carry a tremendous appeal to the eye, the ear, or the intellect—or all three."[32]:491
Federal Art Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Art Project
This project was directed by Holger Cahill and in 1936, the peak for employment in this federal project, the Federal Art Project employed over 5,300 artists. The Arts Service Division created illustrations and posters for the WPA writers, musicians, and theaters. The Exhibition Division had public exhibitions of artwork from the WPA, and artists from the Art Teaching Division were employed in settlement houses and community centers to give classes to an estimated 50,000 children and adults. They set up over 100 art centers around the country that served an estimated eight million individuals.[31]
Federal Music Project[edit]
Noon-hour WPA band concert in Lafayette Square, New Orleans (1940)
Main article: Federal Music Project
Directed by Nikolai Sokoloff, former principal conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra, the Federal Music Project employed over 16,000 musicians at its peak. Its purpose was to establish different ensembles such as chamber groups, orchestras, choral units, opera units, concert bands, military bands, dance bands, and theater orchestras that gave an estimated 131,000 performances and programs to 92 million people each week.[31] The Federal Music Project performed plays and dances, as well as radio dramas.[32]:494 In addition, the Federal Music Project gave music classes to an estimated 132,000 children and adults every week, recorded folk music, served as copyists, arrangers, and librarians to expand the availability of music, and experimented in music therapy.[31] Sokoloff stated, "Music can serve no useful purpose unless it is heard, but these totals on the listeners' side are more eloquent than statistics as they show that in this country there is a great hunger and eagerness for music."[32]:494
Federal Theatre Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Theatre Project
This project was directed by Iowan Hallie Flanagan, and employed 12,700 performers at its peak. These performers presented more than 1,000 performances each month to almost one million people, produced 1,200 plays in the four years it was established, and introduced 100 new playwrights. Many performers later became successful in Hollywood including Orson Welles, John Houseman, Burt Lancaster, Joseph Cotten, Canada Lee, Will Geer, Joseph Losey, Virgil Thomson, Nicholas Ray, E.G. Marshall and Sidney Lumet. The Federal Theatre Project was the first project to end in June 1939 after four years from an end of funding from the federal government.[31]
Federal Writers' Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Writers' Project
This project was directed by Henry Alsberg and employed 6,686 writers at its peak in 1936.[31] By January 1939, more than 275 major books and booklets had been published by the FWP.[32]:494 Most famously, the FWP created the American Guide Series, which produced thorough guidebooks for every state that include descriptions of towns, waterways, historic sites, oral histories, photographs, and artwork.[31] An association or group that put up the cost of publication sponsored each book, the cost was anywhere from $5,000 to $10,000. In almost all cases, the book sales were able to reimburse their sponsors.[32]:494 Additionally, another important part of this project was to record oral histories to create archives such as the Slave Narratives and collections of folklore. These writers also participated in research and editorial services to other government agencies.[31]
Historical Records Survey[edit]
Main article: Historical Records Survey
This project was the smallest of Federal Project Number One and served to identify, collect, and conserve United States’ historical records.[31] It is one of the biggest bibliographical efforts and was directed by Dr. Luther H. Evans. At its peak, this project employed more than 4,400 workers.[32]:494
1940 WPA poster using Little Miss Muffet to promote reading among children.
WPA health education poster about cancer, c. 1936–1938
Poster for the WPA shows various items that can be purchased at the 5 & 10¢ store
WPA poster advertising art classes for children
WPA poster promoting the zoo as a place to visit, showing an elephant
1936 WPA Poster for Federal Theatre Project presentation
WPA poster encouraging laborers to work for America
Relief for African Americans[edit]
The share of Federal Emergency Relief Administration and WPA benefits for African Americans exceeded their proportion of the general population. The FERA's first relief census reported that more than two million African Americans were on relief during early 1933, a proportion of the African-American population (17.8%) that was nearly double the proportion of whites on relief (9.5%).[33] This was during the period of Jim Crow and racial segregation in the South, when blacks were largely disenfranchised.
By 1935, there were 3,500,000 African Americans (men, women and children) on relief, almost 35 percent of the African-American population; plus another 250,000 African-American adults were working on WPA projects. Altogether during 1938, about 45 percent of the nation's African-American families were either on relief or were employed by the WPA.[33]
Civil rights leaders initially objected that African Americans were proportionally underrepresented. African American leaders made such a claim with respect to WPA hires in New Jersey, stating, "In spite of the fact that Blacks indubitably constitute more than 20 percent of the State's unemployed, they composed 15.9% of those assigned to W.P.A. jobs during 1937."[24]:287 Nationwide in 1940, 9.8% of the population were African American.
However, by 1941, the perception of discrimination against African Americans had changed to the point that the NAACP magazine Opportunity hailed the WPA:
It is to the eternal credit of the administrative officers of the WPA that discrimination on various projects because of race has been kept to a minimum and that in almost every community Negroes have been given a chance to participate in the work program. In the South, as might have been expected, this participation has been limited, and differential wages on the basis of race have been more or less effectively established; but in the northern communities, particularly in the urban centers, the Negro has been afforded his first real opportunity for employment in white-collar occupations.[24]:295
The WPA mostly operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the National Youth Administration.[34] Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black.[35] Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation."[36]
Women[edit]
Hispanic women in Costilla, New Mexico, weaving rag rugs in 1939.
About 15% of the household heads on relief were women, and youth programs were operated separately by the National Youth Administration. The average worker was about 40 years old (about the same as the average family head on relief).
WPA policies were consistent with the strong belief of the time that husbands and wives should not both be working (because the second person working would take one job away from some other breadwinner). A study of 2,000 female workers in Philadelphia showed that 90% were married, but wives were reported as living with their husbands in only 18 percent of the cases. Only 2 percent of the husbands had private employment. Of the 2,000 women, all were responsible for one to five additional people in the household.[24]:283
In rural Missouri, 60% of the WPA-employed women were without husbands (12% were single; 25% widowed; and 23% divorced, separated or deserted). Thus, only 40% were married and living with their husbands, but 59% of the husbands were permanently disabled, 17% were temporarily disabled, 13% were too old to work, and remaining 10% were either unemployed or handicapped. Most of the women worked with sewing projects, where they were taught to use sewing machines and made clothing and bedding, as well as supplies for hospitals, orphanages, and adoption centers.[24]:283[37]
One WPA-funded project, the Pack Horse Library Project, mainly employed women to deliver books to rural areas in eastern Kentucky.[38] Many of the women employed by the project were the sole breadwinners for their families.[39]
Criticism[edit]
Poster representing the WPA defending itself from attacks
The WPA had numerous critics, especially from conservatives. The strongest attacks were that it was the prelude for a national political machine on behalf of Roosevelt. Reformers secured the Hatch Act of 1939 that largely depoliticized the WPA.[40]
Others complained that far left elements played a major role, especially in the New York City unit. Representative J. Parnell Thomas of the House Committee on Un-American Activities claimed in 1938 that divisions of the WPA were a "hotbed of Communists" and "one more link in the vast and unparalleled New Deal propaganda network."[41]
Much of the criticism of the distribution of projects and funding allotment is a result of the view that the decisions were politically motivated. The South, as the poorest region of the United States, received 75 percent less in federal relief and public works funds per capita than the West. Critics would point to the fact that Roosevelt’s Democrats could be sure of voting support from the South, whereas the West was less of a sure thing; swing states took priority over the other states.[5]:70
There was a perception that WPA employees were not diligent workers, and that they had little incentive to give up their busy work in favor of productive jobs. Some employers said that the WPA instilled poor work habits and encouraged inefficiency.[42] Some job applicants found that a WPA work history was viewed negatively by employers, who said they had formed poor work habits.[43]
A Senate committee reported that, "To some extent the complaint that WPA workers do poor work is not without foundation. … Poor work habits and incorrect techniques are not remedied. Occasionally a supervisor or a foreman demands good work."[44] The WPA and its workers were ridiculed as being lazy. The organization's initials were said to stand for "We Poke Along" or "We Putter Along" or "We piddle around" or "Whistle, Piss and Argue." These were sarcastic references to WPA projects that sometimes slowed down deliberately because foremen had an incentive to keep going, rather than finish a project.[45]
The WPA's Division of Investigation proved so effective in preventing political corruption "that a later congressional investigation couldn't find a single serious irregularity it had overlooked," wrote economist Paul Krugman. "This dedication to honest government wasn't a sign of Roosevelt's personal virtue; rather, it reflected a political imperative. FDR's mission in office was to show that government activism works. To maintain that mission's credibility he needed to keep his administration's record clean. And he did."[46]
Evolution[edit]
Francis C. Harrington, WPA national administrator 1938–40
On December 23, 1938, after leading the WPA for 3.5 years, Harry Hopkins resigned and became the Secretary of Commerce. To succeed him Roosevelt appointed Francis C. Harrington, a colonel in the Army Corps of Engineers and the WPA's chief engineer, who had been leading the Division of Engineering and Construction.[22]:417–420
Following the passage of the Reorganization Act of 1939 in April 1939, the WPA was grouped with the Bureau of Public Roads, Public Buildings Branch of the Procurement Division, Branch of Buildings Management of the National Park Service, United States Housing Authority and the Public Works Administration under the newly created Federal Works Agency. Created at the same time, the Federal Security Agency assumed the WPA's responsibility for the National Youth Administration. "The name of the Works Progress Administration has been changed to Work Projects Administration in order to make its title more descriptive of its major purpose," President Roosevelt wrote when announcing the reorganization.[47]
As WPA projects became more subject to the state, local sponsors were called on to provide 25% of project costs. As the number of public works projects slowly diminished, more projects were dedicated to preparing for war.[7]:227 Having languished since the end of World War I, the American military services were depopulated and served by crumbling facilities; when Germany occupied Czechoslovakia in 1938, the U.S. Army numbered only 176,000 soldiers.[22]:494
WPA researchers and map makers prepare the air raid warning map for New Orleans within days of the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 11, 1941)
On May 26, 1940, FDR delivered a fireside chat to the American people about "the approaching storm",[48] and on June 6 Harrington reprioritized WPA projects, anticipating a major expansion of the U.S. military. "Types of WPA work to be expedited in every possible way to include, in addition to airports and military airfields, construction of housing and other facilities for enlarged military garrisons, camp and cantonment construction, and various improvements in navy yards," Harrington said. He observed that the WPA had already made substantial contributions to national defense over its five years of existence, by building 85 percent of the new airports in the U.S. and making $420 million in improvements to military facilities. He predicted there would be 500,000 WPA workers on defense-related projects over the next 12 months, at a cost of $250 million.[22]:492–493 The estimated number of WPA workers needed for defense projects was soon revised to between 600,000 and 700,000. Vocational training for war industries was also begun by the WPA, with 50,000 trainees in the program by October 1940.[22]:494
"Only the WPA, having employed millions of relief workers for more than five years, had a comprehensive awareness of the skills that would be available in a full-scale national emergency," wrote journalist Nick Taylor. "As the country began its preparedness buildup, the WPA was uniquely positioned to become a major defense agency."[22]:494–495
Harrington died suddenly, aged 53, on September 30, 1940. Notably apolitical—he boasted that he had never voted[49]—he had deflected Congressional criticism of the WPA by bringing attention to its building accomplishments and its role as an employer.[22]:504 Harrington's successor, Howard O. Hunter, served as head of the WPA until May 1, 1942.[22]:517
Termination[edit]
Unemployment ended with war production for World War II, as millions of men joined the services, and cost-plus contracts made it attractive for companies to hire unemployed men and train them.[22][page needed][31]
Concluding that a national relief program was no longer needed, Roosevelt directed the Federal Works Administrator to end the WPA in a letter December 4, 1942. "Seven years ago I was convinced that providing useful work is superior to any and every kind of dole. Experience had amply justified this policy," FDR wrote:
By building airports, schools, highways, and parks; by making huge quantities of clothing for the unfortunate; by serving millions of lunches to school children; by almost immeasurable kinds and quantities of service the Work Projects Administration has reached a creative hand into every county in this Nation. It has added to the national wealth, has repaired the wastage of depression, and has strengthened the country to bear the burden of war. By employing eight millions of Americans, with thirty millions of dependents, it has brought to these people renewed hope and courage. It has maintained and increased their working skills; and it has enabled them once more to take their rightful places in public or in private employment.[50]
Roosevelt ordered a prompt end to WPA activities to conserve funds that had been appropriated. Operations in most states ended February 1, 1943. With no funds budgeted for the next fiscal year, the WPA ceased to exist after June 30, 1943.[50]
Legacy[edit]
"The agencies of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration had an enormous and largely unrecognized role in defining the public space we now use", wrote sociologist Robert D. Leighninger. "In a short period of ten years, the Public Works Administration, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civilian Conservation Corps built facilities in practically every community in the country. Most are still providing service half a century later. It is time we recognized this legacy and attempted to comprehend its relationship to our contemporary situation."[7]:226
Alabama National Guard Armory, Guntersville, Alabama (1936)
Prairie County Courthouse, DeValls Bluff, Arkansas (1939)
Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, California (1933)
Santa Ana City Hall, Santa Ana, California (1935)
Leon High School, Tallahassee, Florida (1936–37)
Government House, St. Augustine, Florida (1937)
Fort Hawkins, Macon, Georgia (1936–38)
Boise High School Gymnasium, Boise, Idaho (1936)
Midway International Airport, Chicago, Illinois (1935–39)
Gregg Park Bandshell, Vincennes, Indiana (1939)
Canoe house, University of Iowa (1937)
Jenkins Culvert, Gove County, Kansas (1938)
Louisville Fire Department Headquarters, Louisville, Kentucky (1936)
Alvar Street Branch, New Orleans Public Library (1940)
WPA Field House and Pump Station, Scituate, Massachusetts (1938)
Detroit Naval Armory, Detroit, Michigan (1936–39)
Brandon Auditorium and Fire Hall, Brandon, Minnesota (1936)
Milaca Municipal Hall, Milaca, Minnesota (1936)
Upland Auditorium, Upland, Nebraska (1936)
Jackie Robinson Play Center, Harlem, New York (1936)
LaGuardia Airport, Queens, New York (1937–39)
U.S. Post Office, Rhinebeck, New York (1940)
Robeson County Agricultural Building, Lumberton, North Carolina (1937)
Emmons County Courthouse, Linton, North Dakota (1934)
Rubber Bowl Stadium, Akron, Ohio (1940)
Timberline Lodge, Mt. Hood National Forest, Oregon (1936–38)
Oregon State Library, Salem, Oregon (1939)
Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1938–39)
McCoy Stadium, Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1942)
Dock Street Theatre, Charleston, South Carolina (1937)
Liberty Colored High School, Liberty, South Carolina (1937)
Dinosaur Park, Rapid City, South Dakota (1936)
Bristol Municipal Stadium, Bristol, Tennessee (1934)
Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas (1940)
Schoolhouse, Lometa, Texas (1938–40)
River Walk, San Antonio, Texas (1939)
City Library, Monroe, Utah (1934)
Bremerton Public Library, Bremerton, Washington (1938)
White Center Fieldhouse, White Center, Washington (1938–40)
Raleigh County Courthouse, Beckley, West Virginia (1936–37)
Carson Park Baseball Stadium, Eau Claire, Wisconsin (1937)
Mondeaux Lodge House, Westboro, Wisconsin (1936–38)
Natrona County High School, Casper, Wyoming (1941)
See also[edit]
American Guide Series
Federal Art Project
Federal Project Number One
Hatch Act of 1939
List of Federal Art Project artists
Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Public Works of Art Project
Section of Painting and Sculpture, in Treasury department
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Arnesen, Eric (2007). Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. 1. New York: Routledge. p. 1540. ISBN 9780415968263.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jason Scott (2006). Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780521828055.
Jump up ^ "WPA Pays Up and Quits". The New York Times. July 1, 1943. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
Jump up ^ Works Progress Administration (1936). "WPA Workers' Handbook". New Deal Network. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Bradford A. (Spring 1982). "The New Deal Reconsidered". The Wilson Quarterly. 6 (2): 62–76. JSTOR 40256265.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Leighninger, Robert D. (2007). Long-Range Public Investment: The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 9781570036637.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Leighninger, Robert D. (May 1996). "Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space". Journal of Architectural Education. 49 (4): 226–236. JSTOR 1425295.
Jump up ^ "Text of Relief Bill Offered in House". The New York Times. January 22, 1935. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Key Events, Franklin D. Roosevelt". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Work Projects Administration and Its Predecessors". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-28.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (May 6, 1935). "Executive Order 7034 – Creating Machinery for the Works Progress Administration". The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ Deeben, John P. (Fall 2012). "Family Experiences and New Deal Relief: The Correspondence Files of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, 1933–1936". Prologue Magazine. Vol. 44 no. 2. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ Flanagan, Hallie (1965). Arena: The History of the Federal Theatre. New York: Benjamin Blom, reprint edition [1940]. OCLC 855945294.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Engineering and Construction". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Professional and Service Projects". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Finance". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Information". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Investigation". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Statistics". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Project Control Divisions". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of Other WPA Divisions". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Taylor, Nick (2008). American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA, When FDR Put the Nation to Work. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 9780553802351.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Howard, Donald S. (1973) [1943]. The WPA and Federal Relief Policy. New York: Da Capo Press. OCLC 255072517.
Jump up ^ "WPA Employment." Gjenvick Archives: The Future of Our Past, Social and Cultural History. (2000)
Jump up ^ "Records of WPA Projects". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, David M. (1999). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195038347.
Jump up ^ "Website on Merritt Parkway Bridges". Past-inc.org. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ "WPA and Rural Libraries". Newdeal.feri.org. Archived from the original on 1999-10-02. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Blazing the Way: The WPA Library Service Demonstration Project in South Carolina by Robert M. Gorman" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Adams, Don; Goldbard, Arlene (1995). "New Deal Cultural Programs: Experiments in Cultural Democracy". Webster's World of Cultural Democracy. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Larson, Cedric (July 1939). "The Cultural Projects of the WPA". Public Opinion Quarterly. 3 (3): 491–496. JSTOR 2744973.
^ Jump up to: a b John Salmond, "The New Deal and the Negro" in John Braeman et al., eds. The New Deal: The National Level (1975). pp 188–89
Jump up ^ Charles L. Lumpkins (2008). American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics. Ohio University Press. p. 179.
Jump up ^ Cheryl Lynn Greenberg (2009). To Ask for an Equal Chance: African Americans in the Great Depression. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Anthony J. Badger (2011). New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader. U. of Arkansas Press. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Dickens, Bethany (November 18, 2014). "Episode 32 Tapestries". A History of Central Florida. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Pack Horse Librarians of Eastern Kentucky". Horse Canada. Retrieved 2017-09-01.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Donald C. (2007). "The Book Women of Kentucky: The WPA Pack Horse Library Project, 1936-1943". Libraries & the Cultural Record. 42 (2): 120 – via Project MUSE. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Alexander Keyssar, The right to vote: the contested history of democracy in the United States (2000) p 193
Jump up ^ Gina Misiroglu, ed. (2015). American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History. Routledge. p. 334. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Ginzberg, Eli (2004) [1943]. The Unemployed. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. p. 447. ISBN 9780765805744.
Jump up ^ Wood, Margaret Mary (1953). Paths of Loneliness: The Individual Isolated in Modern Society. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 61. OCLC 620533.
Jump up ^ Report of investigation of public relief in the District of Columbia (U.S. Senate), (1938)
Jump up ^ David A. Taylor, Soul of a people: the WPA Writer's Project uncovers Depression America (2009) p 12
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (2007). The Conscience of a Liberal. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 62. ISBN 9780393060690.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (April 15, 1939). "Message to Congress on the Reorganization Act". The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2015-06-29.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Fireside Chat 15: On National Defense (May 26, 1940)". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (October 1, 1940). "WPA Head Dies in Connecticut". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Roosevelt, Franklin D. (December 4, 1942). "Letter to the Federal Works Administrator Discontinuing the W.P.A." The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
Further reading[edit]
Adams, Don; Goldbard, Arlene. "New Deal Cultural Programs: Experiments in Cultural Democracy." Webster's World of Cultural Democracy 1995.
Halfmann, Drew, and Edwin Amenta. "Who voted with Hopkins? Institutional politics and the WPA." Journal of Policy History 13#2 (2001): 251–287. online
Hopkins, June. "The Road Not Taken: Harry Hopkins and New Deal Work Relief" Presidential Studies Quarterly 29#2 (1999): 306–16 online
Howard, Donald S. WPA and federal relief policy (1943), 880pp; highly detailed report by the independent Russell Sage Foundation.
Kelly, Andrew, Kentucky by Design: The Decorative Arts, American Culture and the Arts Programs of the WPA. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. 2015.
Larson, Cedric. "The Cultural Projects of the WPA." The Public Opinion Quarterly 3#3 (1939): 491–196. Accessed in JSTOR
Leighninger, Robert D. "Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space." Journal of Architectural Education 49, no. 4 (1996): 226–236.
Leighninger, Robert D., Jr. Long-Range Public Investment: the Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press (2007).
Lindley, Betty Grimes & Lindley, Ernest K. A New Deal for Youth: the Story of the National Youth Administration (1938)
McJimsey George T. Harry Hopkins: Ally of the Poor and Defender of Democracy (1987)
Meriam; Lewis. Relief and Social Security. 900 pp. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1946.
Millett; John D. & Gladys Ogden. Administration of Federal Work Relief 1941.
Musher, Sharon Ann. Democratic Art: The New Deal's Influence on American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015.
Rose, Nancy. The WPA and Public Employment in the Great Depression (2009)
Sargent, James E. "Woodrum's Economy Bloc: The Attack on Roosevelt's WPA, 1937–1939." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1985): 175–207. in JSTOR
Sheppard, Si. Buying of the Presidency?, The: Franklin D. Roosevelt, the New Deal, and the Election of 1936 (ABC-CLIO, 2014).
Singleton, Jeff. The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression (2000)
Smith, Jason Scott. Building New Deal Liberalism: the Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (2005)
Taylor, David A. Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America. (2009)
Taylor, Nick. American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA: When FDR Put the Nation to Work (2008)
United States Senate. "Report of investigation of public relief in the District of Columbia". Washington D.C.: 1938
Williams, Edward Ainsworth. Federal aid for relief (1939)
Young, William H., & Nancy K. The Great Depression in America: a Cultural Encyclopedia. 2 vols. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007 ISBN 0-313-33520-6
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Works Progress Administration.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Executive Order 7034
John C. Kennedy Papers. 1912–1938. 5" linear (circa 80 items).
Footage of the Federal Theatre Project's 1936 "Voodoo Macbeth" – with informative annotations.
The Great Depression in Washington State Project, including an illustrated map of major WPA projects and a multimedia history of the Federal Theater Project in the State.
The Index of American Design at the National Gallery of Art
Works by Work Projects Administration at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Works Progress Administration at Internet Archive
Works by Works Progress Administration at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Guide to the WPA Oregon Federal Art Project collection at the University of Oregon
WPA inspired Gulf Coast Civic Works Project
An Introduction to the Employer of Last Resort Proposal from Dollars & Sense. Includes several images from the original WPA.
Living New Deal Project – The Living New Deal Project documents the living legacy of New Deal agencies, including the WPA. The Living New Deal website includes an extensive digital map featuring detailed information about specific WPA projects by location.
New Deal Agencies: The Works Progress Administration
Soul of a People documentary on Smithsonian Networks
Works Progress Administration Tampa Office Records at the University of South Florida
Arizona Archives Online Finding Aid – The Arizona State Museum Library & Archives holds the records of the WPA Statewide Archaeological Project (1938–1940) and are found on AAO.
WPA Art Inventory Project at the Connecticut State Library
WPA Omaha, Nebraska City Guide Project by the University of Nebraska Omaha Dr. C.C. and Mabel L. Criss Library.
WPA publications from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Research Center
Tapestries at A History of Central Florida Podcast
WPA digital collection at the New York Public Library
WPA Music Manuscripts at Wayne State University Library is a digitization project that contains 174 images of WPA music copies from 1935–1943.
WPA posters:
Posters from the WPA at the Library of Congress
Libraries and the WPA:
The WPA Library Project in South Carolina
South Carolina Public Library History, 1930–1945
WPA Children’s Books (1935–1943) Broward County Library’s Bienes Museum of the Modern Book
WPA murals:
Database of WPA murals
WPA-FAP Mural Division in NYC, and restoration of murals at the Williamsburg Houses and Hospital for Chronic Diseases on Welfare Island
WPA mural projects by noted muralist Sr. Lucia Wiley
WPA Artist Louis Schanker
WPA Artist Robert Tabor
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