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French Navy
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French Navy
Marine Nationale
Logo of the Marine Nationale since 1990.
Active
1624–present
Country
France
Type
Navy
Role
Naval warfare
Size
36,331 personnel (2016)[1] and 2800 civilians (2014)
180 ships[2]
210 aircraft[1]
FAN
FSM
AVIA
FORFUSCO
Marins Pompiers
Gendarmerie Maritime
Service de soutien de la Flotte
Garrison/HQ
Main: Brest, Île Longue, Toulon
Secondary: Cherbourg, Lorient
French overseas territories: Fort de France, Degrad des Cannes, Port des Galets, Dzaoudzi, Nouméa, Papeete
Overseas: Dakar, Djibouti, Abu Dhabi
Nickname(s)
La Royale
Motto(s)
Honneur, patrie, valeur, discipline
("Honour, homeland, valour, discipline")
Colours
Blue, white, red
Ships
Current Fleet
Engagements
See list[show]
Anglo-French War (1627–1629)
Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Second Anglo-Dutch War
Franco-Dutch War
Nine Years' War
War of the Spanish Succession
War of the Austrian Succession
Seven Years' War
American Revolutionary War
Anglo-French War (1778–1783)
French Revolutionary Wars
Napoleonic Wars
French conquest of Algeria
Battle of the Tagus
Pastry War
Crimean War
Second French intervention in Mexico
Sino-French War
French conquest of Morocco
World War I
World War II
Indochina War
Korean War
Algerian War
Operation Musketeer
Bizerte crisis
Lebanese Civil War
Gulf War
Yugoslav Wars
Kosovo War
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)
Opération Harmattan
Website
www.etremarin.fr
Commanders
Chef d'État-Major de La Marine, CEMM
Amiral Christophe Prazuck
Major Général de La Marine
Amiral Denis Béraud
Insignia
Insignia
Ranks in the French Navy
Naval Ensign
Aircraft flown
Attack
Rafale M
Electronic
warfare
Hawkeye
Fighter
Rafale M
Helicopter
NH90, Eurocopter Lynx, Panther, Dauphin
Utility helicopter
Alouette III
Patrol
Atlantique 2, Falcon 50, Falcon 200
Trainer
Mudry CAP 10, MS-88 Rallye, Falcon 10, Xingu
show
Marine nationale
Parent unit
Armées françaises (French military)
Components
Force d'action navale
Forces sous-marines (FOST, ESNA)
Aviation navale
FORFUSCO (Commandos Marine and Fusiliers marins)
Gendarmerie Maritime
Bataillon des marins pompiers de Marseille
Commissariat
Service de soutien de la flotte
Service hydrographique et océanographique de la marine
Service de l'aéronautique navale
The French Navy (French: Marine Nationale), informally "La Royale", is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces. Dating back to 1624, the French Navy is one of the world's oldest naval forces. It has participated in conflicts around the globe and played a key part in establishing the French colonial empire.
The French Navy consists of six main branches and various services: the Force d'Action Navale, the Forces Sous-marines (FOST, ESNA), the Maritime Force of Naval Aeronautics, the Fusiliers Marins (including Commandos Marine), the Marins Pompiers, and the Gendarmerie Maritime.
As of June 2014, the French Navy employed a total of 36,776 personnel along with 2,800 civilians. Its reserve element consisted of 4,827 personnel of the Operational Reserve.[3] As a blue-water navy, it operates a wide range of fighting vessels, which include nuclear-powered aircraft carrier with various aeronaval capabilities, attack submarines and ballistic missile submarines, frigates, patrol boats and support ships.
Contents
1 Origins
2 Names and symbols
3 History
3.1 17th century
3.2 18th century
3.3 19th century
3.4 20th century
3.5 21st century
4 Organisation
4.1 Main naval bases
5 Equipment
5.1 Ships and submarines
5.2 Aircraft
6 Personnel
6.1 Application requirement
7 Customs and traditions
7.1 Ranks
7.2 Addressing officers
7.3 Uniforms
8 Future
9 Notable French naval officers
9.1 Corsairs
9.2 Heroes of the First Republic
9.3 Explorers
9.4 Other important French naval officers
9.5 Notable people who served in the French Navy
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Origins[edit]
The history of French naval power dates back to the Middle Ages, and had three loci of evolution:
The Mediterranean Sea, where the Ordre de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem had its own navy, the Levant Fleet, whose principal ports were Fréjus, Marseille, and Toulon. The Ordre, which was both a religious and military order, recruited knights from the families of French nobility. Members who had fulfilled their service at sea were granted the rank of Knights Hospitaller, elites who served as the officer corps. The Ordre was one of the ancestors of modern French naval schools including the French Naval Academy.
The Manche along Normandy which, since William the Conqueror, always tendered capable marines and sailors from its numerous active seaports;
The Atlantic Ocean, where the navy of the Duchy of Brittany eventually constituted the nucleus of the royal Flotte du Ponant.
Names and symbols[edit]
The first true French Royal Navy (fr) (French: la Marine Royale) was established in 1624 by Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister to King Louis XIII. During the French Revolution, la Marine Royale was formally renamed la Marine Nationale. Under the First French Empire and the Second French Empire, the navy was designated as the Imperial French Navy (la Marine Française Impériale). Institutionally, however, the navy has never lost its short familiar nickname, la Royale.
The symbol of the French Navy was since its origin a golden anchor, which, beginning in 1830, was interlaced by a sailing rope. This symbol was featured on all naval vessels, arms, and uniforms.[4] Although anchor symbols are still used on uniforms, a new naval logo was introduced in 1990. Authorized by Naval Chief of Staff Bernard Louzeau, the modern design incorporates the tricolour by flanking the bow section of a white warship with two ascending red and blue spray foams, and the inscription "Marine nationale".
History[edit]
Main article: History of the French Navy
French Armed Forces
Components
French Air Force
French Army
French Navy
Gendarmerie
National Guard
Ranks
Ranks in the French Army
Ranks in the French Navy
Ranks in the French Air Force
History
Military history of France
La Grande Armée
v
t
e
The historic "Golden Anchor" symbol
17th century[edit]
Cardinal Richelieu personally supervised the Navy until his death in 1643.[5] He was succeeded by his protégé, Jean Baptiste Colbert, who introduced the first code of regulations of the French Navy, and established the original naval dockyards in Brest and Toulon.[5] Colbert and his son, the Marquis de Seignelay, between them administered the Navy for twenty-nine years.[5]
During this century, the Navy cut its teeth in the Anglo-French War (1627–1629), the Franco-Spanish War (1635–59), the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Franco-Dutch War, and the Nine Years' War. Major battles in these years include the Battle of Beachy Head, the Battles of Barfleur and La Hougue, the Battle of Lagos, and the Battle of Texel.
18th century[edit]
The 1700s opened with the War of the Spanish Succession, over a decade long, followed by the War of the Austrian Succession in the 1740s. Principal engagements of these wars include the Battle of Vigo Bay and two separate Battles of Cape Finisterre in 1747. The most grueling conflict for the Navy, however, was the Seven Years’ War, in which it was virtually destroyed.[5] Significant actions include the Battle of Cap-Français, the Battle of Quiberon Bay, and another Battle of Cape Finisterre.
The Navy regrouped and rebuilt, and within 15 years it was eager to join the fray when France intervened in the American Revolutionary War.[5] Though outnumbered everywhere, the French fleets held the British at bay for years until victory.[5] After this conflict and the concomitant Anglo-French War (1778–1783), the Navy emerged at a new height in its history.[5] Major battles in these years include the Battle of the Chesapeake, the Battle of Cape Henry, the Battle of Grenada, the invasion of Dominica, and three separate Battles of Ushant.
Within less than a decade, however, the Navy was decimated by the French Revolution when large numbers of veteran officers were dismissed or executed for their noble lineage.[5] Nonetheless, the Navy fought vigorously through the French Revolutionary Wars as well as the Quasi-War. Significant actions include a fourth Battle of Ushant (known in English as the Glorious First of June), the Battle of Groix, the Atlantic campaign of May 1794, the French expedition to Ireland, the Battle of Tory Island, and the Battle of the Nile.
19th century[edit]
Other engagements of the Revolutionary Wars ensued in the early 1800s, including the Battle of the Malta Convoy and the Algeciras Campaign. The Quasi-War wound down with single-ship actions including USS Constellation vs La Vengeance and USS Enterprise vs Flambeau.
When Napoleon was crowned Emperor in 1804, he attempted to restore the Navy to a position that would enable his plan for an invasion of England.[5] His dreams were dashed by the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where the British all but annihilated a combined Franco-Spanish fleet, a disaster that guaranteed British naval superiority throughout the Napoleonic Wars. Still, the Navy did not shrink from action: among the engagements of this time were the Battle of the Basque Roads, the Battle of Grand Port, the Mauritius campaign of 1809–11, and the Battle of Lissa,
After Napoleon's fall in 1815, the long era of Anglo-French rivalry on the seas began to close, and the Navy became more of an instrument for expanding the French colonial empire.[5] Under King Charles X, the two nations' fleets fought side by side in the Battle of Navarino, and throughout the rest of the century they generally behaved in a manner that paved the way for the Entente Cordiale.[5]
Charles X sent a large fleet to execute the invasion of Algiers in 1830. The next year, his successor, Louis Philippe I, made a show of force against Portugal at the Battle of the Tagus, and in 1838 conducted another display of gunboat diplomacy, this time in Mexico at the Battle of Veracruz. Beginning in 1845, a five-year Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata was imposed on Argentina over trade rights.
The Emperor Napoleon III was determined to follow an even stronger foreign policy than his predecessors, and the Navy was involved in a multitude of actions around the world. He joined in the Crimean War in 1854; major actions for the Navy include the siege of Petropavlovsk and the Battle of Kinburn. The Navy was heavily involved in the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, the Second Opium War in China, and the French intervention in Mexico. It took part in the French campaign against Korea, and fought Japan in the bombardment of Shimonoseki. In the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the Navy imposed an effective blockade of Germany, but events on land proceeded at such a rapid pace that it was superfluous. Isolated engagements between French and German ships took place in other theaters, but the war was over in a matter of weeks.[6][7]
The Navy continued to protect colonial safety and expansion under the French Third Republic. The Sino-French War saw considerable naval action including the Battle of Fuzhou, the Battle of Shipu, and the Pescadores Campaign. In Vietnam, the Navy helped wage the Tonkin Campaign which included the Battle of Thuận An, and it later participated in the Franco-Siamese War of 1893.
The 19th century French Navy brought forth numerous new technologies. It led the development of naval artillery with its invention of the highly effective Paixhans gun. In 1850, Napoléon became the first steam-powered battleship in history, and Gloire became the first seagoing ironclad warship nine years later. In 1863, the Navy launched Plongeur, the first submarine in the world to be propelled by mechanical power. In 1876, Redoutable became the first steel-hulled warship ever. In 1887, Dupuy de Lôme became the world's first armoured cruiser.
20th century[edit]
The first seaplane, the French Fabre Hydravion, was flown in 1910, and the first seaplane carrier, Foudre, was christened in the following year.[8] Despite that innovation, the general development of the French Navy slowed down in the beginning of the 20th century as the naval arms race between Germany and Great Britain grew in intensity. It entered World War I with relatively few modern vessels, and during the war few warships were built because the main French effort was on land. While the British held control of the North Sea, the French held the Mediterranean, where they mostly kept watch on the Austro-Hungarian Navy.[5] The largest operations of the Navy were conducted during the Dardanelles Campaign.[5] In December 1916, French warships bombarded Athens, forcing the pro-German government of Greece to change its policies.[9] The French Navy also played an important role in countering Germany's U-boat campaign by regularly patrolling the seas and escorting convoys.[5]
Between the World Wars, the Navy modernized and expanded significantly, even in the face of limitations set by the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty.[5] New additions included the heavy and fast Fantasque class "super-destroyers", the massive Richelieu-class battleships, and the submarine Surcouf which was the largest and most powerful of its day.
Battleship Richelieu
From the start of World War II, the Navy was involved in a number of operations, participating in the Battle of the Atlantic, the Norwegian Campaign, the Dunkirk evacuation and, briefly, the Battle of the Mediterranean. However, after the fall of France in June 1940, the Navy was obligated to remain neutral under the terms of the armistice that created the truncated state of Vichy France. Worldwide, some 100 naval vessels and their crews heeded General Charles de Gaulle's call to joined forces with the British, but the bulk of the fleet, including all its capital ships, transferred loyalty to Vichy. Concerned that the German Navy might somehow gain control of the ships, the British mounted an attack on Mers-el-Kébir, the Algerian city where many of them were harbored. The incident poisoned Anglo-French relations, leading to Vichy reprisals and a full-scale naval battle at Casablanca in 1942 when the Allies invaded French North Africa. But the confrontations were set aside once the Germans occupied Vichy France. The capital ships were a primary goal of the occupation, but before they could be seized they were scuttled by their own crews. A few small ships and submarines managed to escape in time, and these joined de Gaulle's Free French Naval Forces, an arm of Free France that fought as an adjunct of the Royal Navy until the end of the war. In the Pacific theatre as well, Free French vessels operated until the Japanese capitulation; Richelieu was present at the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.
The Navy later provided fire support and troop transport in the Indochina War, the Algerian War, the Gulf War, and the Kosovo War.
21st century[edit]
Since 2000, the Navy has given logistical support to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2014) as well as the global War on Terror. In 2011, it assisted Opération Harmattan in Libya.
Organisation[edit]
French navy facilities in metropolitan France (status 2015)
The chief of the naval staff is Vice-amiral d’escadre Arnaud de Tarlé,[10] and as of 2014 the Navy has an active strength of 36,776 military personnel and 2,909 civilian staff.[11] The Navy is organised into four main operational branches:
The Force d'Action Navale (Naval Action Force) – The surface fleet.
The Forces Sous-marines (Submarine forces) – Nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines and fleet submarines.
The Aviation Navale (Naval air force) – Ground and sea-based aircraft.
The Fusiliers Marins (Naval riflemen) – Protection force and infantry including the Navy special forces (Commandos Marine).
In addition, the National Gendarmerie of France maintain a maritime force of patrol boats that falls under the operational command of the French Navy:
The Gendarmerie maritime – The coast guard of France.
During most of the Cold War, the Navy was organised in two squadrons based in Brest and Toulon, commanded by ALESCLANT (Amiral commandant l'escadre de l'Atlantique) and ALESCMED (Amiral commandant l'escadre de la Méditerranée) respectively. Since the post-Cold War restructuring process named Optimar '95, the two components have been divided into the Naval Action Force (commanded by ALFAN) and the Antisubmarine Group (commanded by ALGASM).[12]
Main naval bases[edit]
As of 2014, the largest French naval base is the military port of Toulon. Other major bases in metropolitan France are the Brest Arsenal and Ile Longue on the Atlantic, and Cherbourg Naval Base on the English Channel. Overseas French bases include Fort de France and Degrad des Cannes in the Americas; Port des Galets and Dzaoudzi in the Indian Ocean; and Nouméa and Papeete in the Pacific. In addition, the navy shares or leases bases in foreign locales such as Abu Dhabi, Dakar and Djibouti.
Equipment[edit]
Horizon-class frigate
Dassault Rafale
Ships and submarines[edit]
Main article: List of active French Navy ships
Although French naval doctrine calls for two aircraft carriers, as of 2015 the French only have one, Charles de Gaulle. Originally a planned order for French aircraft carrier PA2 was based on the design of the British Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carrier recently constructed and launched for the British Royal Navy. However the French programme had been delayed several times for budgetary reasons and the result was priority being given to the more exportable FREMM project. In April 2013 it was confirmed that the second aircraft carrier project would be abandoned due to defence cuts announced in the 2013 French White Paper on Defence and National Security.
The French Navy operates three amphibious assault ships, one amphibious transport dock, two air defence frigates, seven anti-submarine frigates, five general purpose frigates and six fleet submarines (SSNs). This constitutes the French Navy’s main oceangoing war-fighting forces. In addition the French Navy operates six light surveillance frigates and nine avisos (light corvettes). They undertake the navy’s offshore patrol combat duties, the protection of French Naval bases and territorial waters, and can also provide low-end escort capabilities to any oceangoing task force. The four ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) of the navy's Strategic Oceanic Force provide the backbone of the French nuclear deterrent.
Aircraft[edit]
Main article: French Naval Aviation
The French Naval Aviation is officially known as the Aéronautique navale and was created on the 19 June 1998 with the merging of Naval patrol aircraft and aircraft carrier squadrons. It has a strength of around 6,800 civilian and military personnel operating from four airbases in Metropolitan France. The Aéronavale is currently in the process of modernisation with a total order of 40 Rafale light fighters on order. Forty have so far been delivered and operate from the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle.
Personnel[edit]
Personnel strength of the French Navy 2015
Category
Strength
Commissioned officers 4,500
Petty officers 23,600
Seamen 6,600
Volunteers 767
Civilian employees 2,800
Source:[13]
Application requirement[edit]
Seamen
Seamen must be at least 17 but no more than 24 years old, with a minimum level of schooling.
Petty Officers
Petty officers must be at least 17 but no more than 24 years old, with at least a high school diploma giving access to university studies. Petty Officer Candidate begin training with five months at the Petty Officer School at Brest.
Contract officers
Contract officers serve on an initial eight-year contract, renewable up to 20 years.
Operational officers must be 21 to 26 years old, with at least a bachelor of science degree, or having passed a classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles in engineering or business.
Staff officers have to be 21 to 29 years old, with an honors degree or master's degree in a field corresponding to the military occupational specialty.
Career officers
Less than 22 years old, having passed a classe préparatoire in science. After four years at the École Navale (naval academy) a cadet will graduate as Lieutenant junior grade with an engineering degree.
Less than 25 years old, having an honors degree in science. After three years at the naval academy a cadet will graduate as Lieutenant Jg. with an engineering degree.
Less than 27 years old, having a master's degree. After two years at the naval academy a cadet will graduate as Lieutenant Jg.
Customs and traditions[edit]
Ranks[edit]
Main article: Ranks in the French Navy
The rank insignia of the French Navy are worn on shoulder straps of shirts and white jackets, and on sleeves for navy jackets and mantels. Until 2005, only commissioned officers had an anchor on their insignia, but enlisted personnel are now receiving them as well. Commanding officers have titles of capitaine, but are called commandant (in the army, both capitaine and commandant are ranks, which tends to stir some confusion among the public). The two highest ranks, vice-amiral d'escadre and amiral (admiral), are functions, rather than ranks. They are assumed by officers ranking vice-amiral (vice admiral). The only amiral de la flotte (Admiral of the Fleet) was François Darlan after he was refused the dignity of amiral de France (Admiral of France). Equivalent to the dignity of Marshal of France, the rank of amiral de France remains theoretical in the Fifth Republic; it was last granted in 1869, during the Second Empire, but retained during the Third Republic until the death of its bearer in 1873. The title of amiral de la flotte was created so that Darlan would not have an inferior rank than his counterpart in the British Royal Navy, who had the rank of Admiral of the Fleet.
Addressing officers[edit]
Unlike in the French army and air force, one does not prepend mon to the name of the rank when addressing an officer (that is, not mon capitaine, but simply capitaine).[14] Addressing a French Navy lieutenant de vaisseau (for instance) with a "mon capitaine" will attract the traditional answer "Dans la Marine il y a Mon Dieu et mon cul, pas mon capitaine!" ("In the Navy there are My God and my arse, no 'my captain'!").
Uniforms[edit]
Winter Uniform (22)
Summer Uniform (26)
Overseas (25)
Light Duty Firefighter Suit
Future[edit]
Main article: Future of the French Navy
FREMM multipurpose frigate at Lorient
Barracuda-class submarine
EDA-R landing craft on the beach
France's financial problems have affected all branches of her military. The 2013 French White Paper on Defence and National Security cancelled the long-planned new aircraft carrier and a possible fourth Mistral-class amphibious assault ship, and conceded that British help would be needed to sustain an enduring presence.[15] The backbone of the fleet will be the Aquitaine-class FREMM anti-submarine frigates, replacing the Georges Leygues class, but plans to buy a possible seventeen FREMMs were cut back to eleven and then to eight. The cancellation of the third and fourth Horizon destroyers mean that the last two FREMM hulls in 2021/2 will be fitted out as FREDA air-defence ships to replace the Cassard class.[16] DCNS has shown a FREMM-ER concept to meet this requirement, emphasising ballistic missile defence with the Thales Sea Fire 500 AESA radar.[17] Industrial considerations mean that the funds for FREMMs 9-11 will now be spent on five more exportable frégates de taille intermédiaire (FTI, "intermediate size frigates") from 2023 to replace the La Fayette class which in the meantime will be upgraded with new sonars.[18]
On 9 January 2014 it was announced that the two remaining Batrals in French service would be replaced in 2016/17 by three 1500-tonne (empty) Bâtiments Multimission (B2M) at a cost of ~€100m (US$136m), later increased to four.[19] DCNS has funded the construction of the Gowind-class corvette L'Adroit and loaned her to the MN for fishery patrols to support an overseas marketing campaign for the design. At Euronaval 2010 DCNS showed a 30,000t concept called the BRAVE-class replenishment and support ship to replace the Durance class,[20] three Flotlog replenishment ships are planned along with four BSAH offshore support vessels. Construction has started on the first of six Barracuda-class nuclear attack submarines; commissioning of Suffren is planned for 2018. The first MM40 Exocet Block 3 missile was test-fired in 2010 to be produced. Naval versions of the SCALP EG land-attack cruise missile are under development, along with a planned Aster Block 1NT with greater capabilities against ballistic missiles.
Notable French naval officers[edit]
Corsairs[edit]
Vice-admiral (lieutenant-général) du Casse
Vice-admiral (lieutenant-général) Duguay-Trouin
Rear admiral (chef d'escadre) Jean Bart
Rear admiral Pierre Bouvet
Captain Cassard
Captain Surcouf
Captain Thurot
Heroes of the First Republic[edit]
Vice-admiral de Latouche-Tréville
Vice-admiral de Villaret-Joyeuse
Vice-admiral Bruix
Rear Admiral du Chayla
Captain du Petit Thouars
Captain Casabianca
Explorers[edit]
Vice-Admiral Bougainville
Rear-Admiral d'Entrecasteaux
Rear-Admiral Dumont d'Urville
Commodore Lapérouse
Captain Samuel de Champlain
Captain d'Iberville
Captain Nicolas Baudin
Captain Louis de Freycinet
Commander Doudart de Lagrée
Lieutenant de St Aloüarn
Lieutenant Francis Garnier
Lieutenant Savorgnan de Brazza
Other important French naval officers[edit]
Admiral Florent de Varennes—first admiral of France
Admiral Jean de Vienne—admiral of the French fleet during the Hundred Years' War
Admiral d'Estaing—admiral of the French fleet which helped the United States secure independence
Admiral de Grasse—commander of the French fleet at Chesapeake Bay during the American Revolutionary War.
Admiral Courbet
Vice-Admiral Tourville—commander of the French fleet at the Battle of Beachy Head
Vice-Admiral Villeneuve—commander of the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar
Vice-Admiral Duquesne—commander of the French fleet at the Battle of Agosta
Lieutenant commander Paul Teste, pioneer of the modern aeronaval operations.
Notable people who served in the French Navy[edit]
Marcel Cerdan, world boxing champion during the 1940s
Jean Cocteau, poet, novelist, dramatist, designer, playwright, artist and filmmaker
Jacques-Yves Cousteau
Philippe de Gaulle, the son of the general Charles de Gaulle
Alain Delon, actor, served as a fusilier marin in the First Indochina War
Bob Denard, a mercenary notorious for coup attempts and wars in Africa
Jean Gabin, another major French actor, he joined the free French naval force during the Second World War
Paul Gauguin, painter, sculptor, print-maker, ceramist, and writer
Bernard Giraudeau, actor, film director, scriptwriter, producer and writer
André Marty, a leading figure in the French Communist Party (PCF) from 1923 to 1955
Albert II, Prince of Monaco, reserve Lieutenant Commander
Pierre Loti, mostly known for his literary works
Michel Serres, philosopher and author
Eric Tabarly, a famous yachtsman
Victor Segalen, ethnographer, archeologist, writer, poet, explorer, art-theorist, linguist and literary critic
Eugène Sue, a famous 19th-century novelist
Paul Emile Victor, an ethnologist and polar explorer
See also[edit]
France portal
Nautical portal
Future of the French Navy
French Army
French Air Force
Marine Nationale
Airborne Units of the French Navy
Escorteur
Far East Squadron
French 100 mm naval gun
List of aircraft carriers of France
List of Escorteurs of the French Navy
List of French naval battles
List of Naval Ministers of France
List of submarines of France
Standing French Navy Deployments
Category:French Navy admirals
Category:French Navy officers
Category:Naval ships of France
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Defence Key Figures: 2016 Edition". Defense.gouv.fr. (download PDF file or see HTML version Archived September 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.)
Jump up ^ French Navy, defense.gouv.fr
Jump up ^ "Key defence figures 2014" (PDF) (in French). Defense.gouv.fr. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-13.
Jump up ^ L'Ordonnance royale de 1772 prévoit le port de l'ancre d'or sur les tenues des régiments des ports constituant le corps royal de la Marine, implantés à Toulon, Brest, Rochefort, Saint-Malo, Bordeaux, Le Havre, Bayonne et Cherbourg.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Auphan, Gabriel Paul; Mordai, Jacques (2016) [1959]. "Chapter 1: The Naval Tradition of France". The French Navy in World War II. Translated by Sabalot, A.C.J. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-68247-060-2.
Jump up ^ Wawro, Geoffrey: The Franco-Prussian War: The German conquest of France in 1870–1871
Jump up ^ Wilhelm Rustow and John Layland Needham: The Way for the Rhine Frontier, 1870: Its Political and Military History
Jump up ^ Description and photograph of Foudre
Jump up ^ "French Navy, World War 1". Naval-history.net. Retrieved 2011-12-28.
Jump up ^ "État-major" (in French). Defense.gouv.fr. 2011-09-15. Retrieved 2011-12-28.
Jump up ^ "Forces (Navy)". Ministry of Defence (France). 18 July 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
Jump up ^ T.D. Young, Command in NATO after the Cold War, Carlisle Barracks, 1997
Jump up ^ Chiffres clés de la Défense - 2016 Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ Rapport sur la féminisation des noms de métier, fonction, grade ou titre – La diversité des usages
Jump up ^ "White paper on defense 2013" (PDF). Defense.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ Projet De Loi De programmation Militarie 2014/2019 (in French) August 2013
Jump up ^ "DCNS to unveil new FREMM Frigate variant, updated BRAVE supply ship design at Euronaval 2012". Navy Recognition. 4 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Update to French Military Planning Law Means New Capabilities for Lafayette Class Frigates". Navy Recognition. 21 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Pape, Alex (9 January 2014). "France orders three new multimission vessels". IHS Jane's Defence Weekly.
Jump up ^ "BRAVE class replenishment and support ship". Navy Recognition. 14 August 2011.
Further reading[edit]
Jenkins, E H (1973). A History of the French Navy from its Beginnings to the Present Day. London: Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 0356-04196-4.
Randier, Jean (2006). La Royale: L'histoire illustrée de la Marine nationale française. ISBN 978-2-35261-022-9.
Winfield, Rif and Roberts, Stephen S., French Warships in the Age of Sail, 1626-1786: Design, Constructions, Careers and Fates (Seaforth Publishing, 2017) ISBN 978-1-4738-9351-1; French Warships in the Age of Sail, 1786-1861: Design, Constructions, Careers and Fates (Seaforth Publishing, 2015) ISBN 978-1-84832-204-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Navy of France.
(in French) Marine nationale—Official site
(in English) French Navy 2011—Guide Book
(in English) French Navy 2011—Information File
(in English) Net-Marine—A well documented database on French navy.
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text:
Commercial speech
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In law, commercial speech is speech or writing on behalf of a business with the intent of earning a profit. It is economic in nature and usually attempts to persuade consumers to purchase the business's product or service. The Supreme Court of the United States defines commercial speech as speech that "proposes a commercial transaction".[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 In the United States
1.1 History
1.2 Criticism
2 In the European Union
3 See also
4 References
In the United States[edit]
In the United States, commercial speech is "entitled to substantial First Amendment protection, albeit less than political, ideological, or artistic speech".[2] In the 1980 case Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission, the U.S. Supreme Court developed a four-part test to determine whether commercial speech regulation violates the First Amendment:[3]
Whether the commercial speech concerns a lawful activity and is not misleading
Whether the government interest asserted to justify the regulation is "substantial"
Whether the regulation "directly advances" that government interest
Whether the regulation is no more extensive than necessary to serve that interest
History[edit]
Until the 1976 Supreme Court case Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, commercial speech in the United States was viewed as an "unprotected" category of speech beyond the pale of First Amendment protection.[4] Indeed, the idea of commercial speech was first introduced by the Supreme Court when it upheld Valentine v. Chrestensen in 1942, which ruled that commercial speech in public is not constitutionally protected.[5] In upholding the regulation, the Supreme Court said, "We are...clear that the Constitution imposes...no restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising". This ruling, however, would be overturned with Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976) and Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980).[2]
The Court has recognized that commercial speech does not fall outside the purview of the First Amendment and has afforded commercial speech a measure of First Amendment protection "commensurate" with its position in relation to other constitutionally guaranteed expression.[6] The Court has set forth a framework for analyzing commercial speech under intermediate scrutiny:
At the outset, we must determine whether the expression is protected by the First Amendment. For commercial speech to come within that provision, it at least must concern lawful activity and not be misleading. Next, we ask whether the asserted governmental interest is substantial. If both inquiries yield positive answers, we must determine whether the regulation directly advances the governmental interest asserted, and whether it is not more extensive than is necessary to serve that interest.[7]
Criticism[edit]
Members of the Supreme Court have expressed doubts about the Court's differential treatment of commercial speech in relation to other types of speech. Justice Clarence Thomas replied, in 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), that "I do not see a philosophical or historical basis for asserting that 'commercial' speech is of 'lower value' than 'noncommercial' speech." Justice Thomas would apply strict scrutiny to regulations of commercial speech.[6] Justice Antonin Scalia expressed "discomfort with the Central Hudson test, which seem[ed to him] to have nothing more than policy intuition to support it".[8]
U.S. Court of Appeals judge Alex Kozinski criticized the 1942 Valentine v. Chrestensen ruling, stating that "the Supreme Court plucked the commercial speech doctrine out of thin air".[9]
In the European Union[edit]
The European Court of Human Rights has held that commercial speech is protected under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) on several occasions since the 1980s, but lacks a counterpart to the commercial speech doctrine that exists under U.S. law.[10]
In Germany, the courts adopted a strict approach to advertising and commercial speech due to its emphasis on ensuring competition. For example, in Barthold v. Germany (1985), the European Court of Human Rights held that enjoining a veterinary surgeon for advocating for 24-hour animal clinics (which did not exist at the time in Hamburg, Germany) violated his free expression rights. After the vet was quoted in a newspaper article, he was sued for violating the veterinary association's rules of professional conduct, which barred vets from advertising, and he was injuncted from making similar statements in the future.[11]
In the 1990 Markt Intern Verlag GmbH and Klaus Beermann v. Germany case—described Europe's "leading case concerning speech in commercial context"—the European Court of Human Rights concluded that there had been no violation of Article 10 when Germany's Federal Court of Justice prohibited a publishing company from repeating statements that had been published in a specialist information bulletin criticizing the practices of another company. It noted that the prohibition did not exceed the "margin of appreciation which national authorities were allowed in laying down, in accordance with Article 10, §2, formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties on the exercise of freedom of expression".[12]
See also[edit]
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
Freedom of speech
Professional speech
Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission
Anonymous Online Speakers v. United States District Court for the District of Nevada
Valentine v. Chrestensen
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Central Hudson Gas & Elec. v. Public Svc. Comm'n , 447 U.S. 557, 562 (1980).
^ Jump up to: a b Morrison, Alan B. (2004). "How We Got the Commercial Speech Doctrine: An Originalist's Recollections". Case Western Reserve Law Review. 54 (4): 1189. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Troy, Daniel (Spring 1998). "Taking Commercial Speech Seriously". Free Speech & Election Law Practice Group Newsletter. The Federalist Society. 2 (1). Retrieved 26 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Costello, Sean P. (1997). "Strange Brew: The State of Commercial Speech Jurisprudence before and after 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island". Case Western Reserve Law Review. 47 (2): 681.
Jump up ^ "Today in 1942: SCOTUS Rules That the First Amendment Doesn't Protect Commercial Speech". Legal Research Blog. Thomson Reuters. 13 April 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly , 533 U.S. 525, 572 (2001).
Jump up ^ Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp. v. Public Serv. Comm'n of NY , 447 U.S. 557, 566 (1980).
Jump up ^ 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island , 517 U.S. 484, 517 (1996).
Jump up ^ Kozinski, Alex; Banner, Stuart (May 1990). "Who's Afraid of Commercial Speech?". Virginia Law Review. 76 (4): 627–653. doi:10.2307/1073208. Retrieved 2017-10-05.
Jump up ^ Krzeminska-Vamvaka, Joanna (2008). "Freedom of Commercial Speech in Europe". Verlag Dr Kovac, Studien zum Völker- und Europarecht. 58: 292. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1443922. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Barthold v. Germany". Columbia Global Freedom of Expression. Columbia University. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Council of Europe (March 2007). Freedom of expression in Europe Case-law concerning Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (PDF). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. p. 79. ISBN 978-92-871-6087-4. Retrieved 26 January 2018.

[hide]
v
t
e
United States First Amendment case law
[show]
Establishment Clause
Public funding
Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
McCollum v. Board of Education (1948)
Walz v. Tax Commission of the City of New York (1970)
Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
Marsh v. Chambers (1983)
Mueller v. Allen (1983)
Aguilar v. Felton (1985)
Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994)
Agostini v. Felton (1997)
Mitchell v. Helms (2000)
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002)
Locke v. Davey (2004)
Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn (2011)
Public displays
Stone v. Graham (1980)
Lynch v. Donnelly (1984)
Board of Trustees of Scarsdale v. McCreary (1985)
County of Allegheny v. ACLU (1989)
McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky (2005)
Van Orden v. Perry (2005)
Pleasant Grove City v. Summum (2009)
School prayer
Zorach v. Clauson (1952)
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
Stone v. Graham (1980)
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McGowan v. Maryland (1961)
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[show]
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Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (under consideration)
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[hide]
Freedom of speech (portal)
Sedition and
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Symbolic speech
Stromberg v. California (1931)
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School speech
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Morse v. Frederick (2007)
Obscenity
Rosen v. United States (1896)
United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (S.D.N.Y. 1933)
Roth v. United States (1957)
One, Inc. v. Olesen (1958)
Smith v. California (1959)
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MANual Enterprises v. Day (1962)
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United States v. Williams (2008)
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United States v. Stevens (2010)
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Public employees
Pickering v. Board of Education (1968)
Perry v. Sindermann (1972)
Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth (1972)
Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle (1977)
Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District (1979)
Connick v. Myers (1983)
Rankin v. McPherson (1987)
Waters v. Churchill (1994)
Garcetti v. Ceballos (2006)
Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri (2011)
Heffernan v. City of Paterson (2016)
Hatch Act
and similar laws
Ex parte Curtis (1882)
United Public Workers v. Mitchell (1947)
United States Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers (1973)
Broadrick v. Oklahoma (1973)
Licensing and
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Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio (1915)
Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson (1952)
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Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc. (1982)
Walker v. Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans (2015)
Matal v. Tam (2017)
Commercial speech
Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942)
Rowan v. U.S. Post Office Dept. (1970)
Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations (1973)
Bigelow v. Commonwealth of Virginia (1974)
Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976)
Bates v. State Bar of Arizona (1977)
Linmark Associates, Inc. v. Willingboro (1977)
Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980)
Consol. Edison Co. v. Public Serv. Comm'n (1980)
Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Commission of California (1986)
Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico (1986)
San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee (1987)
44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996)
Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc. (2011)
Campaign finance and
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Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978)
Citizens Against Rent Control v. City of Berkeley (1981)
Brown v. Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Committee (1982)
Regan v. Taxation with Representation of Washington (1983)
FEC v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life (1986)
Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce (1990)
McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995)
Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. FEC (1996)
Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC (2000)
Republican Party of Minnesota v. White (2002)
McConnell v. FEC (2003)
Randall v. Sorrell (2006)
FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007)
Davis v. FEC (2008)
Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
McComish v. Bennett (2011)
American Tradition Partnership v. Bullock (2012)
McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)
Williams-Yulee v. The Florida Bar (2015)
[show]
Freedom of the press
Prior restraints
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Near v. Minnesota (1931)
Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938)
Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc. (1946)
New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)
Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974)
Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart (1976)
Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia (1978)
Loewen v. Turnipseed (N.D. Miss., 1980)
Tory v. Cochran (2005)
Privacy
Time, Inc. v. Hill (1967)
Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn (1975)
Florida Star v. B. J. F. (1989)
Taxation and
privileges
Grosjean v. American Press Co. (1936)
Branzburg v. Hayes (1972)
Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner (1983)
Defamation
Beauharnais v. Illinois (1952)
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)
Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts (1967)
Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler (1970)
Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974)
Time, Inc. v. Firestone (1976)
Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc. (1984)
Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc. (1985)
McDonald v. Smith (1985)
Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1988)
Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton (1989)
Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1990)
Obsidian Finance Group, LLC v. Cox (9th Cir., 2014)
Broadcast media
Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC (1969)
FCC v. Pacifica Foundation (1978)
Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC (1994)
Bartnicki v. Vopper (2001)
Copyrighted materials
Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. (1977)
Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises (1985)
[show]
Freedom of association
Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath (1951)
Watkins v. United States (1957)
NAACP v. Alabama (1958)
Baggett v. Bullitt (1964)
In re Primus (1978)
Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984)
Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, & Bisexual Group of Boston (1995)
Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000)
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Madame Defarge
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Illustration by Fred Barnard of the Wine-Shop in St. Antoine; Madame Defarge is seated with her knitting, her husband Ernest Defarge standing behind her
Madame Defarge (right) and Miss Pross by Fred Barnard, 1870s
Madame Thérèse Defarge is a fictional character in the book A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. She is a tricoteuse, a tireless worker for the French Revolution, and the wife of Ernest Defarge.
She is one of the main villains of the novel, obsessed with revenge against the Evrémondes. She ruthlessly seeks revenge against the Evrémondes, including Charles Darnay, his wife, Lucie Manette, and their child, for crimes a prior generation of the Evrémonde family had committed. These crimes include the deaths of her nephew, sister, brother, father and brother-in-law. She refuses to accept the reality that Charles Darnay changed his ways by intending to renounce his title to the lands to give them to the peasants who worked on them, and his son Charles renounces his title to the lands which are given to the peasants; however, Charles' arrogant and snobbish uncle becomes the Marquis St. Evrémonde. His arrogance causes the death of an innocent child which makes him hated, and helps legitimize Defarge's rage. Her consuming need for revenge against the innocent Darnay and his wife brings about her fatal doom by her own weapon at the hands of Miss Pross.
Defarge symbolizes several themes. She represents one aspect of the Fates. The Moirai (the Fates as represented in Greek mythology) used yarn to measure out the life of a man, and cut it to end it; Defarge knits, and her knitting secretly encodes the names of people to be killed. Defarge also symbolizes the nature of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution in which radical Jacobins engaged in mass political persecution of all real or supposed enemies of the Revolution who were executed on grounds of sedition to the new republic with the guillotine, particularly targeting people with aristocratic heritage.
Portrayals in film and theater[edit]
In the 1935 film A Tale of Two Cities, Madame Defarge is played by Blanche Yurka.
In the 1958 film A Tale of Two Cities, Madame Defarge is played by Rosalie Crutchley.
In the 1980 TV movie A Tale of Two Cities, Madame Defarge is played by Billie Whitelaw.
In the 1981 Mel Brooks parody film, History of the World, Part I, Madame Defarge (played by Cloris Leachman) is the chief conspirator in the plot to overthrow King Louis XVI. She has become so poor, she has run out of wool, simply rubbing her knitting needles together.
In the 2008 Broadway musical adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, Madame Defarge is played by Natalie Toro.
Influences[edit]
In the 2012 epic superhero film The Dark Knight Rises the character of Talia al Ghul played by Marion Cotillard was heavily influenced by the character of Madame Defarge. Also, in the same movie, the villain Bane can be seen sitting and knitting (like Madame DeFarge) in the audience of one of the "trials" presided over by Jonathan Crane, The Scarecrow.
[hide]
v
t
e
Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities
Characters
Sydney Carton
Lucie Manette
Charles Darnay
Alexandre Manette
Monsieur Ernest Defarge
Madame Thérèse Defarge
Jarvis Lorry
Miss Pross
Marquis St. Evrémonde
John Barsad
Jerry Cruncher
Stryver
The Seamstress
Film
A Tale of Two Cities (1911)
A Tale of Two Cities (1917)
A Tale of Two Cities (1922)
The Only Way (1927)
A Tale of Two Cities (1935)
A Tale of Two Cities (1958)
A Tale of Two Cities (1980)
Musicals
Two Cities (2006)
A Tale of Two Cities (2007)
This article about a fictional character from a novel is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
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See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madame_Defarge&oldid=824944773"
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Radames Pera
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This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Radames Pera
Pera as John Edwards with Melissa Sue Anderson in Little House on the Prairie, 1976
Born
(1960-09-14) September 14, 1960 (age 57)
New York City, New York, U.S.
Occupation
Actor
Years active
1972-1987, 2010
Spouse(s)
Marsha Mann (m. 1984)[1]
Radames Pera (born September 14, 1960) is an American former actor best known for his role as "Grasshopper" the student Kwai Chang Caine in the 1972–1975 television series Kung Fu. He is the only living regular cast member from the show.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and acting career
2 Post-acting career
3 References
4 External links
Early life and acting career[edit]
Pera was born in New York City, New York, the son of actress Lisa Pera. His mother moved to Hollywood in 1963 so that she could pursue an acting career.
From 1972 until 1975, Radames appeared as the young Kwai Chang Caine in the ABC television series Kung Fu. Caine was an orphan from Hunan Province in China who had an American father and a Chinese mother. He appeared throughout the 4-year run show on ABC and worldwide re-runs.[2] For the role of Caine, Radames had to shave his head other than the pilot movie where he was initially shown with hair before scenes showing his head being shaved. He appeared bald in all other episodes. In the series he mainly worked with veteran Asian-American actors Philip Ahn (Master Kan), Keye Luke (blind Master Po, who called him "Grasshopper") and Richard Loo (Master Sun), and was mostly shown living in a Shaolin Monastery where he was taught by the monks to be a Shaolin master. He is depicted as the first person to be welcomed into a Shaolin Monastery who was not of full Chinese birth. The main role of Kwai Chang Caine as an adult was played by David Carradine.
Radames also had a recurring role on Little House on the Prairie as John (Jr.), eldest adopted son of Mr. Edwards, and became Mary Ingalls' love interest during the show's first three seasons.[2]
At age eight, Radames was asked by director Daniel Mann to play the role of Anthony Quinn and Irene Papas' dying son in the film A Dream of Kings (1969). He met the director at a dinner party and was eventually cast in the role of Stavros.[2]
Pera's other acting roles include a disturbed pre-teen in an episode of Night Gallery, Silent Snow, Secret Snow, narrated by Orson Welles, and guest appearances on The Six Million Dollar Man, as Don Ameche's son in the episode Gidget Gets Married. Between 1969 and 1985 other guest-starring credits include two episodes of Lassie, Marcus Welby, M.D., the single episodes of Family Affair, Hawaii Five-O, and The Waltons among many others.
Radames dropped out of the acting business entirely after 1987.[2] His final television appearances were in the episodes of Mickey Spillane's The New Mike Hammer, and Starman. His last film role of the 20th century was as a Soviet soldier, Sgt. Stepan Gorsky in John Milius' Red Dawn (1984).
Post-acting career[edit]
Pera developed other interests in video and electronics and eventually formed his own company, All Systems Go! in L.A.[2] in 1988, designing and installing home theaters and residential sound systems.[3] He now specializes in eliminating remote control clutter and other AV and WiFi solutions at his San Diego based company.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=375907392607425&id=234823420049157
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pilato, Herbie J (1993). The Kung Fu Book of Caine: The Complete Guide to TV's First Mystical Eastern Western. Charles A. Tuttle. ISBN 0-8048-1826-6.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Nancy M. (2007). "Making a Move". My Business Magazine. Retrieved December 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ CEPro Magazine |title=How Do Soundbar Soundfields Stack Up? |date=October 2013 |author=Sylvester, Scott |publisher=E.H. Publishing, Inc.
External links[edit]
Radames Pera on IMDb
Ah, grasshopper — so you want to relocate? USA Today
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 12049123
LCCN: no2005110833
ISNI: 0000 0000 4275 9630
BNF: cb140384173 (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radames_Pera&oldid=811980688"
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