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Yakshagana
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Yakshagana performers in action.
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Yakshagana ( Kannada : "ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ", Tulu : "ಆಟ") is a traditional theatre form that combines dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up, and stage techniques with a unique style and form. This theatre style is mainly found in Tulunadu and some parts of Malenadu regions of Karnataka and Kerala.Yakshagana is traditionally presented from dusk to dawn. Its stories are drawn from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata and other epics from both Hindu and Jain traditions.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Music genre
3 History
3.1 Origins
3.2 Early poets
4 Evolution
4.1 Parallel forms
4.1.1 Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh
5 Variations and subgenres
5.1 Tenkutittu
5.2 Badagutittu
5.3 Puppetry variant
5.3.1 Background of puppetry
5.4 Ballet variant
6 Important components
6.1 Raga
6.2 Tala
6.3 Prasanga and literature
6.4 Costumes and ornaments
7 Instruments
7.1 Maddale
7.2 Taala (Bells)
7.3 Chande
8 Artists
9 Training and research
10 Outside India
11 Mela or troupes
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology[edit]
Yakshagana literally means the song (gana) of the yaksha (nature spirits).[3] Yakshagana is the scholastic name (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as kēḷike, āṭa, bayalāṭa, and daśāvatāra. It is believed to have evolved from pre-classical music and theater during the period of the Bhakti movement.[4] It is sometimes simply called "the play" (ಆಟ) in Tulu Language.[5] Yakshagana is strongly influenced by the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Yakshagana was first introduced in Udupi by Madhvacharya's disciple Naraharitirtha.
Music genre[edit]
Karavali Gandu Kale Yakshagana
Yakshagana performance in progress
Yakshagana is a separate genre of music, independent of Karnataka Sangeetha and the Hindustani music of India. It is believed to have survived as an indigenous phenomenon only in Karnataka and northern parts of Kerala .[6]
A typical Yakshagana performance consists of background music played by a group of musicians (known as the himmela); and a dance and dialog group (known as the mummela), who together enact poetic epics on stage. The himmela is made up of a lead singer (bhagawata)—who also directs the production—and is referred to as the "first actor" (modalane vesha). Additional himmela members are players of traditional musical instruments, such as the maddale (hand drum), the pungi (pipe), the harmonium (organ), and the chande (loud drums). The music is based on ragas, which are characterized by rhythmic patterns called mattu and tala (or musical meter in Western music).
A Yakshagana performance typically begins in the twilight hours, with an initial beating of the drums of several fixed compositions, called abbara or peetike. This may last for up to an hour before the actors finally arrive on the stage. The actors wear resplendent costumes, head-dresses, and face paints.[7]
A performance usually depicts a story from the "Kavya" (epic poems) and the "Puranas" (ancient Hindu texts). It consists of a story teller (the bhagavatha) who narrates the story by singing (which includes prepared character dialogues) as the actors dance to the music, portraying elements of the story as it is being narrated. All components of Yakshagana—including the music, the dance, and the dialog—are improvised. Depending on the ability and scholarship of the actors, there will be variations in dances as well as the amount of dialog. It is not uncommon for actors to get into philosophical debates or arguments without falling out of character. The acting in Yakshagana can be best categorized as method acting.[citation needed] The performances have drawn comparison to the Western tradition of opera. Traditionally, Yakshagana will run all night.
Yakshagana is popular in the districts of Dakshina Kannada, Kasaragod, Udupi, Uttara Kannada and Shimoga .[8] Yakshagana has become popular in Bengaluru in recent years, particularly in the rainy season, when there are few other forms of entertainment possible in the coastal districts.[5]
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History[edit]
Main article: List of Yakshagana plays in the Kannada language
Origins[edit]
Thenkuthittu Yakshagana
Rakshasa (the demon) as depicted in Yakshagana performances, is called Bannada Vesha
Yakshagana can refer to a style of writing, as well as the written material itself. It was probably used for poems enacted in bayalaata (or open theater drama), such as the ballads of Koti and Chennayya." Yakshagana in its present form is believed to have been strongly influenced by the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Yakshagana was first introduced in Udupi by Madhvacharya's disciple Naraharitirtha. Naraharitirtha was the minister in the Kalinga Kingdom. He also was the founder of Kuchipudi.
The first written evidence regarding Yakshagana is found on an inscription at the Lakshminarayana Temple in Kurugodu, Somasamudra, Bellary District, and is dated 1556 CE. A copy is available at the University of Madras.[9] The inscription mentions land donated to the performers of the art, so as to enable people to enjoy tala maddale programs at the temple. Another important piece of evidence is available in the form of a poem authored by Ajapura Vishnu, the Virata Parva, inscribed on a palm-leaf found at Ajapura (present day Brahmavara).[9] Another historic palm-leaf manuscript, dated 1621 CE, describes Sabhalakshana.[9]
Yakshagana bears some resemblance to other members of the 'traditional theater family:' Ankhia Nata (found in Assam); Jathra (in Bengal); Chau (Bihar, Bengal); Prahlada Nata (Orissa); Veedhinatakam & Chindu (Andhra); Terukoothu Bhagawathamela (Tamil Nadu), and Kathakali (Kerala). However, some researchers have argued that Yakshagana is markedly different from this group.[citation needed]
Experts have placed the origin of Yakshagana somewhere in the period of the 11th to 16th centuries CE.[10] Yakshagana was an established performance art form by the time of the noted Yakshagana poet, Parthi Subba (c. 1600).[6] His father, Venkata, is attributed by some to be the author of the great Hindu epic, Ramayana, although historian Shivaram Karanth counters these claims (made most notably by historians Muliya Thimmappa and Govinda Pai)[11] and argues that it is Subba, who was in fact its author.[6] Venkata is the probable founder of the tenkuthittu (southern) style of the art.[citation needed]
Troupe centers, such as Koodlu and Kumbala in the Kasaragod District, and Amritheshwari, Kota near Kundapura, claim to have had troupes three to four centuries ago, indicating that the art form almost certainly had begun to take shape by circa 1500.
The Yakshagana form of today is the result of a slow evolution, drawing its elements from ritual theater, temple arts, secular arts (such as Bahurupi), royal courts of the past, and the artists' imaginations—all interwoven over a period of several hundred years.[10]
Early poets[edit]
Early Yakshagana poets included Ajapura Vishnu, Purandaradasa, Parthi Subba, and Nagire Subba. King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704–1714) authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages in the Kannada script.[12][a] Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1794–1868) also wrote several Yakshagana prasanga, including Sougandhika Parinaya.[12][b] Noted poet, Muddana, composed several Yakshagana prasangasa, including the very popular Rathnavathi Kalyana.
Evolution[edit]
In the 19th century, Yakshagana began to move away from the strict traditional forms. Practitioners of the day produced a number of new compositions. Also, a large number of troupes arose across coastal Karnataka.
The early 20th century saw the birth of 'tent' troupes, giving performances to audiences made up of common people who were admitted by ticket. These troupes were responsible for the commercialization of Yakshagana. The genre saw major changes in form and organization. Electrical lights replaced the gas lights; seating arrangements improved; the inclusion of folk epics, Sanskrit dramas, and fictional stories formed the modern thematic base of the discipline. Popular entertainment became the criterion, replacing the historic classical presentations. Tulu, the language of the southern part of the D.K. and Udupi district's was introduced; increasing popularity with the common people.
At this time, writer Kota Shivaram Karanth, experimented with the dance form by introducing Western musical instrumentation. He reduced the time of a Yakshagana performances from 12 hours to under three hours, incorporated movie plot lines, and added Shakespearean themes.[13] Today, female artists perform in Yakshagana shows.
Parallel forms[edit]
Panar Vesha, an imitation of Yakshagana (photo taken at Vandar Kambla, Udupi district)
Yakshagana is related to other performance art forms prevalent in other parts of Karnataka and the neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.[14] Yakshagana defies simple classification into categories such as folk, classical, or rural. It can be included in each or all of these, depending upon the rules used for classification. It is more varied and dynamic than most dance forms. Yakshagana can, however, be classified as one of many traditional dance forms. While it prevails primarily in the coastal areas of Karnataka, other dance forms (such as Doddata) are today often called by the same name. Several forms of traditional theater – Mudalpaya (of southern Karnataka); Doddata (of northern Karnataka); Kelike (on the border with Andhra Pradesh);[15] and Ghattadakore (of Kollegal—in the Chamarajnagar District), may be included in this category. Among them, the Ghattadakore is a direct branch of the coastal form of Yakshagana, while Mudalapaya is the most closely connected form.[citation needed]
Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh[edit]
There is a form called Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh, which exhibits some resemblance to the Yakshagana forms of the Karnataka plateau region[16] and is less sophisticated as a visual art.[17]
Variations and subgenres[edit]
Scholars have classified Yakshagana broadly into several types:
Moodalopaya Yakshagana; includes eastern areas of Karnataka (such as Channarayapattna and Arsikere Taluks of the Hassan District), Nagamangala Taluk of the Mandya District, Turuvekere Taluk of the Tumkur District, Hiriyuru, Challakere of Chitradurga District and North Karnataka.[18]
Paduvlopaya Yakshagana comprises the western parts of extended Karnataka (including Kasaragod Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada).
Tenkutittu (includes areas Kasaragod (Kerala), Mangalore District, Udupi, Sampaaje, Sulliya, Puttur, Bantwala, Belthangady, Karkala, etc.)
Badagutittu (Udupi to Kundapura area, Uttara Kannada district)
Badabadagutittu/Uttara Kannadatittu (extreme north parts of Uttara Kannada)[18]
Tenkutittu[edit]
The southern (Thenkuthittu) form showcasing an authentic Shiva (left) and Veerabhadra (right) at a performance in Moodabidri, depicting Roudra Rasa
One of the traditional variations, the tenkutittu style, is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada, Kasaragod District, western parts of Coorg (Sampaje), and few areas of Udupi district. The influence of Karnatic Music is apparent in tenkutittu, as evidenced by the type of maddale used and in bhaagavathike. Yakshagana is influenced more by folk art blended with classical dance aspects. In tenkutittu, three iconic set of colors are used: the Raajabanna, the Kaatbanna, and the Sthreebanna.
The himmela in the tenkutittu style is more cohesive to the entire production. Rhythms of the chande and maddale coupled with the chakrataala and jaagate of the bhaagavatha create an excellent symphonic sound. The dance form in tenkutittu strikes the attention of the audience by 'Dheengina' or 'Guttu'. Performers often do dhiginas (jumping spins in the air) and will continuously spin (sometimes) hundreds of times. Tenkutittu is noted for its incredible dance steps; its high flying dance moves; and its extravagant rakshasas (demons).
Tenkutittu has remained a popular form and has its own audience outside the coastal areas. The dharmasthala and kateelu durgaparameshwari melas (the two most popular melas) have helped to popularize this form. Several creative tenkutittu plays have been composed by noted scholars, such as Amritha Someshwara.[19]
Badagutittu[edit]
The Badagutittū style of Yakshagana Costume
The Badagutittu style is prevalent in North Canara (Uttara Kannada District) and the northern parts of Udupi Dist from Kundapura to Byndoor, The Badagutittu school of Yakshagana places more emphasis on facial expressions, matugarike (dialogues), and dances appropriate for the character depicted in the episode. It makes use of a typical Karnataka chande.[20]
The Badagutittu style was popularized by Shivram Karanth's, "Yakshagana Mandira," presented at Saligrama Village in Dakshina Kannada as a shorter more modern form of Yakshagana.[20]
Keremane Shivarama Hegde, the founder of the Yakshagana troupe, Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, is an exponent of the Badagutittu style of Yakshagana. He is also the first Yakshagana artist to receive the Rashtrapati Award from the president of India. He hails from the Honnavar taluk of Uttara Kannada (North Canara) District.
Puppetry variant[edit]
There were more than 30 string-puppet troupes in the undivided Dakshina Kannada district during the period 1910–1915 in places such as Basrur, Barkur, Kokkarne, Mudabidri.[21] The presentation of the puppetry in Yakshagana style is highly stylized and adheres strictly to the norms and standards of Yakshagana. The puppets (generally 18 inches high) wear costumes similar to those worn by live actors of Yakshagana, and have the same elaborate make-up, colorful headgear, and heavy jewelery.[22] The puppeteer is known as the Suthradhara. The content in the Yakshagana puppetry, is also mainly drawn from the ancient epics.[21][22]
Background of puppetry[edit]
Yakshagana puppetry has existed for centuries. The modern form of the art, however, was largely molded by the brothers Laxman, Narasimha, and Manjappa Kamath; who hailed from Uppinakudru village, Kundapur taluk. Devanna Padmanabha Kamath, the grandson of Laxman Kamath infused new life into the art and performed shows all over India. Later, Kogga Devanna Kamath improved this subgenre even further, being recognized with the Tulsi Samman and Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards. His son, Bhaskar Kogga Kamath, is currently performing shows while training others in the art of Yakshagana puppetry.[23] K. V. Ramesh is a leading puppeteer from Kasaragod. He leads the Yakshagana puppet troupe Shri Gopalakrishna Yakshagana Gombeyata Sangha.[citation needed]
Ballet variant[edit]
The second half of the 20th century saw experiments and adoptions of this art into other venues. One notable effort was that of Shivarama Karantha, who produced and exhibited Yakshagana ballet, using and training local artists.[24][25] Some of the changes brought about by Karanth, however, attracted criticism.[26] One legal decision even banned any public performance of his experimental ballets being billed as "Yakshagana."[citation needed]
Important components[edit]
The artists pray to Ganesha before their performance.[27] Yakshagana also ends with a prayer to Ganesha[28]
Raga[edit]
Main article: Yakshagana Raga
Yakshagana Rāga refers to melodic framework used in Yakshagana. It is based on pre-classical melodic forms that comprise a series of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is founded. Ragas in Yakshagana are closely associated with a set of melodic forms called mattu. In the Yakshagana tradition, rāgas are associated with different times of the night throughout which the Yakshagana is performed.
Tala[edit]
Main article: Yakshagana Tala
Yakshagana Tala (Sanskrit tāla) are frameworks for rhythms in Yakshagana that are determined by a poetry style called Yakshagana Padya. Tala also decide how a composition is to be enacted by the dancers. It is similar to tala in other forms of Indian music, but differs from them structurally. Each composition is set to one or more talas, rendered by the himmela percussion artists play.[4][19]
Prasanga and literature[edit]
Main article: Yakshagana poetry
Yakshagana poetry (Yakshagana Padya or Yakshagana Prasanga) is a collection of poems written to form a music drama. The poems are composed in well known Kannada metres, using a frame work of ragas and talas. Yakshagana also has its own metre (or prosody). The collection of Yakshagana poems forming a musical drama is called a Prasanga. The oldest surviving parasanga books are believed to have been composed in the 15th century.[29] But many compositions have been lost to time. There is evidence showing that oral compositions were in use before the 15th century. The narratives of the surviving historic Yakshagana Prasangas are now often printed in paperback.[17]
A kings costume (raja vesha) with kireeta (or headgear); the mace is used as an abstract depiction of a weapon
Artists Headwear,Worn by Male Artists where Female artists wear small one
Costumes and ornaments[edit]
Yakshagna costumes are rich in color. The costumes (or vesha) in Kannada depend on characters depicted in the play (prasanga). It also depends on the Yakshagana style (tittu).
Traditionally, Badagutittu Yakshagana ornaments are made out of light wood, pieces of mirror, and colored stones.[30] Lighter materials, such as thermocol, are sometimes used today, although ornaments are still predominantly made of woodwork.
Yakshagana costumes consist of headgear (Kirita or Pagade), Kavacha that decorates the chest, Buja Keerthi (armlets) that decorate the shoulders, and belts (Dabu)—all made up of light wood and covered with golden foil. Mirror work on these ornaments helps to reflect light during shows and add more color to the costumes. Armaments are worn on a vest and cover the upper half of the body. The lower half is covered with kachche, which come in unique combinations of red, yellow, and orange checks. Bulky pads are used under the kachche, making the actors' proportions different in size from normal.
The character, Bannada Vesha, is used to depict monsters. This often involves detailed facial makeup taking three to four hours to complete. Males play the female roles in traditional Yakshagana. However, more recently, yakshagana has seen female artists, who perform in both male and female roles.
The character of Stree Vesha makes use of sari and other decorative ornaments.
Instruments[edit]
Maddale[edit]
Main article: Maddale
The maddale is a percussion instrument and, along with the chande, is the primary rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble.
Taala (Bells)[edit]
Yakshagana bells or cymbals, are a pair of finger bells made of a special alloy (traditionally five metal). They are made to fit the tone of the bhagawatha's voice. Singers carry more than one set, as finger bells are available in different keys, thus enabling them to sing in different pitches. They help create and guide the background music in Yakshagana.
Chande[edit]
Main article: Chande
The Chande is a drum and, along with the maddale, is an important rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble.
Artists[edit]
Main article: List of Yakshagana artists
Over the centuries, hundreds of artists performed Yakshagana and some of them have gained star value, like Chittani Ramachandra Hegde, Naranappa Uppoor, Kalinga Navada, and Airody Govindappa.
Training and research[edit]
As most troupes are associated with temples, training in the art has been confined to temple premises. The Govinda Pai Research Institute, located at MGM College, runs a Yakshagana Kalakendra in Udupi trains youngsters in this ancient dance form. It also does research work on language, rituals, and dance art forms.[31] Srimaya Yakshagana Kalakendra, Gunavante which was founded by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde, is another notable Yakshagana Gurukula that trains Yakshagana students .
Outside India[edit]
"Bhasmasura Mohini" played at California in 2011
Yakshagana is finding new popularity outside India. Amateur troupes have emerged in California, USA and Ontario, Canada. Yakshamitra in Canada, Yakshagana Kalavrinda, Yaksharanga in the U.S. "Yakshaloka Boston" are a few examples of these international troupes.
Yakshamitra founded in 2008 in Toronto, Canada, is the first full pledged Yakshagana mela outside India. It is the first to use local live music himmela for their performances. The other troupes usually use a recorded background himmela for their shows.
"Yakshaloka USA" was founded in New England by Raghuram Shetty in 1995 and used recorded audio for shows. Being the first build a local Yakshagana troupe ("Yakshaloka Boston") in North America and introduce tenku tiTTu (Southern style) Yakshagana to this continent, he trained thousands of local Americans and inspired 5 Yakshagana troupes (Massachusetts, Washington, Florida, Northern and Southern California). Including shows like Sindh World Conference 2000, AKKA 2002, Saint Peters-burg Folk Festival 2005, Irvine Global Village 2014 etc. Yakshaloka USA has showcased hundreds of multi-lingual shows in major theaters across USA in both styles of Yakshagana. Yakshaloka promotes vibrant ancient Indian art by creating unique shows of its own, presentations in schools and Universities including worlds leading acting schools in Hollywood, training kids and adults from all over the world, joining hands with visiting artists (E.g.: Northern style legend Chittani Ramachandra Hegde troupe 2006), and sponsoring/facilitating leading artists (E.g.: Southern style legend Dr Puttur Shridhara Bhandary 2013).
Yakshagana Kalavrinda performs on the east coast of the U.S. "Yakshaloka Boston" troupe has mainly the artists from Boston area and visiting artists from various parts of USA and India. The troupe has given many shows in the east coast, Midwest, southern USA.
Yaksharanga in the USA started after the visit of Yakshagana artist, Sri Chittani Ramachandra Hegde. His performance at the age of 74 was so inspiring that art lovers decided to continue his art thousands of miles away from its home. Sri Kidayuru Ganesh, who accompanied Sri Chittani, stayed back for a couple of months to train a new generation of Yakshagana artists. The initial result was a performance of Yakshagana “Sudanvarjuna Kalaga”. Hegde won the Padmashri Award in 2012 for his lifetime contribution to the art. Yaksharanga has since performed many shows around California.
Yakshagana Troupe, "Shri Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, Keremane," headed by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde and Shri Keremane Shivanand Hegde, toured the U.S., and performed more than 22 programs throughout North America. The troupe visited 12 countries. This troupe was one of the first few troupes that took Yakshagana (in its traditional form) outside India (referring to their performance at Hilton Hotel, Bahrain in 1983).
Mela or troupes[edit]
There are about 30 full-fledged professional troupes, and about 200 amateur troupes in Yakshagana. Professional troupes go on tour between November to May, giving about 180-200 shows. There are about one thousand professional artists and many more amateurs. Further there are off season shows during the wet season, the anniversary shows, school and college students Yakshagana and of course the Talamaddale performances. Yakshagana commercial shows witness 12,000 performances per year in Karnataka generating a turnover of Rs. Six crore.[32][33]
Town/Village
Date Started
Date of closure (if any)
Main sponsor
Thenkuthittu (T) or Badaguthittu (B)
Free or Ticket
Kumble 19th century[citation needed] T Donation
Karki Hasyagara Mela 1850s[9]
Soukooru Mela B
Kamalashile Mela[9] still performing Sri Braahmi Durgaparameshwari Temple B Donation
Halady 1980s Still performing Halady temple B Free/donation
Saligrama 1980s Still performing B Ticket
Amrutheswari Early 20th century[citation needed] Still performing Amrutheswari temple B Ticket
Makkala Mela[9] 1973 Saligrama
Dharmasthala Mela 19th century[citation needed] still performing Sri Kshetra Dharmasthala T Devotees' donation
Kudlu Kutyala Mela T
Suratkal Mela T
Ranjadakate mela B From Shimoga Dist.
Goli Garadi[9] Koti Chennaya Garadi B Sasthana
Kateel Mela 1867[34] still performing Kateel Shri Durgaparameshwari Temple T
Idugunji Mela[9] 1934 still performing B Donation/Tickets
Hosanagara Mela still performing T
Perduru Mela[9] 1983–1984 still performing Sri Anathapadhmanaabha Temple B Ticket
Kondadakuli Mela B Ticket
Maranakatte mela[9] still performing Sri Brahmalingeshwara Temple B Donation, Devotee
Mandarthi Mela[9] 1950s still performing Durgaparameswari Temple B Devotees' donation
Keremane Mela B
Bappanadu Mela Bappanadu Durgaparameshwari Temple, Mulki T
Characters found in Yakshagana
Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA
Prathibha Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA Indrajitu Villain
Kondadakuli
Madana Vesha
Thulu Yakshagana
Bhima in Yakshagana
Jambavanta as depicted in Yakshagana
Krishna - Keremane Shivanand Hegde
Gajamukhadavage Ganapage
Sharanu Bande Guruve
Bannada Vesha
Yakshagana player in costume
Poothini
Veerabhadra (Thenkuthittu)
Yakshagana related photos
Pundu Vesha with Pagade or Kedige Mundale (Kambalashwa photo)
Akrura vesha
Akrura
Bannada Vesha
Badaguthittu vesha
Chowki, the greenroom of Yakshagana, where artists get themselves ready
Parvathi artist
Full Pagade vesha in Yakshagana
Hanumantha
Hanumantha on last leg of Makeup.
A performance artist troupe of the Yaksharanga variant
See also[edit]
The Yakshagana Puppets, a documentary film
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This King of Mysore was deaf and dumb, but knew several languages.
Jump up ^ Mysore kings often gave patronage to various forms of performance artists
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Yakshagana, Martha Bush Ashton, Abhinav Publications, 1976, p. 27
Jump up ^ http://kasargod.nic.in/profile/yakshagana.htm
Jump up ^ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Prof. Sridhara Uppura; 1998; Yakshagana and Nataka Diganta; publications.
^ Jump up to: a b "The changing face of Yakshagana". Online webpage of The Hindu. Chennai, India: The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dr. Shivarama Karantha; Yakshagana Bayalaata; Harsha Publications; 1963; Puttur, South Canara, India.
Jump up ^ Yakshagana; accessed November 2, 2013
Jump up ^ "Yakshagana".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Martha Bush Ashton, Bruce Christie (1977). Yakshagana, a Dance Drama of India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 21,22. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Hindu- Focus on rural art". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
Jump up ^ Note: This due to what Karantha describes as procedural lapses in their research and conclusions. Karantha bases his claim on the fact that Venkata was reported to be a bhagawatha (singer) himself, and is believed to have founded his own troupe.
^ Jump up to: a b Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) [2003]. Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638–1947 A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm. pp. 37, 38.
Jump up ^ Hapgood, Robert; 1983; Macbeth Distilled: A Yakshagana Production in Delhi]; "Shakespeare Quarterly;" Vol. 31; No. 3; Autumn, 1980; pp. 439-440.
Jump up ^ Growing with Tradition; 14 October 2005 article; Hindu.com; accessed November 2013
Jump up ^ http://www.rangashankara.org/home/rangatest/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=32&favm=2010-11-1
Jump up ^ "3-day festival to celebrate Karanth's birth centenary". The Times of India. 2002-12-20. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Brandon, James R. (ed.). The Cambridge guide to Asian Theatre (1997 (2nd reprint) ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115, 116. ISBN 9780521588225.
^ Jump up to: a b Dr. Achar, Palthady Ramakrishna; 2004; Janapada Parisara; Puttur; "Supriya Prakashana;" p.68
^ Jump up to: a b "Tenkuthittu".
^ Jump up to: a b Classical Indian Dance Directory; Narthaki.com; accessed November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Dr. A Sundara. "Pre historic art in Karnataka".
^ Jump up to: a b Gosh, Banerjee, Sampa, Utpal Kumar; Banerjee, Utpal K. (2006). Indian puppets. New Delhi: Abhinav publications. p. 78. ISBN 9788170174356. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Award for achievement". Online webpage of The Hindu. Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2006-03-07. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
Jump up ^ K.S., Upadhyaya (12 May 2001). "Sri Naranappa Uppooru". Udupi: Yakshagana.com. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Kota Shivarama Karanth (1 January 1997). Yakṣagāna. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-357-1. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Seminar on Karanth".
Jump up ^ Manohar Laxman Varadpande. History of Indian Theatre, Volume 2.
Jump up ^ http://www.keralatourism.org/bekal/yakshaganam.php
Jump up ^ Prof Sridhara Uppura; Diganta Sahitya publications; Managalore; 1998.
Jump up ^ Yakshagana Costumes of Karnataka; "The Craft and Artisans"; accessed November 2013
Jump up ^ The Hindu-Yakshagana Kendra has effectively popularised the art form
Jump up ^ "Open study-chairs for research on Yakshagana". Online webpage of The Hindu. Chennai, India: The Hindu. 2007-07-09. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
Jump up ^ "Traditional touch in theatre". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Retrieved 2007-09-06.
Jump up ^ http://portal.kinnigoli.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3066&catid=13:english-fiction&Itemid=37
Further reading[edit]
Ashton, Martha Bush; Yakshagana; published by Abhinav Publications; India; 1st edition (15 June 2003); ISBN 81-7017-047-8 and ISBN 978-81-7017-047-1
Rao, Neelavara Lakshminarayan & Patil, Gorpadi Vittala; Yakshagana Swabodhini; published by: Yakshagana Kendra; MGA College; Udupi, India; 1st edition.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yakshagana.
Yakshagana Shruti Software
Tala demonstration by Chande Mahabhaleshwara. Mudugodu.
Interview - on History and Development of Yakshagana (Informal).
Yakshagana Puppets
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London Eye
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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London Eye
London Eye
Former names
British Airways London Eye (1999-2008)
Merlin Entertainments London Eye (2009-2011)
EDF Energy London Eye
(2011-2014)
Alternative names
Millennium Wheel
General information
Status
Complete
Type
Ferris wheel
Location
Westminster, London
Address
Riverside Building, County Hall, Westminster Bridge Road
Country
United Kingdom
Coordinates
51°30′12″N 0°07′10″W / 51.5033°N 0.1194°W / 51.5033; -0.1194Coordinates: 51°30′12″N 0°07′10″W / 51.5033°N 0.1194°W / 51.5033; -0.1194
Completed
March 2000[1]
Opened
31 December 1999 (ceremonial, without passengers)[2]
1 February 2000 (first passengers carried)[citation needed]
9 March 2000 (opened to general public)[2]
Cost
£70 million[3]
Owner
Merlin Entertainments
Height
135 metres (443 ft)[4]
Dimensions
Diameter
120 metres (394 ft)[4]
Design and construction
Architect
Frank Anatole, Nic Bailey, Julia Barfield, Steve Chilton, Malcolm Cook, David Marks, Mark Sparrowhawk[5]
Architecture firm
Marks Barfield[6]
Engineer
Arup[7]
Website
www.londoneye.com
The London Eye is a giant Ferris wheel on the South Bank of the River Thames in London. As of January 2015, it has been advertised as the Coca-Cola London Eye.
The structure is 443 feet (135 m) tall and the wheel has a diameter of 394 feet (120 m). When it opened to the public in 2000 it was the world's tallest Ferris wheel. Its height was surpassed by the 520 feet (158 m) tall Star of Nanchang in 2006, the 541 feet (165 m) tall Singapore Flyer in 2008, and the 550 feet (168 m) High Roller (Las Vegas) in 2014. Supported by an A-frame on one side only, unlike the taller Nanchang and Singapore wheels, the Eye is described by its operators as "the world's tallest cantilevered observation wheel".[8]
It is Europe's tallest Ferris wheel,[9] and offered the highest public viewing point in London[10] until it was superseded by the 804 feet (245 m) [11] observation deck on the 72nd floor of The Shard, which opened to the public on 1 February 2013.[12] It is the most popular paid tourist attraction in the United Kingdom with over 3.75 million visitors annually,[13] and has made many appearances in popular culture.
The London Eye adjoins the western end of Jubilee Gardens (previously the site of the former Dome of Discovery), on the South Bank of the River Thames between Westminster Bridge and Hungerford Bridge, in the London Borough of Lambeth.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Predecessor
1.2 Design and construction
1.3 Opening
2 Passenger capsules
3 Ownership and branding
4 Financial difficulties
5 Critical reception
6 Transport links
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Predecessor[edit]
Main article: Great Wheel
A predecessor to the London Eye, the Great Wheel, was built for the Empire of India Exhibition at Earls Court and opened to the public on 17 July 1895.[14] Modelled on the original Chicago Ferris Wheel, it was 94 metres (308 ft) tall[15] and 82.3 metres (270 ft) in diameter.[16][17][18] It stayed in service until 1906, by which time its 40 cars (each with a capacity of 40 persons) had carried over 2.5 million passengers. The Great Wheel was demolished in 1907[19] following its last use at the Imperial Austrian Exhibition.[20]
Design and construction[edit]
Supported by an A-frame on one side only, the Eye is described by its operators as a cantilevered observation wheel
The London Eye was designed by architects Frank Anatole, Nic Bailey, Steve Chilton, Malcolm Cook, Mark Sparrowhawk, and the husband-and-wife team of Julia Barfield and David Marks.[5][21]
Mace was responsible for construction management, with Hollandia as the main steelwork contractor and Tilbury Douglas as the civil contractor. Consulting engineers Tony Gee & Partners designed the foundation works while Beckett Rankine designed the marine works.[22]
Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners assisted The Tussauds Group in obtaining planning and listed building consent to alter the wall on the South Bank of the Thames. They also examined and reported on the implications of a Section 106 agreement attached to the original contract, and also prepared planning and listed building consent applications for the permanent retention of the attraction, which involved the co-ordination of an Environmental Statement and the production of a planning supporting statement detailing the reasons for its retention.[23]
The spindle, hub, and tensioned cables that support the rim
The rim of the Eye is supported by tensioned steel cables[24] and resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel. The lighting was redone with LED lighting from Color Kinetics in December 2006 to allow digital control of the lights as opposed to the manual replacement of gels over fluorescent tubes.[25]
The wheel was constructed in sections which were floated up the Thames on barges and assembled lying flat on piled platforms in the river. Once the wheel was complete it was lifted into an upright position by a strand jack system made by Enerpac.[26] It was first raised at 2 degrees per hour until it reached 65 degrees, then left in that position for a week while engineers prepared for the second phase of the lift. The project was European with major components coming from six countries: the steel was supplied from the UK and fabricated in The Netherlands by the Dutch company Hollandia, the cables came from Italy, the bearings came from Germany (FAG/Schaeffler Group), the spindle and hub were cast in the Czech Republic, the capsules were made by Poma in France (and the glass for these came from Italy), and the electrical components from the UK.[27]
Opening[edit]
The London Eye was formally opened by then Prime Minister Tony Blair on 31 December 1999, but did not open to the paying public until 9 March 2000 because of a capsule clutch problem.[2]
On 5 June 2008 it was announced that 30 million people had ridden the London Eye since it opened.[28]
Passenger capsules[edit]
Each of the 32 ovoidal capsules weighs 10 tonnes and can carry 25 people
The wheel's 32 sealed and air-conditioned ovoidal passenger capsules, designed[29] and supplied[30] by Poma, are attached to the external circumference of the wheel and rotated by electric motors. Each of the 10-tonne (11-short-ton)[31] capsules represents one of the London Boroughs,[24] and holds up to 25 people,[32] who are free to walk around inside the capsule, though seating is provided. The wheel rotates at 26 cm (10 in) per second (about 0.9 kph or 0.6 mph) so that one revolution takes about 30 minutes. It does not usually stop to take on passengers; the rotation rate is slow enough to allow passengers to walk on and off the moving capsules at ground level.[31] It is, however, stopped to allow disabled or elderly passengers time to embark and disembark safely.[33]
In 2009 the first stage of a £12.5 million capsule upgrade began. Each capsule was taken down and floated down the river to Tilbury Docks in Essex.[34]
On 2 June 2013 a passenger capsule was named the Coronation Capsule to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.[35]
Ownership and branding[edit]
London Eye at twilight
The Eye on the South Bank of the Thames, with Jubilee Gardens (left) and County Hall (right) in the background
Marks Barfield (the lead architects), Tussauds Group, and British Airways were the original owners of the London Eye.[36] Tussauds bought out British Airways in 2005[36] and then Marks Barfield in 2006[37] to become sole owner. Ownership passed to Merlin Entertainments when it purchased Tussauds in 2007.[38] British Airways continued its brand association, but from the beginning of 2008 the name 'British Airways' was dropped from the logo.[39]
On 12 August 2009 the London Eye saw another rebrand, this time being called "The Merlin Entertainments London Eye" to show Merlin Entertainments' ownership. A new logo was designed for the attraction—this time taking the form of an eye made out of London's famous landmarks. This coincided with the launch of Merlin Entertainments 4D Experience preflight show underneath the ticket centre in County Hall. The refurbished ticket hall and 4D cinema experience were designed by architect Kay Elliott working with Merlin Studios project designer Craig Sciba. Merlin Studios later appointed Simex-Iwerks as the 4D theatre hardware specialists. The film was written and directed by 3D director Julian Napier and 3D produced by Phil Streather.[40]
In January 2011, a lighting-up ceremony marked the start of a three-year deal between EDF Energy and Merlin Entertainments.[41][42] On 1 August 2014 the logo was reverted to the previous "The Merlin Entertainments London Eye" version, with the name becoming simply "The London Eye".[citation needed]
In September 2014, Coca-Cola signed an agreement to sponsor the London Eye for two years, starting from January 2015. On the day of the announcement, the London Eye was lit in red.[43]
Financial difficulties[edit]
Colourful London Eye near County Hall
On 20 May 2005, there were reports of a leaked letter showing that the South Bank Centre (SBC)—owners of part of the land on which the struts of the Eye are located—had served a notice to quit on the attraction along with a demand for an increase in rent from £64,000 per year to £2.5 million, which the operators rejected as unaffordable.[44]
On 25 May 2005, London mayor Ken Livingstone vowed that the landmark would remain in London. He also pledged that if the dispute was not resolved he would use his powers to ask the London Development Agency to issue a compulsory purchase order.[45] The land in question is a small part of the Jubilee Gardens, which was given to the SBC for £1 when the Greater London Council was broken up.
The South Bank Centre and the British Airways London Eye agreed on a 25-year lease on 8 February 2006 after a judicial review over the rent dispute. The lease agreement meant that the South Bank Centre, a publicly funded charity, would receive at least £500,000 a year from the attraction, the status of which is secured for the foreseeable future. Tussauds also announced the acquisition of the entire one-third interests of British Airways and Marks Barfield in the Eye as well as the outstanding debt to BA. These agreements gave Tussauds 100% ownership and resolved the debt from the Eye's construction loan from British Airways, which stood at more than £150 million by mid-2005 and had been increasing at 25% per annum.[46]
Critical reception[edit]
Sir Richard Rogers, winner of the 2007 Pritzker Architecture Prize, wrote of the London Eye in a book about the project:
The Eye has done for London what the Eiffel Tower did for Paris, which is to give it a symbol and to let people climb above the city and look back down on it. Not just specialists or rich people, but everybody. That's the beauty of it: it is public and accessible, and it is in a great position at the heart of London.[47]
Writing for G2 in an article from August 2007, Steve Rose described the Eye as follows:
The Eye... exists in a category of its own.... It essentially has to fulfil only one function, and what a brilliantly inessential function it is: to lift people up from the ground, take them round a giant loop in the sky, then put them back down where they started. That is all it needs to do, and thankfully, that is all it does.[21]
Transport links[edit]
The nearest London Underground station is Waterloo, although Charing Cross, Embankment, and Westminster are also within easy walking distance.[48]
Connection with National Rail services is made at London Waterloo station and London Waterloo East station.
London River Services operated by Thames Clippers and City Cruises stop at the London Eye Pier.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ London Eye
^ Jump up to: a b c London's big wheel birthday
Jump up ^ Reece, Damian (6 May 2001). "London Eye is turning at a loss". The Daily Telegraph.
^ Jump up to: a b "Structurae London Eye Millennium Wheel". web page. Nicolas Janberg ICS. 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "The London Eye". UK Attractions.com. 31 December 1999. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "About the London Eye". Archived from the original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved January 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Arup | Thoughts | How big can Ferris wheels get?". Thoughts.arup.com. 23 September 2013. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Merlin Entertainments Group
Jump up ^ Royal Mail Celebrates 10 Years of the London Eye Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Up you come, the view's amazing... first look from the Shard's public gallery". London Evening Standard. Retrieved 31 December 2014
Jump up ^ Shard observation deck to be Europe's highest
Jump up ^ The Shard Opens Viewing Deck To Visitors
Jump up ^ "The London Eye a complete visitor guide". Retrieved 1 May 2014.
Jump up ^ The Ferris Wheel's London Rival
Jump up ^ Spot the difference: London landmarks, then and now
Jump up ^ Anderson Norman. Ferris Wheels:An illustrated history. p. 97. ISBN 087972532X.
Jump up ^ Richard Weingardt. Circles in the Sky: The Life and Times of George Ferris. p. 109. ISBN 0784410100.
Jump up ^ Richard Moreno. A Short History of Carson City. p. 74. ISBN 0874178363.
Jump up ^ The Great Wheel, London
Jump up ^ Anderson Norman. Ferris Wheels:An illustrated history. p. 100. ISBN 087972532X.
^ Jump up to: a b Rose, Steve (31 August 2007). "London Eye, love at first sight". Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Beckett Rankine – London Eye Pier Design
Jump up ^ "NLP – Project:". Nlpplanning.com. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Making of The London Eye". Londoneye.com. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Color Kinetics Showcase London Eye". Colorkinetics.com. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Enerpac strand jacks lift London Eye. Enerpac.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Mann, A. P.; Thompson, N.; Smits, M. (2001). "Building the British Airways London Eye". Proceedings of the ICE – Civil Engineering. 144 (2): 60–72. doi:10.1680/cien.2001.144.2.60.
Jump up ^ "All Eyes on Eighth Wonder: The London Eye greets 30 millionth visitor and joins Stonehenge and the Taj Mahal as a world wonder". web page. EDF Energy London Eye. June 2008. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Ashby, Charles. (15 November 2011) High-flying deal for Leitner-Poma. Gjsentinel.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Colorado's Leitner-Poma to build cabins for huge observation wheel in Las Vegas. Denverpost.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Interesting things you never knew about the London Eye". London Eye.
Jump up ^ Hester, Elliott (23 September 2007). "London's Eye in the sky not just a Ferris wheel". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ "Disabled Guests". London Eye.
Jump up ^ Woodman, Peter (26 June 2009). "London Eye capsule taken away as refit starts". The Independent.
Jump up ^ "Queen lookalike unveils Coronation Capsule at London Eye". london-se1.co.uk. 2 June 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Reuters, From (2007-03-06). "Blackstone to buy Tussauds' parent". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ Rose, Steve (2006-03-27). "Towering ambition". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ Reuters, From (2007-03-06). "Blackstone to buy Tussauds' parent". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ "London Eye to get (another) new name". Evening Standard. 2011-01-07. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ "A new eye on London". London Eye.
Jump up ^ "EDF Energy naming rights". Attractions Management. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Merlin Entertainments, leading name in location based, family entertainment – MERLIN ANNOUNCES THREE-YEAR PARTNERSHIP FOR LONDON EYE WITH EDF ENERGY 070111 Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Merlinentertainments.biz (27 January 2011). Retrieved on 6 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Coca-Cola to sponsor London Eye". Press Association. The Guardian. 16 September 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "London Eye given eviction notice". BBC News. 20 May 2005. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "Mayor's 'prat' jibe over Eye row". BBC News. 25 May 2005. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Marriner, Cosima (11 November 2005). "BA sells stake in London Eye to Tussauds for £95m". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Marks Barfield Architects (2007). Eye: The story behind the London Eye. London: Black Dog Publishing.
Jump up ^ How to get here Archived 13 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Eye.
Official website
Architect's website
London Eye at Structurae
Live London Eye Webcam
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VIAF: 241883445
GND: 4742054-6
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Eye&oldid=799583478"
Categories:
Ferris wheels
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