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Mycobacterium
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Mycobacterium
TEM micrograph of M. tuberculosis.
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinobacteria
Order: Actinomycetales
Suborder: Corynebacterineae
Family: Mycobacteriaceae
Genus: Mycobacterium
Lehmann & Neumann 1896
Species
See below.
Mycobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria, given its own family, the Mycobacteriaceae. Over 190 species are recognized in this genus.[1] This genus includes pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae) in humans.[2] The Greek prefix myco- means "fungus," alluding to the way mycobacteria have been observed to grow in a mold-like fashion on the surface of cultures.[3] It is acid fast and cannot be stained by the gram stain procedure.
Contents
[hide]
1 Microbiologic characteristics
1.1 Pigmentation
1.2 Staining characteristics
2 Ecology
3 Pathogenicity
3.1 Medical classification
4 Mycosides
5 Genomics
6 Evolution
7 Species
7.1 Slowly growing
7.1.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex
7.1.2 Mycobacterium avium complex
7.1.3 Mycobacterium gordonae clade
7.1.4 Mycobacterium kansasii clade
7.1.5 Mycobacterium nonchromogenicum/terrae clade
7.1.6 Mycolactone-producing mycobacteria
7.1.7 Mycobacterium simiae clade
7.1.8 Ungrouped
7.2 Intermediate growth rate
7.3 Rapidly growing
7.3.1 Mycobacterium chelonae clade
7.3.2 Mycobacterium fortuitum clade
7.3.3 Mycobacterium mucogenicum clade
7.3.4 Mycobacterium parafortuitum clade
7.3.5 Mycobacterium vaccae clade
7.3.6 CF
7.3.7 Ungrouped
7.4 Ungrouped
7.5 Proposed division of the genus
8 Mycobacteriophage
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Microbiologic characteristics[edit]
Mycobacterial cell wall: 1-outer lipids, 2-mycolic acid, 3-polysaccharides (arabinogalactan), 4-peptidoglycan, 5-plasma membrane, 6-lipoarabinomannan (LAM), 7-phosphatidylinositol mannoside, 8-cell wall skeleton
Mycobacteria are aerobic and nonmotile bacteria (except for the species Mycobacterium marinum, which has been shown to be motile within macrophages) that are characteristically acid fast.[2] Mycobacteria have an outer membrane.[4] They possess capsules, and most do not form endospores. Mycobacterium marinum and perhaps M. bovis have been shown to sporulate;[5] however, this has been contested by further research.[6] The distinguishing characteristic of all Mycobacterium species is that the cell wall is thicker than in many other bacteria, being hydrophobic, waxy, and rich in mycolic acids/mycolates. The cell wall consists of the hydrophobic mycolate layer and a peptidoglycan layer held together by a polysaccharide, arabinogalactan. The cell wall makes a substantial contribution to the hardiness of this genus. The biosynthetic pathways of cell wall components are potential targets for new drugs for tuberculosis.[7]
Many Mycobacterium species adapt readily to growth on very simple substrates, using ammonia or amino acids as nitrogen sources and glycerol as a carbon source in the presence of mineral salts. Optimum growth temperatures vary widely according to the species and range from 25 °C to over 50 °C.
Most Mycobacterium species, including most clinically relevant species, can be cultured in blood agar.[8] However, some species grow very slowly due to extremely long reproductive cycles — M. leprae, may take more than 20 days to proceed through one division cycle (for comparison, some E. coli strains take only 20 minutes), making laboratory culture a slow process.[2] In addition, the availability of genetic manipulation techniques still lags far behind that of other bacterial species.[9]
A natural division occurs between slowly– and rapidly–growing species. Mycobacteria that form colonies clearly visible to the naked eye within seven days on subculture are termed rapid growers, while those requiring longer periods are termed slow growers. Mycobacteria cells are straight or slightly curved rods between 0.2 and 0.6 µm wide and between 1.0 and 10 µm long.
Pigmentation[edit]
Some mycobacteria produce carotenoid pigments without light. Others require photoactivation for pigment production.
Photochromogens (Group I)
Produce nonpigmented colonies when grown in the dark and pigmented colonies only after exposure to light and reincubation.
Ex: M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. simiae.
Scotochromogens (Group II)
Produce deep yellow to orange colonies when grown in the presence of either the light or the dark.
Ex: M. scrofulaceum, M. gordonae, M. xenopi, M. szulgai.
Non-chromogens (Groups III & IV)
Nonpigmented in the light and dark or have only a pale yellow, buff or tan pigment that does not intensify after light exposure.
Ex: M. tuberculosis, M. avium-intra-cellulare, M. bovis, M. ulcerans
Ex: M. fortuitum, M. chelonae
Staining characteristics[edit]
Mycobacteria are classical acid-fast organisms.[10] Stains used in evaluation of tissue specimens or microbiological specimens include Fite's stain, Ziehl-Neelsen stain, and Kinyoun stain.
Mycobacteria appear phenotypically most closely related to members of Nocardia, Rhodococcus and Corynebacterium.
Ecology[edit]
Mycobacteria are widespread organisms, typically living in water (including tap water treated with chlorine) and food sources. Some, however, including the tuberculosis and the leprosy organisms, appear to be obligate parasites and are not found as free-living members of the genus.
Pathogenicity[edit]
Mycobacteria can colonize their hosts without the hosts showing any adverse signs. For example, billions of people around the world have asymptomatic infections of M. tuberculosis.
Mycobacterial infections are notoriously difficult to treat. The organisms are hardy due to their cell wall, which is neither truly Gram negative nor positive. In addition, they are naturally resistant to a number of antibiotics that disrupt cell-wall biosynthesis, such as penicillin. Due to their unique cell wall, they can survive long exposure to acids, alkalis, detergents, oxidative bursts, lysis by complement, and many antibiotics. Most mycobacteria are susceptible to the antibiotics clarithromycin and rifamycin, but antibiotic-resistant strains have emerged.
As with other bacterial pathogens, M. tuberculosis produce a number of surface and secreted proteins that contribute to its virulence. However, the mechanism by which these proteins contribute to virulence remains unknown.[11]
Medical classification[edit]
Mycobacteria can be classified into several major groups for purpose of diagnosis and treatment: M. tuberculosis complex, which can cause tuberculosis: M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum, and M. microti; M. leprae, which causes Hansen's disease or leprosy; Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are all the other mycobacteria, which can cause pulmonary disease resembling tuberculosis, lymphadenitis, skin disease, or disseminated disease.
Mycosides[edit]
Mycosides are phenolic alcohols (such as phenolphthiocerol) that were shown to be components of Mycobacterium glycolipids that are termed glycosides of phenolphthiocerol dimycocerosate.[12] There are 18 and 20 carbon atoms in mycosides A, and B, respectively.[13]
Genomics[edit]
Comparison of protein orthology in M. tuberculosis, M. leprae, and M. smegmatis, three major model systems in Mycobacterium research[14]
Comparative analyses of mycobacterial genomes have identified several conserved indels and signature proteins that are uniquely found in all sequenced species from the genus Mycobacterium.[15][16] Additionally, 14 proteins are found only in the species from the genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia, suggesting that these two genera are closely related.[16]
The genomes of some mycobacteria are quite large when compared to other bacteria. For instance, the genome of M. vulneris encodes 6,653 proteins, which is larger than that of small eukaryotes such as yeast (which encodes only ~6000 proteins).[17]
Evolution[edit]
M. ulcerans evolved from M. marinum.[18]
Species[edit]
Phylogenetic Position of the Tubercle Bacilli within the Genus Mycobacterium.
The blue triangle corresponds to tubercle bacilli sequences that are identical or differing by a single nucleotide. The sequences of the genus Mycobacterium that matched most closely to those of M. tuberculosis were retrieved from the BIBI database (http://pbil.univ-lyon.fr/bibi/) and aligned with those obtained for 17 smooth and MTBC strains. The unrooted neighbor-joining tree is based on 1,325 aligned nucleotide positions of the 16S rRNA gene. The scale gives the pairwise distances after Jukes-Cantor correction. Bootstrap support values higher than 90% are indicated at the nodes.
Phenotypic tests can be used to identify and distinguish different Mycobacteria species and strains. In older systems, mycobacteria are grouped based upon their appearance and rate of growth. However, these are symplesiomorphies, and more recent classification is based upon cladistics. Over 100 species are currently recognised.
O'Neill and coworkers recently presented a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis based on an alignment of core genomes of 57 strains of bacteria, including all available mycobacteria.[19]
Slowly growing[edit]
Runyon's group I, II and III
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex[edit]
Also see main article about Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) members are causative agents of human and animal tuberculosis. Species in this complex include:
M. africanum
M. bovis
M. bovis BCG
M. canetti
M. caprae
M. microti
M. mungi
M. orygis
M. pinnipedii
M. suricattae
M. tuberculosis, the major cause of human tuberculosis
Mycobacterium avium complex[edit]
Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) is a group of species that, in a disseminated infection but not lung infection, used to be a significant cause of death in AIDS patients. The species M. indicus pranii appears to be basal in this complex.[20] Species in this complex include:
M. avium
M. avium paratuberculosis, which has been implicated in Crohn's disease in humans and is the causative agent of Johne's disease in cattle and sheep
M. avium silvaticum
M. avium "hominissuis"
M. colombiense
M. indicus pranii
M. intacellulare
Mycobacterium gordonae clade[edit]
M. asiaticum
M. gordonae
Mycobacterium kansasii clade[edit]
M. gastri
M. kansasii
Mycobacterium nonchromogenicum/terrae clade[edit]
M. hiberniae
M. icosiumassiliensis
M. nonchromogenicum
M. terrae
M. triviale
Mycolactone-producing mycobacteria[edit]
M. ulcerans, which causes the "Buruli", or "Bairnsdale" ulcer
M. pseudoshottsii
M. shottsii
Mycobacterium simiae clade[edit]
M. triplex
M. genavense
M. florentinum
M. lentiflavum
M. palustre
M. kubicae
M. parascrofulaceum
M. heidelbergense
M. interjectum
M. simiae
Ungrouped[edit]
M. arabiense
M. aromaticivorans
M. aquaticum
M. bacteremicum
M. bohemicum
M. botniense
M. branderi
M. celatum
M. chimaera
M. conspicuum
M. cookii
M. doricum
M. farcinogenes
M. haemophilum
M. heckeshornense
M. intracellulare
M. lacus
M. leprae, which causes leprosy
M. lepraemurium
M. lepromatosis, another (less significant) cause of leprosy, described in 2008
M. liflandii
M. llatzerense
M. malmoense
M. marinum, causes a rare disease called Aquarium granuloma.
M. neoaurum
M. monacense
M. montefiorense
M. murale
M. nebraskense
M. saskatchewanense
M. sediminis
M. scrofulaceum
M. shimoidei
M. szulgai
Mycobacterium talmoniae
M. tusciae
M. xenopi
M. yongonense
Intermediate growth rate[edit]
M. intermedium
Rapidly growing[edit]
Mycobacterium chelonae clade[edit]
M. abscessus
M. bolletii
M. chelonae
M. immunogenum
M. stephanolepidis
Mycobacterium fortuitum clade[edit]
M. boenickei
M. brisbanense
M. cosmeticum
M. fortuitum
M. fortuitum subsp. acetamidolyticum
M. houstonense
M. mageritense
M. neworleansense
M. peregrinum
M. porcinum
M. senegalense
M. septicum
Mycobacterium mucogenicum clade[edit]
Mycobacterium aubagnese
M. mucogenicum
Mycobacterium phocaicum
Mycobacterium parafortuitum clade[edit]
M. austroafricanum
M. diernhoferi
M. frederiksbergense
M. hodleri
M. neoaurum
M. parafortuitum
Mycobacterium vaccae clade[edit]
M. aurum
M. vaccae
CF[edit]
M. chitae
M. fallax
Ungrouped[edit]
M. agri
M. aichiense
M. alvei
M. arupense
M. barrassiae
M. brumae
M. canariasense
M. chubuense
M. conceptionense
M. confluentis
M. duvalii
M. elephantis
M. flavescens
M. gadium
M. gilvum
M. hassiacum
M. holsaticum
M. iranicum
M. komossense
M. madagascariense
M. massiliense
M. massilipolynesiensis
M. moriokaense
M. obuense
M. phlei
M. psychrotolerans
M. pulveris
M. pyrenivorans
M. smegmatis
M. goodii
M. wolinskyi
M. sphagni
M. thermoresistibile
M. vanbaalenii
Ungrouped[edit]
M. arosiense
M. aubagnense
M. chlorophenolicum
M. fluoroanthenivorans
M. kumamotonense
M. novocastrense
M. parmense
M. poriferae
M. rhodesiae
M. seoulense
M. tokaiense
Proposed division of the genus[edit]
Gupta et al have, based on the analysis of 150 species in the genus, proposed dividing Mycobacterium into five genera.[21] The proposed new genera are:
Mycobacterium based on the Tuberculosis-Simiae clade
Mycolicibacterium based on the Fortuitum-Vaccae clade
Mycolicibacter based on the Terrae clade
Mycolicibacillus based on the Triviale clade
Mycobacteroides based on the Abscessus-Chelonae clade
Wider acceptance of this proposal is awaited.
Mycobacteriophage[edit]
Mycobacteria can be infected by Mycobacteriophage, bacterial viruses that may be used in the future to treat tuberculosis and related diseases by phage therapy. The procedure may not go into practice in the case of Mtb for some time, as bacteriophage particles cannot penetrate into the tuberculosis bacilli, or clumps.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ King HC, Khera-Butler T, James P, Oakley BB, Erenso G, Aseffa A, Knight R, Wellington EM, Courtenay O (2017) Environmental reservoirs of pathogenic mycobacteria across the Ethiopian biogeographical landscape. PLoS One 12(3):e0173811. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173811
^ Jump up to: a b c Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ James H. Kerr and Terry L. Barrett, "Atypical Mycobacterial Diseases", Military Dermatology Textbook, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Niederweis M, Danilchanka O, Huff J, Hoffmann C, Engelhardt H (2010). "Mycobacterial outer membranes: in search of proteins". Trends in Microbiology. 18 (3): 109–16. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2009.12.005. PMC 2931330  . PMID 20060722.
Jump up ^ Ghosh, Jaydip; Larsson, Pontus; Singh, Bhupender; Pettersson, B M Fredrik; Islam, Nurul M; Nath Sarkar, Sailendra; Dasgupta, Santanu; Kirsebom, Leif A (2009). "Sporulation in mycobacteria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (26): 10781–10786. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904104106. PMC 2705590  . PMID 19541637.
Jump up ^ Traag, BA; Driks, A; Stragier, P; Bitter, W; Broussard, G; Hatfull, G; Chu, F; Adams, KN; Ramakrishnan, L; Losick, R (Jan 2010). "Do mycobacteria produce endospores?". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107 (2): 878–81. doi:10.1073/pnas.0911299107. PMC 2818926  . PMID 20080769.
Jump up ^ Bhamidi S (2009). "Mycobacterial Cell Wall Arabinogalactan". Bacterial Polysaccharides: Current Innovations and Future Trends. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-45-5.
Jump up ^ Lagier, Jean-Christophe; Edouard, Sophie; Pagnier, Isabelle; Mediannikov, Oleg; Drancourt, Michel; Raoult, Didier (2015). "Current and Past Strategies for Bacterial Culture in Clinical Microbiology". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 28 (1): 208–36. doi:10.1128/CMR.00110-14. PMC 4284306  . PMID 25567228.
Jump up ^ Parish T, Brown A (editors) (2009). Mycobacterium: Genomics and Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-40-0. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ McMurray DN (1996). "Mycobacteria and Nocardia". In Baron S et al. (eds.). Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ McCann, Jessica R.; Kurtz, Sherry; Braunstein, Miriam (2009). "Secreted and Exported Proteins Important to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Pathogenesis". In Wooldridge, Karl. Bacterial Secreted Proteins: Secretory Mechanisms and Role in Pathogenesis. Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press. pp. 265–297. ISBN 9781904455424.
Jump up ^ Smith, D.W., et al., Nature 1960, 186, 887
Jump up ^ fatty alcohols and aldehydes
Jump up ^ Akinola R. et al. 2013 A Systems Level Comparison of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium smegmatis Based on Functional Interaction. J Bacteriol Parasitol 2013, 4:4
Jump up ^ Gao, B.; Paramanathan, R.; Gupta, R. S. (2006). "Signature proteins that are distinctive characteristics of Actinobacteria and their subgroups". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 90 (1): 69–91. doi:10.1007/s10482-006-9061-2. PMID 16670965.
^ Jump up to: a b Gao, B.; Gupta, R. S. (2012). "Phylogenetic Framework and Molecular Signatures for the Main Clades of the Phylum Actinobacteria". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 76 (1): 66–112. doi:10.1128/MMBR.05011-11. PMC 3294427  . PMID 22390973.
Jump up ^ Croce, Olivier; Robert, Catherine; Raoult, Didier; Drancourt, Michel (2014-05-08). "Draft Genome Sequence of Mycobacterium vulneris DSM 45247T". Genome Announcements. 2 (3). doi:10.1128/genomeA.00370-14. ISSN 2169-8287. PMC 4014686  . PMID 24812218.
Jump up ^ Vandelannoote K, Meehan CJ, Eddyani M, Affolabi D, Phanzu DM, Eyangoh S, Jordaens K, Portaels F, Mangas K, Seemann T, Marsollier L, Marion E, Chauty A, Landier J, Fontanet A, Leirs H, Stinear TP, de Jong BC1 (2017) Multiple Introductions and Recent Spread of the Emerging Human Pathogen Mycobacterium ulcerans across Africa. Genome Biol Evol 9(3):414-426
Jump up ^ O'Neill, MB; Mortimer, TD; Pepperell, CS (2015). "Diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis across Evolutionary Scales". PLoS Pathog. 11 (11): e1005257. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005257.
Jump up ^ Rahman, SA; Singh, Y; Kohli, S; Ahmad, J; Ehtesham, NZ; Tyagi, AK; Hasnain, SE (2014). "Comparative analyses of nonpathogenic, opportunistic, and totally pathogenic Mycobacteria reveal genomic and biochemical variabilities and highlight the survival attributes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis". MBio. 5 (6): e02020–14. doi:10.1128/mBio.02020-14.
Jump up ^ Gupta RS, Lo B, Son J (2018) Phylogenomics and comparative genomic studies robustly support division of the genus Mycobacterium into an emended genus Mycobacterium and four novel genera. Front Microbiol. 9:67. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00067
Further reading[edit]
Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease Caused by Nontuberculous Mycobacteria. American Thoracic Society. Am J Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. Aug 1997 156(2) Part 2 Supplement
RIDOM: Ribosomal Differentiation of Medical Microorganisms
J.P. Euzéby: List of Prokaryotic Names with Standing in Nomenclature - Genus Mycobacterium
External links[edit]
Tuberculist: Genome annotation database
MTB Sysborg: Genome annotation database from the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology
TB Structural Genomics Consortium: Structures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis proteins
MycDB: Mycobacterium database
TBDB: Tuberculosis database
Mycobacterium genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
Frequently Asked Questions about NTM Lung Disease
PRASITE: Identification of mycobacteria
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Prokaryotes: Bacteria classification (phyla and orders)
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
Plant
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
G-/
OM
Terra-/
Glidobacteria
(BV1)
Eobacteria
Deinococcus–Thermus
Deinococcales
Thermales
Chloroflexi
Anaerolineales
Caldilineales
Chloroflexales
Herpetosiphonales
Dehalococcoidales
Ktedonobacterales
Thermogemmatisporales
Thermomicrobiales
Sphaerobacterales
other glidobacteria
Thermodesulfobacteria
thermophiles
Aquificae
Thermotogae
Cyanobacteria
Proteobacteria
(BV2)
Alpha
Caulobacterales
Kiloniellales
Kordiimonadales
Magnetococcales
Parvularculales
Rhizobiales
Rhodobacterales
Rhodospirillales
Rickettsiales
Sneathiellales
Sphingomonadales
Beta
Burkholderiales
Hydrogenophilales
Methylophilales
Neisseriales
Nitrosomonadales
Procabacteriales
Rhodocyclales
Gamma
Acidithiobacillales
Aeromonadales
Alteromonadales
Cardiobacteriales
Chromatiales
Enterobacteriales
Legionellales
Methylococcales
Oceanospirillales
Orbales
Pasteurellales
Pseudomonadales
Salinisphaerales
Thiotrichales
Vibrionales
Xanthomonadales
Delta
Bdellovibrionales
Desulfarculales
Desulfobacterales
Desulfovibrionales
Desulfurellales
Desulfuromonadales
Myxococcales
Syntrophobacterales
Syntrophorhabdales
Epsilon
Campylobacterales
Nautiliales
Zeta
Mariprofundales
BV4
Spirochaetes
Spirochaetes
Sphingobacteria
(FCB group)
Fibrobacteres
Chlorobi
Chlorobiales
Ignavibacteriales
Bacteroidetes
Bacteroidales
Cytophagales
Flavobacteriales
Sphingobacteriales
Planctobacteria/
(PVC group)
Chlamydiae
Lentisphaerae
Lentisphaerales
Oligosphaerales
Victivallales
Planctomycetes
Phycisphaerales
Planctomycetales
Verrucomicrobia
Puniceicoccales
Opitutales
Chthoniobacterales
Verrucomicrobiales
"Poribacteria"
Other GN
Acidobacteria
Acidobacteriales
Acanthopleuribacterales
Holophagales
Solibacterales
Armatimonadetes
Armatimonadales
Chthonomonadales
Fimbriimonadales
Caldiserica
Chrysiogenetes
Deferribacteres
Dictyoglomi
Elusimicrobia
Fusobacteria
Gemmatimonadetes
Nitrospirae
Synergistetes
G+/
no OM
Firmicutes
(BV3)
Bacilli
Bacillales
Lactobacillales
Clostridia
Clostridiales
Halanaerobiales
Thermoanaerobacteriales
Natranaerobiales
Erysipelotrichia
Erysipelotrichiales
Thermolithobacteria
Thermolithobacterales
Tenericutes/
Mollicutes
Mycoplasmatales
Entomoplasmatales
Anaeroplasmatales
Acholeplasmatales
Haloplasmatales
Negativicutes
Selenomonadales
Actinobacteria
(BV5)
Actinobacteria
Actinomycetales
Bifidobacteriales
Acidimicrobiia
Acidimicrobiales
Coriobacteriidae
Coriobacteriales
Nitriliruptoria
Euzebyales
Nitriliruptorales
Rubrobacteria
Gaiellales
Rubrobacterales
Thermoleophilales
Solirubrobacterales
Incertae
sedis
†Archaeosphaeroides
†Eobacterium
†Leptotrichites
Source: Bergey's Manual (2001–2012). Alternative views: Wikispecies.
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Gram-positive bacterial infection: Actinobacteria (primarily A00–A79, 001–041, 080–109)
Actinomycineae
Actinomycetaceae
Actinomyces israelii
Actinomycosis
Cutaneous actinomycosis
Tropheryma whipplei
Whipple's disease
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection
Actinomyces gerencseriae
Propionibacteriaceae
Propionibacterium acnes
Corynebacterineae
Mycobacteriaceae
M. tuberculosis/
M. bovis
Tuberculosis: Ghon focus/Ghon's complex
Pott disease
brain
Meningitis
Rich focus
Tuberculous lymphadenitis
Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis
cutaneous
Scrofuloderma
Erythema induratum
Lupus vulgaris
Prosector's wart
Tuberculosis cutis orificialis
Tuberculous cellulitis
Tuberculous gumma
Lichen scrofulosorum
Tuberculid
Papulonecrotic tuberculid
Primary inoculation tuberculosis
Miliary
Tuberculous pericarditis
Urogenital tuberculosis
Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
M. leprae
Leprosy: Tuberculoid leprosy
Borderline tuberculoid leprosy
Borderline leprosy
Borderline lepromatous leprosy
Lepromatous leprosy
Histoid leprosy
Nontuberculous
R1:
M. kansasii
M. marinum
Aquarium granuloma
R2:
M. gordonae
R3:
M. avium complex/Mycobacterium avium/Mycobacterium intracellulare/MAP
MAI infection
M. ulcerans
Buruli ulcer
M. haemophilum
R4/RG:
M. fortuitum
M. chelonae
M. abscessus
Nocardiaceae
Nocardia asteroides/Nocardia brasiliensis
Nocardiosis
Rhodococcus equi
Corynebacteriaceae
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Diphtheria
Corynebacterium minutissimum
Erythrasma
Corynebacterium jeikeium
Group JK corynebacterium sepsis
Bifidobacteriaceae
Gardnerella vaginalis
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Mycobacteria (including Nontuberculous)
Slowly growing
(R1P=photochromogenic;
R2S=scotochromogenic;
R3N=nonchromogenic)
Long helix 18
(TKHGC)
M. tuberculosis group
MTC
M. tuberculosis
M. bovis
M. africanum
M. microti
M. canetti
M. caprae
M. pinnipedii
MPM
R1P
M. marinum
R2S
M. pseudoshottsii
R3N
M. ulcerans
M. shottsii
M. ulcerans liflandii
Leprosy
M. leprae
M. lepraemurium
M. lepromatosis
R3N
other
M. lacus
M. kumamotonense
K/H groups
M. kansasii group
MAC
R3N
M. intracellulare/M. avium
M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis
M. chimaera
R2S
M. bohemicum
GK
R1P
M. kansasii
R3N
M. gastri
R2S
M. nebraskense
M. seoulense
R3N
M. scrofulaceum
M. haemophilum group
M. haemophilum
R2S
M. szulgai
R3N
M. malmoense
M. gordonae group
R1P
M. asiaticum
R2S
M. gordonae
M. conspicuum group
R2S
M. conspicuum
Long helix 18
(other)
M. xenopi group
M. botniense
M. shimoidei/M. xenopi
M. heckeshornense
M. hassiacum
M. celatum group
R2S
M. cookii
R3N
M. branderi
M. celatum
M. hiberniae group
M. terrae
M. hiberniae
M. nonchromogenicum/M. arupense
Short helix 18
M. simiae clade
M. simiae group
R3N
M. genavense/M. triplex
M. florentinum/M. montefiorense
M. heidelbergense/M. parmense
M. simiae
R2S
M. lentiflavum
M. kubicae group
R3N
M. parascrofulaceum
R2S
M. palustre/M. kubicae
M. interjectum group
M. interjectum
M. saskatchewanense
M. intermedium group
M. intermedium
Ungrouped
M. triviale
M. doricum
M. tusciae
M. arosiense
Rapidly growing/
Runyon IV
M. neoaurum group
M. mageritense
M. wolinskyi
M. canariasense
M. cosmeticum
M. diernhoferi
M. hodleri
M. frederiksbergense
M. neoaurum
M. brisbanense
M. fluoroanthenivorans
F/T groups
M. fortuitum group
M. chitae/M. fallax/M. gadium
M. rhodesiae
M. houstonense
M. neworleansense/M. boenickei/M. fortuitum/M. porcinum/M. senegalense
M. septicum/M. peregrinum/M. alvei
M. farcinogenes
M. vaccae group
M. obuense/M. gilvum/M. parafortuitum
M. chlorophenolicum/M. chubuense
M. psychrotolerans/M. sphagni
M. aubagnense/M. mucogenicum/M. phocaicum
AV
M. aurum
M. vanbaalenii
M. vaccae
M. austroafricanum
M. pyrenivorans
M. poriferae
M. smegmatis group
M. agri/M. thermoresistibile
M. duvalii/M. flavescens
M. monacense
M. pulveris/M. conceptionense/M. moriokaense
M. novocastrense/M. brumae/M. phlei
M. confluentis/M. madagascariense
M. smegmatis/M. goodii
M. chelonae group
M. komossense
M. murale/M. tokaiense
M. aichiense
M. chelonae
M. abscessus
M. immunogenum
M. massiliense
M. bolletii
M. elephantis group
M. elephantis
M. holsaticum
Biology portal
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q194309
EoL: 83101
EPPO: 1MYCBG
GBIF: 3225061
ITIS: 189415
NCBI: 1763
NZOR: 88615ca0-ee31-49be-8939-0736f8499757
WoRMS: 178089
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium&oldid=836596071"
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Looney Tunes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Looney Tunes
Looney Tunes opening title used in the 1947–1948 season.[1]
Directed by
Tex Avery
Bob Clampett
Art Davis
Friz Freleng
Hugh Harman
Rudolf Ising
Chuck Jones
Robert McKimson
Frank Tashlin
(more)
Produced by
Hugh Harman
Rudolf Ising
Leon Schlesinger
Eddie Selzer
John Burton
David H. DePatie
Friz Freleng
William L. Hendricks
Story by
Warren Foster
Tedd Pierce
Michael Maltese
(more)
Voices by
Mel Blanc
June Foray
Arthur Q. Bryan
Bea Benaderet
Stan Freberg
(more)
Music by
Carl Stalling
Milt Franklyn
William Lava
(more)
Animation by
Ken Harris
Warren Batchelder
Rod Scribner
Abe Levitow
Gerry Chiniquy
Izzy Ellis
Virgil Ross
Ben Washam
Bill Meléndez
Phil Monroe
Manny Gould
Richard Thompson
Norman McCabe
(more)
Layouts by
Maurice Noble
Hawley Pratt
Robert Gribbroek
(more)
Backgrounds by
Paul Julian
Pete Alvarado
Philip DeGuard
(more)
Studio
Harman and Ising Pictures
Leon Schlesinger Productions
Warner Bros. Cartoons
DePatie-Freleng Enterprises
Format Films
Warner Bros. Animation
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Vitagraph Studios
Release date(s)
1930–1969 (original)
1987–present (revival)
Color process
B&W (1930–1943)
Technicolor (1942–1969; 1987–present)
Cinecolor (selected late 1940s shorts)
Running time
6–10 minutes (one reel)
Country
United States
Language
English
Looney Tunes is an American animated series of comedy short films produced by Warner Bros. from 1930 to 1969 during the golden age of American animation, alongside its sister series Merrie Melodies.[2] It was known for introducing such famous cartoon characters as Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Elmer Fudd, Tweety, Sylvester, Yosemite Sam, Foghorn Leghorn, Marvin the Martian, Pepé Le Pew, Speedy Gonzales, Tasmanian Devil, Road Runner, Wile E. Coyote and many others.
Looney Tunes' name was inspired by Walt Disney's musical series Silly Symphonies. They initially showcased Warner-owned musical compositions through the adventures of cartoon characters such as Bosko and Buddy. The animation studio rose to greater fame, however, following their addition of directors Tex Avery and Chuck Jones and voice actor Mel Blanc. From 1942 to 1964, Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies were the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters.[3]
Since its success during the short-film cartoon era, Looney Tunes has become a worldwide media franchise, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides, as well as serving as Warner Bros.' flagship franchise. Many of the characters have made and continue to make cameo appearances in various other television shows, movies, and advertisements. The most popular character is Bugs Bunny; he is regarded as a cultural icon and has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.[4] Several Looney Tunes films are considered among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and two (Knighty Knight Bugs and For Scent-imental Reasons) have won Academy Awards.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era
1.2 1933–1936
1.3 1936–1944: More characters and switch to color
1.4 1944–1964: Golden Age
1.5 1964–1969: DePatie-Freleng and Seven Arts era
1.6 1970–1999
1.7 2000–present
1.8 Home media
2 Licensing and ownership
3 Filmography
4 Censorship
5 Accolades
5.1 Inducted into the National Film Registry
5.2 Academy Awards for Best Short Subject (Cartoon)
5.3 Academy Award nominations
6 Related media
6.1 Television series
6.2 Feature films
6.3 Direct-to-video
6.4 Comic books
6.5 Video games
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
In the beginning, Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies drew their storylines from Warner's vast music library. Between 1934 and 1943, Merrie Melodies were produced in color and Looney Tunes in black and white. After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying only in their opening theme music and titles. Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. cartoon characters. By 1937, the theme music for Looney Tunes was "The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down" by Cliff Friend and Dave Franklin, and the theme music for Merrie Melodies was an adaptation of "Merrily We Roll Along" by Charles Tobias, Murray Mencher and Eddie Cantor.
1930–1933: Harman and Ising era[edit]
In 1929, to compete against Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquired Brunswick Records along with four music publishers for US $28 million (equivalent to $401 million in 2017) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal with Leon Schlesinger to produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hired Rudolf Ising and Hugh Harman to produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon, Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid. The first Looney Tunes short was Sinkin' in the Bathtub starring Bosko, which was released in 1930.[2]
Porky Pig in the intro to one of the Looney Tunes shorts in the late 1930s and early 1940s.
1933–1936[edit]
When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters and cartoons they had created. A new character called Buddy became the only star of the Looney Tunes series for a couple of years
New directors including Tex Avery, Friz Freleng and Bob Clampett were brought in to work with animators in the Termite Terrace studio. In 1935 they debuted the first major Looney Tunes star, Porky Pig, along with Beans the Cat in the Merrie Melodie cartoon I Haven't Got a Hat directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon Golddiggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters of I Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl, and twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts, but Beans and Porky proved much more popular. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio.
1936–1944: More characters and switch to color[edit]
The debuts of other memorable Looney Tunes stars followed: Daffy Duck (in 1937's Porky's Duck Hunt); Elmer Fudd (in 1940's Elmer's Candid Camera); and Bugs Bunny (in 1940's A Wild Hare).
Bugs initially starred in the color Merrie Melodies shorts and formally joined the Looney Tunes series with the release of Buckaroo Bugs in 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of color Looney Tunes with the 1942 cartoon The Hep Cat. The final black-and-white Looney Tunes short was Puss n' Booty in 1943 directed by Frank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the color cartoons in the Blue Ribbon Classics series of Merrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoon Crazy Cruise and also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoon Porky Pig's Feat which marked Bugs' only appearance in a black-and-white Looney Tunes short. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he would die five years later.
1944–1964: Golden Age[edit]
More Looney Tunes characters were created such as Tweety (debuted in 1942's A Tale of Two Kitties), Sylvester (debuted in 1945's Life with Feathers), Yosemite Sam (debuted in 1945's Hare Trigger), Pepé Le Pew (debuted in 1945's Oder-able Kitty), Foghorn Leghorn (debuted in 1946's Walky Talky Hawky), Marvin the Martian (debuted in 1948's Haredevil Hare), Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (debuted in 1949's Fast and Furry-ous), Granny (debuted in 1950's Canary Row), Speedy Gonzales (debuted in 1953's Cat Tails for Two), Witch Hazel (debuted in 1954's Bewitched Bunny), and the Tasmanian Devil (debuted in 1954's Devil May Hare).
1964–1969: DePatie-Freleng and Seven Arts era[edit]
During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises (1964–1967) and Warner Bros.-Seven Arts (1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studios. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylized limited animation and graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, by William Lava, of "The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down". The change in the introductory title cards was possibly to reflect the switch in the animation style of the shorts themselves.
The original Looney Tunes theatrical series ran from 1930 to 1969 (the last short being Injun Trouble, by Robert McKimson).[2]
1970–1999[edit]
The Looney Tunes series' popularity was strengthened even more when the shorts began airing on network and syndicated television in the 1950s, under various titles and formats. However, the Looney Tunes shorts were edited, removing scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters doing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), racial and ethnic caricatures (including stereotypical portrayals of African-Americans, Mexicans, Jews, Native Americans, Asians, and Germans as Nazis), and questionable vices (such as smoking cigarettes, ingesting pills, and drinking alcohol).
Theatrical animated shorts went dormant until 1987, when new shorts were made to introduce Looney Tunes to a new generation of audiences. New Looney Tunes shorts have been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, usually as promotional tie-ins with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many of them have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gotten theatrical releases with movies.
In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations and television specials were produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. In 1976, the Looney Tunes characters made their way into the amusement business when they became the mascots for the two Marriott's Great America theme parks (Gurnee and Santa Clara). After the Gurnee park was sold to Six Flags, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which they continue to do presently. In 1988, several Looney Tunes characters appeared in cameo roles in Disney/Touchstone and Amblin's film, Who Framed Roger Rabbit. The more notable cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, Sylvester and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in which Looney Tunes characters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs and Mickey Mouse are skydiving, and when Daffy and Donald Duck are performing their "Dueling Pianos" sequence.
In 1988, Nickelodeon aired all the unaired cartoons in a show called Looney Tunes on Nickelodeon until 1999. To date, Looney Tunes on Nickelodeon is the longest-airing animated series on the network that was not a Nicktoon. In 1996, Space Jam, a feature film mixing animation and live-action, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball player Michael Jordan. Despite its odd plot and mixed critical reception,[6] the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.[7] For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.[8] The film also introduced the character Lola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of the Looney Tunes cast, usually as a love interest for Bugs.
In 1997, Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp; the first of five Looney Tunes themed stamps to be issued.[9]
The Looney Tunes characters have also had success in the area of television, with appearances in several originally produced series, including Taz-Mania (1991, starring Taz) and The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries (1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff series Tiny Toon Adventures, from executive producer Steven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck, Hamton J. Pig, Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner shows Animaniacs (also from Spielberg) and Histeria!.
2000–present[edit]
In 2000, WB decided to make the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies library exclusive to fellow Time Warner properties, specifically Cartoon Network. Immediately prior to this decision, Looney Tunes shorts were airing on several networks at once: on Cartoon Network, on Nickelodeon (as Looney Tunes on Nickelodeon), and on ABC (as The Bugs Bunny and Tweety Show). The latter two had been particularly long-running series, and the Warner Bros. decision forced the two networks to cancel the programs. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animated Looney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film wasn't financially successful,[10] it was met with relatively positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance for the cartoon characters.[8][11][12][13] In 2006, Warner Home Video released a new, Christmas-themed Looney Tunes direct-to-video movie called Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Other Looney Tunes TV series made during this time were Baby Looney Tunes (2002), Duck Dodgers (2003) and Loonatics Unleashed (2005).
On October 22, 2007, Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons became available for the first time in High Definition via Microsoft's Xbox Live service, including some in Spanish.[14] From February 29 – May 18, 2008, many Looney Tunes artifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at the Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown, Ohio, just off the campus of Youngstown State University.[15] The exhibit had the studio come full circle, as the Warners were natives of the Youngstown area.
At the 2009 Cartoon Network upfront, The Looney Tunes Show was announced.[16] After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Coming from Warner Bros. Animation and producer Sam Register, the concept revolves around Bugs and Daffy leaving the woods and moving to the suburbs with "colorful neighbors" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the character Tina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully "Merrie Melodies" (as a tribute to the Looney Tunes sister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season.[17]
Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short, Coyote Falls, that preceded the film Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010, Fur of Flying preceded the film, Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010, Rabid Rider preceded the film, Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be more Looney Tunes 3-D theatrical shorts; the first titled Daffy Rhapsody with Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next being I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat with Sylvester, Tweety and Granny. Daffy Rhapsody was to precede the film Happy Feet Two,[18] until the studio decided to premiere I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat instead. Daffy Rhapsody instead premiered in 2012, preceding Journey 2: The Mysterious Island.[19] All five shorts were directed by Matthew O'Callaghan.
In 2012, several announcements were made about a new Looney Tunes reboot film, titled Acme, in development.[20] Former Saturday Night Live cast member Jenny Slate was said to be on board as writer for the new movie. Jeffrey Clifford, Harry Potter producer David Heyman, and Dark Shadows writers David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame-Smith were slated to produce the film.[21] On August 27, 2014, writers Ashley Miller and Zack Stentz were hired to script the film, directors Glenn Ficarra and John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actor Steve Carell was rumored to be starring in a lead role.[22] The film has yet to enter production.
At the 2014 Cartoon Network upfront, Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production was announced.[23] Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channel Boomerang in Fall 2015.[24]
Home media[edit]
In 2003, Warner Home Video, began releasing select shorts on DVD, in four-disc sets known as the "Looney Tunes Golden Collection". This continued until 2008, when the final volume of the Golden Collection was released. Then in 2010 until 2013, the company released the "Looney Tunes Super Stars" DVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding them, particularly the first two releases having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in the "Super Stars" series was "Looney Tunes Super Stars' Sylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem", released on April 23, 2013.
Licensing and ownership[edit]
When the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies began in 1930, although Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies brandnames, Harman and Ising owned the rights to the Bosko characters. When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933, their former producer Leon Schlesinger started his own studio for Warner Bros. continuing the Looney Tunes series. Harman and Ising retained the rights to Bosko and began making Bosko cartoons at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1934. However these cartoons were not a success and in 1937 MGM fired Harman and Ising and formed their own studio to create MGM cartoons, with Harman and Ising retaining the rights to Bosko. Time Warner eventually acquired the characters from their estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. and since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons. The rights to individual cartoons however are in other hands.
In 1955, Warner Bros. sold its black-and-white Looney Tunes (plus the black-and-white Merrie Melodies made after Harman and Ising left) into television syndication through their sale of the cartoons to Guild Films.[25] The copyright to those cartoons were assigned to Sunset Productions. These cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB, and WB gained rights to the black and white cartoons.
In 1956, Associated Artists Productions (a.a.p.) acquired for television most of Warner Bros' pre-1950[26][27] library, including all Merrie Melodies (except for those sold to Sunset and Lady, Play Your Mandolin!) and color Looney Tunes shorts that were released prior to August 1948. Unlike the sale to Sunset Productions, a.a.p. was allowed to keep the Warner titles intact and simply inserted an "Associated Artists Productions presents" title at the head of each reel (as a result, each Merrie Melodies cartoon had the song "Merrily We Roll Along" playing twice).[28] Two years later, United Artists bought a.a.p. (which also bought Paramount's Popeye films) who merged the company into its television division; United Artists Television.
In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later, Ted Turner acquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library. He also acquired the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company, Turner Broadcasting System (whose Turner Entertainment Co. division oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner who also owned Warner Bros. Today, Warner Home Video holds the video rights to the entire Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies animated output by virtue of Time Warner's ownership of Turner Entertainment.
Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.[29] Turner's Cartoon Network reran the cartoons from their launch on 1992 until 2004, and again from 2009 onwards. An early 2000s version of The Looney Tunes Show, a packaged show produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001[30] to 2004. The show featured shorts from the original Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies theatrical cartoon series. As of 2013, the classic cartoons are currently airing on Cartoon Network's sister channel Boomerang.
Five dozen Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into the public domain and are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Many of these public domain cartoons on unofficial releases are of poor video and audio quality.
Filmography[edit]
Main article: Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography
Censorship[edit]
A handful of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts are no longer aired on American television, nor are they available for sale by Warner Bros. because of racial and ethnic stereotypes of black people, American Indians, Asians such as Japanese (especially during WWII, as in Tokio Jokio and Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips), Chinese, and Germans.[31] Eleven cartoons were withdrawn from distribution in 1968 that prominently featured stereotypical black characters (and a few passing jokes about Japanese people, as in Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs and Jungle Jitters) and are known as the Censored Eleven.
In 1999, all Speedy Gonzales cartoons were removed from airing on Cartoon Network because of their alleged stereotyping of Mexicans.[32] Many Hispanics protested that they were not offended, and fondly remembered Speedy Gonzales cartoons as a representation of their youth and nation's individuality; these shorts were made available for broadcast again in 2002.[33]
In addition to these notorious cartoons, many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes. The release of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3 includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given by Whoopi Goldberg which explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that "were wrong then and they are wrong today", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored because "editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed."
A written disclaimer similar to the words spoken by Goldberg in Volume 3 is shown at the beginning of each DVD in the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4, Volume 5, and Volume 6 sets, as well as the Daffy Duck and Foghorn Leghorn Looney Tunes Super Stars sets and the Warner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection:
The cartoons you are about to see are products of their time. They may depict some of the ethnic and racial prejudices that were commonplace in the U.S society. These depictions were wrong then and they are wrong today. While the following does not represent the Warner Bros. view of today's society, these cartoons are being presented as they were originally created, because to do otherwise would be the same as claiming that these prejudices never existed.
Accolades[edit]
Inducted into the National Film Registry[edit]
Porky in Wackyland (1938), selected in 2000[34]
Academy Awards for Best Short Subject (Cartoon)[edit]
For Scent-imental Reasons (1949)[35]
Knighty Knight Bugs (1958)[36]
Academy Award nominations[edit]
Swooner Crooner (1944)
Mouse Wreckers (1949)
From A to Z-Z-Z-Z (1953)
Sandy Claws (1955)
Tabasco Road (1957)
Mexicali Shmoes (1959)
Mouse and Garden (1960)
High Note (1960)
The Pied Piper of Guadalupe (1961)
Now Hear This (1963)
Related media[edit]
|style="width: 33.33%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;" |
Television series[edit]
The Bugs Bunny Show (1960–2000)
The Porky Pig Show (1964–1967)
The Road Runner Show (1966–1973)
Tiny Toon Adventures (1990–1995)
Taz-Mania (1991–1995)
The Plucky Duck Show (1992)
The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries (1995–2002)
Baby Looney Tunes (2001–2006)
Duck Dodgers (2003–2005)
Loonatics Unleashed (2005–2007)
The Looney Tunes Show (2011–2014)
Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production (2015–)
Feature films[edit]
Bugs Bunny: Superstar (1975)
The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie (1979)
The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie (1981)
Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales (1982)
Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island (1983)
Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (cameos only)
Daffy Duck's Quackbusters (1988)
Space Jam (1996)
Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003)
|style="width: 33.33%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;" |
Direct-to-video[edit]
Tiny Toon Adventures: How I Spent My Vacation (1992)
Tweety's High Flying Adventure (2000)
Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure (2003)
Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas (2006)
Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run (2015)
Comic books[edit]
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Comics #1–165 (Dell Publishing, 1941–1955)
Bugs Bunny #1–85 (Dell Publishing, 1942–1962)
Porky Pig #1–81 (Dell Publishing, 1942–1962)
Tweety and Sylvester #1–37 (Dell Publishing, 1952–1962)
Daffy Duck #1–30 (Dell Publishing, 1953–1962)
Looney Tunes #166–246 (Dell Publishing, 1955–1962)
Beep Beep The Road Runner #1–14 (Dell Publishing, 1958–1962)
Bugs Bunny #86–245 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1962–1984)
Daffy Duck #31–145 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1962–1984)
Tweety and Sylvester #1–120 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1963–1984)
Porky Pig #1–109 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1965–1984)
Yosemite Sam and Bugs Bunny #1–80 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1970–1983)
Beep Beep The Road Runner #1–105 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1971–1984)
Looney Tunes #1–47 (Gold Key Comics/Whitman, 1975–1984)
Bugs Bunny #1–3 (DC Comics, 1990); #1–3 (DC Comics, 1993)
Looney Tunes #1–present (DC Comics, 1994–present)
|}
Plus various one-shots, specials and appearances in anthology comics like March of Comics, Top Comics and Dell Giant from various Western Publishing imprints. The numbering of the Dell issues generally includes 3-4 appearances in Dell's Four Color comics.
Video games[edit]
Main article: List of Looney Tunes video games
See also[edit]
Television in the United States portal
Cartoon portal
Merrie Melodies, another series of animated cartoons also produced by Warner Bros. between 1931 and 1969
Silly Symphony, a series of animated shorts produced by Walt Disney Productions between 1929 and 1939
Happy Harmonies, a series of animated shorts distributed by MGM between 1934 and 1938
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1929–1939)
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1940–1949)
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1950–1959)
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1960–1969)
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1970–present and miscellaneous)
List of Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies characters
Warner Bros. Cartoons
List of Warner Bros. cartoons with Blue Ribbon reissues
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Field Guide To Titles And Credits". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved August 16, 2015. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c "Looney Tunes". www.bcdb.com, April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ "Warner Bros. Studio biography". AnimationUSA.com. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Bugs Bunny". Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "TV Guide magazine's 60 greatest cartoons of all time". Fox News. September 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Movie Reviews: Space Jam". Retrieved on January 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Space Jam (1996)". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Beck, Jerry (2005). The Animated Movie Guide. Chicago, Illinois: Chicago Review Press.
Jump up ^ Looney Tunes: Bugs Bunny stamp. National Postal Museum Smithsonian.
Jump up ^ Looney Tunes: Back in Action. Boxofficemojo.com. Retrieved on January 25, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Looney Tunes: Back in Action :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews". Rogerebert.suntimes.com. November 14, 2003. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rosenbaum, Jonathan (2003). "Joe Dante Calls the Toon". Chicago Reader. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
Jump up ^ Edelstein, David (November 14, 2003). "Movie Review: Looney Tunes: Back in Action". Slate. slate.com. Retrieved February 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ "From Looney Tunes and iCarly to Shrek and SpongeBob SquarePants, Xbox 360 Launches Massive Library of Family Games and Entertainment" (Press release). Microsoft. October 22, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Youngstown News, Butler Institute goes Looney Tunes". Vindy.com. February 24, 2008. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "TAG Blog: At the 'Toon Factory of the Brothers Warner". animationguildblog.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved March 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ FrantzEdCharles (July 29, 2014). "No Season 3 for the Looney Tunes Show". Twitter. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "More 3D Looney Tunes Shorts On The Way". ComingSoon.net. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vary, Adam B. "Looney Tunes short with Tweety Bird, Sylvester - EXCLUSIVE CLIP | Inside Movies | EW.com". Insidemovies.ew.com. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (September 19, 2012). "Former 'SNL' Star to Write 'Looney Tunes' Reboot Film (Exclusive)". hollywoodreporter.com. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Paul (September 19, 2012). "Looney Tunes Movie Back In Action". Big Cartoon News. Retrieved September 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Acme 'Looney Tunes' Movie Finds New Momentum with 'X-Men: First Class' Writers". hollywoodreporter.com. August 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Steinberg, Brian (March 10, 2014). "Cartoon Network To Launch First Mini-Series, New Takes on Tom & Jerry, Bugs Bunny". Variety.com. Variety Media, LLC. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Steinberg, Brian (June 29, 2015). "Bugs Bunny, Scooby Doo Return To Boost Boomerang". Variety.
Jump up ^ Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. p. 6. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved October 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ You Must Remember This: The Warner Bros. Story. 2008. p. 255.
Jump up ^ WB retained a pair of features from 1949 that they merely distributed, and all short subjects released on or after September 1, 1948; in addition to all cartoons released in August 1948.
Jump up ^ "WHAT DID YOU SEE THIS MORNING? AAP!". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 27, 2009. Retrieved August 16, 2015. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ "[1]". Looney Tunes on Television. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The new Nick & More! is coming this month!". tvschedulearchive.com. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ ""The Warner Brothers: Albert, Harry, Jack, and Sam Warner".". Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ Speedy Gonzales Caged by Cartoon Network, www.foxnews.com, March 28, 2002
Jump up ^ Emling, Shelly (June 21, 2002). "Cartoon Network putting Mexican mouse back in the lineup". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved November 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ "National Film Registry: 1989–2007". loc.gov. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1949 academy awards". Retrieved June 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "1958 academy awards". Retrieved September 20, 2007.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Looney Tunes.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Looney Tunes
Official Looney Tunes site
WB LT Filmography
Looney Tunes at the Big Cartoon DataBase
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Robot Chicken DC Comics Special (2012
Scooby-Doo! Haunted Holidays (2012)
Scooby-Doo! and the Spooky Scarecrow (2013)
Scooby-Doo! Mecha Mutt Menace (2013)
Robot Chicken DC Comics Special 2: Villains in Paradise (2014)
Scooby-Doo! Ghastly Goals (2014)
Tom and Jerry: Santa's Little Helpers (2014)
Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered (2014)
Elf: Buddy's Musical Christmas (2014)
Scooby-Doo! and the Beach Beastie (2015)
Robot Chicken DC Comics Special III: Magical Friendship (2015)
Lego Scooby-Doo! Knight Time Terror (2015)
DC Super Hero Girls: Super Hero High (2016)
Direct-to-video films
Tiny Toon Adventures: How I Spent My Vacation (1992)
Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero (1998)
Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island (1998)
Scooby-Doo! and the Witch's Ghost (1999)
Wakko's Wish (1999)
Tweety's High-Flying Adventure (2000)
Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders (2000)
Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker (2000)
Scooby-Doo and the Cyber Chase (2001)
Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring (2002)
Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure (2003)
Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire (2003)
Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico (2003)
Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman (2003)
Scooby-Doo! and the Loch Ness Monster (2004)
Kangaroo Jack: G'Day U.S.A.! (2004)
¡Mucha Lucha!: The Return of El Maléfico (2005)
Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars (2005)
Aloha, Scooby-Doo! (2005)
Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry (2005)
The Batman vs. Dracula (2005)
Scooby-Doo! in Where's My Mummy? (2005)
Scooby-Doo! Pirates Ahoy! (2005)
Superman: Brainiac Attacks (2006)
Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers (2006)
Teen Titans: Trouble in Tokyo (2006)
Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas (2006)
Chill Out, Scooby-Doo! (2007)
Superman: Doomsday (2007)
Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale (2007)
Justice League: The New Frontier (2008)
Batman: Gotham Knight (2008)
Scooby-Doo! and the Goblin King (2008)
Wonder Woman (2009)
Scooby-Doo! and the Samurai Sword (2009)
Green Lantern: First Flight (2009)
Superman/Batman: Public Enemies (2009)
Scooby-Doo! Abracadabra-Doo (2010)
Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths (2010)
Batman: Under the Red Hood (2010)
Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes (2010)
Scooby-Doo! Camp Scare (2010)
Superman/Batman: Apocalypse (2010)
All-Star Superman (2011)
Green Lantern: Emerald Knights (2011)
Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz (2011)
Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur (2011)
Batman: Year One (2011)
Justice League: Doom (2012)
Scooby-Doo! Music of the Vampire (2012)
Superman vs. The Elite (2012)
Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (2012/2013)
Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse (2012)
Big Top Scooby-Doo! (2012)
Scooby-Doo! Mask of the Blue Falcon (2013)
Superman: Unbound (2013)
Scooby-Doo! Adventures: The Mystery Map (2013)
Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox (2013)
Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure (2013)
Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright (2013)
JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time (2014)
Justice League: War (2014)
Scooby-Doo! WrestleMania Mystery (2014)
Son of Batman (2014)
Batman: Assault on Arkham (2014)
Scooby-Doo! Frankencreepy (2014)
Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon (2014)
Justice League: Throne of Atlantis (2015)
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League (2015)
Scooby-Doo! Moon Monster Madness (2015)
The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)
Batman vs. Robin (2015)
Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts (2015)
Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest (2015)
Scooby-Doo! and Kiss: Rock and Roll Mystery (2015)
Justice League: Gods and Monsters (2015)
Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run (2015)
Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem (2015)
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Attack of the Legion of Doom (2015)
Batman: Bad Blood (2016)
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Cosmic Clash (2016)
Justice League vs. Teen Titans (2016)
Lego Scooby-Doo! Haunted Hollywood (2016)
Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz (2016)
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Gotham City Breakout (2016)
Batman: The Killing Joke (2016)
Scooby-Doo! and WWE: Curse of the Speed Demon (2016)
DC Super Hero Girls: Hero of the Year (2016)
Batman Unlimited: Mechs vs. Mutants (2016)
Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016)
Justice League Dark (2017)
Scooby-Doo! Shaggy's Showdown (2017)
The Jetsons & WWE: Robo-WrestleMania! (2017)
Teen Titans: The Judas Contract (2017)
DC Super Hero Girls: Intergalactic Games (2017)
Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (2017)
Lego Scooby-Doo! Blowout Beach Bash (2017)
Lego DC Super Hero Girls: Brain Drain (2017)
Batman and Harley Quinn (2017)
Batman vs. Two-Face (2017)
Short films
The Duxorcist (1987)
The Night of the Living Duck (1988)
Box-Office Bunny (1990)
I'm Mad (1994)
Chariots of Fur (1994)
Carrotblanca (1995)
Another Froggy Evening (1995)
From Hare to Eternity (1996)
Superior Duck (1996)
Father of the Bird (1997)
Pullet Surprise (1997)
Marvin the Martian in the Third Dimension (1997)
Little Go Beep (2000)
Chase Me (2003)
The Karate Guard (2005)
DC Showcase: The Spectre (2010)
DC Showcase: Jonah Hex (2010)
Coyote Falls (2010)
Fur of Flying (2010)
DC Showcase: Green Arrow (2010)
Superman/Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam (2010)
Rabid Rider (2010)
DC Showcase: Catwoman (2011)
I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat (2011)
Daffy's Rhapsody (2012)
The Master (2016)
See Also
Warner Bros. Cartoons
Warner Bros. Family Entertainment
Hanna-Barbera
Cartoon Network Productions
Cartoon Network Studios
Williams Street
Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe
Category
[show]
v
t
e
DePatie-Freleng Enterprises
Founders
David H. DePatie
Friz Freleng
Theatrical shorts (original)
The Pink Panther (1964–1980)
The Inspector (1965–1969)
Roland and Rattfink (1968–1971)
The Ant and the Aardvark (1969–1971)
Tijuana Toads (1969–1972)
The Blue Racer (1972–1974)
Hoot Kloot (1973–1974)
The Dogfather (1974–1976)
Commissioned by
Warner Bros.
Merrie Melodies/Looney Tunes (theatrical, 1964–1967)
Bugs Bunny's Easter Special (CBS/TV special, 1977)
Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales (CBS/TV special, 1979)
Television shorts
Texas Toads (1976)
Misterjaw (1976)
Crazylegs Crane (1978)
Television shows
The Super 6 (NBC, 1966–1969)
Super President (NBC, 1967–1968)
Here Comes The Grump (NBC, 1969–1970)
The Pink Panther Show (NBC, 1969–1971)
The Pink Panther Meets The Ant and the Aardvark (NBC, 1970–1971)
Doctor Dolittle (NBC, 1970–1971)
The New Pink Panther Show (NBC, 1971–1976)
The Barkleys (NBC, 1972–1973)
The Houndcats (NBC, 1972–1973)
Bailey's Comets (CBS, 1973–1975)
The Oddball Couple (ABC, 1975–1977)
Return to the Planet of the Apes (NBC, 1975–1976)
The Pink Panther Laugh and a Half-Hour and a Half Show (NBC, 1976–1977)
Baggy Pants and the Nitwits (NBC, 1977–1978)
What's New Mr. Magoo? (CBS, 1977–1979)
Think! Pink Panther (NBC, 1978)
The All New Pink Panther Show (ABC, 1978–1979)
The Fantastic Four (NBC, 1978–1979)
Spider-Woman (ABC, 1979–1980)
Television specials
The Bear Who Slept Through Christmas (NBC/TV special, 1973)
My Mom's Having a Baby (ABC/TV special, 1977)
Where Do Teenagers Come From? (ABC/TV special, 1980)
Dr. Seuss
Television specials
The Cat in the Hat (CBS/TV special, 1971)
The Lorax (CBS/TV special, 1972)
Dr. Seuss on the Loose (CBS/TV special, 1973)
The Hoober-Bloob Highway (CBS/TV special, 1975)
Halloween Is Grinch Night (ABC/TV special, 1977)
Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You? (ABC/TV special, 1980)
The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat (ABC/TV special, 1982)
See also
Marvel Productions Ltd.
Saban Entertainment
Authority control
GND: 7713495-3
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