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List of French cheeses
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Map of major AOC cheeses-the size of the symbol equates to the size of production
This is a list of cheeses from France. Traditionally, there are from 350 to 450 distinct types of French cheese grouped into eight categories 'les huit familles de fromage'.[1] There can be many varieties within each type of cheese, leading some to claim closer to 1,000 different types of French cheese.[1]
In 1962, French President Charles de Gaulle was famously quoted as saying "Comment voulez-vous gouverner un pays qui a deux cent quarante-six variétés de fromage?" ("How can you govern a country which has two hundred and forty-six varieties of cheese?")[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Protected designation of origin
2 Popular French cheeses
3 Other French cheeses
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
Protected designation of origin[edit]
Under the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union, certain established cheeses, including many French cheeses, are covered by a protected designation of origin (PDO), and other, less stringent, designations of geographical origin for traditional specialities, such as the French appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) system, the Italian denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) system, and the Spanish Denominación de origen system.
A complete list of agricultural products with an EU Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), or Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG), listed alphabetically by nation, is at the Europa Agriculture website.[3]
French cheese production is classified under four categories, and PDO/AOC rules dictate which category(ies) each protected cheese may be assigned to:[4]
Fermier: farmhouse cheese, which is produced on the farm where the milk is produced.
Artisanal: producer producing cheese in relatively small quantities using milk from their own farm, but may also purchase milk from local farms.
Coopérative: dairy with local milk producers in an area that have joined to produce cheese. In larger coopératives quantities of cheese produced may be relatively large, akin to some industriel producers (many may be classed as factory-made[5]).
Industriel: factory-made cheese from milk sourced locally or regionally, perhaps all over France (depending on the AOC/PDO regulations for specific cheeses).
56 cheeses are classified, protected, and regulated under French law. The majority are classified as Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC), the highest level of protection. Some are also protected under the less stringent but still legally regulated designation Label Régional (LR). A few French cheeses are protected under the European Union's Protected Geographic Indication designation (PGI). Many familiar generic types, like Boursin, are not covered. It may come as a surprise to see varieties of Emmental cheese protected as a French cheese. This list differs from those of AOC status.
Cheese
Year designated AOC
Producing region
Type of milk
Designation
Abondance 1990 Haute-Savoie Cow AOC
Banon 2003 Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Goat AOC
Beaufort 1968 Savoie Cow AOC
Bleu d'Auvergne 1975 Auvergne Cow AOC
Bleu des Causses 1979 Midi-Pyrénées Cow AOC
Bleu de Gex, du Haut-Jura, or de Septmoncel 1977 Franche-Comté Cow AOC
Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage 1998 Rhône-Alpes Cow AOC
Brie de Meaux 1980 Île-de-France Cow AOC
Brie de Melun 1980 Île-de-France Cow AOC
Brocciu Cara or Brocciu 1983 Corsica Sheep AOC
Cabécou 1988 Midi-Pyrénées Goat AOC
Cancoillotte n/a Franche-Comté Cow LR
Cantal, Fourme de Cantal, or Cantalet 1956 Auvergne Cow AOC
Camembert de Normandie 1983 Normandy Cow AOC
Cazelle de Saint Affrique n/a Midi-Pyrénées, Aveyron Department Sheep AOC
Chabichou du Poitou 1990 Poitou-Charentes Goat AOC
Chaource 1970 Champagne-Ardenne Cow AOC
Chevrotin 2002 Savoie and Haute-Savoie Goat AOC
Comté 1952 Franche-Comté Cow AOC
Crottin de Chavignol 1976 Centre-Val de Loire Goat AOC
Emmental de Savoie n/a Savoie Cow PGI
Emmental français est-central n/a Franche-Comté Cow PGI
Époisses de Bourgogne 2004 Burgundy Cow AOC
Faisselle Rians Cow, Goat, Sheep
Fourme d'Ambert 1972 Auvergne Cow AOC
Fourme de Montbrison 1972 Auvergne Cow AOC
Fromage blanc
Fromage frais (fr. Fromage à pâte fraîche)
Gruyère 2007 Switzerland Cow AOC
Laguiole 1961 Auvergne Cow AOC
Langres 1991 Champagne-Ardenne Cow AOC
Livarot 1972 Normandy Cow AOC
Mâconnais 2006 Burgundy Goat AOC
Maroilles or Marolles 1976 Nord-Pas-de-Calais Cow AOC
Mimolette n/a Nord-Pas-de-Calais Cow LR
Mont d'or, or Vacherin du Haut-Doubs 2006 Franche-Comté Cow AOC
Morbier 2000 Franche-Comté Cow AOC
Munster or Munster-Géromé 1969 Alsace and Vosges départements in Lorraine (region) Cow AOC
Neufchâtel 1969 Normandy Cow AOC
Ossau-lraty 1980 Aquitaine Sheep AOC
Pélardon 2000 Languedoc-Roussillon Goat AOC
Picodon de l'Ardèche or de la Drôme 1983 Rhône-Alpes Goat AOC
Pont-l'Évêque 1976 Normandy Cow AOC
Pouligny-Saint-Pierre 1972 Centre-Val de Loire Goat AOC
Reblochon or Reblochon de Savoie 1958 Haute-Savoie Cow AOC
Rigotte de Condrieu 2008 Lyon Goat AOC
Rocamadour 1996 Midi-Pyrénées Goat AOC
Roquefort 1925 Midi-Pyrénées Sheep AOC
Sainte-Maure de Touraine 1990 Centre-Val de Loire Goat AOC
Saint-Nectaire 1955 Auvergne Cow AOC
Saint-Félicien n/a Rhône-Alpes Cow LR
Salers 1979 Auvergne Cow AOC
Selles-sur-Cher 1975 Centre-Val de Loire Goat AOC
Tome des Bauges (fr) 2002 Savoie Cow AOC
Tomme de Savoie and Haute-Savoie n/a Savoie Cow PGI
Tomme des Pyrénées n/a Midi-Pyrénées Cow PGI
Trou du Cru n/a Burgundy, Côte-d'Or Department Cow AOC
Valençay 1998 Centre-Val de Loire Goat AOC
Popular French cheeses[edit]
Cheese seller in France
Camembert (AOC)
Brie de Meaux (AOC)
Roquefort (AOC)
Boursin
Reblochon (AOC)
Munster (AOC)
Pont l'Évêque (AOC)
Époisses (AOC)
Tomme de Savoie (AOC)
Livarot (AOC)
AOC = protected by the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée
Other French cheeses[edit]
Abbaye de Belloc
Abbaye de Tamié
Baguette laonnaise
Bleu de Bresse
Bleu de Termignon
Boulette d'Avesnes
Boursin cheese
Brie Noir (Black Brie)
Brillat-Savarin
Broccio Passu
Bucheron
Carré de l'Est
Cathare
Chamois d'or
Chaubier
Chaumes
Coulommiers
Coutances
Délice de Bourgogne
Délice du Calvados
Édel de Cléron
Explorateur
Fromager d'Affinois
Gaperon
Lavort
Mont des Cats
Mottin Charentais
Niolo
Olivet cendré
Pavin
Port Salut
Raclette
Rochebarron
Roue de Brielove
Saint Albray
Saint-André
Saint-Marcellin
Saint-Paulin
Tarentais
Tomme au Fenouil
Tomme Boudane
Tomme Butone
Tomme du Revard
Vieux-Boulogne
See also[edit]
Food portal
France portal
List of cheeses
List of cheesemakers
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Quelles sont les grandes familles de fromages ? - Module fromage - Sommaire - Tout savoir sur le fromage - Fromages et Nutrition - Institut Fromages & Santé". Institut-fromages-et-sante.com. 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ Les Mots du Général, Ernest Mignon (1962))
Jump up ^ "EU agricultural product quality policy".
Jump up ^ Masui, T.; Tomoko, Y.; Hodgson, R.; Robuchon, J. (2004). French Cheeses. DK. ISBN 1-4053-0666-1.
Jump up ^ Barthélemy, Roland; Sperat-Czar, Arnaud (2004). Cheeses of the world. Hachette Illustrated (London). ISBN 1-84430-115-X.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cheese from France.
Pictures Gallery of French Cheese (and some others)
Pictures and detailed information on French Cheese
[show]
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Cheese
Types
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Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée cheeses
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Greek
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Organizations
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List articles
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List of cheeses
[show]
v
t
e
French cheeses
AOC
Abondance
Banon
Beaufort
Bleu d'Auvergne
Bleu des Causses
Bleu de Gex
Bleu du Vercors
Brie de Meaux
Brie de Melun
Brocciu
Camembert
Cantal
Chabichou du Poitou
Chaource
Chevrotin
Comté
Coulommiers
Crottin de Chavignol
Époisses
Fourme d'Ambert
Fourme de Montbrison
Laguiole
Langres
Livarot
Mâconnais
Maroilles
Mont d'Or
Morbier
Munster
Neufchâtel
Ossau-Iraty
Pélardon
Picodon
Pont-l'Évêque
Pouligny-Saint-Pierre
Reblochon
Rigotte de Condrieu
Rocamadour
Roquefort
Saint-Nectaire
Sainte-Maure de Touraine
Salers
Selles-sur-Cher
Valençay
Unprotected
varieties
Abbaye de Tamié
Baguette laonnaise
Bleu de Bresse
Brillat-Savarin
Brie
Cabécou
Cancoillotte
Carré de l'Est
Chaumes
Clochette
Délice d'Argental
Délice de Bourgogne
Édel de Cléron
Etorki
Explorateur
Faisselle
Fromage blanc
Gaperon
Mont des Cats
Mimolette
Olivet cendré
Port Salut
Raclette
Rochebaron
Saint Agur Blue
Saint-Félicien
Saint-Marcellin
Saint-Paulin
Vacherin
Vieux-Boulogne
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text:
List of current Major League Baseball stadiums
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
SunTrust Park, the newest stadium in Major League Baseball, opened in 2017. It is the home of the Atlanta Braves.
The following is a list of Major League Baseball stadiums, their locations, their first year of usage and home teams.
The newest Major League Baseball (MLB) ballpark is SunTrust Park in Cumberland, Georgia, home of the Atlanta Braves, which opened for the 2017 season. Fenway Park in Boston, home of the Boston Red Sox, is the oldest, having opened in 1912.
Ten MLB stadiums do not have corporate naming rights deals: Angel Stadium, Dodger Stadium, Fenway Park, Kauffman Stadium, Marlins Park, Nationals Park, Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, Oriole Park at Camden Yards, Wrigley Field, and Yankee Stadium. Wrigley Field is named for former Chicago Cubs owner William Wrigley Jr. and not the Wrigley Company; Kauffman Stadium is named for original Kansas City Royals owner Ewing Kauffman, who brought baseball back to Kansas City; and Fenway Park is named for the Fenway–Kenmore neighborhood of Boston where it is located.
Contents
[hide]
1 Legend
2 Stadiums
2.1 Future and proposed ballparks
3 Notes
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Legend[edit]
Denotes stadium with a retractable roof.
Denotes stadium with a fixed roof.
Stadiums[edit]
Image
Name
Seating capacity
Location
Playing surface
Team
Opened
Distance to center field
Ballpark typology
Roof type
Angel Stadium
45,477[1] Anaheim, California Grass Los Angeles Angels 1966 396 feet (121 m) Modern
Retro Modern Open
AT&T Park
41,915[2] San Francisco, California Grass San Francisco Giants 2000 399 feet (122 m) Retro Classic Open
Busch Stadium
45,529[3] St. Louis, Missouri Grass St. Louis Cardinals 2006 400 feet (122 m) Retro Classic Open
Chase Field 48,686[4] Phoenix, Arizona Grass Arizona Diamondbacks 1998 407 feet (124 m) Retro Modern Retractable
Citi Field
41,922[5] Queens, New York Grass New York Mets 2009 408 feet (124 m) Retro Classic Open
Citizens Bank Park
43,651 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Grass Philadelphia Phillies 2004 401 feet (122 m) Retro Classic Open
Comerica Park
41,299[6] Detroit, Michigan Grass Detroit Tigers 2000 420 feet (128 m) Retro Classic Open
Coors Field
46,897[7] Denver, Colorado Grass Colorado Rockies 1995 415 feet (126 m) Retro Classic Open
Dodger Stadium
56,000[8] Los Angeles, California Grass Los Angeles Dodgers[nb 1] 1962 395 feet (120 m) Modern Open
Fenway Park
37,755[9] Boston, Massachusetts Grass Boston Red Sox[nb 2] 1912 420 feet (128 m) Jewel Box Open
Globe Life Park in Arlington
48,114[10] Arlington, Texas Grass Texas Rangers 1994 400 feet (122 m) Retro Classic Open
Great American Ball Park
42,319 Cincinnati, Ohio Grass Cincinnati Reds 2003 404 feet (123 m) Retro Modern Open
Guaranteed Rate Field
40,615 Chicago, Illinois Grass Chicago White Sox 1991 400 feet (122 m) Modern
Retro Classic Open
Kauffman Stadium
37,903[11] Kansas City, Missouri Grass Kansas City Royals 1973 410 feet (125 m) Modern
Retro Modern Open
Marlins Park 36,742 Miami, Florida Grass Miami Marlins 2012 407 feet (124 m) Contemporary[12] Retractable
Miller Park 41,900[13] Milwaukee, Wisconsin Grass Milwaukee Brewers 2001 400 feet (122 m) Retro Modern Retractable
Minute Maid Park 41,168[14] Houston, Texas Grass Houston Astros 2000 409 feet (125 m)[15] Retro Modern Retractable
Nationals Park
41,339[16] Washington, D.C. Grass Washington Nationals 2008 402 feet (123 m) Retro Modern Open
Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum[17]
47,170[18] Oakland, California Grass Oakland Athletics 1966[nb 3] 400 feet (122 m) Multipurpose Open
Oriole Park at Camden Yards
45,971[19] Baltimore, Maryland Grass Baltimore Orioles 1992 410 feet (125 m) Retro Classic Open
Petco Park
40,209[20] San Diego, California Grass San Diego Padres 2004 396 feet (121 m) Retro Modern Open
PNC Park
38,362 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Grass Pittsburgh Pirates 2001 399 feet (122 m) Retro Classic Open
Progressive Field
35,051[21] Cleveland, Ohio Grass Cleveland Indians 1994 410 feet (125 m) Retro Modern Open
Rogers Centre 49,282 Toronto, Ontario Artificial turf Toronto Blue Jays 1989 400 feet (122 m) Multipurpose Retractable
Safeco Field 47,715[22] Seattle, Washington Grass Seattle Mariners 1999 401 feet (122 m) Retro Modern Retractable
SunTrust Park
41,084[23] Cumberland, Georgia Grass Atlanta Braves 2017 400 feet (122 m) Retro Modern Open
Target Field
38,885[24] Minneapolis, Minnesota Grass Minnesota Twins 2010 404 feet (123 m) Retro Modern Open
Tropicana Field 31,042[25] St. Petersburg, Florida Artificial turf Tampa Bay Rays 1990 404 feet (123 m) Indoor Fixed
Wrigley Field
41,649[26] Chicago, Illinois Grass Chicago Cubs 1914[nb 4] 400 feet (122 m) Jewel Box Open
Yankee Stadium
47,309[27] Bronx, New York Grass New York Yankees 2009 408 feet (124 m) Retro Classic Open
Oakland
Coliseum
AT&T
Park
Safeco Field
Angel Stadium
Chase Field
Busch
Stadium
Wrigley Field
Guaranteed Rate
Field
Kauffman Stadium
Coors Field
Progressive
Field
Miller
Park
Comerica
Park
Target
Field
Rogers
Centre
Fenway
Park
Yankee
Stadium
Minute Maid Park
Petco Park
SunTrust Park
Globe Life Park
Dodger Stadium
Marlins Park
Tropicana Field
Great American
Ball Park
Citizens Bank Park
Citi Field
Nationals
Park
PNC
Park
Camden Yards

Future and proposed ballparks[edit]
Stadium
Estimated capacity
Location
Playing surface
Team
Estimated
opening date
Roof type
Status
Globe Life Field 40,000 Arlington, Texas Texas Rangers 2020 Retractable Under Construction[28]
Oakland Ballpark 35,000 Oakland, California Grass Oakland Athletics 2023 Open Proposed
Ybor Stadium Tampa, Florida Tampa Bay Rays 2022 or 2023 Fixed or retractable[29] Proposed
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Dodger Stadium was also home to the Los Angeles Angels from 1962–1965.
Jump up ^ Fenway Park was also home to the Boston Braves in part of 1914 and 1915, before they moved into Braves Field.
Jump up ^ Oakland Coliseum opened for the American Football League (AFL) in 1966; the Oakland Athletics have been tenants since 1968.
Jump up ^ Wrigley Field opened for the Chicago Whales (FL) in 1914; the Chicago Cubs have played there since 1916.
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
List of former Major League Baseball stadiums
List of Major League Baseball spring training stadiums
List of U.S. baseball stadiums by capacity
List of U.S. stadiums by capacity
List of baseball parks by capacity
List of current National Football League stadiums
List of National Hockey League arenas
List of Major League Soccer stadiums
List of Major League Lacrosse stadiums
List of National Basketball Association arenas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Chodzko, Adam; Birch, Matt; Kay, Eric; LeVier, Corey; Schwartz, Mike (March 6, 2017). 2017 Angels Baseball Information Guide. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 436.
Jump up ^ Carlton, Jim (October 15, 2012). "Giants Fans Take a Stand Over Nothing". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bausch, Mark; Orf, Tom; Schott, Tom (March 1, 2017). 2017 St. Louis Cardinals Official Media Guide. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 432.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Patrick (March 21, 2017). 2017 Arizona Diamondbacks Media Guide. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Belson, Ken; Sandomir, Richard (April 4, 2012). "Mets Hope New Design at Citi Field Brings Back the Long Ball". The New York Times. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ Henning, Lynn (April 6, 2017). "Opening Day Cold Won't Faze Tigers' Faithful". The Detroit News. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "2018 Colorado Rockies Media Guide". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. March 14, 2018. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2014 Dodger Season Tickets Go on Sale" (Press release). Major League Baseball Advanced Media. September 12, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ "2018 Boston Red Sox Media Guide" (PDF). Major League Baseball Advanced Media. February 26, 2018. p. 11. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Facts and Figures". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "History of Kauffman Stadium". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Justice, Richard (May 24, 2013). "Marlins Park a Work of Art in Every Facet". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. Retrieved September 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Facts, Figures & Rules". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Houston Astros Media Guide" (PDF). Houston Astros. March 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Death of Houston's Tal's Hill Continues Demise Of Baseball's On-Field Oddities". Forbes. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ 2017 Washington Nationals Official Media Guide. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. March 19, 2017. p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Athletics: No go for O.co". Ballpark Digest. April 9, 2012. Retrieved September 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Slusser, Susan (April 11, 2017). "A's take tarps off; upper deck tickets $15". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hendrix, Steve (September 25, 2014). "A Tale of Two Parks". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Feeney, Darren (March 2, 2017). 2017 San Diego Padres Media Guide. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 326.
Jump up ^ Swain, Bart; Berry-Tripp, Court; Adams, Kailey; Milowicki, Ryan (April 3, 2017). 2017 Cleveland Indians Information and Record Book. Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 23.
Jump up ^ "2018 Seattle Mariners Information Guide" (PDF). Major League Baseball Advanced Media. p. 304. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018 Atlanta Braves Media Guide". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. March 21, 2018. p. 4. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2017 Minnesota Twins Media Guide" (PDF). Major League Baseball Advanced Media. February 15, 2017. p. 388. Retrieved February 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Chastain, Bill (December 3, 2013). "Rays Provide Glimpse of Significant Trop Renovations". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Miles, Bruce (April 11, 2016). "Are Cubs Hot Enough to Draw 3 Million Fans This Year?". Daily Herald. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ "2018 Official Media Guide and Record Book". Major League Baseball Advanced Media. February 22, 2018. p. 347. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Raise the roof: Rangers' new ballpark approved, MLB.com
Jump up ^ "Stuart Sternberg: Tampa's Ybor City is top choice for next Rays ballpark". February 9, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Lowry, Phillip (October 31, 2006). Green Cathedrals: The Ultimate Celebration of All Major League Ballparks. Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1562-1.
Ritter, Lawrence (March 8, 1994). Lost Ballparks: A Celebration of Baseball's Legendary Fields. Studio. ISBN 978-0-14-023422-0.
External links[edit]
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Gestalt psychology
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Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt [ɡəˈʃtalt] "shape, form") is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined and support for their existence is lacking.[1][2] The Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception.[2] In the introduction to a 2016 special issue of the journal Vision Research on Gestalt perception, the authors concluded that "even though they study the same phenomena as earlier Gestaltists, there is little theoretical coherence. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to provide a unified vision of psychology? Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together."[3]
This principle maintains that when the human mind (perceptual system) forms a percept or "gestalt", the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. The original famous phrase of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka, "The whole is other than the sum of the parts" is often incorrectly translated[4] as "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts", and thus used when explaining gestalt theory, and further incorrectly applied to systems theory.[5] Koffka did not like the translation. He firmly corrected students who replaced "other" with "greater". "This is not a principle of addition" he said.[6] The whole has an independent existence.
In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes (Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt effect[citation needed] is the capability of our brain to generate whole forms, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of global figures instead of just collections of simpler and unrelated elements (points, lines, curves, etc.).
In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Gestalt therapy
2 Theoretical framework and methodology
3 Support from cybernetics and neurology
4 Properties
4.1 Emergence
4.2 Reification
4.3 Multistability
4.4 Invariance
5 Prägnanz
6 Criticisms
7 Gestalt views in psychology
7.1 Fuzzy-trace theory
8 Use in design
9 Quantum cognition modeling
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Origins[edit]
The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been.[citation needed]
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988).
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background.
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive,[2] it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.
Gestalt therapy[edit]
The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls.[8] The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the gestalt psychologists would object to it;[9] on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work.[10] Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology.
Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology" With the Gestalt theory however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general.[11]
There are clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field, foremost in Europe, e.g. Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy.
Theoretical framework and methodology[edit]
The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.
The theoretical principles are the following:
Principle of Totality—The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships.
Principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity.
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
Phenomenon experimental analysis—In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.
Biotic experiment—The school of gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.[12]
Support from cybernetics and neurology[edit]
In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:
A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.[13]
The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the vicinity of this point.[14]
Properties[edit]
The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.[citation needed]
Emergence[edit]
This is demonstrated by the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog appears as a whole, all at once. Gestalt theory does not have an explanation for how this perception of a dog appears.
Reification[edit]
See also: Reification (fallacy)
Reification
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours.
Multistability[edit]
the Necker cube and the Rubin vase, two examples of multistability
Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
Invariance[edit]
Invariance
Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.
Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.[15]
Prägnanz[edit]
Main article: Principles of grouping
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz[de] (in the German language, pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".[16]
Law of proximity
Law of similarity
Law of closure
A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.
Law of Proximity—The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure that illustrates the Law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.[17][18]
Law of Similarity—The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together, and the light circles as grouped together forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.[18]
Law of Closure—The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.[17][18][19]
Law of Symmetry—The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.[17][18]
Law of Common Fate—The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that movement of elements of an object produce paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.[20]
Law of Continuity—The law of continuity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object.[17]
Law of Good Gestalt—The law of good gestalt explains that elements of objects tend to be perceptually grouped together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly. This law implies that as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe a reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of gestalt theory is based on. This law has also been called the law of Prägnanz.[17] Prägnanz is a German word that directly translates to mean "pithiness" and implies the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderliness.[20]
Law of Past Experience—The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.[20]
Criticisms[edit]
Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception.[3]
Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists[1] and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.[3]
In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson[2] conclude the following regarding gestalt theory's influence on the study of visual perception:
The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws" of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or "simple" shape, for example?
—  Bruce, Green & Georgeson, Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology
Gestalt views in psychology[edit]
Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.[21]
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known. (1945/1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information, he/she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he/she reaches the "aha!" moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
Unconscious leap in thinking.[16]
The increased amount of speed in mental processing.
The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal reasoning.[22]
Views going against the gestalt psychology are:
Nothing-special view
Neo-gestalt view
The Three-Process View
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.
Fuzzy-trace theory[edit]
Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.[23][24]
Use in design[edit]
The gestalt laws are used in user interface design, and other design-based activities. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.[25] In addition, Gestalt theory can also be used as a guide for creating sonic impressions while mixing audio. [26]
Quantum cognition modeling[edit]
Main article: Quantum cognition § Gestalt perception
Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics[27][28] and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an "implicate order".[29][30] The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as it is obvious that an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.
See also[edit]
Psychology portal
Amodal perception
Rudolf Arnheim
Solomon Asch
cognitive grammar
fuzzy-trace theory
Hermann Friedmann
Gestaltzerfall
James J. Gibson
Graz School
Kurt Goldstein
Laws of association
important publications in gestalt psychology
mereology
Wolfgang Metzger
Optical illusion
Pattern recognition (psychology)
pattern recognition (machine learning)
phenomenology
principles of grouping
Pál Schiller Harkai
Structural information theory
topological data analysis
James Tenney
Hans Wallach
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Schultz, Duane (2013). A History of Modern Psychology. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 291. ISBN 1483270084.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). LEA. p. 110. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Jäkel, F., Singh, M., Wichmann, F. A., & Herzog, M. H. (2016), "An overview of quantitative approaches in Gestalt perception.", Vision Research, 126: 3–8, doi:10.1016/j.visres.2016.06.004 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Tuck, Michael (Aug 17, 2010). "Gestalt Principles Applied in Design". Retrieved 2014-12-19.
Jump up ^ David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven, (2004)
Jump up ^ Heider, F. 1977. Cited in Dewey, R.A. 2007. Psychology: An introduction: Chapter four - The Whole is Other than the Sum of the Parts. Retrieved 4/12/2014.
Jump up ^ Humphrey, G (1924). "The psychology of the gestalt". Journal of Educational Psychology. 15 (7): 401–412. doi:10.1037/h0070207.
Jump up ^ Bernd Bocian:Fritz Perls in Berlin 1893–1933. Expressionism – Psychonalysis – Judaism, 2010, p. 190, EHP Verlag Andreas Kohlhage, Bergisch Gladbach.
Jump up ^ Joe Wysong/Edward Rosenfeld (eds): An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy, Highland, New York 1982, The Gestalt Journal Press, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Allen R. Barlow, "Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident", The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, (Fall, 1981)
Jump up ^ See Barlow criticizing Henle: Allen R. Barlow: Gestalt Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt – Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident, in: The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, Fall, 1981.
Jump up ^ William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic Republic : papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988
Jump up ^ Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New York
Jump up ^ Valentin Fedorovich Turchin – The phenomenon of science – a cybernetic approach to human evolution – Columbia University Press, 1977
Jump up ^ "Gestalt Isomorphism". Sharp.bu.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth© 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stevenson, Herb. "Emergence: The Gestalt Approach to Change". Unleashing Executive and Orzanizational Potential. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt Principles of form Perception". Interaction Design. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.gizmodo.co.uk/2013/05/why-your-brain-thinks-these-dots-are-a-dog/
^ Jump up to: a b c Todorovic, Dejan. "Gestalt Principles". Scholarpedia.org. Scholarpedia. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Fourth Edition, Thomas Wadsworth© 2006.
Jump up ^ Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 1986,1995"
Jump up ^ Reyna, Valerie (2012). "A new institutionism: Meaning, memory, and development in Fuzzy-Trace Theory". Judgment and Decision Making. 7 (3): 332–359.
Jump up ^ Barghout, Lauren (2014). "Visual Taxometric Approach to Image Segmentation Using Fuzzy-Spatial Taxon Cut Yields Contextually Relevant Regions". Information Processing and Management of Uncertainty in Knowledge-Based Systems: 163–173.
Jump up ^ Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt principles of form perception". Interaction-design.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
Jump up ^ Shelvock, M (2016). "Gestalt Theory and Mixing Audio". Transactions on Innovation in Music: 75–87 – via Future Technology Press.
Jump up ^ Conte, Elio; Todarello, Orlando; Federici, Antonio; Vitiello, Francesco; Lopane, Michele; Khrennikov, Andrei; Zbilut, Joseph P. (2007). "Some remarks on an experiment suggesting quantum-like behavior of cognitive entities and formulation of an abstract quantum mechanical formalism to describe cognitive entity and its dynamics". Chaos, Solitons & Fractals. 31 (5): 1076–1088. arXiv:0710.5092  . doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2005.09.061.
Jump up ^ Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khrennikov: A Preliminary Evidence of Quantum Like Behavior in Measurements of Mental States, arXiv:quant-ph/0307201 (submitted 28 July 2003)
Jump up ^ B.J. Hiley: Particles, fields, and observers, Volume I The Origins of Life, Part 1 Origin and Evolution of Life, Section II The Physical and Chemical Basis of Life, pp. 87–106 (PDF)
Jump up ^ Basil J. Hiley, Paavo Pylkkänen: Naturalizing the mind in a quantum framework. In Paavo Pylkkänen and Tere Vadén (eds.): Dimensions of conscious experience, Advances in Consciousness Research, Volume 37, John Benjamins B.V., 2001, ISBN 90-272-5157-6, pages 119-144
Carlson, Neil R. and Heth, C. Donald (2010) Psychology the Science of Behaviour Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada. pp 20–22.
Smith, Barry (ed.) (1988) Foundations of Gestalt Theory, Munich and Vienna: Philosophia Verlag, 1988.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Gestalt psychology
Resources in your library
Gestalt psychology on Encyclopædia Britannica
Gestalt principles article in Scholarpedia, by Dejan Todorović
Journal "Gestalt Theory - An International Multidisciplinary Journal" in full text (open source)
International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA
Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design
On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso
On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory
The World In Your Head – by Steven Lehar
Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective Conscious Experience – by Steven Lehar
The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century
The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center
Gestalt Society of Croatia
Gestalt Theory
Ecological Approach to Visual Perception
James J. Gibson in brief
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