text:
History of Zimbabwe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2011)
Part of a series on the
History of Zimbabwe
Ancient history
Mapungubwe Kingdom c.1075–1220
Zimbabwe Kingdom c.1220–1450
Mutapa Kingdom c.1450–1760
Torwa dynasty c.1450–1683
White settlement pre-1923
Rozwi Empire c.1684–1834
Matabeleland 1838–1894
Rudd Concession 1888
BSA Company rule 1890–1923
First Matabele War 1893–1894
Second Matabele War 1896–1897
World War I involvement 1914–1918
Colony of Southern Rhodesia 1923–1980
World War II involvement 1939–1945
Malayan Emergency
involvement 1948–1960
Federation with Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland 1953–1963
Rhodesian Bush War 1964–1979
Unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI)
1965
Rhodesia under UDI 1965–1979
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia June–Dec 1979
Lancaster House Agreement
Dec 1979
British Dependency 1979–1980
Zimbabwe 1980–present
Gukurahundi 1982–1987
Second Congo War 1998–2003
Zimbabwe portal
v
t
e
Following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognised majority rule in 1980; the United Kingdom ceremonially granted Zimbabwe independence on 18 April that year. In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including, the imposition of sanctions, such as among others the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001, following the switch from Willing Buyer, Willing Seller to Fast Track land reform and also due to intensive economic corruption. Economic instability led to a lot of Zimbabwe and move to neighbouring countries and overseas. Prior to its recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Rhodesia.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-Colonial era (1000–1887)
2 Colonial era (1888–1980)
3 Independence and the 1980s
4 1990s
4.1 The economy during the 1980s and 1990s
5 1999 to 2000
6 2002
7 2003–2005
8 2006 to 2007
8.1 Deterioration of the educational system
9 2008
9.1 2008 elections
9.2 Marange diamond fields massacre
10 2009–present
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Pre-Colonial era (1000–1887)[edit]
Main article: Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe
See also: Bantu expansion
Stoneage paintings by the San located near Murewa, Zimbebwe.
Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the San people who were present in the region when the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago.[1]
These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, third to fifth centuries A.D.,[2] found in southeast Zimbabwe. This tradition was part of the eastern stream[3] of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kwale)[4] which originated west of the Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal.[5] More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the Ziwa and Gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century A.D.[4] Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream,[6] which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast.
A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Their capital there was Schroda (just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe). Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast.[7][8][9]
Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kalundu) has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dated from the seventh century.[10] (The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson[11] the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists.) The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. It seems that the makers of the Ziwa/Gokomere wares were not the ancestral speakers of the Shona languages of today's Zimbabwe, who did not arrive in there until around the tenth century, from south of the Limpopo river, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the western stream. The linguist and historian Ehret believes that in view of the similarity of the Ziwa/Gokomere pottery to the Nkope of the ancestral Nyasa language speakers, the Ziwa/Gokomere people spoke a language closely related to the Nyasa group. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today.[12]
The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries can be traced back to western stream (Kalunndu) pottery styles in South Africa. The Ziwa/Gokomere and Zhizo traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century.[13]
Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists[14][15][16][17][18] were with a southern division of eastern Bantu – such languages as the southeastern languages (Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, Tsonga), Nyasa and Makwa. While it may well be the case that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa.
After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country. Among these was Kalanga.
It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. From circa 1450–1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with Arabs and the Portuguese. However, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.[19] As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the Rozwi Empire. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (which means "destroyers") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozwi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests. Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane. When Dutch trekboers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward. By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other petty Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to vassaldom.
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, Lobengula.
Colonial era (1888–1980)[edit]
Main articles: Southern Rhodesia and Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
In the 1880s, the British arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company. In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted.[20] In 1888, British colonialist Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples.[21] Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to his British South Africa Company (BSAC) over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as 'Zambesia'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,[22] Cecil Rhodes promoted the colonisation of the region's land, with British control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources.[23] In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name 'Rhodesia' for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi,[24] which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).
The Shona staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands, by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.[citation needed] Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse which led to land distribution disproportionately favouring Europeans, displacing the Shona, Ndebele, and other indigenous peoples.
Southern Rhodesia stamp: princesses Elizabeth and Margaret on the 1947 royal tour of South Africa
Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.
In 1953, in the face of African opposition,[25] Britain consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with Nyasaland (now Malawi) in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. Growing African nationalism and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming three colonies. As colonial rule was ending throughout the continent and as African-majority governments assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, the white-minority Rhodesia government led by Ian Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white-minority government declared itself a "republic" in 1970. A civil war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU and Robert Mugabe's ZANU using assistance from the governments of Zambia and Mozambique. Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation 'Southern', and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970[26][27] although this was not recognised internationally.
Independence and the 1980s[edit]
The country gained official independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium in Salisbury, the capital. Lord Christopher Soames, the last Governor of Southern Rhodesia, watched as Charles, Prince of Wales, gave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played "God Save the Queen". Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India, President Shehu Shagari of Nigeria, President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, President Seretse Khama of Botswana, and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of Australia, representing the Commonwealth of Nations. Bob Marley sang 'Zimbabwe', a song he wrote, at the government's invitation in a concert at the country's independence festivities.[28][29]
President Shagari pledged $15 million at the celebration to train Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe and expatriates in Nigeria. Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government's control over the media. The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria in Badagry, and soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in Kaduna. Later that year Mugabe commissioned a report by the BBC on press freedom in Zimbabwe. The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests.[30][31] See also: Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to Harare on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence.[32] The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique.
The new Constitution provided for a non-executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. Reverend Canaan Banana served as the first President. In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as President. The bicameral Parliament of Zimbabwe had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs. The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as Coloureds, people of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU which then reappointed them. In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President.
Prime Minister Mugabe kept Peter Walls, the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Rhodesian Army. While Western media outlets praised Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with the white minority, tension soon developed.[33] On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, "Why are your men trying to kill me?" Walls replied, "If they were my men you would be dead."[34] BBC news interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980. He told the BBC that he had asked British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, saying Antony Duff, Deputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election.[35]
Minister of Information Nathan Shamuyarira said the government would not be "held ransom by racial misfits" and told "all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags." He also said the government continued to consider taking "legal or administrative action" against Walls. Mugabe, returning from a visit with United States President Jimmy Carter in New York City, said, "One thing is quite clear—we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society." Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of Time magazine, "To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt." Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa.[36][37]
Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics. Tension between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in Matabeleland in south-western Zimbabwe. Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the government. Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet.[citation needed] Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as "independents" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies.[32] As a result of what they saw as persecution of Nkomo and his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, army deserters began a campaign of dissidence against the government. Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987. It involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.[38]
Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a "state of emergency". This gave the government widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge which it used quite widely. In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe. The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the Gukurahundi.
ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration. Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents.
1990s[edit]
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair[citation needed], though balloting met international standards. Unsatisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The government began further amending the constitution. The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government. The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus.
During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.
On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by Zanla ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. The discontent with the government spawned draconian government crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society. This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population. Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced.[39]
Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of arable land. Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia. This has led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe. At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers; the country has also experienced a debilitating food shortage with the exodus of its White minority, turning the "breadbasket of Africa" into one of Africa's most food insecure states.
The economy during the 1980s and 1990s[edit]
Main article: Economic history of Zimbabwe
The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant budget deficits. This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted. A 40 per cent devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed. These policies also failed at that time. Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time.
1999 to 2000[edit]
See also: Land reform in Zimbabwe
However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew considerably after the mid-1990s in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions.[40] The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist Morgan Tsvangirai.
The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans,some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees[citation needed].
Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localised violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters[citation needed]. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.
2002[edit]
Presidential elections were held in March 2002. In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called 'war veterans', – very few of whom actually fought in the Second Chimurenga against the Smith regime in the 1970s – set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition[citation needed]. Despite strong international criticism, these measures, together with organised subversion of the electoral process, ensured a Mugabe victory[citation needed] . The government's behaviour drew strong criticism from the EU and the USA, which imposed limited sanctions against the leading members of the Mugabe regime. Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos.
2003–2005[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
GBP 8 worth of Zimbabwean dollars in 2003
Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured[citation needed] into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr. Mugabe's removal from power. He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason charges. This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalysed a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison.[citation needed] The opposing faction was led by Welshman Ncube who was the general secretary of the party. In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death.[41]
An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence. Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005. These division severely weakened the opposition. In addition the government employed its own operatives to both spy on each side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage.[citation needed] Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005 were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed.[citation needed] Mugabe's political operatives were thus able to weaken the opposition internally and the security apparatus of the state was able to destabilise it externally by using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting.[citation needed] Some voters were 'turned away' from polling station despite having proper identification[citation needed], further guaranteeing that the government could control the results. Additionally Mugabe had started to appoint judges sympathetic to the government[citation needed], making any judicial appeal futile.[citation needed] Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 of the members of parliament.[42]
As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred. Ncube's supporters argued that the M.D.C. should field a slate of candidates; Tsvangirai's argued for a boycott. When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube's side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the party he was not bound by the majority's decision.[43] Again the opposition was weakened. As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud.[citation needed]
In May 2005 the government began Operation Murambatsvina. It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. In practice its purpose was to punish political opponents[citation needed]. The UN estimates 700,000 people have been left without jobs or homes as a result.[citation needed] Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses.[citation needed] Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter.[citation needed], . The government interfered with non-governmental organisation (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances.[citation needed] Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced.[44]
Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/Aids in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned. The operation was "the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for years", said Amnesty International. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale.[44][45]
In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land. This converted all ownership rights into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions. Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government. The MDC split over whether to field candidates and partially boycotted the vote. In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation. The split in the MDC hardened into factions, each of which claimed control of the party. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify.[46]
2006 to 2007[edit]
In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one. In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010.
Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare. The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe's government. "We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists," said Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of Amnesty International's Africa Programme.[47]
The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007. In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest.[48] There are frequent power and water outages.[49] Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007.[50] Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%.[51] There is widespread famine, which has been cynically manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most. Most recently, supplies of bread have dried up, after a poor wheat harvest, and the closure of all bakeries.[52]
The country used to be one of Africa's richest and is now one of its poorest. Many observers now view the country as a 'failed state'.[53][54] The settlement of the Second Congo War brought back Zimbabwe's substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control. The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the ravages of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which affects 25% of the population. With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena.[55]
The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members. For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege. It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat.[56]
Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms. The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre. The power shortages are because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and that due to an unpaid bill of $35 million Mozambique had reduced the amount of electrical power it supplies.[57] On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they "played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses."[58]
On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend. While German chancellor Angela Merkel criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support.[59]
Deterioration of the educational system[edit]
The educational system in Zimbabwe which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, has gone into crisis because of the country's economic meltdown. Almost a quarter of the teachers have quit the country, absenteeism is high, buildings are crumbling and standards plummeting. One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, 12 miles west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils. The high school exam system unravelled in 2007. Examiners refused to mark examination papers when they were offered just Z$79 a paper, enough to buy three small candies. Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed "excellent" in subjects they had not sat. Various disused offices and storerooms have been turned into makeshift brothels at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare by students and staff who have turned to prostitution to make ends meet. Students are destitute following the institution's refusal in July to re-open their halls of residence, effectively banning students from staying on campus. Student leaders believe this was part of the administration's plan to take revenge on them for their demonstrations over deteriorating standards.[60][61]
2008[edit]
2008 elections[edit]
Main articles: Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008 and 2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations
Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a 2008 parliamentary election of 29 March.[62] The three major candidates were incumbent President Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai (MDC-T), and Simba Makoni, an independent.[63] As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%). Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party's supporters. The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe.
Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date. Mugabe's opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election; Human Rights Watch said that the election was likely to be "deeply flawed".[64] After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the Southern African Development Community observer mission, described the election as "a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe."
No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round.[65] The failure to release results was strongly criticised by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought an order from the High Court to force their release. An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the majority needed to avoid a second round. The MDC declared that Tsvangirai won a narrow majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round.[66] ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round;[67] the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe's score, and as a result a recount was conducted.
After the recount and the verification of the results, the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a run-off,[65] which was to be held on 27 June 2008.[68] Despite Tsvangirai's continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round.[69][70] The period following the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF blamed the MDC supporters for perpetrating this violence; Western governments and prominent Western organisations have blamed ZANU-PF for the violence which seems very likely to be true.[71][72][73] On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a "violent sham" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him.[74] The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai's name remained on the ballot.[75] Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn in for another term as President on 29 June.[76][77][78]
The international reaction to the second round have varied. The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions.[79] On 11 July, the United Nations Security Council voted to impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed.[80][81] The African Union has called for a "government of national unity."[82]
Preliminary talks to set up conditions for official negotiations began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in Harare to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 July and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams in Pretoria, as coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place. The talks were mediated by South African President Thabo Mbeki.
On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member Southern African Development Community witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader Thabo Mbeki. With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister,[83] ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe's Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and Arthur Mutambara becomes deputy prime minister.[84][85]
Marange diamond fields massacre[edit]
In November 2008 the Air Force of Zimbabwe was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at Marange diamond fields.[86] Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000[87] illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships. In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from Mutare claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe.[88] Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the Mutare City Council, based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai party.[86][89]
2009–present[edit]
Wikinews has related news: US says Zimbabwe government has "a long way to go" before sanctions are lifted
In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe .[90] On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.[91][92][93] By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless.[94] The opposition shared power with the Mugabe regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe switched to using the US dollar as currency and the economy improved reaching a growth rate of 10% per year.[94]
In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Economist described as "rigged,"[94] doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on "...misrule and dazzling corruption."[94]
By 2016 the economy had collapsed, nationwide protests took place throughout the country[95] and the finance minister admitted "Right now we literally have nothing."[94]
See also[edit]
Economic history of Zimbabwe
Education in Zimbabwe
Governor of Southern Rhodesia
History of Africa
History of Southern Africa
Land reform in Zimbabwe
List of presidents of Zimbabwe
Politics of Zimbabwe
President of Rhodesia
Prime Minister of Rhodesia
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
Bulawayo history and timeline
Harare history and timeline
Years in Zimbabwe
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pre-colonial history of SA". South African History Online. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Huffman, T.N. (2007). Handbook to the Iron Age. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press. p. 123.
Jump up ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1985). "An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion". Muntu. 2: 69–84.
^ Jump up to: a b Huffman. Handbook to the Iron Age.
Jump up ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1995). African Archaeology 3rd ed. Cambridge. pp. 250 ff.
Jump up ^ Phillipson, D.W. "An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion": 77–8.
Jump up ^ P. Mitchell; G. Whitelaw (2005). "The Archaeology of Southernmost Africa from c. 2000 bp to the Early 1800s: a Review of Recent Research". Journal of African History. 46: 209–241. doi:10.1017/s0021853705000770.
Jump up ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1989). Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa' in Obenga (ed), Les Peuples Bantu. Paris. p. 156.
Jump up ^ Mapungubwe: A Living Legacy. Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection. 2011.
Jump up ^ Phillipson (1989). Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa. p. 156.
Jump up ^ Phillipson, 1985. "An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion": 69–84.
Jump up ^ Ehret, C. (2001). An African Classical Age. University Press of Virginia. p. 239.
Jump up ^ Huffman (2007). Handbook to the Iron Age.
Jump up ^ Ehret. An African Classical Age.
Jump up ^ Bastin Y, Coupez A, Mann M (1999). "Continuity and divergence in the Bantu languages: perspectives from a lexicostatistic study". Annales, Sciences humaines. 162: 315–317 (the S languages).
Jump up ^ Guthrie, M. (1967–71). Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. Gregg International.
Jump up ^ K. Rexová; Y. Bastin; D. Frynta (2006). "Cladistic analysis of Bantu Languages". Naturwissenschaften. 93: 189–194. PMID 16514514. doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0088-z.
Jump up ^ Holden, C.J. (2002). "Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub- Saharan Africa,". Proc. R. Soc. Lond: 793–799.
Jump up ^ Hall, Martin; Stephen W. Silliman (2005). Historical Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 241–244. ISBN 978-1-4051-0751-8.
Jump up ^ "So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really?". The Odyssey. Retrieved 14 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Hensman, Howard. Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. p. 106–107.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Neil. A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition, 1993. London: Macmillan. pp. 178–181.
Jump up ^ Bryce, James. Impressions of South Africa. p. 170.
Jump up ^ ""A Country in Search of a Name." The Northern Rhodesia Journal III (1) (1956). p. 78.". Gray, J. A. (1956). Retrieved 14 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Parsons (1993). p. 292.
Jump up ^ Judd, Denis. Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present. p. 372.
Jump up ^ Parsons (1993). pp. 318–320.
Jump up ^ Williams, Lizzie (2005). Africa Overland. pp. 169–170.
Jump up ^ Pakenham, Thomas (1992). Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. p. 669.
Jump up ^ Abegunrin, Olayiwola (2003). Nigerian Foreign Policy Under Military Rule, 1966–1999. p. 89.
Jump up ^ Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997. p. 711.
^ Jump up to: a b Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997. p. 718.
Jump up ^ Walls: "We will make it work" TIME magazine and CNN
Jump up ^ Raymond, Walter John. Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms, 1992. Page 557.
Jump up ^ Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey. Southern African Political History: A chronological of key political events from independence to mid-1997, 1999. Page 711-712.
Jump up ^ Zanu-PF's Walls 'manhunt' backfires Archived 30 November 2003 at the Wayback Machine. Dispatch
Jump up ^ A soldier faces his critics TIME magazine and CNN
Jump up ^ "HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE". History World. 4 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "From Corporatism to Liberalization in Zimbabwe: Economic Policy Regimes and Political Crisis, 1980–97". International Political Science Review. 26 (1). 2005. pp. 91–106.
Jump up ^ "REPORT: Policing the State – an evaluation of 1,981 political arrests in Zimbabwe: 2000–2005". zimonline.co.za. 15 December 2006. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Wines, Michael (9 May 2007). "Opposition Splits While Zimbabwe Slips". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Sturcke, James (1 April 2005). "Mugabe's party wins Zimbabwe election". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Wines, Michael (9 May 2007). "Opposition Splits While Zimbabwe Slips". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Background Note: Zimbabwe". United States Department of State.
Jump up ^ Tisdall, Simon (8 November 2005). "Zimbabwe surrounded by sound and fury, but little action". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Meldrum, Andrew (29 September 2005). "Zimbabwe's economic crisis drives it back into steam age". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe: End harassment, torture and intimidation of opposition activists" (PDF). Amnesty International. 28 March 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe inflation 'incalculable'". London: BBC News. 27 November 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Meldrum, Andrew (10 May 2007). "Zimbabweans face power cuts for up to 20 hours a day". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Wines, Michael (2 May 2007). "How Bad Is Inflation in Zimbabwe?". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Corn Up Nearly 700 Percent in Zimbabwe". The Washington Post. 1 May 2007. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012.
Jump up ^ McGreal, Chris (1 October 2007). "Zimbabwe runs out of bread". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe: Column – Mary Revesai". All Africa. 7 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Trip to Africa enlightens". Contra Costa Times. 16 April 2007.
Jump up ^ McVeigh, Tracy (22 April 2007). "Now Zimbabwe can see end of the road for its 'brutal old man'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Evans, Ian (7 December 2007). "President leaves behind a people left paralysed by their poverty". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ McGreal, Chris (2 October 2007). "Bakeries close their doors as collapse in wheat production adds to crisis". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "US Imposes Sanctions on 39 Zimbabweans". The Washington Post. 4 December 2007. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Castle, Stephen (9 December 2007). "Mugabe's Presence Hijacks European-African Meeting". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Bevan, Stephen (18 November 2007). "Thousands of teachers abandon Zimbabwe". The Daily Telegraph. London.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe: Education – 30 Years Backwards And Still Declining". All Africa. 2 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe's opposition party claims early election lead", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 30 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe presidential candidates confirmed" Archived 26 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine., AFP, 15 February 2008.
Jump up ^ "Mugabe accused of election-rigging plan", CNN, 23 March 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b MacDonald Dzirutwe, "Zim heads for run-off", Reuters (IOL), 2 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe opposition rejects run-off" Archived 13 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Al Jazeera, 10 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Runoff OK, says Zimbabwe ruling party". CNN. 4 April 2008. Archived from the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zim run-off set for June 27", Sapa-Associated Press (IOL), 16 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe MDC never accepted run-off vote" Archived 10 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Al Jazeera, 10 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Tsvangirai to run in second round", BBC News, 10 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "12 'violent' MDC supporters held: Africa: Zimbabwe: News24". Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Tendai Maphosa. "VOA News – Zimbabwe Sets Date for Runoff Amid Increasing Violence". Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Daily Mail Reporter (21 May 2008). "Mugabe tells Zimbabwe opposition: You are to blame for political violence after branding MDC 'evil'". Mail Online. London. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Angus Shaw, "Zimbabwe opposition leader pulling out of election", Associated Press, 22 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "UN impasse irks Zimbabwe opposition", Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts" Archived 3 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine., AFP, 29 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe: President Mugabe Wins Run-Off, Sworn in", The Zimbabwe Guardian (allAfrica.com), 29 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "President Sworn in, Appeals for Unity", The Herald (allAfrica.com), 30 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "UN move against Zimbabwe blocked", Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008.
Jump up ^ MACFARQUHAR, NEIL (14 May 1999). "2 Vetoes Quash U.N. Sanctions on Zimbabwe". New York Times. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
Jump up ^ United Nations Security Council Verbotim Report 5933. S/PV/5933 page 7. 11 July 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "African call for Zimbabwe unity". London: BBC News. 1 July 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "Rivals sign Zimbabwe power-share deal". Edition.cnn.com. 16 September 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
Jump up ^ timesonline.co.uk, Power-sharing deal signed in Zimbabwe Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe power-sharing deal signed". MSNBC. 15 September 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Government looking for land for mass burial, after killing 78 miners". SW Radio Africa via ZWnews. 11 December 2008. Archived from the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe meets diamond trade standards", IRIN, 30 June 2010.
Jump up ^ McGreal, Chris (11 December 2008). "Bodies pile up as Mugabe wages war on diamond miners". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Dixon, Robyn (4 December 2008). "Zimbabwe's deadly diamond fever". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Dugger, Celia W. (31 January 2009). "Opposition Party to Join Zimbabwe's Government - NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Tsvangirai sworn in Zimbabwe PM". BBC News. London: BBC. 11 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe PM and wife 'in crash'". London: BBC News. 6 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe PM wife dies". Zimbabwe Metro News. 6 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Bailing out bandits". The Economist. 420 (8997). 2016-07-09. pp. 43–44. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse". BBC News. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Bourne, Richard. Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? (Zed Books 2011). ISBN 978-1848135215
Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008
Maguwu, Farai: Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007
Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds. Becoming Zimbabwe. A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 (Weaver Press, 2009). ISBN 978-1779220837
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Zimbabwe.
Background Note: Zimbabwe
Monomotapa
[show]
v
t
e
Years in Zimbabwe
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
Rhodesia
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Southern Rhodesia
1960
1961
1962
1963
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
The Conquests
1920s
1910s
1900s
Pre-1900s
[show]
v
t
e
Zimbabwe articles
1890–1923: Company rule; 1923–80: Southern Rhodesia; 1953–63: Federation; 1965–79: Rhodesia under UDI; 1979: Zimbabwe Rhodesia under UDI; 1980–present: Zimbabwe
History
Chronology
Pre-colonial
Rudd Concession
Company rule
Pioneer Column
First Matabele War
Shangani Patrol
Second Matabele War
Second Boer War
First World War
Southern Rhodesia
colonial history
Second World War
Rhodesia–Nyasaland federation
Malayan Emergency involvement
Unilateral Declaration of Independence
Rhodesia
Bush War
1975 Victoria Falls Conference
1976 Geneva Conference
Internal Settlement
Zimbabwe Rhodesia
Lancaster House Agreement
Gukurahundi
2008–2009 cholera outbreak
2016–17 protests
By topic
Constitutional
Cricket (to 1992)
Cricket (1992–2006)
Cricket crisis (2003–2007)
Military
Geography
Chimanimani District
Cities and towns
Districts
Great Zimbabwe
Place name renaming
Provinces
Rivers
Limpopo
Zambezi
Wards (municipalities)
Wildlife
Politics
Elections
Electoral Commission
Foreign relations
Human rights
LGBT
Land reform
Military
Parliament
Senate
House of Assembly
Political parties
Presidents
Vice-President
Prime Minister
2007 political crisis
Economy
Central bank
Dollar (suspended currency)
Stock Exchange
Telecommunications
Tourism
Transportation
Culture
Art
Media
Music
Public holidays
Sex work
Demographics
Ethnic groups
(diaspora)
Black
Hungwe
Kunda
Lemba
Manyika
Ndebele
Rusape Jews
Shona
Tokaleya
Tonga
White
Afrikaners
British
Greeks
Jews
"Rhodies"
Others
Coloureds (Goffals)
Indians
Languages
Afrikaans
English (South African)
Shona
Sindebele
Symbols
Animal
Anthem
Coat of arms
Emblem
Flag
Flower
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
History of Africa
Sovereign states
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
States with limited
recognition
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Somaliland
Dependencies and
other territories
Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / (see also plazas de soberanía) (Spain)
Madeira (Portugal)
Mayotte / Réunion (France)
Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
Western Sahara
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Zimbabwe&oldid=803752018"
Categories:
History of Zimbabwe
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
EngvarB from June 2017
Use dmy dates from August 2014
Wikipedia articles in need of updating from August 2011
All Wikipedia articles in need of updating
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008
Articles needing additional references from May 2009
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Català
Cymraeg
Deutsch
Español
Français
Ido
Italiano
Kiswahili
Lietuvių
Македонски
Português
Русский
Українська
Vèneto
Yorùbá
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 October 2017, at 11:50.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

value: span

value: i

value: small

value: tr

value: tbody

value: table

attrs: class role

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update

values: margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;

values: background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;

values:
/wiki/File:Fin_Flash_of_Zimbabwe.svg
image
Zimbabwe Bird

values: padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em; padding-bottom:0.2em; text-align:left;

values: White settlement in Zimbabwe before 1923

values: Southern Rhodesian military involvement in the Malayan Emergency

values: Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: Edit section: Pre-Colonial era (1000–1887)

values:
/wiki/Sotho-Tswana_languages
mw-redirect
Sotho-Tswana languages

values:
/wiki/Mutapa_Empire
mw-redirect
Mutapa Empire

values:
/wiki/Ndebele_people_(Zimbabwe)
mw-redirect
Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)

values:
/wiki/King_Lobengula
mw-redirect
King Lobengula

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/European_ethnic_groups
mw-redirect
European ethnic groups

values:
/wiki/Axis_powers_of_World_War_II
mw-redirect
Axis powers of World War II

values: Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)

values: Edit section: Independence and the 1980s

values:
/wiki/Press_freedom
mw-redirect
Press freedom

values:
/wiki/President_of_Mozambique
mw-redirect
President of Mozambique

values: Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army

values:
/wiki/Rhodesian_Army
mw-redirect
Rhodesian Army

values:
/wiki/Whites_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
Whites in Zimbabwe

values:
/wiki/British_Prime_Minister
mw-redirect
British Prime Minister

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2007)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)

values: Edit section: The economy during the 1980s and 1990s

values:
/wiki/Budget_deficits
mw-redirect
Budget deficits

values: Movement for Democratic Change (pre-2005)

values:
/wiki/Second_Chimurenga
mw-redirect
Second Chimurenga

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: Edit section: Deterioration of the educational system

values: 2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations

values: Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front

values: Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai

values: International reaction to the Zimbabwean presidential election

values: Edit section: Marange diamond fields massacre

values: Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai

values: wikinews:US says Zimbabwe government has "a long way to go" before sanctions are lifted

values:
/wiki/2016_Zimbabwe_protests
mw-redirect
2016 Zimbabwe protests

values:
/wiki/History_of_Southern_Africa
mw-redirect
History of Southern Africa

values:
/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
List of presidents of Zimbabwe

values:
/wiki/Years_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
Years in Zimbabwe

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16514514

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-006-0088-z

values:
nofollow
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26715920/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: European University Center for Peace Studies

values:
/wiki/2002_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
2002 in Zimbabwe

values:
/wiki/2003_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
2003 in Zimbabwe

values:
/wiki/2004_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
2004 in Zimbabwe

values: Category:1979 in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1964 in Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1950 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1955 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1941 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1942 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1943 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1932 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1937 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1938 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1925 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1927 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:1929 in Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)

values: Category:Years of the 19th century in Southern Rhodesia

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: History of cricket in Zimbabwe from 1992 to 2006

values:
/wiki/Zimbabwean_Ndebele_language
mw-redirect
Zimbabwean Ndebele language

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

values: History of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

values:
/wiki/History_of_the_Canary_Islands
mw-redirect
History of the Canary Islands

values:
/wiki/History_of_Ceuta
mw-redirect
History of Ceuta

values:
/wiki/History_of_Melilla
mw-redirect
History of Melilla

values:
/wiki/History_of_Mayotte
mw-redirect
History of Mayotte

values:
/wiki/History_of_R%C3%A9union
mw-redirect
History of Réunion

values:
/wiki/History_of_Ascension_Island
mw-redirect
History of Ascension Island

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from August 2011

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2009

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/History_of_Zimbabwe
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Историја на Зимбабве – Macedonian

values: История Зимбабве – Russian

values: Історія Зімбабве – Ukrainian

values: 津巴布韦历史 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_Zimbabwe rootpage-History_of_Zimbabwe vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Spin quantum number
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In atomic physics, the spin quantum number is a quantum number that parameterizes the intrinsic angular momentum (or spin angular momentum, or simply spin) of a given particle. The spin quantum number is the fourth of a set of quantum numbers (the principal quantum number, the azimuthal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number), which completely describe the quantum state of an electron. It is designated by the letter s. It describes the energy, shape and orientation of orbitals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Derivation
2 Algebra
3 Electron spin
4 Detection of spin
4.1 The Stern–Gerlach experiment
5 Energy levels from the Dirac equation
6 Total spin of an atom or molecule
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Derivation[edit]
As a solution for a certain partial differential equation, the quantized angular momentum (see angular momentum quantum number) can be written as:
‖ s ‖ = s ( s + 1 ) ℏ {\displaystyle \Vert \mathbf {s} \Vert ={\sqrt {s\,(s+1)}}\,\hbar }
where
s {\displaystyle \mathbf {s} } is the quantized spin vector
‖ s ‖ {\displaystyle \Vert \mathbf {s} \Vert } is the norm of the spin vector
s {\displaystyle s} is the spin quantum number associated with the spin angular momentum
ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant.
Given an arbitrary direction z (usually determined by an external magnetic field) the spin z-projection is given by
s z = m s ℏ {\displaystyle s_{z}=m_{s}\,\hbar }
where ms is the secondary spin quantum number, ranging from −s to +s in steps of one. This generates 2 s + 1 different values of ms.
The allowed values for s are non-negative integers or half-integers. Fermions (such as the electron, proton or neutron) have half-integer values, whereas bosons (e.g., photon, mesons) have integer spin values.
Algebra[edit]
The algebraic theory of spin is a carbon copy of the Angular momentum in quantum mechanics theory. First of all, spin satisfies the fundamental commutation relation:
[ S i , S j ] = i ℏ ϵ i j k S k {\displaystyle [S_{i},S_{j}]=i\hbar \epsilon _{ijk}S_{k}} ,
[ S i , S 2 ] = 0 {\displaystyle \left[S_{i},S^{2}\right]=0}
where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. This means that it is impossible to know two coordinates of the spin at the same time because of the restriction of the uncertainty principle.
Next, the eigenvectors of S 2 {\displaystyle S^{2}} and S z {\displaystyle S_{z}} satisfy:
S 2 | s , m s ⟩ = ℏ 2 s ( s + 1 ) | s , m s ⟩ {\displaystyle S^{2}|s,m_{s}\rangle ={\hbar }^{2}s(s+1)|s,m_{s}\rangle }
S z | s , m s ⟩ = ℏ m s | s , m s ⟩ {\displaystyle S_{z}|s,m_{s}\rangle =\hbar m_{s}|s,m_{s}\rangle }
S ± | s , m s ⟩ = ℏ s ( s + 1 ) − m s ( m s ± 1 ) | s , m s ± 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle S_{\pm }|s,m_{s}\rangle =\hbar {\sqrt {s(s+1)-m_{s}(m_{s}\pm 1)}}|s,m_{s}\pm 1\rangle }
where S ± = S x ± i S y {\displaystyle S_{\pm }=S_{x}\pm iS_{y}} are the creation and annihilation (or "raising" and "lowering" or "up" and "down") operators.
Electron spin[edit]
Early attempts to explain the behavior of electrons in atoms focused on solving the Schrödinger wave equation for the hydrogen atom, the simplest possible case, with a single electron bound to the atomic nucleus. This was successful in explaining many features of atomic spectra.
The solutions required each possible state of the electron to be described by three "quantum numbers". These were identified as, respectively, the electron "shell" number n, the "orbital" number l, and the "orbital angular momentum" number m. Angular momentum is a so-called "classical" concept measuring the momentum[citation needed] of a mass in circular motion about a point. The shell numbers start at 1 and increase indefinitely. Each shell of number n contains n² orbitals. Each orbital is characterized by its number l, where l takes integer values from 0 to n−1, and its angular momentum number m, where m takes integer values from +l to −l. By means of a variety of approximations and extensions, physicists were able to extend their work on hydrogen to more complex atoms containing many electrons.
Atomic spectra measure radiation absorbed or emitted by electrons "jumping" from one "state" to another, where a state is represented by values of n, l, and m. The so-called "Transition rule" limits what "jumps" are possible. In general, a jump or "transition" is allowed only if all three numbers change in the process. This is because a transition will be able to cause the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation only if it involves a change in the electromagnetic dipole of the atom.
However, it was recognized in the early years of quantum mechanics that atomic spectra measured in an external magnetic field (see Zeeman effect) cannot be predicted with just n, l, and m. A solution to this problem was suggested in early 1925 by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit, students of Paul Ehrenfest (who rejected the idea), and independently by Ralph Kronig, one of Landé's assistants. Uhlenbeck, Goudsmit, and Kronig introduced the idea of the self-rotation of the electron, which would naturally give rise to an angular momentum vector in addition to the one associated with orbital motion (quantum numbers l and m).
The spin angular momentum is characterized by a quantum number; s = 1/2 specifically for electrons. In a way analogous to other quantized angular momenta, L, it is possible to obtain an expression for the total spin angular momentum:
S = ℏ 1 2 ( 1 2 + 1 ) = 3 2 ℏ {\displaystyle S=\hbar {\sqrt {{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {1}{2}}+1\right)}}={\frac {\sqrt {3}}{2}}\hbar }
where
ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant.
The hydrogen spectra fine structure is observed as a doublet corresponding to two possibilities for the z-component of the angular momentum, where for any given direction z:
S z = ± 1 2 ℏ {\displaystyle \mathbf {S_{z}} =\pm {\frac {1}{2}}\hbar }
whose solution has only two possible z-components for the electron. In the electron, the two different spin orientations are sometimes called "spin-up" or "spin-down".
The spin property of an electron would give rise to magnetic moment, which was a requisite for the fourth quantum number. The electron spin magnetic moment is given by the formula:
μ s = − e 2 m g S {\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu _{s}} =-{\frac {e}{2m}}gS}
where
e is the charge of the electron
g is the Landé g-factor
and by the equation:
μ z = ± 1 2 g μ B {\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu _{z}} =\pm {\frac {1}{2}}g{\mu _{B}}}
where μ B {\displaystyle \mu _{B}} is the Bohr magneton.
When atoms have even numbers of electrons the spin of each electron in each orbital has opposing orientation to that of its immediate neighbor(s). However, many atoms have an odd number of electrons or an arrangement of electrons in which there is an unequal number of "spin-up" and "spin-down" orientations. These atoms or electrons are said to have unpaired spins that are detected in electron spin resonance.
Detection of spin[edit]
When lines of the hydrogen spectrum are examined at very high resolution, they are found to be closely spaced doublets. This splitting is called fine structure, and was one of the first experimental evidences for electron spin. The direct observation of the electron's intrinsic angular momentum was achieved in the Stern–Gerlach experiment.
The Stern–Gerlach experiment[edit]
The theory of spatial quantization of the spin moment of the momentum of electrons of atoms situated in the magnetic field needed to be proved experimentally. In 1920 (two years before the theoretical description of the spin was created) Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach observed it in the experiment they conducted.
Silver atoms were evaporated using an electric furnace in a vacuum. Using thin slits, the atoms were guided into a flat beam and the beam sent through an in-homogeneous magnetic field before colliding with a metallic plate. The laws of classical physics predict that the collection of condensed silver atoms on the plate should form a thin solid line in the same shape as the original beam. However, the in-homogeneous magnetic field caused the beam to split in two separate directions, creating two lines on the metallic plate.
The phenomenon can be explained with the spatial quantization of the spin moment of momentum. In atoms the electrons are paired such that one spins upward and one downward, neutralizing the effect of their spin on the action of the atom as a whole. But in the valence shell of silver atoms, there is a single electron whose spin remains unbalanced.
The unbalanced spin creates spin magnetic moment, making the electron act like a very small magnet. As the atoms pass through the in-homogeneous magnetic field, the force moment in the magnetic field influences the electron's dipole until its position matches the direction of the stronger field. The atom would then be pulled toward or away from the stronger magnetic field a specific amount, depending on the value of the valence electron's spin. When the spin of the electron is +1/2 the atom moves away from the stronger field, and when the spin is −1/2 the atom moves toward it. Thus the beam of silver atoms is split while traveling through the in-homogeneous magnetic field, according to the spin of each atom's valence electron.
In 1927 Phipps and Taylor conducted a similar experiment, using atoms of hydrogen with similar results. Later scientists conducted experiments using other atoms that have only one electron in their valence shell: (copper, gold, sodium, potassium). Every time there two lines formed on the metallic plate.
The atomic nucleus also may have spin, but protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons (about 1836 times), and the magnetic dipole moment is inversely proportional to the mass. So the nuclear magnetic dipole momentum is much smaller than that of the whole atom. This small magnetic dipole was later measured by Stern, Frisch and Easterman.
Energy levels from the Dirac equation[edit]
In 1928, Paul Dirac developed a relativistic wave equation, now termed the Dirac equation, which predicted the spin magnetic moment correctly, and at the same time treated the electron as a point-like particle. Solving the Dirac equation for the energy levels of an electron in the hydrogen atom, all four quantum numbers including s occurred naturally and agreed well with experiment.
Total spin of an atom or molecule[edit]
For some atoms the spins of several unpaired electrons (s1, s2, ...) are coupled to form a total spin quantum number S.[1][2] This occurs especially in light atoms (or in molecules formed only of light atoms) when spin-orbit coupling is weak compared to the coupling between spins or the coupling between orbital angular momenta, a situation known as LS coupling because L and S are constants of motion. Here L is the total orbital angular momentum quantum number.[2]
For atoms with a well-defined S, the multiplicity of a state is defined as (2S+1). This is equal to the number of different possible values of the total (orbital plus spin) angular momentum J for a given (L, S) combination, provided that S ≤ L (the typical case). For example, if S = 1, there are three states which form a triplet. The eigenvalues of Sz for these three states are +1ħ, 0 and -1ħ.[1] The term symbol of an atomic state indicates its values of L, S, and J.
See also[edit]
Total angular momentum quantum number
Rotational spectroscopy
Basic quantum mechanics
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Merzbacher E., Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed., John Wiley 1998) p.430-1 ISBN 0-471-88702-1
^ Jump up to: a b Atkins P. and de Paula J. Physical Chemistry (8th ed., W.H.Freeman 2006), p.352 ISBN 0-7167-8759-8
External links[edit]
Full treatment of Spin--including origins, evolution of Spin Theory, and details of the Spin equations
[hide]
v
t
e
Electron configuration
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum numbers
Principal quantum number (n)
Azimuthal quantum number (ℓ)
Magnetic quantum number (m)
Spin quantum number (s)
Periodic table
Periodic table (electron configurations)
Others
Pauli exclusion principle
Hund's rule
Octet rule
Aufbau principle
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spin_quantum_number&oldid=817582966"
Categories:
Atomic physics
Rotation in three dimensions
Rotational symmetry
Quantum numbers
Quantum models
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Čeština
فارسی
한국어
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Македонски
Português
Română
Slovenščina
Suomi
ไทย
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 December 2017, at 08:55.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

values:
texhtml mvar
font-style:italic;

values:
/wiki/Angular_momentum_quantum_number
mw-redirect
Angular momentum quantum number

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:18.876ex; height:4.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.056ex; height:1.676ex;

values: {\displaystyle \Vert \mathbf {s} \Vert }

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.381ex; height:2.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.306ex; height:2.176ex;

values:
/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant
mw-redirect
Reduced Planck constant

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.928ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:17.886ex; height:3.009ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:12.035ex; height:3.343ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.576ex; height:2.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.427ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.483ex; height:3.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.314ex; height:2.843ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:49.839ex; height:4.843ex;

values: {\displaystyle S_{\pm }=S_{x}\pm iS_{y}}

values: vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:14.749ex; height:2.843ex;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Transition_rule
mw-redirect
Transition rule

values: vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:28.376ex; height:7.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.769ex; height:5.176ex;

values: \mathbf {S_{z}} =\pm {\frac {1}{2}}\hbar

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:13.941ex; height:4.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:13.376ex; height:5.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.881ex; height:2.176ex;

values:
/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance
mw-redirect
Electron spin resonance

values: Edit section: The Stern–Gerlach experiment

values:
/wiki/Force_moment
mw-redirect
Force moment

values: Edit section: Energy levels from the Dirac equation

values:
/wiki/Relativistic_wave_equation
mw-redirect
Relativistic wave equation

values: Edit section: Total spin of an atom or molecule

values:
/wiki/Spin-orbit_coupling
mw-redirect
Spin-orbit coupling

values:
/wiki/Basic_quantum_mechanics
mw-redirect
Basic quantum mechanics

values: Template talk:Electron configuration navbox

values: Periodic table (electron configurations)

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Spin_quantum_number
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: عدد كم مغزلي – Arabic

values: عدد کوانتومی اسپین – Persian

values: 자기 스핀 양자수 – Korean

values: प्रचक्रण क्वान्टम संख्या – Hindi

values: מספר קוונטי ספיני שניוני – Hebrew

values: Спинов квантен број – Macedonian

values: เลขควอนตัมสปิน – Thai

values: Спінове квантове число – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Spin_quantum_number rootpage-Spin_quantum_number skin-vector action-view