text:
Age of marriage in the United States
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General age of marriage (without parental or court approval or other exceptions taken into account)
18
19
21
Unlike most Western countries, half of the US states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. While in most US states, individuals age 18 have the ability to marry (with two exceptions—Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21)), all states allow minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone. In most states, children under 16 can be married too. In the 25 states [1] which have an absolute minimum age set by statute, this age varies between 13 and 17, while in 25 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met. Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute, the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states.[2] Over the past 15 years, more than 200,000 minors married in US, and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001.[3]

State
Minimum age
Notes
Statutory age when all exceptions are taken into account[2]
General age
Alabama[4] 16 18
Alaska[5] 14 18
Arizona[6] none 18 No minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent.
Arkansas[5] none 18
California[7] none 18 No minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent.
Colorado[5][8][9] none 18 No minimum age with judicial approval and parental consent.
Connecticut[10] 16 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 16 with parental and judicial consent.[10]
Delaware[5] none 18
District of Columbia[5] 16 18
Florida[5] none 18 No minimum age in case of pregnancy[11]
Georgia[5] 16 18
Hawaii[5] 15 18 15 with parental or judicial consent.
Idaho[5] none 18
Illinois[5] 16 18
Indiana[12] 15 18 15 in the case of pregnancy with both parental and judicial consent.
Iowa[5] 16 18
Kansas[5] 15 18
Kentucky[5] none 18
Louisiana[5] none 18
Maine[5] none 18
Maryland[5] 15 18
Massachusetts[5] none[13] 18 Consent can be just judicial, but is normally both parental and judicial. In the absence of any statutory minimum age, one opinion is that the traditional minimum common law marriageable age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys may still be in effect.[14][15]
Michigan[citation needed][16] none 18 16 with parental consent
Minnesota[5] 16 18
Mississippi none 21 females 15–21 and males 17–21 can marry with parental consent alone[17]
Missouri[5] none 18 Parental consent required for ages 15–17. Judicial consent required below age 15.
Montana[5] 16 18
Nebraska[5] 17 19
Nevada[5] none 18
New Hampshire[18] 13 for females, 14 for males 18 In cases of "special cause" with parental consent and court permission.
New Jersey[citation needed] none 18 16 with parental consent and in case of pregnancy.
New Mexico[5] none 18
New York[19] 17 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 17 with parental and judicial consent.
North Carolina 14 18
North Dakota[5] 14 18 14 With parental consent
Ohio[20] none 18 18 for males regardless of parental consent. 16 for females with parental consent, 18 for females without parental consent.[20]
Oklahoma[5] none 18
Oregon[5] 17 18 Consenting parent or guardian must accompany the applicant when applying for the marriage license.
Pennsylvania[citation needed] none 18 Under 16 years of age if a Judge of the Orphans Court "decides that it is to the best interest of the applicant and authorizes the issuance of the license."[21]
Rhode Island[5] none 18
South Carolina[5] 16 18
South Dakota[5] 16 18
Tennessee[5] none 18
Texas[22] 16 18 Since 2017, the minimum age is 18, however emancipated minors aged 16–17 have an exemption to legally marry.[23][24][25]
Utah[26] 15 18 15 with court approval and parental consent.
Vermont[5] 16 18
Virginia 16 18 In 2016, VA made 18 the minimum age; and 16 with court approval in special cases[27][28]
Washington[5] none 18 May be waived by superior court judge.[29]
West Virginia[5] none 18 No minimum with both parental and judicial consent
Wisconsin[5] 16 18
Wyoming[5] none 18
See also[edit]
Child marriage in the United States
Marriageable age
Minor (law)
Parental consent
References[edit]
Jump up ^ in 2017, Connecticut and Texas became the 24th and 25th states to set a minimum age [1] [2]
^ Jump up to: a b "Understanding State Statutes on Minimum Marriage Age and Exceptions". Tahirih Justice Center. November 2016. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/200000-children-married-us-15-years-child-marriage-child-brides-new-jersey-chris-christie-a7830266.html
Jump up ^ "Section 30-1-4: Minimum age for contracting marriage". Code of Alabama. Alabama Legislature. 1975. Retrieved 2017-06-03. A person under the age of 16 years is incapable of contracting marriage.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai "Marriage Laws of the Fifty States, District of Columbia and Puerto Rico". Legal Information Institute. 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "25-102. Consent required for marriage of minors". Arizona Revised Statutes. Arizona State Legislature. Retrieved 2017-06-03. Persons under eighteen years of age shall not marry without the consent of the parent or guardian having custody of such person. Persons under sixteen years of age shall not marry without the consent of the parent or guardian having custody of that person and the approval of any superior court judge in the state.
Jump up ^ "California Marriage Age Requirements Laws". findlaw.com. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Office of the Clerk and Recorder: Marriage & Recording / License Information / Marriage of Minors". City and County of Denver. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ C.R.S. Colorado Revised Statutes 14-2-106
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.cga.ct.gov/asp/cgabillstatus/cgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB05442&which_year=2017
Jump up ^ "Marriage Laws of the Fifty States, District of Columbia and Puerto Rico". Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
Jump up ^ "IC 31-11-1: ARTICLE 11. FAMILY LAW: MARRIAGE". Indiana Code 2016. Indiana General Assembly. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Nonage minors; authorization of marriage", General Laws: Chapter 207, Section 25, Massachusetts General Court, retrieved 2017-06-03
Jump up ^ Richards, Victoria (2016-03-09). "Child marriage chart reveals girls can wed at 12 in some parts of the US - as lawmakers battle to raise age to 16". The Independent. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Hayden, Meg (2007-01-08). "Child Brides". Massachusetts Trial Court Law Libraries. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Section 551.103: MARRIAGE LICENSE (EXCERPT), Act 128 of 1887". Michigan Legislature. 2015. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Title 93 - DOMESTIC RELATIONS, Chapter 1 - MARRIAGE § 93-1-5 - Conditions precedent to issuance of license; penalty for noncompliance". 2013 Mississippi Code. Retrieved 2017-06-03. Every male who is at least seventeen (17) years old and every female who is at least fifteen (15) years old shall be capable in law of contracting marriage.
Jump up ^ "TITLE XLIII: DOMESTIC RELATIONS, CHAPTER 457: MARRIAGES, Age: Section 457:4". New Hampshire General Court. Archived from the original on 2008-02-02. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/06/20/us-new-york-governor-signs-anti-child-marriage-law "Human Rights Watch: NY State Marriage Laws Update 2016/2017". Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. June 2017. Retrieved 2017-06-21.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ohio's Marriage Laws". Ohio State Bar Association. 2015-08-21. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Title 23: CHAPTER 13, MARRIAGE LICENSE". Pennsylvania General Assembly. Retrieved 2017-06-03. |
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.state.tx.us/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess=85R&Bill=SB1705
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ [4]
Jump up ^ [5]
Jump up ^ "Marriage Licenses". Courts of Utah. 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Portnoy, Jenna (2016-07-03). "Why 13-year-olds can no longer marry in Virginia". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ Tsui, Anjali (2016-07-08). "America's child marriage crisis: Virginia law tackles continuing issue". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
Jump up ^ "RCW 26.04.010 Marriage contract — Void marriages". Revised Code of Washington. Washington State Legislature. 2016-12-23. Retrieved 2017-06-03. Every marriage entered into in which either person has not attained the age of seventeen years is void except where this section has been waived by a superior court judge of the county in which one of the parties resides on a showing of necessity.
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text:
Carbon-based life
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the music group, see Carbon Based Lifeforms.
See also: Organism and Life form
The Lewis structure of a carbon atom, showing its four valence electrons.
Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth, representing approximately 45-50% of all dry biomass[1]. Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen and hydrogen and frequently also with nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. Carbon is abundant on Earth. It is also lightweight and relatively small in size, making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules.[citation needed] It is frequently assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe, it will also be carbon-based.[2][3] Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism. [4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Other candidates
3 Key molecules
4 Fiction
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Characteristics[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015)
"What we normally think of as 'life' is based on chains of carbon atoms, with a few other atoms, such as nitrogen or phosphorus", per Stephen Hawking in a 2008 lecture, "carbon [...] has the richest chemistry." [5] The most important characteristics of carbon as a basis for the chemistry of life are, that it has four valence bonds, and that the energy required to make or break a bond is at an appropriate level for building molecules, which are stable and reactive.[citation needed] Carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms; this allows the building of arbitrarily long complex molecules and polymers.[citation needed]
Other candidates[edit]
There are not many other elements which even appear to be promising candidates for supporting life, for example, processes such as metabolism. The most frequently suggested alternative is silicon.[6] Silicon is in the same group in the Periodic Table of elements, and has four valence bonds, and bonds to itself, generally in the form of crystal lattices rather than long chains.[citation needed] It is considerably more electropositive than carbon. Silicon compounds do not readily recombine into different permutations in a manner that would plausibly support lifelike processes.[citation needed]
Key molecules[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The most notable groups of chemicals used in the processes of living organisms include:
Proteins, which are the building blocks from which the structures of living organisms are constructed (this includes almost all enzymes, which catalyse organic chemical reactions)
Nucleic acids, which carry genetic information
Carbohydrates, which store energy in a form that can be used by living cells
Lipids, which also store energy, but in a more concentrated form, and which may be stored for extended periods in the bodies of animals
Fiction[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Silicon has been a theme of non-carbon-based-life since it is somewhat similar to carbon in its chemical characteristics. In cinematic and literary science fiction, when man-made machines cross from non-living to living, this new form would be an example of non-carbon-based life. Since the advent of the microprocessor in the late 1960s, these machines are often classed as "silicon-based life". Another example of "silicon-based life" is the episode "The Devil in the Dark" from Star Trek: The Original Series, in which a living rock creature's biochemistry is based on silicon. Also in The X-Files episode "Firewalker" where silicon based organism was discovered in a volcano.
In the movie adaptation of Arthur C. Clarke's "2010" (1984) a character argues, "Whether we are based on carbon or on silicon makes no fundamental difference; we should each be treated with appropriate respect"[7]. This quote may be the basis of Steve Jobs's quip when he introduced Carbon within MacOS X[8], "Carbon. All life forms will be based on it."
See also[edit]
Hypothetical types of biochemistry
CHONPS, mnemonic acronym for the most common elements in living organisms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.fao.org/forestry/17111/en/
Jump up ^ "Astrobiology". Biology Cabinet. September 26, 2006. Retrieved 2011-01-17.
Jump up ^ "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: An Interview With Dr. Farid Salama". Astrobiology magazine. 2000. Archived from the original on 2008-06-20. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
Jump up ^ Darling, David. "Carbon-based life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Stephen Hawking (1 October 2008). "Life in the Universe, 50th anniversary celebration of NASA". NASA. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Pace, NR (2001). "The universal nature of biochemistry" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (3): 805–8. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98..805P. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.3.805. PMC 33372  . PMID 11158550.
Jump up ^ "2010: Quotes". IMDb. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "WWDC '98". NotesKey. May 11, 1998. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
External links[edit]
"Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy & Spaceflight". Retrieved 2006-03-14.
"School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, United Kingdom".
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Sialic acid
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Sialic acid is a generic term for the N- or O-substituted derivatives of neuraminic acid, a monosaccharide with a nine-carbon backbone.[1] It is also the name for the most common member of this group, N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac or NANA). Sialic acids are found widely distributed in animal tissues and to a lesser extent in other organisms, ranging from plants and fungi to yeasts and bacteria, mostly in glycoproteins and gangliosides (they occur at the end of sugar chains connected to the surfaces of cells and soluble proteins).[2] That is because it seems to have appeared late in evolution[citation needed]. However, it has been observed in Drosophila embryos and other insects and in the capsular polysaccharides of certain strains of bacteria.[3] In humans the brain has the highest sialic acid concentration, where these acids play an important role in neural transmission and ganglioside structure in synaptogenesis.[2] In general, the amino group bears either an acetyl or a glycolyl group, but other modifications have been described. These modifications along with linkages have shown to be tissue specific and developmentally regulated expressions, so some of them are only found on certain types of glycoconjugates in specific cells.[3] The hydroxyl substituents may vary considerably; acetyl, lactyl, methyl, sulfate, and phosphate groups have been found.[4] The term "sialic acid" (from the Greek for saliva, σίαλον/sialon) was first introduced by Swedish biochemist Gunnar Blix in 1952.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Biosynthesis
3 Function
4 Immunity
5 Metabolism
6 Brain development
7 Diseases
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Structure[edit]
The sialic acid family includes 43 derivatives of the nine-carbon sugar neuraminic acid, but these acids unusually appear free in nature. Normally they can be found as components of oligosaccharide chains of mucins, glycoproteins and glycolipids occupying terminal, nonreducing positions of complex carbohydrates on both external and internal membrane areas where they are very exposed and develop important functions.[2]
The numbering of the sialic acid structure begins at the carboxylate carbon and continues around the chain. The configuration that places the carboxylate in the axial position is the alpha-anomer.
The alpha-anomer is the form that is found when sialic acid is bound to glycans. However, in solution, it is mainly (over 90%) in the beta-anomeric form. A bacterial enzyme with sialic acid mutarotase activity, NanM, that is able to rapidly equilibrate solutions of sialic acid to the resting equilibrium position of around 90% beta/10% alpha has been discovered.[5]
Biosynthesis[edit]
Sialic acid is synthesized by glucosamine 6 phosphate and acetyl CoA through a transferase, resulting in N-acetylglucosamine-6-P. This becomes N-acetylmannosamine-6-P through epimerization, which reacts with phosphoenolpyruvate producing N-acetylneuraminic-9-P (sialic acid). For it to become active to enter in the oligosaccharide biosynthesis process of the cell, a monophosphate nucleoside is added, which comes from a cytidine triphosphate, turning sialic acid into cytidine monophosphate-sialic acid (CMP-sialic acid). This compound is synthesized in the nucleus of the animal cell.[6][7]
In bacterial systems, sialic acids are biosynthesized by an aldolase enzyme. The enzyme uses a mannose derivative as a substrate, inserting three carbons from pyruvate into the resulting sialic acid structure. These enzymes can be used for chemoenzymatic synthesis of sialic acid derivatives.[8]
Function[edit]
Sialic acid-rich glycoproteins (sialoglycoproteins) bind selectin in humans and other organisms. Metastatic cancer cells often express a high density of sialic acid-rich glycoproteins. This overexpression of sialic acid on surfaces creates a negative charge on cell membranes. This creates repulsion between cells (cell opposition)[9] and helps these late-stage cancer cells enter the blood stream.
Many bacteria also use sialic acid in their biology, although this is usually limited to bacteria that live in association with higher animals (deuterostomes). Many of these incorporate sialic acid into cell surface features like their lipopolysaccharide and capsule, which helps them evade the innate immune response of the host.[10] Other bacteria simply use sialic acid as a good nutrient source, as it contains both carbon and nitrogen and can be converted to fructose-6-phosphate, which can then enter central metabolism.
Sialic acid-rich oligosaccharides on the glycoconjugates (glycolipids, glycoproteins, proteoglycans) found on surface membranes help keep water at the surface of cells[citation needed]. The sialic acid-rich regions contribute to creating a negative charge on the cells' surfaces. Since water is a polar molecule with partial positive charges on both hydrogen atoms, it is attracted to cell surfaces and membranes. This also contributes to cellular fluid uptake.
Sialic acid can "hide" mannose antigens on the surface of host cells or bacteria from mannose-binding lectin.[citation needed] This prevents activation of complement.
Sialic acid in the form of polysialic acid is an unusual posttranslational modification that occurs on the neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs). In the synapse, the strong negative charge of the polysialic acid prevents NCAM cross-linking of cells.
Administration of estrogen to castrated mice leads to a dose-dependent reduction of the sialic acid content of the vagina. Conversely, the sialic acid content of mouse vagina is a measure of the potency of the estrogen. Reference substances are estradiol for subcutaneous application and ethinylestradiol for oral administration.[11]
Immunity[edit]
Sialic acids are found at all cell surfaces of vertebrates and some invertebrates, and also at certain bacteria that interact with vertebrates.
Many viruses such as some adenoviruses (Adenoviridae), rotaviruses (Reoviridae) and influenza viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) can use host-sialylated structures for binding to their target host cell. Sialic acids provide a good target for these viruses since they are highly conserved and are abundant in large numbers in virtually all cells. Unsurprisingly, sialic acids also play an important role in several human viral infections. The influenza viruses have hemagglutinin activity (HA) glycoproteins on their surfaces that bind to sialic acids found on the surface of human erythrocytes and on the cell membranes of the upper respiratory tract. This is the basis of hemagglutination when viruses are mixed with blood cells, and entry of the virus into cells of the upper respiratory tract. Widely used anti-influenza drugs (oseltamivir and zanamivir) are sialic acid analogs that interfere with release of newly generated viruses from infected cells by inhibiting the viral enzyme neuraminidase.[12]
Some bacteria also use host-sialylated structures for binding and recognition. For example, evidence indicates that free Sia can behave as a signal to some specific bacteria, like Pneumococcus. Free sialic acid possibly can help the bacterium to recognize that it has reached a vertebrate environment suitable for its colonization. Modifications of Sias, such as the N-glycolyl group at the 5 position or O-acetyl groups on the side chain, may reduce the action of bacterial sialidases. [12]
Metabolism[edit]
The synthesis and degradation of sialic acid are distributed in different compartments of the cell. The synthesis starts in the cytosol, where N-acetylmannosamine 6 phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate give rise to sialic acid. Later on, Neu5Ac 9 phosphate is activated in the nucleus by a cytidine monophosphate (CMP) residue through CMP-Neu5Ac synthase. Although the linkage between sialic acid and other compounds tends to be a α binding, this specific one is the only one that is a β linkage. CMP-Neu5Ac is then transported to the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi apparatus, where it can be transferred to an oligosaccharide chain, becoming a new glycoconjugate. This bond can be modified by O-acetylation or O-methylation. When the glycoconjugate is mature it is transported to the cell surface.
The sialidase is one of the most important enzymes of the sialic acid catabolism. It can cause the removal of sialic acid residues from the cell surface or serum sialoglycoconjugates. Usually, in higher animals, the glycoconjugates that are prone to be degraded are captured by endocytosis. After the fusion of the late endosome with the lysosome, lysosomal sialidases remove sialic acid residues. The activity of these sialidases is based on the removal of O-acetyl groups. Free sialic acid molecules are transported to the cytosol through the membrane of the lysosome. There, they can be recycled and activated again to form another nascent glycoconjugate molecule in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acids can also be degraded to acylmannosamine and pyruvate with the cytosolic enzyme acylneuraminate lyase.
Some severe diseases can depend on the presence or absence of some enzymes related to the sialic acid metabolism. Sialidosis would be an example of this type of disorder.[13]
Brain development[edit]
Scientists who are investigating the functions of sialic acid are trying to determine whether sialic acid is related to fast brain growth and whether it produces advantages in brain development. It has been demonstrated that human milk contains high levels of sialic acid glycoconjugates. In fact, one study has shown that premature infants, and full-term breast-fed infants at five months of age, had more salivary sialic acid than did formula-fed infants. However human milk varies in sialic acid content, depending upon genetic inheritance, lactation, etc. Investigations are focused on comparing sialic acid’s effects upon breast-fed children versus non-breast-fed children. Brain development is complex but it occurs quickly: by two years of age, a child’s brain reaches about 80% of its adult weight. Children are born with a complete number of brain neurons, but the synaptic connections between them will be elaborated after birth. Sialic acid plays an essential role in proper brain development and cognition, and it is important that the child has an adequate supply at the time when it is needed.
It has been demonstrated that the human brain has more sialic acid than the brains of other mammals (2 – 4 times more). Neural membranes have 20 times more sialic acid than other cellular membranes. It is believed that sialic acid has a decisive role in enabling neurotransmission between neurons. The effects of sialic acid supplementation on learning and memory behaviour has been studied in rodents, as well as in piglets (whose brain structure and function more closely resemble those of humans). A diet rich in sialic acid was given to newborn piglets for five weeks. Then learning and memory were evaluated using a visual cue in a maze. A relationship between dietary sialic acid supplementation and cognitive function was seen: the piglets that had been fed high doses of sialic acid learned more quickly and made fewer mistakes. This suggests that sialic acid has an influence upon brain development and learning.[14]
How the influenza virus gets into the cell by endocytosis
Diseases[edit]
Sialic acids are related to some diseases observed in humans.
Salla disease
Salla disease is an extremely rare illness which is considered the mildest form of the free sialic acid accumulation disorders [15] though its childhood form is considered an aggressive variant and people who suffer from it have mental retardation.[16] It is an autosomic recessive disorder caused by a mutation of the chromosome 6.[17] It mainly affects the nervous system [15] and it is caused by a lysosomal storage irregularity which comes from a deficit of a specific sialic acid carrier located on the lysosomal membrane [18] Currently, there is no cure for this disease and the treatment is supportive, focusing on the control of symptoms.[15]
Influenza
All influenza A virus strains need sialic acid to connect with cells. There are different forms of sialic acids which have different affinity with influenza A virus variety. This diversity is an important fact that determines which species can be infected.[19] When a certain influenza A virus is recognized by a sialic acid receptor the cell tends to endocytose the virus so the cell become infected.
See also[edit]
Sialidosis
Sialoglycoprotein
Sialyltransferase
Orthomyxoviridae
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Varki, Ajit; Roland Schauer (2008). in Essentials of Glycobiology. Cold Spring Harbor Press. pp. Ch. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b c [1]
^ Jump up to: a b [2]
Jump up ^ Schauer R. (2000). "Achievements and challenges of sialic acid research". Glycoconj. J. 17 (7–9): 485–499. PMID 11421344. doi:10.1023/A:1011062223612.
Jump up ^ Severi E, Müller A, Potts JR, Leech A, Williamson D, Wilson KS, Thomas GH (2008). "Sialic acid mutarotation is catalyzed by the Escherichia coli beta-propeller protein YjhT". J Biol Chem. 283 (8): 4841–91. PMID 18063573. doi:10.1074/jbc.M707822200.
Jump up ^ Fulcher CA, "MetaCyc Chimeric Pathway: superpathway of sialic acid and CMP-sialic acid biosynthesis", "MetaCyc, March 2009"
Jump up ^ Warren, Leonard; Felsenfeld, Herbert (1962). "The Biosynthesis of Sialic Acids" (PDF). The Journal of Biological Chemistry, May. 237 (5): 1421.
Jump up ^ Hai Yu; Harshal Chokhawala; Shengshu Huang & Xi Chen (2006). "One-pot three-enzyme chemoenzymatic approach to the synthesis of sialosides containing natural and non-natural functionalities". Nature Protocols. 1 (5): 2485–2492. PMC 2586341  . PMID 17406495. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.401.
Jump up ^ Fuster, Mark M.; Esko, Jeffrey D. (2005). "The sweet and sour of cancer: Glycans as novel therapeutic targets". Nature Reviews Cancer. 5 (7): 526–42. PMID 16069816. doi:10.1038/nrc1649.
Jump up ^ Severi E.; Hood D.W.; Thomas G.H. (2007). "Sialic acid utilization by bacterial pathogens". Microbiology. 153 (9): 2817–2822. PMID 17768226. doi:10.1099/mic.0.2007/009480-0.
Jump up ^ Jürgen Sandow; Ekkehard Scheiffele; Michael Haring; Günter Neef; Klaus Prezewowsky; Ulrich Stache (2007), "Hormones", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–81, doi:10.1002/14356007.a13_089
^ Jump up to: a b Varki A.; Gagneux P. (2012). "Multifarious roles of sialic acids in immunity". Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1253 (1): 16–36. PMC 3357316  . PMID 22524423. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06517.x.
Jump up ^ C. Traving, R. Schauer, "Structure, function and metabolism of sialic acids", "Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS, December 1998, Volume 54, Issue 12, pp 1330-1349"
Jump up ^ Wang B. (2012). "Molecular Mechanism Underlying Sialic Acid as an Essential Nutrient for Brain Development and Cognition". Adv Nutr. 3 (3): 465S–472S. PMC 3649484  . PMID 22585926. doi:10.3945/an.112.001875.
^ Jump up to: a b c [3]
Jump up ^ [4]
Jump up ^ Ponsot, G. (2007). "Enfermedades por depósito de ácido siálico libre: enfermedad de Salla (incluida su forma infantil grave) y sialuria". EMC - Pediatría. 42: 1–3. doi:10.1016/S1245-1789(07)70257-3.
Jump up ^ [5]
Jump up ^ [6]
External links[edit]
Sialic acid in evolution
Authority control
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