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Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
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Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago[1] in 1958, and expanded upon the theory throughout his life.
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor.[2] Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.[2] Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research.[5][6]
The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels of morality: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinz dilemma, and was interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas. He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion,[6] and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages.[7][8][9]
There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives. Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values, such as caring;[10] that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as separate domains; or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations (by both decision makers and psychologists) of essentially intuitive decisions.[11]
Nevertheless, an entirely new field within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg's theory, and according to Haggbloom et al.'s study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the 30th most eminent overall.[12]
Kohlberg's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a method of ranking how moral someone's behavior is. There should, however, be a correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave, and the general hypothesis is that moral behaviour is more responsible, consistent and predictable from people at higher levels.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Stages
1.1 Pre-conventional
1.2 Conventional
1.3 Post-conventional
1.4 Further stages
2 Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)
2.1 Formal elements
3 Examples of applied moral dilemmas
4 Criticisms
5 Continued relevance
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Stages[edit]
Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher stage abilities.[14][15] Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.[14][15]
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
(Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)
The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
Pre-conventional[edit]
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.[7][8][9]
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I did that I got spanked, so I will not do it again." The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is "egocentric", lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.[17] There is "deference to superior power or prestige".[17]
An example of obedience and punishment driven morality would be a child refusing to do something because it is wrong and that the consequences could result in punishment. For example, a child's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school. The child would apply obedience and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get punished.
Stage two (self-interest driven) expresses the "what's in it for me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one's reputation or relationships to groups of people. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" mentality.[2] The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all actions at this stage have the purpose of serving the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the world's perspective is often seen as morally relative.
An example of self-interest driven is when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks, "what's in it for me?" The parents offer the child an incentive by giving a child an allowance to pay them for their chores. The child is motivated by self-interest to do chores.
Conventional[edit]
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.[7][8][9]
In Stage three (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the self enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's views. They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations,[2] having learned that being regarded as good benefits the self. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the "golden rule". "I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me." Conforming to the rules for one's social role is not yet fully understood. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that "they mean well".[2]
In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums, and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.[2]
Post-conventional[edit]
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual's own perspective may take precedence over society's view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.[citation needed]
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.[7][8][9]
In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet "the greatest good for the greatest number of people".[8] This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another's shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true.[19] The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not because it avoids punishment, is in their best interest, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.[15] Touro College Researcher Arthur P. Sullivan helped support the accuracy of Kohlberg's first five stages through data analysis, but could not provide statistical evidence for the existence of Kohlberg's sixth stage. Therefore, it is difficult to define/recognize as a concrete stage in moral development.
Further stages[edit]
In his empirical studies of individuals throughout their life, Kohlberg observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression. This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the personality.[8] In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 4½ or 4+, a transition from stage four to five, that shared characteristics of both.[8] In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong.[8] Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college.[8][15]
Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage—Transcendental Morality, or Morality of Cosmic Orientation—which linked religion with moral reasoning.[20] Kohlberg's difficulties in obtaining empirical evidence for even a sixth stage,[15] however, led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage.[5]
Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)[edit]
Kohlberg's stages of moral development are based on the assumption that humans are inherently communicative, capable of reason, and possess a desire to understand others and the world around them. The stages of this model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals, and so do not translate directly into praise or blame of any individual's actions or character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is independent of the content of those arguments, a position he calls "formalism".[6][7]
Kohlberg's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice-centered theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology[18] and eudaimonia.
Kohlberg's theory understands values as a critical component of the right. Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg, it must be universally valid across societies (a position known as "moral universalism"):[7] there can be no relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.
According to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent of social contracts (stage five).[15] On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last.[15] The process is therefore considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the conscious construction of the individual, and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual's innate dispositions, or a result of past inductions.
Formal elements[edit]
Progress through Kohlberg's stages happens as a result of the individual's increasing competence, both psychologically and in balancing conflicting social-value claims. The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called "justice operation". Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations: "equality", which involves an impartial regard for persons, and "reciprocity", which means a regard for the role of personal merit. For Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both operations is "reversibility", in which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles within that situation (also known colloquially as "moral musical chairs").[6]
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically important are the individual's "view of persons" and their "social perspective level", each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage. The "view of persons" can be understood as the individual's grasp of the psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a spectrum, with stage one having no view of other persons at all, and stage six being entirely socio-centric.[6] Similarly, the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms.
Examples of applied moral dilemmas[edit]
Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation.[4] During the roughly 45-minute tape recorded semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision. The participant is asked a systemic series of open-ended questions, like what they think the right course of action is, as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong. The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived.[4][9]
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.[5]
Criticisms[edit]
One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg's theory is overly androcentric.[10] Kohlberg's theory was initially developed based on empirical research using only male participants; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the concerns of women.[21] Kohlberg stated that women tend to get stuck at level 3, focusing on details of how to maintain relationships and promote the welfare of family and friends. Men are likely to move on to the abstract principles, and thus have less concern with the particulars of who is involved.[22] Consistent with this observation, Gilligan's theory of moral development does not focus on the value of justice. She developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring.[10] Critics such as Christina Hoff Sommers, however, argued that Gilligan's research is ill-founded, and that no evidence exists to support her conclusion.[23]
Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures.[1] Although they progress through the stages in the same order, individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates.[24] Kohlberg has responded by saying that although different cultures do indeed inculcate different beliefs, his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning, rather than to those beliefs.[1][25]
Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements.[26] This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e. stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e. stage four).[26][27] Kohlberg’s theory is generally considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning.[26] Carpendale has argued that Kohlberg’s theory should be modified to focus on the view that the process of moral reasoning involves integrating varying perspectives of a moral dilemma rather than simply fixating on applying rules.[27] This view would allow for inconsistency in moral reasoning since individuals may be hampered by their inability to consider different perspectives.[26] Krebs and Denton have also attempted to modify Kohlberg’s theory to account for a multitude of conflicting findings, but eventually concluded that the theory is not equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral decisions in their everyday lives.[28]
Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning. Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt, for example, argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law, human rights, or abstract ethical values. Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg's theory suggests.[11]
Continued relevance[edit]
Kohlberg's body of work on the stages of moral development has been utilized by others working in the field. One example is the Defining Issues Test (DIT) created in 1979 by James Rest,[29] originally as a pencil-and-paper alternative to the Moral Judgement Interview.[30] Heavily influenced by the six-stage model, it made efforts to improve the validity criteria by using a quantitative test, the Likert scale, to rate moral dilemmas similar to Kohlberg's.[31] It also used a large body of Kohlbergian theory such as the idea of "post-conventional thinking".[32][33] In 1999 the DIT was revised as the DIT-2;[30] the test continues to be used in many areas where moral testing is required,[34] such as divinity, politics, and medicine.[35][36][37]
See also[edit]
Psychology portal
Elliot Turiel
Robert Kegan
William Damon, Purpose
Jonathan Haidt, Social intuitionism
Carol Gilligan, Ethics of care
Jane Loevinger, Stages of ego development
James W. Fowler, Stages of faith development
Moral hierarchy
Positive disintegration
Universal value
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Crain, William C. (1985). Theories of Development (2Rev ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-913617-7. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kohlberg, Lawrence (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 70, No. 18. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.
Jump up ^ Piaget, Jean (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. ISBN 0-02-925240-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kohlberg, Lawrence (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16 (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Chicago.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kohlberg, Lawrence; Charles Levine; Alexandra Hewer (1983). Moral stages : a current formulation and a response to critics. Basel, NY: Karger. ISBN 3-8055-3716-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kohlberg, Lawrence (1971). From Is to Ought: How to Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy and Get Away with It in the Study of Moral Development. New York: Academic Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Kohlberg, Lawrence (1976). "Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach". In Lickona, T. Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research and Social Issues. Holt, NY: Rinehart and Winston.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Colby, Anne; Kohlberg, L. (1987). The Measurement of Moral Judgment Vol. 2: Standard Issue Scoring Manual. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24447-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gilligan, Carol (1982). "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality". Harvard Educational Review. 47 (4).
^ Jump up to: a b Haidt, J (2001). "The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment". Psychological Review. 108: 814–834. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814.
Jump up ^ Haggbloom, S.J.; et al. (2002). "The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–15. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139.
Jump up ^ Section on Kohlberg's stages from "Theories of Development" by W.C. Crain (1985) Archived 2011-10-04 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Walker, Lawrence, J. (February 1989). "A longitudinal study of moral reasoning". Child Development. Child Development, Vol. 60, No. 1. 60 (1): 157–166. doi:10.2307/1131081. JSTOR 1131081. PMID 2702866.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Colby, Anne; Gibbs, J.; Lieberman, M.; Kohlberg, L. (1983). A Longitudinal Study of Moral Judgment: A Monograph for the Society of Research in Child Development. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 99932-7-870-X.
Jump up ^ Shaffer, David R. (2004). Social and Personality Development (5th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-60700-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Kohlberg, Lawrence (Oct 1974). "Education, Moral Development and Faith". Journal of Moral Education. 4 (1): 5–16. doi:10.1080/0305724740040102.
^ Jump up to: a b Kant, Immanuel (1964). Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Harper and Row Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-06-131159-6.
Jump up ^ * Rawls, John (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belkap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01772-2.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence; Power, Clark (1981). "Moral Development, Religious Thinking, and the Question of a Seventh Stage". In Kohlberg, Lawrence. Essays on Moral Development Vol. I: Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
Jump up ^ Woolfolk, Anita (2012). Educational Psychology. Prentice Hall. p. 101. ISBN 9780132893589.
Jump up ^ Waller, Bruce (2005). Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues. Pearson Education. p. 115. ISBN 0321202805.
Jump up ^ Sommers, The War Against Boys.
Jump up ^ Harkness, Sara; Edwards, Carolyn P.; Super, Charles M. (1981). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Developmental Psychology. 17 (5): 595–603. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.17.5.595.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence; Carol Gilligan (1971). The Adolescent as a Philosopher: The Discovery of the Self in a Postconventional World. Daedalus.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Parke, R. D.; Gauvain, M.; Schmuckler, M. A. (2010). Child psychology : a contemporary viewpoint (3rd Canadian ed.). Whitby, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0070782385.
^ Jump up to: a b Carpendale, J (1 June 2000). "Kohlberg and Piaget on Stages and Moral Reasoning". Developmental Review. 20 (2): 181–205. doi:10.1006/drev.1999.0500.
Jump up ^ Krebs, Dennis L.; Denton, Kathy (1 January 2005). "Toward a More Pragmatic Approach to Morality: A Critical Evaluation of Kohlberg's Model" (PDF). Psychological Review. 112 (3): 629–649. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.112.3.629. PMID 16060754.
Jump up ^ Rest, James (1979). Development in Judging Moral Issues. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0891-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). "DIT-2: Devising and testing a new instrument of moral judgment". Journal of Educational Psychology. 91 (4): 644–659. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.644.
Jump up ^ "Center for the Study of Ethical Development". DIT --Sample Dilemma: Heinz and the Drug. Archived from the original (Website) on 2007-06-29. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). "A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory". Educational Psychology Review. 11 (4): 291–324. doi:10.1023/A:1022053215271.
Jump up ^ Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). Postconventional Moral Thinking: A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3285-8.
Jump up ^ Rest, James (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. In collaboration with Barnett, R.; Bebeau, M.; Deemer, D.; Getz, I.; Moon, Y.; Spickelmeier, J.; Thoma, S. and Volker, J. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-92254-5.
Jump up ^ Bunch, Wilton H. (2005). "Changing moral judgement in divinity students". Journal of Moral Education. 34 (3): 363–370. doi:10.1080/03057240500211543.
Jump up ^ Muhlberger, P. (2000). "Moral reasoning effects on political participation". Political Psychology. 21 (4): 667–695. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00212.
Jump up ^ Hedl, John J.; Glazer, H.; Chan, F. (2005). "Improving the Moral Reasoning of Allied Health Students". Journal of Allied Health. 34 (2): 121–122. PMID 16032920.
Further reading[edit]
Crain, William C. (1985). Theories of Development (2Rev ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-913617-7.
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1971). "From 'is' to 'ought': How to commit the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it in the study of moral development". In Theodore Mischel (ed.). Cognitive development and epistemology. New York: Academic Press. pp. 151–284. ISBN 0-12-498640-4. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 70, No. 18. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
Kohlberg, Lawrence; Charles Levine; Alexandra Hewer (1983). Moral stages : a current formulation and a response to critics. Basel, NY: Karger. ISBN 3-8055-3716-6.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
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Moral Development and Moral Education: An Overview
Kohlberg's Moral Stages
Boston Review article covering the topic and other related areas
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Summary and inspiration for Kohlbergs theory of moral development stages
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Whitewall tire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coker Classic radial whitewall tires on a 1957 Ford Thunderbird
Whitewall tires or white sidewall (WSW) tires are tires having a stripe or entire sidewall of white rubber. These tires were most commonly used from the early 1900s to around the mid 1970s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Overview
3 Modern
4 Gallery
5 References
Background[edit]
The use of whitewall rubber for wheels has been traced to a small tire company in Chicago called Vogue Tyre and Rubber Co that made them for their horse and chauffeur drawn carriages in 1914.[1]
Early automobile tires were made of pure natural rubber with various chemicals mixed into the tread compounds to make them wear better.[2] The best of these was zinc oxide, a pure white substance that increased traction and also made the entire tire white.[2] However, the white rubber did not offer sufficient endurance, so carbon black was added to the rubber to greatly increase tread life.[3] Using carbon black only in the tread produced tires with inner and outer sidewalls of white rubber. Later, entirely black tires became available, the still extant white sidewalls being covered with a somewhat thin, black colored layer of rubber. Should a black sidewall tire have been severely scuffed against a curb, the underlying white rubber would be revealed; it is in a similar manner that raised white letter (RWL) tires are made.
Overview[edit]
The status of whitewall tires versus blackwall tires was originally the reverse of what it later became, with fully black tires requiring a greater amount of carbon black and less effort to maintain a clean appearance these were considered the premium tire; since the black tires first became available they were commonly fitted to many luxury cars through the 1930s. During the late-1920s gleaming whitewalls contrasted against darker surroundings were considered a stylish, but high-maintenance feature. The popularity of whitewalls as an option increased during the 1930s. On April 6, 1934, Ford introduced whitewall tires as an $11.25 option on all its new cars.[4] Automobile designs incorporating streamlining eventually rendered the two-sided whitewall obsolete.
1950s Rambler American with vintage aftermarket "curb feeler"
The availability of whitewall tires was limited in the U.S. during the supply shortages of raw materials during World War II and the Korean War.[5]
Wide whitewall tires reached their zenith in popularity by the early-1950s. The 1957 production version of the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham was fitted with whitewalls that were reduced to a 1" wide stripe floating on the tire sidewall with a black area between this stripe and the wheel rim. The whitewall stripe width began to diminish as an attempt to reduce the perceived height of the wheel/tire. During the decade, increasingly lower vehicle heights were in vogue. During the 1950s, Fender skirts also covered up white wall tires.[6]
Wide whitewalls generally fell out of favor in the U.S. by the 1962 model year. They continued as an option on the Lincoln Continental for some time thereafter but most common were narrower 3/4"-1" stripe whitewalls. During the mid-1960s variations on the striped whitewall began to appear; a red/white stripe combination was offered on Thunderbirds and other high-end Fords, and triple white stripe variations were offered on Cadillacs, Lincolns, and Imperials. Whitewall tires were a popular option on new cars during the 1950s and 1960s, as well as in the replacement market. In some cases, having whitewall tires were a "must have" to get the right look on a car; and for those who could not afford the real deal, add-ons could be installed over the rim of the wheel that could leak if the pressure was too high.[7]
New tires were wrapped in paper for shipping, to keep the white stripe clean, and for preventing the black of other tires from rubbing on the whitewall side.[8] Maintaining a clean sidewall was an issue. Some motorists added aftermarket "curb feelers" that were attached at the bottom of the wheel opening lip to help reduce scraping the whitewall tire against curbs.[9]
By 1968, wide whitewall tires were no longer available on the Chevrolet Corvette; replaced by F70x15 bias-ply nylon cord tires with thin stripes, either a narrow white or narrow red stripe.[10]
The single-sided whitewall remained a desirable option through the 1970s, becoming a hallmark of "traditional luxury". Radial tires made by Vogue Tyre featured a narrow whitewall with a thin gold stripe line toward the edge of the tire. They were most often fitted to luxury cars.[11]
Modern[edit]
Full-fledged wide whitewalls had made a return within the modified car culture. The resurgence of traditional hot rods, customs, retro, lowriders and resto-cal cars have also contributed to the resurgence in whitewall tires.
Although wide whitewalls are virtually nonexistent as a factory option on modern automobiles, they are still manufactured in original bias-ply or radial form by specialty outlets such as Coker Tire and Vogue Tyre. The last car available in the United Kingdom with whitewall tires was the Kia Pride. Some companies manufacture wide whitewall inserts - the so-called "Portawall" inserts are usually sold through Volkswagen Beetle restoration companies. Another modern incarnation has been tire decals, which can be applied to a normal tire to give the whitewall look.
Modern trends toward more minimal styling, and large wheels favoring very low-profile tires leave little room for a whitewall. The Lincoln Town Car continued to be offered with a factory whitewall option – a narrow white stripe – until its discontinuation in 2010. It is not currently offered as a factory option by any car manufacturer, but it is possible to order white walls for motorcycles (for example, the Indian Chief 2014).
Gallery[edit]
Cars with whitewall tires:
1904 Auburn with very difficult to clean all white rubber tires
1913 American Underslung featured all white tires during its era
1915 Indian Big Twin with standard white rubber tires
Firestone Deluxe Champion Whitewall sparetire (with thick white band) on a 1932 Nash Coupe
Wide whitewall tires were popular on premium automobiles
1956 Oldsmobile Super 88 with Coker Classic whitewall tires
The white stripes on tires became narrower as the 1960s progressed
Narrow gold stripe performance tire from the 1960s
Redline tires were commonly fitted on performance cars in the late 1960s
Buick Electra with white stripe tire partially covered by a fender skirt
Narrow stripe white wall tires were common throughout the 1970s and into the early 1980s, some luxury carmakers still offered them late into the 1990s
A variation with white letters on the sidewall found on muscle car tires, these are still used on modern SUVs
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ryan (7 June 2006). "The History Of The Whitewall: Part 2!". Jalopy Journal. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Cameron, Kevin (2009). Top dead center 2 : racing and wrenching with Cycle world's Kevin Cameron. MBI Publishing. p. 167. ISBN 9780760336083. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Cameron, p. 169.
Jump up ^ Sullivan, Kate (6 April 2013). "This Day in History: Ford offers whitewall option". Hemmings. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Flory, J. Kelly (2008). American cars, 1946-1959: every model, year by year. McFarland. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7864-3229-5. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Burton Ira; Kaufman, Diane (2009). The A to Z of the Eisenhower era. Scarecrow Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780810871502. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Glabach, Ray (2011). The Last Village Smithy: Memories of a Small Town in the New England Hills. AuthorHouse. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-4567-5901-8. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Walesh, Stuart G. (April 2010). "Still Wrapping Tires in Brown Paper?". Leadership in Management Engineering. 10 (2): 96. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000054. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Automotive News. Crain Automotive Group. 1981. p. 100. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Falconer, Tom (2003). Complete Corvette: A Model-by-Model History of the American Sports Car. MBI Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7603-1474-6. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Perea, Sammy J. (February 2009). "History of the Wheel: A loose look at the wheels and tires that lowriders have loved to roll on". Lowrider. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
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Vector projection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Projection of a on b (a1), and rejection of a from b (a2).
When 90° < θ ≤ 180°, a1 has an opposite direction with respect to b.
The vector projection of a vector a on (or onto) a nonzero vector b (also known as the vector component or vector resolution of a in the direction of b) is the orthogonal projection of a onto a straight line parallel to b. It is a vector parallel to b, defined as
a 1 = a 1 b ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}=a_{1}\mathbf {\hat {b}} \,}
where a 1 {\displaystyle a_{1}} is a scalar, called the scalar projection of a onto b, and b̂ is the unit vector in the direction of b. In turn, the scalar projection is defined as
a 1 = | a | cos  θ = a ⋅ b ^ = a ⋅ b | b | {\displaystyle a_{1}=|\mathbf {a} |\cos \theta =\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {\hat {b}} =\mathbf {a} \cdot {\frac {\mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |}}\,}
where the operator · denotes a dot product, |a| is the length of a, and θ is the angle between a and b. The scalar projection is equal to the length of the vector projection, with a minus sign if the direction of the projection is opposite to the direction of b.
The vector component or vector resolute of a perpendicular to b, sometimes also called the vector rejection of a from b,[1] is the orthogonal projection of a onto the plane (or, in general, hyperplane) orthogonal to b. Both the projection a1 and rejection a2 of a vector a are vectors, and their sum is equal to a, which implies that the rejection is given by
a 2 = a − a 1 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}=\mathbf {a} -\mathbf {a} _{1}.}
Contents
[hide]
1 Notation
2 Definitions based on angle θ
2.1 Scalar projection
2.2 Vector projection
2.3 Vector rejection
3 Definitions in terms of a and b
3.1 Scalar projection
3.2 Vector projection
3.3 Vector rejection
4 Properties
4.1 Scalar projection
4.2 Vector projection
4.3 Vector rejection
5 Matrix representation
6 Uses
7 Generalizations
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Notation[edit]
Typically, a vector projection is denoted in a bold font (e.g. a1), and the corresponding scalar projection with normal font (e.g. a1). In some cases, especially in handwriting, the vector projection is also denoted using a diacritic above or below the letter (e.g., a → 1 {\displaystyle {\vec {a}}_{1}} or a1; see Euclidean vector representations for more details).
The vector projection of a on b and the corresponding rejection are sometimes denoted by a∥b and a⊥b, respectively.
Definitions based on angle θ[edit]
Scalar projection[edit]
Main article: Scalar projection
The scalar projection of a on b is a scalar equal to
a 1 = | a | cos  θ {\displaystyle a_{1}=|\mathbf {a} |\cos \theta }
where θ is the angle between a and b.
A scalar projection can be used as a scale factor to compute the corresponding vector projection.
Vector projection[edit]
The vector projection of a on b is a vector whose magnitude is the scalar projection of a on b and whose angle against b is either 0 or 180 degrees. Namely, it is defined as
a 1 = a 1 b ^ = ( | a | cos  θ ) b ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}=a_{1}\mathbf {\hat {b}} =(|\mathbf {a} |\cos \theta )\mathbf {\hat {b}} }
where a 1 {\displaystyle a_{1}} is the corresponding scalar projection, as defined above, and b̂ is the unit vector with the same direction as b:
b ^ = b | b | {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {b}} ={\frac {\mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |}}\,}
Vector rejection[edit]
By definition, the vector rejection of a on b is
a 2 = a − a 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}=\mathbf {a} -\mathbf {a} _{1}}
Hence,
a 2 = a − ( | a | cos  θ ) b ^ . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}=\mathbf {a} -(|\mathbf {a} |\cos \theta )\mathbf {\hat {b}} .}
Definitions in terms of a and b[edit]
When θ is not known, the cosine of θ can be computed in terms of a and b, by the following property of the dot product a · b:
a ⋅ b | a | | b | = cos  θ {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {a} |\,|\mathbf {b} |}}=\cos \theta \,}
Scalar projection[edit]
By the above-mentioned property of the dot product, the definition of the scalar projection becomes
a 1 = | a | cos  θ = | a | a ⋅ b | a | | b | = a ⋅ b | b | {\displaystyle a_{1}=|\mathbf {a} |\cos \theta =|\mathbf {a} |{\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {a} |\,|\mathbf {b} |}}={\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |}}\,}
Vector projection[edit]
Similarly, the definition of the vector projection of a onto b becomes
a 1 = a 1 b ^ = a ⋅ b | b | b | b | , {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}=a_{1}\mathbf {\hat {b}} ={\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |}}{\frac {\mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |}},}
which is equivalent to either
a 1 = ( a ⋅ b ^ ) b ^ , {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}=(\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {\hat {b}} )\mathbf {\hat {b}} ,}
or[2]
a 1 = a ⋅ b | b | 2 b = a ⋅ b b ⋅ b b . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{1}={\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{|\mathbf {b} |^{2}}}{\mathbf {b} }={\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{\mathbf {b} \cdot \mathbf {b} }}{\mathbf {b} }.}
The latter formula is computationally more efficient than the former. Both require two dot products and eventually the multiplication of a scalar by a vector, but the former additionally requires a square root and the division of a vector by a scalar,[3] while the latter additionally requires only the division of a scalar by a scalar.
Vector rejection[edit]
By definition,
a 2 = a − a 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}=\mathbf {a} -\mathbf {a} _{1}}
Hence,
a 2 = a − a ⋅ b b ⋅ b b . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{2}=\mathbf {a} -{\frac {\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} }{\mathbf {b} \cdot \mathbf {b} }}{\mathbf {b} }.}
Properties[edit]
If 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°, as in this case, the scalar projection of a on b coincides with the length of the vector projection.
Scalar projection[edit]
Main article: Scalar projection
The scalar projection a on b is a scalar which has a negative sign if 90 < θ ≤ 180 degrees. It coincides with the length |c| of the vector projection if the angle is smaller than 90°. More exactly:
a1 = |a1| if 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 degrees,
a1 = −|a1| if 90 < θ ≤ 180 degrees.
Vector projection[edit]
The vector projection of a on b is a vector a1 which is either null or parallel to b. More exactly:
a1 = 0 if θ = 90°,
a1 and b have the same direction if 0 ≤ θ < 90 degrees,
a1 and b have opposite directions if 90 < θ ≤ 180 degrees.
Vector rejection[edit]
The vector rejection of a on b is a vector a2 which is either null or orthogonal to b. More exactly:
a2 = 0 if θ = 0 degrees or θ = 180 degrees,
a2 is orthogonal to b if 0 < θ < 180 degrees,
Matrix representation[edit]
The orthogonal projection can be represented by a projection matrix. To project a vector onto the unit vector a = (ax, ay, az), it would need to be multiplied with this projection matrix:
P a = a a T = [ a x a y a z ] [ a x a y a z ] = [ a x 2 a x a y a x a z a x a y a y 2 a y a z a x a z a y a z a z 2 ] {\displaystyle P_{a}=aa^{\mathrm {T} }={\begin{bmatrix}a_{x}\\a_{y}\\a_{z}\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}a_{x}&a_{y}&a_{z}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}a_{x}^{2}&a_{x}a_{y}&a_{x}a_{z}\\a_{x}a_{y}&a_{y}^{2}&a_{y}a_{z}\\a_{x}a_{z}&a_{y}a_{z}&a_{z}^{2}\\\end{bmatrix}}}
Uses[edit]
The vector projection is an important operation in the Gram–Schmidt orthonormalization of vector space bases. It is also used in the Separating axis theorem to detect whether two convex shapes intersect.
Generalizations[edit]
Since the notions of vector length and angle between vectors can be generalized to any n-dimensional inner product space, this is also true for the notions of orthogonal projection of a vector, projection of a vector onto another, and rejection of a vector from another. In some cases, the inner product coincides with the dot product. Whenever they don't coincide, the inner product is used instead of the dot product in the formal definitions of projection and rejection.
For a three-dimensional inner product space, the notions of projection of a vector onto another and rejection of a vector from another can be generalized to the notions of projection of a vector onto a plane, and rejection of a vector from a plane.[4] The projection of a vector on a plane is its orthogonal projection on that plane. The rejection of a vector from a plane is its orthogonal projection on a straight line which is orthogonal to that plane. Both are vectors. The first is parallel to the plane, the second is orthogonal. For a given vector and plane, the sum of projection and rejection is equal to the original vector.
Similarly, for inner product spaces with more than three dimensions, the notions of projection onto a vector and rejection from a vector can be generalized to the notions of projection onto a hyperplane, and rejection from a hyperplane.
In geometric algebra, they can be further generalized to the notions of projection and rejection of a general multivector onto/from any invertible k-blade.
See also[edit]
Scalar projection
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Perwass, G. (2009). Geometric Algebra With Applications in Engineering. p. 83.
Jump up ^ "Dot Products and Projections".
Jump up ^ The second dot product, the square root and the division are not shown, but they are needed to compute; b ^ = b / | b | {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {b}} ={\mathbf {b} }/{|\mathbf {b} |}} (for more details, see the definition of Euclidean norm).
Jump up ^ M.J. Baker, 2012. Projection of a vector onto a plane. Published on www.euclideanspace.com.
External links[edit]
Projection of a vector onto a plane
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Mahanadi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the river in central India. For the 1994 Tamil film, see Mahanadi (film).
Mahanadi River
sulakh river
River
The Mahanadi
Country
India
Parts
Chhattisgarh, Odisha
Regions
Dandakaranya, Dakshina Kosala Kingdom, Coastal Plains
Administrative
areas
Raipur, Janjgir, Bilaspur, Sambalpur, Subarnapur, Boudh, Anugul, Cuttack, Banki, Jagatsinghpur, Jharsuguda
Tributaries
- left Shivnath, Mand, Ib, Hasdeo
- right Ong, parry river, Jonk, Telen
Cities
Rajim, Sambalpur, Cuttack, Sonepur, Birmaharajpur, Subalaya, Kantilo, Boudh, Cuttack, Banki
Landmarks
Satkosia Gorge, Sonapur Lanka, Hookitola Falls
Source
- location Sihawa, Dhamtari, Dandakaranya, Chhattisgarh, India
- elevation 890 m (2,920 ft)
- coordinates 20°07′N 81°55′E / 20.11°N 81.91°E / 20.11; 81.91
Mouth
- location False Point, Jagatsinghpur, Delta, Odisha, India
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
Length
858 km (533 mi)
Basin
141,600 km2 (54,672 sq mi)
Discharge
for False Point, Odisha
- average 2,119 m3/s (74,832 cu ft/s)
- max 56,700 m3/s (2,002,342 cu ft/s)
The Mahanadi is a major river in East Central India. It drains an area of around 141,600 square kilometres (54,700 sq mi) and has a total course of 858 kilometres (533 mi).[1] The river flows through the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Sources
3 Middle course
4 Mouth
5 Navigation
6 Trade and agriculture
7 Water
8 Floods
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word Mahanadi is a compound of the Sanskrit words maha ("great") and nadi ("river").[2]
Sources[edit]
Mahanadi river
Mahanadi is a major river with its delta on the east coast
Like many other seasonal Indian rivers, the Mahanadi too is a combination of many mountain streams and thus its precise source is impossible to pinpoint. However its farthest headwaters lie 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from Pharsiya village 442 metres (1,450 ft) above sea level south of sihawa town in Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh.[3][4] The hills here are an extension of the Eastern Ghats and are a source of many other streams which then go on to join the Mahanadi.
For the first 80 kilometres (50 mi) of its course, the Mahanadi flows in a northerly direction and drains the Raipur district and touches eastern portions of Raipur city. It is a rather narrow river at this stage and the total width of its valley does not exceed 500–600 metres.
Middle course[edit]
After being joined by the Seonath, the river flows in an easterly direction through the remaining part of its journey. It is joined by the Jonk and Hasdeo rivers here before entering into Odisha after covering about half of its total length. Near the city of Sambalpur, it is dammed by the largest earthen dam in the world, the Hirakud Dam. A composite structure of the earth, concrete and masonry, the dam measures 24 kilometres (15 mi) including the Dykes. It spans two hills; the Lamdungri on the left and the Chandili Dunguri on the right. It also forms the biggest artificial lake in Asia, with a reservoir holding 743 square kilometres (287 sq mi) at full capacity, with a shoreline of over 640 kilometres (400 mi).[5]
After the formation of Chhattisgarh State, the major portion of Mahanadi basin now lies in Chhattisgarh. Presently, only 154 square kilometres (59 sq mi) basin area of Hasdeo River in Anuppur District lies in Madhya Pradesh.
Before the construction of the dam in 1953, the Mahanadi was about a mile wide at Sambalpur and carried massive amounts of silt, especially during the monsoon. Today, it is a rather tame river after the construction of the dam and is joined by the Ib, Ong, Tel and other minor streams. It then skirts the boundaries of the Baudh district and forces a tortuous way between ridges and ledges in a series of rapids until it reaches Dholpur, Odisha. The rapids end here and the river rolls towards the Eastern Ghats, forcing its way through them via the 64 kilometres (40 mi) long Satkosia Gorge. The Satakosia Gorge ends at Badamul of Nayagarh. Dense forests cover the hills flanking the river here. The river enters the Odisha plains at Naraj, about 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Cuttack, where it pours down between two hills that are a mile apart. A barrage has been constructed here to regulate the river's flow into Cuttack.[6]
Mouth[edit]
The Mahanadi River Delta at False Point.
The river traverses Cuttack district in an east-west direction. Just before entering Cuttack, it gives off a large distributary called the Kathjori. The city of Cuttack stands on the spit separating the two channels. The Kathjori then throws off many streams like the Kuakhai, Devi and Surua which fall into the Bay of Bengal after entering Puri district. The Kathjori itself falls into the sea as the Jotdar. Other distributaries of Mahanadi include the Paika, Birupa, Chitroptala river, Genguti and Lun.The Birupa then goes on to join the Brahmani River at Krushnanagar and enters the Bay of Bengal at Dhamra. The Mahanadi proper enters the sea via several channels near Paradeep at False Point, Jagatsinghpur. The combined Delta of the Mahanadi's numerous distributaries and the Brahmani is one of the largest in India.[7]
Navigation[edit]
Prior to the construction of Hirakud Dam, the Mahanadi was navigable from its mouth up to Arrang, about a 190 kilometres (120 mi) from its source. However numerous barrages apart from the Hirakud have put an end to that. Today, boats are restricted to the delta region and the Hirakud reservoir.[6][8]
Trade and agriculture[edit]
Mahanadi River
The Mahanadi is an important river in the state of Odisha. This river flows slowly for about 900 kilometres (560 mi) and deposits more silt than any other river in the Indian subcontinent.
The cities of Cuttack and Sambalpur were prominent trading places in the ancient world and the river itself has been referred to as the Manada in Ptolemy's works. However today the Mahanadi valley is best known for its fertile soil and flourishing agriculture. Prior to the Hirakud dacarthe Indian subcontinent.[9]
Water[edit]
Zobra bridge view
Average annual surface water potential of 66.9 km³ has been assessed in this basin. Out of this, 50.0 km³ is utilisable water. Culturable area in the basin is about 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi), which is 4% of the total culturable area of the country.
Present use of surface water in the basin is 17.0 km³. Live storage capacity in the basin has increased significantly since independence. From just about 0.8 km³ in the pre-plan period, the total live storage capacity of the completed projects has increased to 8.5 km³. In addition, a substantial storage quantity of over 5.4 km³ would be created on completion of projects under construction. Additional storage to the tune of over 11.0 km³ would become available on execution of projects under consideration. The hydropower potential of the basin has been assessed as 627 MW at 60% load factor.[10]
At its peak during the monsoon, the Mahanadi has a discharge rate of 2,000,000 cubic feet (57,000 m3) per second,[3] almost as much as the much larger Ganges. However owing to its seasonal nature the river is mostly a narrow channel flanked by wide sand banks for most of the year.[11]
Floods[edit]
Mahanadi River near Satkosia Tiger Reserve, Odisha
Plum-headed parakeet at Tikarpara on the bank of river Mahanadi.
The Mahanadi was notorious for its devastating floods for much of recorded history. Thus it was called 'the sorrow of Orissa'. However the construction of the Hirakud Dam has greatly altered the situation. Today a network of canals, barrages and check dams keep the river well in control. However heavy rain can still cause large scale flooding as evidenced in September, 2008 when 16 people died as the river breached its banks.
In 2011, September heavy down pour of rain caused flash flood and many mud dwellings in more than 25 villages above Hirakud Dam which were never affected before, both in Chhattisgarh and Odisha, have melted down due to back water that could not pass through the river.[12]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mahanadi River (river, India) - Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Dharmendra Nath Shastri (1973). Studies in indology. Institute of Indology. p. 146.
^ Jump up to: a b Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 16, page 431 - Imperial Gazetteer of India - Digital South Asia Library
Jump up ^ and Water Resources of India by Sharad K. Jain, Pushpendra K. Agarwal, Vijay P. Singh
Jump up ^ [1] Archived November 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.riversofindia.in/rivers-flowing-into-bay-of-bengal/mahanadi-river.htm
Jump up ^ [2] Archived November 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 16, page 432 - Imperial Gazetteer of India - Digital South Asia Library
Jump up ^ Research within Academic Books, Articles and Research Topics | Questia, Your Online Research Library
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-02-18.
Jump up ^ http://aquarians.hpage.co.in/mahanadi_54159339.html
Jump up ^ http://www.firstpost.com/politics/orissa-floods-mahanadi-flows-above-danger-mark-14-lakh-affected-81743.html
Further reading[edit]
The Imperial Gazetteer of India-William Hunter, 1901
The Encyclopædia Britannica-1911 Ed.
The Columbus Encyclopedia
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mahanadi River.
Rivers Network - Mahanadi river watersheds webmap
Odisha Govt. blamed for declining quality of river water
Mahanadi River
Kayaking on River Mahanadi
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahanadi&oldid=843033046"
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Anugul district

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Sonepur, Odisha

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Chitrakoot Falls

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Mahanadi River

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Mahendragiri, Odisha

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values: Маханади – Bulgarian

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https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Breton
br
br
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https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Catalan
ca
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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – German
de
de
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Esperanto
eo
eo
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https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Basque
eu
eu
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values: महानदी – Hindi

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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Italian
it
it
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display: none;

values: ಮಹಾನದಿ – Kannada

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https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Lithuanian
lt
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values: महानदी – Marathi

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https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Dutch
nl
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https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Norwegian Nynorsk
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https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Маханади – Russian

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https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Scots
sco
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values: Маханади – Serbian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

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https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: மகாநதி – Tamil

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
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values: มหานที – Thai

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interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Маханаді – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: دریائے مہاندی – Urdu

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

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https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi
Mahanadi – Vietnamese
vi
vi
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interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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