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Bella Swan
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Isabella Marie Swan
Twilight character
Bella Swan as portrayed by Kristen Stewart in New Moon.
First appearance
Twilight
Last appearance
Breaking Dawn
Midnight Sun (unpublished)
Created by
Stephenie Meyer
Portrayed by
Kristen Stewart
Catherine Grimme (as a child)
Information
Nickname(s)
Bella
Bells
Bell
Vampire girl (by Emily Young & Embry Call)
Arizona (in films)
Baby (by Edward Cullen)
Mom (by her daughter, Renesmee Cullen)
Species
Human (Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, Breaking Dawn)
Vampire (Breaking Dawn)
Gender
Female
Occupation
Student (through Twilight to Eclipse)
Employee at Newton's Olympic Outfitters (New Moon and Eclipse)
Edward Cullen's wife and Renesmee Cullen's mother ("Breaking Dawn")
Family
Charlie Swan (father)
Renée Swan (mother)
Geoffrey Swan (paternal grandfather; deceased)
Helen Swan (paternal grandmother;deceased)
Mr. Higginbotham (maternal grandfather; deceased)
Marie Higginbotham (maternal grandmother; deceased)
Phil Dwyer (ex-stepfather)
Sue Clearwater-Dwyer (ex-stepmother)
Seth and Leah Clearwater-Dwyer (ex-step siblings)(due to Bella's transformation)
Edward Masen, Sr. (father-in-law; deceased)
Elizabeth Masen (mother-in-law; deceased)
Carlisle Cullen (adoptive father-in-law)
Esme Cullen (adoptive mother-in-law)
Emmett Cullen and Jasper Hale (adoptive brothers-in-law)
Alice Cullen and Rosalie Hale (adoptive sisters-in-law)
Spouse(s)
Edward Cullen (husband)
Children
Renesmee Cullen (daughter)
Nationality
American
Isabella Marie "Bella" Swan (later Bella Cullen) is a character and the protagonist of the Twilight series, written by Stephenie Meyer. The Twilight series, consisting of the novels Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, is primarily narrated from Bella's point of view, but partway through Breaking Dawn it is written from the point of view of Jacob Black. In the film series, Bella is portrayed by actress Kristen Stewart.
In Twilight, Bella moves to her father's home in Forks, Washington, meets the mysterious Cullen family, and falls in love with Edward Cullen. However, she soon discovers that the family is a coven of vampires. Bella expresses a desire to become a vampire herself, but Edward refuses to "turn" her. In the second novel, New Moon, Edward and the other Cullens leave Forks in an effort to keep Bella safe from the vampire world. Jacob Black, a member of the Quileute tribe who is also a shape shifter taking a wolf form, comforts the distraught and severely depressed Bella. She comes to care deeply for Jacob, though less than she loves Edward. At the end of Eclipse, Bella becomes engaged to Edward, and they marry in Breaking Dawn. On their honeymoon, she becomes pregnant by Edward and, due to the peculiar nature of her baby, Bella nearly dies giving birth to their daughter, Renesmee Cullen. Edward turns her into a vampire to save her life.
Contents
[hide]
1 Concept and creation
2 Appearances
2.1 Twilight
2.2 New Moon
2.3 Eclipse
2.4 Breaking Dawn
3 Characterization
3.1 Physical appearance
3.2 Personality
3.3 Film portrayal
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Concept and creation[edit]
The premise for both the Bella Swan character and the Twilight series originated in a dream Stephenie Meyer had in which an "average girl" and a "fantastically beautiful, sparkly ... vampire ... were having an intense conversation in a meadow in the woods." In this dream, the pair "were discussing the difficulties inherent in the facts that ... they were falling in love with each other while ... the vampire was particularly attracted to the scent of her blood, and was having a difficult time restraining himself from killing her."[1]
Meyer's original characters were unnamed; she took to calling the characters, who would later become Edward Cullen and Bella, 'he' and 'she' for the purpose of convenience as she, "didn't want to lose the dream." The name 'Isabella' was decided upon, Meyer explains, because "after spending so much time with [the character], I loved her like a daughter. ... Inspired by that love, I gave her the name I was saving for my daughter,... Isabella."[1]
Bella's positive reception at her new school in Forks, particularly her popularity with male characters, was modelled after Meyer's real life move from high school to college.[2] Meyer has said that there are similarities between Bella and the title character of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, a novel which she has cited as an influence on the Twilight Saga.[3]
Appearances[edit]
Twilight[edit]
Bella, who first appears in Twilight, is a 17-year-old girl, who moves out from her mother's home in Phoenix, Arizona, to live with her father, Charlie Swan, a police chief, in her birthplace of Forks, Washington. There, she is enrolled at Forks High School, where she becomes intrigued by a student, Edward Cullen and his family. When Edward saves her life, he exhibits super-human qualities. Bella learns from her family friend Jacob Black that Quileute legends say the Cullen family are Cold Ones.[4] Edward eventually admits he's a vampire, though his family have what they call a "vegetarian" diet-only hunting animals.[5] Edward constantly warns Bella against being with him, perceiving her life to be at constant risk if she continues to associate with him, because the scent of her blood is more powerful to him than that of any other human he has ever met. Bella's love and confidence in Edward's restraint is such that his warnings go unheeded, and while playing baseball with the Cullen family, she becomes the target of a sadistic vampire, James. Edward is able to save Bella from James' predations, though Edward is still unwilling to change Bella into a vampire himself.[6]
New Moon[edit]
New Moon begins on Bella's eighteenth birthday. She dreams of looking much older than Edward Cullen, her boyfriend. During a birthday celebration at the Cullen residence, Bella gets a small paper cut while unwrapping a present. Edward's brother, Jasper, instinctively thirsting for her blood, attacks Bella before Edward and Emmett restrain him. In a misguided attempt to protect Bella, he moves away with his family. Edward's departure results in Bella being depressed and isolated for months.
To appease her worried father, Bella attends a movie with her school friend, Jessica. While there, she carelessly approaches a group of dangerous-looking men outside a bar, and discovers she can hear Edward's voice when her adrenaline runs high. Desperate to hear his voice again, Bella continually seeks out danger by convincing Jacob to repair two old motorcycles and teach her how to ride. Their friendship increases, and Jacob admits that he has romantic feelings for Bella, though she does not reciprocate them. When a vampire named Laurent tries to attack her, Bella is saved by a pack of wolves. Later, Bella learns that Jacob and other tribe members are shape shifters who phase into wolf form to protect humans from vampires. Bella also discovers that the vampire, Victoria, has returned to Forks, seeking to kill Bella to avenge her mate, James' death.
To hear Edward's voice, Bella attempts cliff jumping and nearly drowns, but she is saved by Jacob. Edward, after mistakenly being informed that Bella has committed suicide, travels to Volterra, Italy, to request the Volturi to destroy him. Alice returns to Forks and discovers Bella is still alive, and the funeral she envisioned was really Harry Clearwater's funeral after his death from a heart attack. Alice and Bella pursue Edward to Italy and successfully prevent him from showing himself in daylight to humans, an act that would result in his execution. The trio are taken to the Volturi. Because Bella knows about vampires, the Volturi would either killer her or have her become a vampire herself. Alice shows Aro a vision of Bella and Edward as vampires, and they're free to leave. Upon returning home, Edward tells Bella that he never stopped loving her, and he only left Forks, because he thought it would protect her. Edward promises to never leave Bella's side ever again. Bella, intent on becoming a vampire, decides that Edward's family should vote on her fate. Only Rosalie and Edward say no, but Edward agrees to change her himself if she will marry him.[7]
Eclipse[edit]
Eclipse continues the drama of Bella and Edward's relationship. Edward explains that he is reluctant to change Bella into a vampire, because he believes that vampires are soulless creatures, who have no place in heaven. Bella, whose opinion of marriage is jaded by her own parents' early divorce, agrees to marry Edward on the condition that he will make love to her while she is still human and then turn her into a vampire. Edward initially refuses, saying that he could easily lose control in the heat of the moment and unintentionally kill her. He also reminds Bella that he's from another era, where relationships had fewer complications, and agrees to make love to her after marrying her.
The plot is driven by the machinations of the vampire Victoria, who first encountered Bella and the Cullens during the first novel, Twilight. Victoria, seeking to avenge her lover, James' death, hunts Bella while building a new vampire army. To combat this threat, a reluctant truce is struck between the Cullen family, and the shape shifting wolf pack led by Sam Uley and Jacob Black, who pits himself against Edward as a love interest for Bella. Bella considers Jacob only as a friend, but despite her engagement to Edward, she shares a kiss with him, and realizes that she loves him, too, but loves Edward more. Bella acknowledges that Edward is the most important person in her life, and knows she has to tell her father.[8]
Breaking Dawn[edit]
Breaking Dawn begins with the wedding of Bella and Edward at the Cullen home. They spend their honeymoon on Isle Esme, a small island off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil that was given to Esme as a gift from Carlisle. They make love, but their lovemaking sparks a conflict between the newlywed couple: Edward is horrified that he has bruised Bella, but she insists that she is fine and wants Edward to make love to her again. Although he vows not to do so again while she is still human, he eventually gives in.
Two weeks later, Bella becomes very sick, and realizes that she is pregnant. Edward is shocked and rushes Bella home to see Carlisle, who is a doctor. He confirms that she's pregnant, and Bella's health deteriorates from the baby's accelerated growth. Edward tries to talk her into having an abortion to save her own life. Bella refuses, and asks Rosalie to act as her bodyguard, as she feels a bond with her unborn child, and insists on giving birth. Soon, Edward comes to love the baby as well, after he hears its thoughts, and learns that the baby loves Bella in return, and doesn't mean to hurt her.
Bella undergoes a cesarean section, and nearly dies, but Edward successfully delivers their daughter, Renesmee. He then uses a special needle to inject his venom into Bella's heart, and bites her neck, arms, and legs. During Bella's transformation, Jacob imprints —an involuntary process in which a shape-shifter finds his soulmate — on their baby, Renesmee Cullen.
After a vampire named Irina mistakes Renesmee for an immortal vampire child (a creation that is forbidden in the vampire world), Alice foresees the Volturi will arrive to destroy the Cullen family as punishment for the alleged transgression. The Cullen family find witnesses to observe the mortality of Renesmee. Bella learns she's a shield and learns to shield people from other's mental thoughts and senses. Edward stands with Bella and their allies to convince the Volturi that Renesmee is not an immortal child, and poses no threat to their existence. Once the Volturi leave, Edward and Bella are finally free to live their lives in peace with their daughter forever.[9]
Characterization[edit]
Physical appearance[edit]
Bella is describes as being petite, with a height of roughly 5'4", and a very translucent, frail complexion. She has thick long, wavy brown hair with a wide forehead, and a widows peak. Her eyes are described as being "chocolate brown" and widely spaced. She has a small thin nose, prominent cheekbones, lips a bit too full for her slim jawline, and thin eyebrows that are straighter than they are arched.
The scent of her O negative blood is incredibly attractive to vampires, described by Bree Tanner to be the "sweetest scent she'd ever smelled", though it is a thousand times more intense to Edward Cullen.
As for distinguishing features, Bella has a small crescent-shaped scar on her hand where she was bitten by James, a tracker vampire, in Twilight. The scar is described as being pale, always a few degrees colder than the rest of her body, and it shines like a vampire's skin when exposed to the sunlight. After Bella is changed into a vampire by Edward, she becomes extremely beautiful with even paler skin, straight waist-length hair, and crimson red eyes that will eventually turn gold after months of drinking animal blood. Her features are also heightened and perfected by the transformation.
Bella wears plain shirts and jeans everywhere she goes, as she lacks care in her appearance.
Personality[edit]
Bella is described as being clumsy, having a weak constitution, being nonathletic and hating anything physical. Bella is also described as a reclusive loner, shy, quiet, insecure, and very sensitive. She also cares for the rest of the Cullen family, her father and mother Charlie and Renée Swan, and her friend Jacob Black. She has a tendency to underestimate the people around her mainly because of her concerns for their safety.
Having learned to take care of her mother over the years and being naturally responsible, Bella had developed into a very mature person, especially for her age. Because she lacks any skill in anything noticeable or redeeming as a human, she mostly prefers to spend her free time reading classics from school.
When it comes to fashion, Bella isn't a girly girl. She hates dressing up, saying that makeup "is a pain" and that she feels uncomfortable in impractical, elegant clothes; however, Alice doesn't care what Bella thinks and continues to persuade her to dress up and look glamorous. She isn't materialistic and doesn't like spending money on luxurious items, as she stated to Edward in New Moon 'not to spend a dime on my birthday,' and that fast cars are unnecessary, saying that Edward gave her himself and anything else he gives her would throw their relationship off balance. She hates being singled out, and doesn't like her birthday being celebrated. She also has very negative views on teen marriage due to her parents' early experience, but learns to overcome them later.
She is an extremely private person who keeps her thoughts and feelings to herself and hates when someone tries to understand her, which is thought to be why Edward is unable to hear her thoughts. She is also known to be incredibly stubborn with her self, because of her determination to become a vampire in order to be with Edward forever. She is also said to possess poor acting skills. Ironically, she demonstrates good acting ability in Twilight when she makes her father and mother believe that she has dumped Edward and is leaving Forks as well as broke her parents' heart. She is a very shy and timid girl with a stiff uptight position, habit of biting her lip, which she shares with Kristen Stewart. Bella knits together her eyebrows when feeling strong emotions such as anxiety. As a human, Bella easily fainted at the sight or smell of blood, which she said smells like rust and salt in Twilight, though it changes after she became a vampire. Bella is also shown in Breaking Dawn, to have a good mood climate, and is able to run away from the smell of human blood when she goes on her first hunting trip as a vampire.
Bella has a sarcastic sense of humor, especially when she gets mad; Bella is almost always a very soft and forgiving person who is hard to anger. She is easily scared but can be surprisingly very brave, able to block painful thoughts and memories (hence her special vampire ability), and tends to come face-to-face with life-threatening danger head-on, even though she can get scared later. She puts Edward before herself and everybody and everything else, but several 'selfish' tendencies emerge (as when she asked Edward to stay with her instead of fighting vampires in Eclipse). Meyer has stated that Bella's "tragic flaw" in Eclipse is her lack of self-knowledge. This is most obviously illustrated in her consistent denial of any romantic feelings for Jacob Black, despite the fact that she later realizes that she is, indeed, in love with him.
Bella is also a very bad liar except to herself. According to Eclipse, Jacob and Edward saying that she's a terrible liar, are evidence to this. Besides, she also admits this throughout the whole saga, though she seemingly manages to lie to herself about her romantic feelings for Jacob.
In contrary to her fearful demeanor, Bella, according to Edward in Midnight Sun, has no sense of fear when she finds out Edward is a vampire. Instead of running away, as she should have, she decides to ask lots of questions with extreme curiosity. This makes Edward believe that it is not bad luck that follows her around, but that she has no sense of self-preservation. Bella isn't very rational nor sensible as she lacks common sense and street intelligence.
She hates anything cold and wet, even snow, which is why she initially hated to live in Forks. However, after meeting Edward, she found the town much more comfortable, even calling it "home". As a vampire, she also dislikes the idea of feeding on humans, but is glad to have found the strength she needed to protect her loved ones.
Bella inherited her mother's high perceptiveness after her mother and father remain somewhat in love with each other and stay married to each other instead of divorce to some degree, as she was able to guess Edward was a mind reader, the first human to do so. However, she was not able to guess that Edward was in love with her.
After being turned into a vampire, she describes having a much clearer view of the world. She is also very self-controlled, being able to ignore the scent of human blood on her first hunting trip. Bella's private mind that was able to repel some vampires' mental abilities while she was human evolved after she became a vampire; her skill strengthened, allowing her to shield herself and those around her from other vampires' mental gifts. By the end of Breaking Dawn, she is able to cast the shield away from herself. She is also described by Edward as "very graceful", even for a vampire, in comparison to her earlier clumsiness.
Film portrayal[edit]
In the film adaptations, Bella is portrayed by actress Kristen Stewart.[10] Meyer stated that she was "very excited" to see Stewart play the part and that she was "thrilled to have a Bella who has practice [in a vast array of film genres]", since, according to Meyer, Twilight has moments that fit into many genres.[11] Stewart wears contact lenses in the films in order to achieve a chocolate brown eye color as described in the books. Despite that exception, Stewart and Bella are very similar in personality, both reserved and inexpressive.
Reception[edit]
Bella has received a generally negative reception from critics. Publishers Weekly states that, after her transformation into a vampire, "it's almost impossible to identify with her" in Breaking Dawn.[12] Lilah Lohr of the Chicago Tribune compares Bella's character to the story of the Quileute wolves and describes it as "less satisfying."[13] During Twilight, Kirkus Reviews stated that "Bella's appeal is based on magic rather than character", but that her and Edward's "portrayal of dangerous lovers hits the spot".[14] In the review of New Moon, Kirkus Reviews said that Bella's personality was "flat and obsessive".[15] Laura Miller of salon.com said, in regards to Edward and Bella, "neither of them has much personality to speak of."[16] Entertainment Weekly's Jennifer Reese, in her review of Breaking Dawn noted, in regard to Bella, "You may wish she had loftier goals and a mind of her own, but these are fairy tales, and as a steadfast lover in the Disney Princess mold, Bella has a certain saccharine appeal", and that during Bella's pregnancy "she is not only hard to identify with but positively horrifying, especially while guzzling human blood to nourish the infant."[17] Washington Post journalist Elizabeth Hand noted how Bella was often described as breakable and that "Edward's habit of constantly pulling her onto his lap or having her ride on his back further emphasize her childlike qualities", continuing to write that "the overall effect is a weird infantilization that has repellent overtones to an adult reader and hardly seems like an admirable model to foist upon our daughters (or sons)."[18] Gina Dalfonzo, in an article posted on the National Review website, calls Bella "self-deprecating" before her transformation into a vampire, and afterwards she is "insufferably vain".[19] Dalfonzo also states that Bella gets what she wants and discovers her worth "by giving up her identity and throwing away nearly everything in life that matters."[19] Bella Swan was often compared to Katniss Everdeen on the publication of The Hunger Games.[20]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Story Behind Twilight". Stepheniemeyer.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
Jump up ^ "Bella's Move to Another High School". Stepheniemeyer.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
Jump up ^ Karen Valby (November 5, 2008). "Stephenie Meyer: 12 of My 'Twilight' Inspirations". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie (2005). Twilight. Park Avenue, New York City, United States of America: Little, Brown. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-316-01584-4. Blood drinkers," he replied in a chilling voice. "Your people call them vampires.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie (2005). Twilight. Park Avenue, New York City, United States of America: Little, Brown. p. 337. ISBN 978-0-316-01584-4. One night, a herd of deer passed his hiding place. He was so wild with thirst, that he attacked without thought. His strength returned and he realized there was an alternative to being the vile monster he feared.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie (2005). Twilight. Park Avenue, New York City, United States of America: Little, Brown. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-316-01584-4. Exactly", he [Edward] snapped. "And I won't end it [life] for you [Bella].
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie. (2006) New Moon. 563pp.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie. (2007) Eclipse. 629pp.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Stephenie. (2008) Breaking Dawn. 756pp.
Jump up ^ "Kristen Stewart chosen". MTV. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Excitement Towards Stewart's role". Stephenie Meyer. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Breaking Dawn: Stephenie Meyer, Author". Publisher's Weekly.
Jump up ^ "Chicago Tribune Breaking Dawn review". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on August 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Twilight at Kirkus Reviews". Kirkus Reviews. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
Jump up ^ "New Moon at Kirkus Reviews". Kirkus Reviews. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Twilight series at salon.com". Salon.com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Entertainment Weekly Breaking Dawn review". Entertainment Weekly. 2008-08-08. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
Jump up ^ Hand, Elizabeth (2008-08-10). "Washington Post Review". Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "National Review". National Review. Archived from the original on 26 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-22.
Jump up ^ Firestone, Amanda (2012). "Apples to Oranges". Of bread, blood, and the Hunger Games : critical essays on the Suzanne Collins trilogy. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., Publishers. p. 209. ISBN 9780786470198.
External links[edit]
Twilight portal
Novels portal
Stephenie Meyer - Official Website
Bella Swan on Facebook
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The Song of Roland
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For the 1978 film starring Klaus Kinski, see The Song of Roland (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The eight phases of The Song of Roland in one picture.
The Song of Roland (French: La Chanson de Roland) is an epic poem (Chanson de geste) based on the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French literature and exists in various manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries.
The date of composition is put in the period between 1040 and 1115: an early version beginning around 1040 with additions and alterations made up until about 1115. The final text has about 4,000 lines of poetry. The epic poem is the first[1] and, along with The Poem of the Cid, one of the most outstanding examples of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the 11th and 15th centuries and celebrated legendary deeds.
Contents
[hide]
1 Manuscripts and dating
2 Critical opinions
2.1 Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions
3 Plot
4 Form
5 Characters
5.1 Principal characters
5.2 Secondary characters
6 Durandal
7 Historical adaptations
8 Modern adaptations
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Further reading
12 External links
Manuscripts and dating[edit]
Set in the Carolingian era, it was written much later. There are nine extant manuscripts of the Song of Roland in Old French. The oldest of these manuscripts is held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman.[2]
Scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold, between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so on grounds of what they interpret as brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade.
In the poem, the term d'oltre mer or l'oltremarin comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from oltre mer to fight in Spain and France. Oltre mer, modern French Outremer, literally "oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots ultra = "beyond" and mare = "sea". The name was commonly used by the Crusaders to refer to Palestine.[citation needed]
The occurrence of this term in the poem cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades in the poem; on the contrary, the way it is used in the poem, in which it is simply a Muslim land, indicates that the author of the poem was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before the Crusades began meaning the far side of the Mediterranean Sea. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started.
After two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837.[3]
Critical opinions[edit]
Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions[edit]
Scholarly consensus has long accepted that the Song of Roland differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions.
Early editors of the Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is clearly expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes,[4] "[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic".
Plot[edit]
The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux, from an illuminated manuscript c.1455–1460.
Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa, held by the Muslim King Marsile. Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin, who councils him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to France.
Charlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears to be murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter France through the mountain passes.
As Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to "elephant", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to France. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them.
The Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise.
When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro, where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant, the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in France.
The Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal.
Ganelon's friend Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat. By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged.
Form[edit]
Charlemagne finds Roland dead (14th-century miniature).
The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza.
On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant.[5] Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel.
The narrator gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive.
The narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad.
The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.
Characters[edit]
Principal characters[edit]
Andriodos, helpless boy; despite the honor came from King Charlemagne.
Baligant, emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne.
Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism
Bassalt, came from the name of rocks that are solid and may occur in the second phrase of the poem; captured the horse of the king.
Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, King Marsile's wife; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls.
Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.
Ganelon, treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French army.
King Marsile, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.
Naimon, Charlemagne's trusted adviser.
Oliver, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom.
Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; bursts his temples by blowing his olifant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies facing the enemy's land.
Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, represents the force of the Church.
Secondary characters[edit]
Aude, the fiancée of Roland and Oliver's sister
Basan, French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile.
Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile’s troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne.
Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered.
Geboin, guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.
Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne’s defender against Pinabel.
Grandoyne, fighter on Marsile’s side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.
Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.
Lorant, French commander of one of the first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.
Milon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Ogier, a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.
Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.
Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.
Durandal[edit]
According to the Song of Roland, this legendary sword was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th century legend from the French town of Rocamadour, Roland threw the sword into a cliffside. You can still see the sword embedded into the cliff-face.
Historical adaptations[edit]
A Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as "The Pseudo-Turpin") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe[5] (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century.
It was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of Ronsasvals, which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagnús saga, and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando Furioso, which deals largely with characters first described in the Song of Roland.
There is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named "Runtsivalstríðið" (Battle of Roncevaux).[6] The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing.
Modern adaptations[edit]
The Chanson de Roland has an important place in the background of Graham Greene's The Confidential Agent. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of "Roland". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: "Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne – but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge – because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves – the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics".[7]
It is also adapted by Stephen King, in the Dark Tower series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King.
The Song of Roland is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain), and related to Orlando Furioso. The names Roland and Orlando are cognates.
Emanuelle Luzzati’s animated short film, I paladini di Francia, together with Giulio Gianini, in 1960, was turned into the children’s picture-story book, with verse narrative, I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz, which translates literally as “The Paladins of France or the treachery of Gano of Maganz” (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as Ronald and the Wizard Calico (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books.
Luzatti’s original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore – White Flower, or Blanchefleur – and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins – the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors – North African Muslims and Arabs – and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland’s cowardly step-father, is Ganelon – very likely the inspiration for Luzzati’s traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando’s cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff.
On July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel ″The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland," inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screen play written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as "Song of Roland" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066. [8]
See also[edit]
La Brèche de Roland
Matter of France
Herzog Ernst
Lamprecht
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Song of Roland". FordhamUniversity.edu. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
Jump up ^ Short, Ian (1990). Introduction. France: Le Livre de Poche. pp. 5–20.
Jump up ^ Gaunt, Simon; Pratt, Karen (2016). The Song of Roland, and Other Poems of Charlemagne (1st ed.). New York, NY 10016, United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-19-965554-0. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Taylor, Andrew, "Was There a Song of Roland?" Speculum 76 (January 2001): 28-65
^ Jump up to: a b Brault, Gerard J., Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary, Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 9780271039145
Jump up ^ Part of Runtsivalstríðið with Dansifelagið í Havn [1]
Jump up ^ "The Confidential Agent", Part 1, Ch. 2, quoted in "Graham Greene: an approach to the novels" by Robert Hoskins, p. 122 [2]
Jump up ^ Author's Notes, The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland, iUniverse, July 2017 (http://www.iuniverse.com/Bookstore/BookDetail.aspx?BookId=SKU-000995830)
Further reading[edit]
Brault, Gerard J. Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary (Penn State Press, 2010).
DiVanna, Isabel N. "Politicizing national literature: the scholarly debate around La chanson de Roland in the nineteenth century." Historical Research 84.223 (2011): 109-134.
Jones, George Fenwick. The ethos of the song of Roland (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963).
Vance, Eugene. Reading the Song of Roland (1970).
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Song of Roland
French Wikisource has original text related to this article:
La Chanson de Roland
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Song of Roland
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chanson de Roland.
The Song of Roland at Project Gutenberg (English translation of Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff)
The Song of Roland--(Dorothy L. Sayers) at Faded Page (Canada)
The Song of Roland public domain audiobook at LibriVox
La Chanson de Roland (Old French)
The Romance of the Middle Ages: The Song of Roland, discussion of Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23, audio clip, and discussion of the manuscript's provenance.
Earliest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland, readable online images of the complete original, Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23 (Pt 2) La Chanson de Roland, in Anglo-Norman, 12th century, ? 2nd quarter".
Old French Audio clips of a reading of The Song of Roland in Old French
Timeless Myths: Song of Roland
"Roland, The Song of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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California Smog Check Program
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The American flag stands against the backdrop of a smoggy Los Angeles in 1972. The California Smog Check Program is an attempt to reduce smog in California.
The California Smog Check Program requires vehicles that were manufactured in 1976 or later to participate in the biennial (every two years) smog check program in participating counties.[1] The program’s stated aim is to reduce air pollution from vehicles by ensuring that cars with excessive emissions are repaired in accordance with federal and state guidelines. With some exceptions, gasoline-powered vehicles that are six years old or newer are not required to participate; instead, these vehicles pay a smog abatement fee for the first 6 years in place of being required to pass a smog check. The six-year exception does not apply to nonresident (previously registered out-of-state) vehicles being registered in California for the first time, diesel vehicles 1998 model or newer and weighing 14,000 lbs or less,[2][3] or specially constructed vehicles 1976 and newer.[3] The program is a joint effort between the California Air Resources Board, the California Bureau of Automotive Repair, and the California Department of Motor Vehicles.
A Smog Check is not required for electric, diesel powered manufactured before 1998 or weighing over 14,000 lbs, trailers, motorcycles, or gasoline powered vehicles 1975 or older.[4] In April 2015, hybrid vehicles became subject to smog check requirements.[5]
Although vehicles 1975 and older are not required to get a smog check, owners of these vehicles must still ensure that their emissions systems are intact.[citation needed]
Anyone wishing to sell a vehicle that is over four years old must first have a smog check performed. It is the seller’s responsibility to get the smog certificate prior to the sale. If the vehicle is registered in California and was acquired from a spouse, domestic partner, sibling, child, parent, grandparent, or grandchild it is exempt.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 California's history with smog
1.1 Impact on human health
1.2 Impact on global warming
2 Causes of smog
2.1 Topography
3 History of the Smog Check Program
4 Smog check process
5 Policy tools
6 Evaluation
7 References
8 External links
California's history with smog[edit]
According to the California EPA, "Californians set the pace nationwide in their love affair with cars".[6] The state’s 34 million residents own approximately 25 million cars—one for every adult aged 18 years or older.[6]
Smog is created when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbon gases (HC) are exposed to sunlight.[7] The five gasses monitored during a smog check are Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Oxygen (O2).[7]
Impact on human health[edit]
In 1998 the Air Resource Board identified diesel particulate matter as carcinogenic. Further research revealed that it can cause life-shortening health problems such as respiratory illness, heart problems, asthma, and cancer. Diesel particulate matter is the most common airborne toxin that Californians breathe.[6]
Between 2005 and 2007 air pollution led to almost 30,000 hospital and emergency room visits in California for asthma, pneumonia, and other respiratory and cardiovascular ailments.[8] A study by RAND Corporation showed the cost to the state, federal and private health insurers was over $193 million in hospital-based medical care. John Romley lead author of the study. said "California's failure to meet air pollution standards causes a large amount of expensive hospital care."[9] According to the American Lung Association, California’s dirty air causes 19,000 premature deaths, 9,400 hospitalizations and more than 300,000 respiratory illnesses including asthma and acute bronchitis.[10]
A study of children living in Southern California found that smog can cause asthma.[11] The study of over 3,000 children showed those living in high-smog areas were more likely to develop asthma if they were avid athletes, when compared to children who did not participate in sports.[11]
More people in California live in areas that do not meet federal clean air standards than in any other state.[9] A report by the American Lung Association states that some areas in California are the most polluted in the United States, with air quality that is likely damaging the health of millions of people.[12] The report finds that Los Angeles, Bakersfield (CA), and Visalia-Porterville (CA) rank among the five U.S. cities most polluted with particulates and ozone.[12]
Impact on global warming[edit]
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that is associated with global warming. Vehicles are a significant source of CO2 emissions and thus contribute to global warming.[13] According to an advocacy group Environmental Defense, in 2004, automobiles from the three largest automakers in the US – Ford, GM, and DaimlerChrysler – contributed CO2 emissions that were comparable to those from the top 11 electric companies.[13]
Historically, California was hottest in July and August, but as climate change takes place, the temperature may be extended from July through September, according to a report from the team established by the Air Resource Board. Some climate change simulations indicate the global warming impact on California will be an increase in the frequency of hot daytime and nighttime temperatures. The climate change simulations also indicate that drying in the Sacramento area may be evident by the mid 21st century.[14] The California sea level has risen at about 7 inches per century, but this trend could change with global warming. According to the report by the Climate Action Team, “[t]he sea-level rise projections in the 2008 Impacts Assessment indicate that the rate and total sea-level rise in future decades may increase substantially above the recent historical rates”.[14] While all sectors are vulnerable to rising sea-levels, 70 percent of those at risk are residential areas.[14] Hospitals, schools, water treatment plants, and other buildings may be at risk of flooding.[14]
Climate change may also affect California’s diverse agricultural sector, since it is likely to change precipitation, temperature averages, pest and weed ranges, and the length of the growing season (this affecting crop productivity). In one study, researchers looked at the possible effects on the agricultural sector in the US and identified some possible effects. Results suggested that climate change will decrease annual crop yields in the long-term, especially for cotton.[14]
Climate change in California could also impact energy consumption. Demand patterns for electricity might be affected as the mean temperatures and the frequency of hot days increases, increasing demand for cooling in summertime.[14]
Causes of smog[edit]
Air pollution has two primary sources,[citation needed] biogenic and anthropogenic. Biogenic sources are natural sources, such as volcanoes that spew particulate matter, lightning strikes that cause forest fires, and trees and other vegetation that release pollen and spores into the atmosphere.[15]
Californian greenhouse gas emissions come mostly from transportation, utilities, and industries including refineries, cement, manufacturing, forestry, and agriculture.[14] In 2004, transportation accounted for approximately 40 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in California.[14] About 80 percent of that came from road transportation.[14]
Population growth increases air pollution, as more vehicles are on the road. California’s large population significantly contributes to the high amount of smog and air pollution in the state.[citation needed] In 1930, California’s population was less than six million people and the total registered vehicles were two million.[16]
Topography[edit]
California has a unique topography[citation needed] which contributes to some of the problems[citation needed]; the warm, sunny climate is ideal for trapping and forming air pollutants[citation needed]. On hot, sunny days, pollutants from vehicles, industry, and many products may chemically react with each other. In the winter, temperature inversions can trap tiny particles of smoke and exhaust from vehicles and anything else that burns fuel. This keeps pollution closer to the ground.[17]
History of the Smog Check Program[edit]
The first “Smog Check” program was implemented in March 1984. It came about as a result of "SB 33" which was passed in 1982. The program included a biennial and change of ownership testing, "BAR 84" idle emissions test plus a visual and functional inspection of various emission control components, a $50 repair cost limit, licensing shops to perform smog checks and mechanic certification for emissions repair competence.[18] The program is generally known as “BAR 84” program. During the BAR 84 program, the first acceleration simulation mode (ASM) test was implemented which tests for 2 gases, HC and CO (hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide).
Motor vehicles from the 1966 model year and beyond were subjected to Smog Check I. Also automobiles with a motor swap performed prior to the March 19, 1984 mandate which was older than the model year of the vehicle e.g. a 1970 LT-1 350 swapped into a 1975 Chevrolet with the 1970 smog gear intact (with documentation e.g. receipts) are considered noncompliant illegal engine swaps including nonstock exhaust swaps e.g. dual catalytic converters with a true dual exhaust not original to the vehicle - this means that the engine swap performed after the date of enactment must be the same model year or newer. Engine swaps which are the same year or newer where the vehicle class did not have it as a manufacturer option (from a Chevrolet S-10 with a late model LSx powertrain transplant with the associated smog gear intact salvaged from the donor vehicle which includes the OBDII diagnostic connections and associated exhaust system with the catalytic converter attached including the secondary downstream oxygen sensor (catalytic converter must be California legal which has a serial number and build date mandated under California state law) must be approved by a 'referee' smog test station where the engine/transmission package is certified where a silver tag is stickered to the door jamb. Although the engine may be newer than the vehicle model year even with an OBDII upgrade the automobile must be tested based on the model year using the test criteria based on the VIN and registration. This means that even with an OBDII powertrain upgrade regardless of the engine swap being 1996 and newer, the vehicle being smogged must be tested using BAR97 criteria, not the OBDII standard procedure.
In 1997 important laws were passed that made significant changes to Smog Check II.[18]
AB 57 created a financial assistance program.
AB 208 provided funding for low-income assistance and vehicle retirement
AB 1492 exempted vehicles less than four years old from the biennial smog check
AB 42 exempted vehicles manufactured before 1974 from smog check testing. Also required that vehicles 30 years old or older be exempt from the Smog Check program starting in 2004. AB 42 established a brief rolling chassis exemption until it was repealed in 2006 where 1976 and newer vehicles were subjected to emission testing.
In 1999, “AB 1105” made additional changes to the program. It authorized but did not require the Bureau of Automotive Repairs (BAR) to exempt vehicles up to six years old from the biennial smog check and gave the agency authorization to except additional vehicles by low-emitter profiling (Schwartz). It also created additional changes to the repair assistance program and provided BAR with increased flexibility for how much to pay drivers whose vehicle failed the smog check so that the vehicle may be scrapped.[18]
In 2010 the Air Resource Board and the Bureau of Automotive Repair jointly sponsored legislation, "AB 2289", that is designed to improve the program to reduce air pollution through “the use of new technologies that provide considerable time and cost savings to consumers while at the same time improving consumer protections by adopting more stringent fine structures to respond to stations and technicians that perform improper and incomplete inspections”.[19] The bill, which passed and took effect in 2013, will allow for a major upgrade in technologies used to test vehicle emissions. According to ARB Chairman, Mary D. Nichols, “[t]his new and improved program will have the same result as taking 800,000 vehicles away from California residents, also resulting in a more cost effective program for California motorists”.[19] One way the program would reduce costs is by taking advantage of on-board diagnostic (OBDII) technology that has been installed on new vehicles since 1996. The program will eliminate tailpipe testing of post-1999 vehicles and instead use the vehicle’s own emissions monitoring systems. This system has saved consumers in 22 states time and money.[19] Vehicles manufactured in the model years between 1976 and 1999 are now required to pass a more stringent dynamometer-based tail-pipe test than was previously required.[20][21] A high number of vehicles in this range have begun to fail the emissions test with the arrival of their first test-year under the new rule; some question the influence of the automotive industry on the new rule and the inherent push and perceived unfair requirement to purchase a new or near-new vehicle to replace an otherwise functional and OBDII compliant vehicle.[22][23]
Smog check process[edit]
The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) sends a registration renewal notice which indicates if a smog check is required. If the DMV requires a smog check for a vehicle, the owner must comply with the notice within 90 days and provide a completed smog check certificate.[4] Until a smog certificate can be provided registration will not be renewed. If the vehicle fails the smog check, the owner will be required to complete all necessary repairs and pass a smog check retest in order to complete the registration. If the costs of repairing the vehicle outweigh its value, the state may buy it and have it scrapped. The buyback program is part of California’s Consumer Assistance Program (CAP) that also offers consumer assistance for repairs related to smog check. The program is administered by the Bureau of Automotive Repair.[4]
Policy tools[edit]
Air is susceptible to the Tragedy of the Commons, but that can be overcome with policy tools.[24] In their book Environmental Law and Policy, Salzman and Thompson describe these policy tools as the "5 P’s" - Prescriptive Regulation, Property Rights, Penalties, Payments, and Persuasion.[24]
Throughout the years there have been some tensions between the US EPA and the California EPA with disagreements centered on California’s Smog Check Policy (The Press-Enterprise, 1997). One disagreement has been over where smog checks are performed. The EPA believes that smog checks and smog repairs must be done separately, to avoid conflicts of interest.[25]
For years, California has been asking the US EPA to approve a waiver allowing it to enforce its own greenhouse gas emission standards for new motor vehicles. A request was made in December 2005, but denied in March 2008 under the Bush administration, when interpretations of the Clean Air Act found California did not have the need for special emission standards.[26] However, shortly after taking office, president Obama asked the EPA to assess if it was appropriate to deny the waiver and subsequently allowed the waiver. US EPA’s interpretation of the Clean Air Act allows California to have its own vehicle emissions program and set greenhouse gas standards due to the state’s unique need.[26]
Car manufacturers have been strongly opposed to the emission standards set by California, arguing that regulation imposes further costs on consumers. In 2004, California approved the world’s most stringent standards to reduce auto emissions, and the auto industry threatened to challenge the regulations in court. The new regulations required car makers to cut exhaust from cars and light trucks by 25% and from larger trucks and SUVs by 18%, standards that must be met by 2016.[27] The auto industry argued that California’s Air Resource Board did not have the authority to adopt such regulation and that the new standards could not be met with the current technology. They further argued that it would raise vehicle costs by as much as $3,000. The agency, however, countered that argument by saying that the additional costs would only be about $1,000 by 2016.[27]
The Obama administration has proposed setting a national standard for greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles, which could potentially increase fuel efficiency by an average of 5% per year from 2012 to 2016.[28]
Evaluation[edit]
According to the California Air Resources Board, the California Smog Check program removes about 400 tons of smog-forming pollutants from California’s air every day.[29]
On March 12, 2009, the Bureau of Automotive Repair and the Air Resource Board hired Sierra Research, Inc. to analyze the data collected in the BAR’s Roadside Inspection Program to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check Program from data collected in 2003–2006. Under the Roadside Inspection Program vehicles are randomly inspected at checkpoints set up by the California Highway Patrol (CHP). One objective of the evaluation was to compare the post smog check performance of pre-1996 (1974–1995) vehicles to the post smog check performance determined from a previous evaluation collected in 2000–2002.[30] The report made several recommendations to reduce the number of vehicles failing the Roadside test. One was to develop a method for evaluating station performance. The other was to perform inspections immediately following certifications at smog check stations. Finally, the report recommended continued use of the Roadside test to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check program.[31]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.dmv.ca.gov/vr/smogfaq.htm#BM2539
Jump up ^ "Ca. Dept. of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Automotive Repair: Vehicles Subject to Smog Check" (PDF). bar.ca.gov. 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2012-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "State of California Laws and Regulations Sec. 44011(a)(1)(C)" (PDF). bar.ca.gov. 2012-01-01. p. 94. Retrieved 2012-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d [1]
Jump up ^ "Hybrid Vehicle Exempted From Initial Smog Check". www.bar.ca.gov. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Air Resources Board: The History of California Environmental Protection Agency". Calepa.ca.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-03-21. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b DK. "Smog Check Coupon: smog check repair, smog check test only, California smog test and repair". SmogSearch.com. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ Shevory, Kristina (2010-03-12). "Health Costs of California Air Pollution - NYTimes.com". Green.blogs.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dirty Air in California Caused $193 Million in Hospital-Based Medical Costs During 2005 to 2007". RAND. 2010-09-27. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Despite Improvements, California Has Some of the Dirtiest Air in the Nation - American Lung Association". American Lung Association. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Smog linked to asthma in children". Usatoday.Com. 2002-02-01. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Air Pollution High in California Cities". Webmd.com. 2009-04-29. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b staff (2006-06-28). "U.S. Emits Nearly Half World's Automotive Carbon Dioxide". Ens-newswire.com. Retrieved 2011-05-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Climate Action Team Biennial Report, Draft Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Air Pollution - Sources of Pollutants in the Ambient Air | Air Pollution Control Orientation Course | Air & Radiation | US EPA". Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Key Events in the History or Air Quality in California". Arb.ca.gov. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Education: All About Smog - Air Pollution Problems". Arb.ca.gov. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c http://www.feat.biochem.du.edu/assets/reports/CA%20IMRC%20Report/IMRC20000619Part1.PDF
^ Jump up to: a b c http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/2010/SmogCheck.pdf
Jump up ^ "SMOG CHECK REQUIREMENTS BY VEHICLE TYPE" BAR Rev. 11/14 /2014 http://www.bar.ca.gov/pdf/Smog_Check_Requirements_by_Vehicle_Type.pdf
Jump up ^ "Smog Check Fact Sheet" http://www.smogcheck.ca.gov/FormsPubs/Fact_Sheets_and_Brochures/Program_Areas.html
Jump up ^ "Warning; new California smog law" alfabb.com last accessed 11/29/2014 http://www.alfabb.com/bb/forums/spider-1966-up/335922-warning-new-california-smog-law.html
Jump up ^ "Failed CA SMOG - Help please" bangshift.com last accessed 11/29/2014 http://www.bangshift.com/forum/forum/bangshift/tech-section/948359-failed-ca-smog-help-please
^ Jump up to: a b Salzman, James; Thompson, Barton H. (2010). Environmental Law and Policy. Foundation Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-59941-771-4.
Jump up ^ "A Day of Action – Smog Checks". The Orange County Register
^ Jump up to: a b "06/30/2009: EPA Grants California GHG Waiver". Yosemite.epa.gov. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "California OKs toughest car emission rules". Green Machines. NBCNews.com. Associate Press. September 24, 2004. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
Jump up ^ "Obama's Remarks on New Car Emissions Rules - Auto Industry Tracker - WSJ". Blogs.wsj.com. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Things You Should Know About Smog Check in California". Autorepair.ca.gov. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
Jump up ^ http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/smogcheck/march09/roadsidereport.pdf
Jump up ^ Evaluation of the California smog check program using random roadside data (PDF), retrieved 2011-04-30
External links[edit]
Official California Smog Check Program website
California DMV Smog Requirements
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Enoch (son of Cain)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Enoch
Depiction of Cain establishing the city of Enoch, by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.
Children
seventy-seven
Parent(s)
Awan and Cain
According to the Book of Genesis, Enoch (/ˈiːnək/; Hebrew: חֲנוֹך; Ḥanōḵ) was a son of Cain, and father of Irad. After Cain arrived in the Land of Nod, to which he was evicted by the Lord as his punishment for murdering his brother Abel, his wife became pregnant and bore Cain's first child, whom he named Enoch.
This Enoch is not to be confused with Enoch, son of Jared, to whom the authorship of the Book of Enoch is ascribed.
After the birth of Enoch, the Hebrew text of Genesis 4:17 is unclear. Either Cain built a city and named it after Enoch, or else Enoch built a city.[1]
According to Jubilees 4:9, Enoch's mother/aunt was named Awan.
According to a Samaritan tradition, Enoch was buried in Mount Ebal.[2]

Family tree[edit]
Adam
Eve
Cain
Abel
Seth
Enoch
Enos
Irad
Kenan
Mehujael
Mahalalel
Methushael
Jared
Adah
Lamech
Zillah
Enoch
Jabal
Jubal
Tubal-Cain
Naamah
Methuselah
Lamech
Noah
Shem
Ham
Japheth
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John Byron (14 February 2011). Cain and Abel in Text and Tradition: Jewish and Christian Interpretations of the First Sibling Rivalry. BRILL. p. 124. ISBN 90-04-19252-2.
Jump up ^ The Asatir, Moses Gaster (ed.), The Royal Asiatic Society: London 1927, p. 208
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Adam to David according to the Bible
Creation to Flood
Adam
Seth
Enos
Kenan
Mahalalel
Jared
Enoch
Methuselah
Lamech
Noah
Shem
Cain line
Adam
Cain
Enoch
Irad
Mehujael
Methusael
Lamech
Tubal-cain
Patriarchs after Flood
Arpachshad
Cainan
Shelah
Eber
Peleg
Reu
Serug
Nahor
Terah
Abraham
Isaac
Jacob
Tribe of Judah to Kingdom
Judah
Perez
Hezron
Ram
Amminadab
Nahshon
Salmon
Boaz
Obed
Jesse
David
Names in italics only appear in the Greek Septuagint version
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Cain and Abel
Book of Genesis
Biblical characters
Adam
Eve
Cain and Abel
Lucifer
Enoch
Awan
Portrayals in media
Film
East of Eden (film, 1952)
Caín (1984)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
The Last Eve (2005)
Year One (2009)
Abel Cain
Plays
Le Jeu d'Adam (12th century)
Cain (1821)
Musicals
Children of Eden (1991)
Here's Where I Belong (1968)
Literature
Book of the Penitence of Adam
East of Eden (novel, 1952)
Abel Sánchez: The History of a Passion (1917)
The Book of Lies (2008)
Songs
"Should the Bible Be Banned" (1988)
"Cain's Blood" (1995)
Other
La mort d'Abel (composition, 1810)
The First Mourning (painting, 1888)
Cain and Abel (TV series, 2009)
Cain and Abel (DC Comics)
Kane (Command & Conquer video game character)
Related theology
Adam and Eve
Gospel of Judas
Curse and mark of Cain
Serpent seed
Christian Identity
Cain and Abel in Islam
Balbira and Kalmana
Cainites
Other
Generations of Adam
Timeline of Genesis patriarchs
Land of Nod
Dracula: The Dark Prince

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