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Nutrition and pregnancy
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Pregnant woman eating fruit.
Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception (probably several months before) as well as throughout pregnancy and breast feeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.
An inadequate or excessive amount of some nutrients may cause malformations or medical problems in the fetus, and neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are malnourished.[1] 23.8% of babies worldwide are estimated to be born with lower than optimal weights at birth due to lack of proper nutrition.[2] Personal habits such as smoking, alcohol, caffeine, using certain medications and street drugs can negatively and irreversibly affect the development of the baby, which happens in the early stages of pregnancy.[3]
Caffeine is sometimes assumed to cause harm to the unborn baby but there is not enough evidence so say if this is true.[4] A recent review showed that more research is needed to show whether caffeine intake effects birth weight, preterm births, gestational diabetes and other outcomes.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Nutrition before pregnancy
1.1 Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients
2 Nutrition during pregnancy
2.1 Folic acid
2.2 Water
3 Nutrition after pregnancy
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Nutrition before pregnancy[edit]
Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients[edit]
As with most diets, there are chances of over-supplementing, however, as general advice, both state and medical recommendations are that mothers follow instructions listed on particular vitamin packaging as to the correct or recommended daily allowance (RDA). Daily prenatal use of iron substantially improves birth weight, potentially reducing the risk of Low birth weight.[5]
Folic acid supplementation is recommended prior to conception, to prevent development of spina bifida and other neural tube defects. It should be taken as at least 0.4 mg/day throughout the first trimester of pregnancy, 0.6 mg/day through the pregnancy, and 0.5 mg/day while breastfeeding in addition to eating foods rich in folic acid such as green leafy vegetables.[6]
Iodine levels are frequently too low in pregnant women, and iodine is necessary for normal thyroid function and mental development of the fetus, even cretinism. Pregnant women should take prenatal vitamins containing iodine.[7]
Vitamin D levels vary with exposure to sunlight. While it was assumed that supplementation was necessary only in areas of high latitudes, recent studies of Vitamin D levels throughout the United States and many other countries have shown a large number of women with low levels. For this reason, there is a growing movement to recommend supplementation with 1000 mg of Vitamin D daily throughout pregnancy,[8] vitamin D is necessary to prevent rickets, a disease causing weak bones.
A large number of pregnant women have been found to have low levels of vitamin B12, but supplementation has not yet been shown to improve pregnancy outcome or the health of the newborn, although there are suspicions.[9]
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, specifically docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are very beneficial for fetal development. Several studies have shown a small drop in preterm delivery and in low birth weight in mothers with higher intakes.[10][11] The best dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids is oily fish. Some other omega-3 fatty acids not found in fish can be found in foods such as flaxseeds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and enriched eggs.[12]
Iron is needed for the healthy growth of the fetus and placenta, especially during the second and third trimesters. It is also essential before pregnancy for the production of hemoglobin.There is no evidence that a hemoglobin level of 7 grams/100 ml or higher is detrimental to pregnancy, but it must be acknowledged that maternal hemorrhage is a major source of maternal mortality worldwide, and a reserve capacity to carry oxygen is desirable. According to the Cochrane review conclusions iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anaemia and iron deficiency in pregnancy but the positive effect on other maternal and infant outcomes is less clear.[13]
Nutrition during pregnancy[edit]
During the early stages of pregnancy, since the placenta is not yet formed, there is no mechanism to protect the embryo from the deficiencies which may be inherent in the mother's circulation.[14] Thus, it is critical that an adequate amount of nutrients and energy is consumed.
Multiple micronutrient supplements taken with iron and folic acid can improve birth outcomes for women in low income countries.[15][needs update] These supplements reduce numbers of low birth weight babies, small for gestational age babies and stillbirths in women who may not have many micronutrients in their usual diets.[15] Undernourished women can benefit from having dietary education sessions and, balanced energy and protein supplements.[16]
A review showed that dietary education increased the mother’s protein intake and helped the baby grow more inside the womb.[16] The balanced protein and energy supplement lowered risk of stillbirth and small babies and increased weight gain for both the mother and baby.[16] Although more research is needed into the longer term effects on the mothers’ and infants’ health, the short term effects look promising.[16]
Supplementing one's diet with foods rich in folic acid, fruits and dark green leafy vegetables (Excluding citrus) helps to prevent neural tube birth defects in the fetus. In addition, prenatal vitamins typically contain increased amounts of folic acid, iodine, iron, vitamin A, vitamin D, zinc, and calcium over the amounts found in standard multi-vitamins.[17]
Zinc supplements have reduced preterm births by around 14% mainly in low income countries.[18] No other benefits were seen4. The World Health Organisation does not routinely recommend zinc supplementation for pregnant women because there is not enough good quality evidence.[19]
For women with low calcium diets, taking calcium supplementation can reduce their risk of preeclampsia.[20] It has also been suggested that calcium can reduce numbers of births that happen before the 37th week of pregnancy (preterm birth).[21] However a more recent review looking into other benefits of calcium supplementation did not find any improvement in numbers of preterm or low birth weight babies.[22] There is not enough good quality to research to suggest best doses and timing of calcium supplementation.[23]
Pregnant women are advised to pay attention to the foods they eat during pregnancy, such as soft cheese and certain fish, in order to reduce the risk of exposure to substances or bacteria that may be harmful to the developing fetus. This can include food pathogens and toxic food components, alcohol, and dietary supplements such as vitamin A and potentially harmful pathogens such as listeria, toxoplasmosis, and salmonella.[24] Dietary vitamin A is obtained in two forms which contain the preformed vitamin (retinol), that can be found in some animal products such as liver and fish liver oils, and as a vitamin A precursor in the form of carotene, which can be found in many fruits and vegetables.[24] Intake of large amounts or, conversely, a deficiency, of retinol has been linked to birth defects and abnormalities.[25] It is noted that a 100 g serving of liver may contain a large amount of retinol, so it is best that it is not eaten daily during pregnancy. Excessive amounts of alcohol have been proven to cause fetal alcohol syndrome. The World Health Organization recommends that alcohol should be avoided entirely during pregnancy, given the relatively unknown effects of even small amounts of alcohol during pregnancy.[26] Although seafood contains high levels of Omega-3 fatty acids which are beneficial for both mother and the baby, but there is no consensus on consuming seafood during pregnancy. Pregnant women are advised to eat seafood in moderation.[27]
Folic acid[edit]
Folic acid, which is the synthetic form of the vitamin folate, is critical both in pre-and peri-conception.[24] Deficiencies in folic acid may cause neural tube defects; women who had 0.4 mg of folic acid in their systems due to supplementing 3 months before childbirth significantly reduced the risk of NTD within the fetus.[28] The development of every human cell is dependent on an adequate supply of folic acid. Folic acid governs the synthesis of the precursors of DNA, which is the nucleic acid that gives each cell life and character. Folic acid deficiency results in defective cellular growth and the effects are most obvious on those tissues which grow most rapidly.[29]
Water[edit]
During pregnancy, one's mass increases by about 12 kg.[30] Most of this added weight (6 to 9 L) is water[30] because the plasma volume increases, 85% of the placenta is water[31] and the fetus itself is 70-90% water. This means that hydration is an important aspect of nutrition throughout pregnancy. The European Food Safety Authority recommends an increase of 300 mL per day compared to the normal intake for non-pregnant women, taking the total adequate water intake (from food and fluids) to 2,300 mL, or approximately 1,850 mL/ day from fluids alone[32]
Nutrition after pregnancy[edit]
Proper nutrition is important after delivery to help the mother recover, and to provide enough food energy and nutrients for a woman to breastfeed her child. Women having serum ferritin less than 70 µg/L may need iron supplements to prevent iron deficiency anaemia during pregnancy and postpartum.[33][34]
During lactation, water intake may need to be increased. Human milk is made of 88% water, and the IOM recommends that breastfeeding women increase their water intake by about 300 mL/day to a total volume of 3000 mL/day (from food and drink); approximately 2,400 mL/day from fluids.[35]
See also[edit]
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Prenatal nutrition
Smoking and pregnancy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Barasi EM (2003). Human Nutrition - A Health Perspective. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-81025-4.
Jump up ^ "WHO | 10 facts on nutrition". World Health Organization. 2011-03-15. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
Jump up ^ Laura Riley. Stephanie Karpinske, ed. Pregnancy: The Ultimate Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide. Meredith Books. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-696-22221-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Jahanfar, S; Jaafar, SH (9 June 2015). "Effects of restricted caffeine intake by mother on fetal, neonatal and pregnancy outcomes.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 6: CD006965. PMID 26058966. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006965.pub4.
Jump up ^ Haider, BA, Olofin, I, Wang, M; et al. (2013). "Anaemia, prenatal iron use, and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis". British Medical Journal. 21: f3443. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3443. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Christof (2001). Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Handbook of Prescription Drugs and Comparative Risk Assessment. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 9780444507631. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
Jump up ^ Shils, Maurice Edward; Shike, Moshe (2006). Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781741330. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
Jump up ^ Aghajafari, Fariba; Nagulesapillai, Tharsiya; Ronksley, Paul E.; Tough, Suzanne C.; O'Beirne, Maeve; Rabi, Doreen M. (2013). "Association between maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 346: f1169. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 23533188. doi:10.1136/bmj.f1169.
Jump up ^ Briggs, Gerald G.; Freeman, Roger K.; Yaffe, Sumner J. (2011). Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9781608317080. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
Jump up ^ Imhoff-Kunsch, Beth; Briggs, Virginia; Goldenberg, Tamar; Ramakrishnan, Usha (Jul 2012). "Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy on maternal, infant, and child health outcomes: a systematic review". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 26 Suppl 1: 91–107. ISSN 1365-3016. PMID 22742604. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01292.x.
Jump up ^ Jensen, Craig L. (Jun 2006). "Effects of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 83 (6 Suppl): 1452S–1457S. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 16841854.
Jump up ^ Murkoff, Heidi (May 20, 2010). "Foods that make you fertile". Everyday Health. Retrieved 2010-11-30. [unreliable medical source?]
Jump up ^ Peña-Rosas, Juan Pablo; De-Regil, Luz Maria; Garcia-Casal, Maria N.; Dowswell, Therese (2015-07-22). "Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (7): CD004736. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 26198451. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004736.pub5.
Jump up ^ "23 Things pregnant women can and cannot eat". NewMomVintage. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Haider, BA; Bhutta, ZA (1 November 2015). "Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 11: CD004905. PMID 26522344. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ota, E; Hori, H; Mori, R; Tobe-Gai, R; Farrar, D (2 June 2015). "Antenatal dietary education and supplementation to increase energy and protein intake.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 6: CD000032. PMID 26031211. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000032.pub3.
Jump up ^ Laura Riley (2006-02-02). Stephanie Karpinske, ed. Pregnancy: The Ultimate Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide. Meredith Books. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-696-22221-3.
Jump up ^ Ota, E; Mori, R; Middleton, P; Tobe-Gai, R; Mahomed, K; Miyazaki, C; Bhutta, ZA (2 February 2015). "Zinc supplementation for improving pregnancy and infant outcome.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2: CD000230. PMID 25927101. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000230.pub5.
Jump up ^ "Zinc supplementation during pregnancy". World Health Organization. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Hofmeyr, GJ; Lawrie, TA; Atallah, AN; Duley, L; Torloni, MR (24 June 2014). "Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 6: CD001059. PMID 24960615. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001059.pub4.
Jump up ^ Hofmeyr, GJ; Lawrie, TA; Atallah, AN; Duley, L; Torloni, MR (24 June 2014). "Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 6: CD001059. PMID 24960615. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001059.pub4.
Jump up ^ Buppasiri, P; Lumbiganon, P; Thinkhamrop, J; Ngamjarus, C; Laopaiboon, M; Medley, N (25 February 2015). "Calcium supplementation (other than for preventing or treating hypertension) for improving pregnancy and infant outcomes.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2: CD007079. PMID 25922862. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007079.pub3.
Jump up ^ Buppasiri, P; Lumbiganon, P; Thinkhamrop, J; Ngamjarus, C; Laopaiboon, M; Medley, N (25 February 2015). "Calcium supplementation (other than for preventing or treating hypertension) for improving pregnancy and infant outcomes.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2: CD007079. PMID 25922862. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007079.pub3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Williamson CS (2006). "Nutrition in pregnancy". British Nutrition Foundation. 31: 28–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-3010.2006.00541.x.
Jump up ^ "Vitamin A (retinol)". Drugs and Supplements. Mayo Clinic. November 1, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Framework for alcohol policy in the WHO European Region" (PDF). World Health Organisation.
Jump up ^ "11 Weeks Pregnant – Symptoms, Growth, Tips | Pregnancy Savvy". www.pregnancysavvy.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Recommendations | Folic Acid | NCBDDD | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
Jump up ^ Hibbard BM (August 1964). "The role of folic acid in pregnancy". BJOG. 71 (4): 529–42. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1964.tb04317.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Institute of Medicine (IOM). Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004.
Jump up ^ Beall MH; van den Wijngaard JPHM; van Gemert MJC; Ross MG (2007). "Amniotic Fluid Water Dynamics". Placenta. 28: 816–23. doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2006.11.009.
Jump up ^ EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA) (2010). "Scientific Opinion on Dietary reference values for water". EFSA Journal. 8: 1459–1507. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1459. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Milman N, Byg KE, Bergholt T, Eriksen L, Hvas AM (2006). "Body iron and individual iron prophylaxis in pregnancy--should the iron dose be adjusted according to serum ferritin?". Ann. Hematol. 85 (9): 567–73. PMID 16733739. doi:10.1007/s00277-006-0141-1.
Jump up ^ Sethi V, Kapil U (2004). "Iodine deficiency and development of brain". Indian J Pediatr. 71 (4): 325–9. PMID 15107513. doi:10.1007/BF02724099.
Jump up ^ Dietary References Intakes:Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Released February 11, 2014. https://iom.nationalacademies.org/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx
Further reading[edit]
"Nutrition During Pregnancy Resource List for Consumers" (PDF). USDA NAL Food and Nutrition Information Center.
Health Education Authority (1996) Folic acid - what all women should know (leaflet) London:HEA
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Genetic linkage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Genetic map" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Gene map.
Genetic linkage is the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction. Two genetic markers that are physically near to each other are unlikely to be separated onto different chromatids during chromosomal crossover, and are therefore said to be more linked than markers that are far apart. In other words, the nearer two genes are on a chromosome, the lower the chance of recombination between them, and the more likely they are to be inherited together. Markers on different chromosomes are perfectly unlinked.
Genetic linkage is the most prominent exception to Gregor Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment. The first experiment to demonstrate linkage was carried out in 1905. At the time, the reason why certain traits tend to be inherited together was unknown. Later work revealed that genes are physical structures related by physical distance.
The typical unit of genetic linkage is the centimorgan (cM). A distance of 1 cM between two markers means that the markers are separated to different chromosomes on average once per 100 meioses.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Linkage map
3 Linkage analysis
3.1 Parametric linkage analysis
4 Recombination frequency
5 Variation of recombination frequency
6 Meiosis indicators
7 See also
8 References
Discovery[edit]
Gregor Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment states that every trait is inherited independently of every other trait. But shortly after Mendel's work was rediscovered, exceptions to this rule were found. In 1905, the British geneticists William Bateson, Edith Rebecca Saunders and Reginald Punnett cross-bred pea plants in experiments similar to Mendel's.[1][2] They were interested in trait inheritance in the sweet pea and were studying two genes—the gene for flower colour (P, purple, and p, red) and the gene affecting the shape of pollen grains (L, long, and l, round). They crossed the pure lines PPLL and ppll and then self-crossed the resulting PpLl lines. According to Mendelian genetics, the expected phenotypes would occur in a 9:3:3:1 ratio of PL:Pl:pL:pl. To their surprise, they observed an increased frequency of PL and pl and a decreased frequency of Pl and pL:
Bateson, Saunders, and Punnett experiment
Phenotype and genotype
Observed
Expected from 9:3:3:1 ratio
Purple, long (P_L_) 284 216
Purple, round (P_ll) 21 72
Red, long (ppL_) 21 72
Red, round (ppll) 55 24
Their experiment revealed linkage between the P and L alleles and the p and l alleles. The frequency of P occurring together with L and p occurring together with l is greater than that of the recombinant Pl and pL. The recombination frequency is more difficult to compute in an F2 cross than a backcross,[3] but the lack of fit between observed and expected numbers of progeny in the above table indicate it is less than 50%.
The understanding of linkage was expanded by the work of Thomas Hunt Morgan. Morgan's observation that the amount of crossing over between linked genes differs led to the idea that crossover frequency might indicate the distance separating genes on the chromosome. The centimorgan, which expresses the frequency of crossing over, is named in his honour.
Linkage map[edit]
Thomas Hunt Morgan's Drosophila melanogaster genetic linkage map. This was the first successful gene mapping work and provides important evidence for the chromosome theory of inheritance. The map shows the relative positions of alleles on the second Drosophila chromosome. The distances between the genes (centimorgans) are equal to the percentages of chromosomal crossover events that occur between different alleles.[4]
A linkage map (also known as a genetic map) is a table for a species or experimental population that shows the position of its known genes or genetic markers relative to each other in terms of recombination frequency, rather than a specific physical distance along each chromosome. Linkage maps were first developed by Alfred Sturtevant, a student of Thomas Hunt Morgan.
A genetic map is a map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossover of homologous chromosomes. The greater the frequency of recombination (segregation) between two genetic markers, the further apart they are assumed to be. Conversely, the lower the frequency of recombination between the markers, the smaller the physical distance between them. Historically, the markers originally used were detectable phenotypes (enzyme production, eye colour) derived from coding DNA sequences; eventually, confirmed or assumed noncoding DNA sequences such as microsatellites or those generating restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) have been used.
Genetic maps help researchers to locate other markers, such as other genes by testing for genetic linkage of the already known markers.
A genetic map is not a physical map (such as a radiation reduced hybrid map) or gene map.
Linkage analysis[edit]
Linkage analysis may be either parametric (if we know the relationship between phenotypic and genetic similarity) or non-parametric. Parametric linkage analysis is the traditional approach, whereby the probability that a gene important for a disease is linked to a genetic marker is studied through the LOD score, which assesses the probability that a given pedigree, where the disease and the marker are cosegregating, is due to the existence of linkage (with a given linkage value) or to chance. Non-parametric linkage analysis, in turn, studies the probability of an allele being identical by descent with itself.
Parametric linkage analysis[edit]
The LOD score (logarithm (base 10) of odds), developed by Newton Morton,[5] is a statistical test often used for linkage analysis in human, animal, and plant populations. The LOD score compares the likelihood of obtaining the test data if the two loci are indeed linked, to the likelihood of observing the same data purely by chance. Positive LOD scores favour the presence of linkage, whereas negative LOD scores indicate that linkage is less likely. Computerised LOD score analysis is a simple way to analyse complex family pedigrees in order to determine the linkage between Mendelian traits (or between a trait and a marker, or two markers).
The method is described in greater detail by Strachan and Read.[1] Briefly, it works as follows:
Establish a pedigree
Make a number of estimates of recombination frequency
Calculate a LOD score for each estimate
The estimate with the highest LOD score will be considered the best estimate
The LOD score is calculated as follows:
L O D = Z = log 10  probability of birth sequence with a given linkage value probability of birth sequence with no linkage = log 10  ( 1 − θ ) N R × θ R 0.5 ( N R + R ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}LOD=Z&=\log _{10}{\frac {\mbox{probability of birth sequence with a given linkage value}}{\mbox{probability of birth sequence with no linkage}}}=\log _{10}{\frac {(1-\theta )^{NR}\times \theta ^{R}}{0.5^{(NR+R)}}}\end{aligned}}}
NR denotes the number of non-recombinant offspring, and R denotes the number of recombinant offspring. The reason 0.5 is used in the denominator is that any alleles that are completely unlinked (e.g. alleles on separate chromosomes) have a 50% chance of recombination, due to independent assortment. 'θ' is the recombinant fraction, i.e. the fraction of births in which recombination has happened between the studied genetic marker and the putative gene associated with the disease. Thus, it is equal to R / (NR + R)
By convention, a LOD score greater than 3.0 is considered evidence for linkage, as it indicates 1000 to 1 odds that the linkage being observed did not occur by chance. On the other hand, a LOD score less than -2.0 is considered evidence to exclude linkage. Although it is very unlikely that a LOD score of 3 would be obtained from a single pedigree, the mathematical properties of the test allow data from a number of pedigrees to be combined by summing their LOD scores. A LOD score of 3 translates to a p-value of approximately 0.05,[6] and no multiple testing correction (e.g. Bonferroni correction) is required.[7]
Recombination frequency[edit]
Recombination frequency is a measure of genetic linkage and is used in the creation of a genetic linkage map. Recombination frequency (θ) is the frequency with which a single chromosomal crossover will take place between two genes during meiosis. A centimorgan (cM) is a unit that describes a recombination frequency of 1%. In this way we can measure the genetic distance between two loci, based upon their recombination frequency. This is a good estimate of the real distance. Double crossovers would turn into no recombination. In this case we cannot tell if crossovers took place. If the loci we're analysing are very close (less than 7 cM) a double crossover is very unlikely. When distances become higher, the likelihood of a double crossover increases. As the likelihood of a double crossover increases we systematically underestimate the genetic distance between two loci.
During meiosis, chromosomes assort randomly into gametes, such that the segregation of alleles of one gene is independent of alleles of another gene. This is stated in Mendel's Second Law and is known as the law of independent assortment. The law of independent assortment always holds true for genes that are located on different chromosomes, but for genes that are on the same chromosome, it does not always hold true.
As an example of independent assortment, consider the crossing of the pure-bred homozygote parental strain with genotype AABB with a different pure-bred strain with genotype aabb. A and a and B and b represent the alleles of genes A and B. Crossing these homozygous parental strains will result in F1 generation offspring that are double heterozygotes with genotype AaBb. The F1 offspring AaBb produces gametes that are AB, Ab, aB, and ab with equal frequencies (25%) because the alleles of gene A assort independently of the alleles for gene B during meiosis. Note that 2 of the 4 gametes (50%)—Ab and aB—were not present in the parental generation. These gametes represent recombinant gametes. Recombinant gametes are those gametes that differ from both of the haploid gametes that made up the original diploid cell. In this example, the recombination frequency is 50% since 2 of the 4 gametes were recombinant gametes.
The recombination frequency will be 50% when two genes are located on different chromosomes or when they are widely separated on the same chromosome. This is a consequence of independent assortment.
When two genes are close together on the same chromosome, they do not assort independently and are said to be linked. Whereas genes located on different chromosomes assort independently and have a recombination frequency of 50%, linked genes have a recombination frequency that is less than 50%.
As an example of linkage, consider the classic experiment by William Bateson and Reginald Punnett.[citation needed] They were interested in trait inheritance in the sweet pea and were studying two genes—the gene for flower colour (P, purple, and p, red) and the gene affecting the shape of pollen grains (L, long, and l, round). They crossed the pure lines PPLL and ppll and then self-crossed the resulting PpLl lines. According to Mendelian genetics, the expected phenotypes would occur in a 9:3:3:1 ratio of PL:Pl:pL:pl. To their surprise, they observed an increased frequency of PL and pl and a decreased frequency of Pl and pL (see table below).
Bateson and Punnett experiment
Phenotype and genotype
Observed
Expected from 9:3:3:1 ratio
Purple, long (P_L_) 284 216
Purple, round (P_ll) 21 72
Red, long (ppL_) 21 72
Red, round (ppll) 55 24
Their experiment revealed linkage between the P and L alleles and the p and l alleles. The frequency of P occurring together with L and with p occurring together with l is greater than that of the recombinant Pl and pL. The recombination frequency is more difficult to compute in an F2 cross than a backcross,[3] but the lack of fit between observed and expected numbers of progeny in the above table indicate it is less than 50%.
The progeny in this case received two dominant alleles linked on one chromosome (referred to as coupling or cis arrangement). However, after crossover, some progeny could have received one parental chromosome with a dominant allele for one trait (e.g. Purple) linked to a recessive allele for a second trait (e.g. round) with the opposite being true for the other parental chromosome (e.g. red and Long). This is referred to as repulsion or a trans arrangement. The phenotype here would still be purple and long but a test cross of this individual with the recessive parent would produce progeny with much greater proportion of the two crossover phenotypes. While such a problem may not seem likely from this example, unfavourable repulsion linkages do appear when breeding for disease resistance in some crops.
The two possible arrangements, cis and trans, of alleles in a double heterozygote are referred to as gametic phases, and phasing is the process of determining which of the two is present in a given individual.
When two genes are located on the same chromosome, the chance of a crossover producing recombination between the genes is related to the distance between the two genes. Thus, the use of recombination frequencies has been used to develop linkage maps or genetic maps.
However, it is important to note that recombination frequency tends to underestimate the distance between two linked genes. This is because as the two genes are located farther apart, the chance of double or even number of crossovers between them also increases. Double or even number of crossovers between the two genes results in them being cosegregated to the same gamete, yielding a parental progeny instead of the expected recombinant progeny. As mentioned above, the Kosambi and Haldane transformations attempt to correct for multiple crossovers.[8][9]
Variation of recombination frequency[edit]
While recombination of chromosomes is an essential process during meiosis, there is a large range of frequency of cross overs across organisms and within species. Sexually dimorphic rates of recombination are termed heterochiasmy, and are observed more often than a common rate between male and females. In mammals, females often have a higher rate of recombination compared to males. It is theorised that there are unique selections acting or meiotic drivers which influence the difference in rates. The difference in rates may also reflect the vastly different environments and conditions of meiosis in oogenesis and spermatogenesis.[citation needed]
Meiosis indicators[edit]
With very large pedigrees or with very dense genetic marker data, such as from whole-genome sequencing, it is possible to precisely locate recombinations. With this type of genetic analysis, a meiosis indicator is assigned to each position of the genome for each meiosis in a pedigree. The indicator indicates which copy of the parental chromosome contributes to the transmitted gamete at that position. For example, if the allele from the 'first' copy of the parental chromosome is transmitted, a '0' might be assigned to that meiosis. If the allele from the 'second' copy of the parental chromosome is transmitted, a '1' would be assigned to that meiosis. The two alleles in the parent came, one each, from two grandparents. These indicators are then used to determine identical-by-descent (IBD) states or inheritance states, which are in turn used to identify genes responsible for diseases.
See also[edit]
Centimorgan
Genetic association
Genetic epidemiology
Genome-wide association study
Identity by descent
Lander–Green algorithm
Linkage disequilibrium
Structural motif
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lobo, Ingrid; Shaw, Kenna. "Discovery and Types of Genetic Linkage". Scitable. Nature Education. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Bateson, W; Saunders, ER; Punnett, RC (18 May 1904). Reports to the Evolution committee of the Royal Society. London: Harrison and Sons, Printers. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, RA; Balmukand, B (July 1928). "The estimation of linkage from the offspring of selfed heterozygotes". Journal of Genetics. 20 (1): 79–92. doi:10.1007/BF02983317.
Jump up ^ Mader, Sylvia (2007). Biology Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-07-325839-3.
Jump up ^ Morton NE (1955). "Sequential tests for the detection of linkage". American Journal of Human Genetics. 7 (3): 277–318. PMC 1716611  . PMID 13258560.
Jump up ^ Nyholt, Dale R (August 2000). "All LODs Are Not Created Equal". American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (2): 282–288. doi:10.1086/303029. PMC 1287176  . PMID 10884360.
Jump up ^ Risch, Neil (June 1991). "A Note on Multiple Testing Procedures in Linkage Analysis" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 48: 1058–1064. PMC 1683115  . PMID 2035526. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, AJF; Miller, JH; Suzuki, DT (2000). "Accurate calculation of large map distances, Derivation of a mapping function". An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3520-2.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, AJF; Miller, JH; Suzuki, DT (2000). "Accurate calculation of large map distances, Figure 6-4". An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3520-2. Graph of mapping function from compared to idealised 1-1 equivalence of recombination frequency percentage (RF%) to map units.
Library resources about
Gene mapping
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Griffiths AJF; Miller JH; Suzuki DT; Lewontin RC; et al. (1993). "Chapter 5". An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-2285-2.
Poehlman JM; Sleper DA (1995). "Chapter 3". Breeding Field Crops (4th ed.). Iowa: Iowa State Press. ISBN 0-8138-2427-3.
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Amityville: The Awakening
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Amityville: The Awakening
Theatrical release poster
with original release date
Directed by
Franck Khalfoun
Produced by
Jason Blum
Daniel Farrands
Casey La Scala
Written by
Franck Khalfoun
Starring
Jennifer Jason Leigh
Bella Thorne
Cameron Monaghan
Thomas Mann
Jennifer Morrison
Kurtwood Smith
Music by
Robin Coudert
Cinematography
Steven Poster
Edited by
Patrick McMahon
Production
company
Blumhouse Productions
Panic Ventures
Baron Films
Distributed by
Dimension Films
Release date
October 28, 2017 (2017-10-28) (United States)
Running time
87 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$7.7 million[2]
Amityville: The Awakening is a 2017 American supernatural horror film written and directed by Franck Khalfoun, and starring Jennifer Jason Leigh, Bella Thorne, Cameron Monaghan, Thomas Mann, and Kurtwood Smith. It is the tenth installment of the main Amityville film series and a metafilm taking place in the "real world" outside of the continuity of the series which establishes The Amityville Horror (1979), the sequels from 1982 to 1996, and the 2005 remake of the original film as fiction.[a] Its plot follows a teenager who moves into 112 Ocean Avenue with her family, who shortly find themselves haunted by a demonic entity using her brain-dead twin brother's body as a vessel.
Filmed in 2014, the film suffered numerous release delays before finally being released for free on Google Play on October 12, 2017. It was released by Dimension Films in a limited release on October 28, 2017.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Release
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Home media
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Teenager Belle Walker moves to 112 Ocean Avenue in Amityville, Long Island with her mother Joan, little sister Juliet, and brain-dead twin brother, James. The family's impetus for moving there was to be closer to Dr. Milton, a neurologist hoping to treat James, who suffered an accident that has left him on life support. Upon moving in, Juliet tells Belle that James has been talking to her lately, "using a lot of curse words." One night, James flatlines, but is mysteriously revived and opens his eyes.
At school, Belle is taunted by her peers over moving into the home, which she learns was the site of a mass murder by Ronald DeFeo Jr. in 1974. In her bedroom on the third floor, she discovers blood stains from the murder concealed under the wallpaper. One night, Belle invites acquaintances Terrence—an enthusiast on the Amityville haunting—and Marissa, over to watch The Amityville Horror (1979) at the house. At 3:15am in the middle of the film, the power goes out, and the three go into the basement to locate the fuse box, where they are confronted by Joan, who thinks they are intruders.
Dr. Milton, who suspects James may have locked-in syndrome, performs tests on James that show increased function; during the test, he witnesses an apparition of flies filling the room and attacking him, and leaves the house, shaken. James quickly gains the ability to communicate with the family via an AAC computer system that allows him to type by looking at the letters on a screen. Terrence suggests to Belle that James's sudden revival may be a result of possession stemming from the house; he and Belle suspect that a ring on the ground surrounding the house may represent a magic circle.
Belle asks James if someone else is inhabiting his body, and he replies "yes" and "help" via the computer. He asks her to kill him, and she begins to unplug the machine, but he suddenly attacks her. Joan enters the room, and finds that James is now breathing on his own. After finding the red room in the basement, which she believes to be the source of the power, Belle confronts her mother with the theory that the house is possessing James. Joan reveals to her that, having lost her faith in God after the death of her husband and James's subsequent accident, she moved the family to the home hoping to harness the demonic energy there in order to bring James back to life.
That night, as Belle prepares to leave, Joan knocks her unconscious. Belle awakens at 3:15am, just as her aunt Candice arrives at the house. James rises from his bed, and harnesses energy from the red room, which revitalizes his body. Belle makes her way downstairs as Candice enters the house, but James shoots Candice with a shotgun. Belle retrieves Juliet from her room, but is unable to open the front door. Joan is confronted by James in her bedroom; knowing she is facing death, she retrieves her crucifix, and holds it toward James, but he is unaffected; he reminds her that with the loss of her faith in god, he’s now not here to save her. He shoots Joan in the chest before throwing her on her bed and shooting her in the head. James is able to lure Juliet to the third floor, where he attempts to kill her, but is stopped by Belle, who tackles him, resulting in them both falling from the window. She drags James outside the circle, after which his body withers, and he dies just after telling her "thank you."
A newsreel epilogue reveals that Belle is being questioned in the murders of her mother, aunt, and brother, but that her sister, Juliet, corroborates her story, and that James's fingerprints were discovered on the murder weapon. Another news report comments on yet another tragedy occurring in the Amityville house.
Cast[edit]
Bella Thorne as Belle Walker
Cameron Monaghan as James Walker
Jennifer Jason Leigh as Joan Walker
Mckenna Grace as Juliet Walker
Thomas Mann as Terrence
Taylor Spreitler as Marissa
Jennifer Morrison as Candice
Kurtwood Smith as Dr. Milton
Production[edit]
The film was initially conceived as a separate film entitled Amityville: The Lost Tapes. Dimension Films and Blumhouse Productions were to co-produce the film together, with a screenplay by Casey La Scala and Daniel Farrands. It was to be a found-footage film in the style of La Scala and Blumhouse's highly successful Paranormal Activity franchise; the plot involved "an ambitious female television news intern, on the verge of breaking the most famous haunted house case in the world, who leads a team of journalists, clergymen and paranormal researchers into an investigation of the bizarre events that will come to be known as The Amityville Horror, only to unwittingly open a door to the unreal that she may never be able to close."[4]
Franck Khalfoun was set to direct, and filming was to begin in the summer and be released by January 27, 2012. While at a press release, Bob Weinstein stated, “We are thrilled to return to the mythology of the Amityville Horror with a new and terrifying vision that will satisfy our existing fans and also introduce an entirely new audience to this popular haunting phenomenon.”[5] After several delays, the film was re-written with a completely new story and screenplay by Khalfoun. In March 2014, this new iteration was retitled Amityville.[6] That month, Jennifer Jason Leigh and Bella Thorne signed on to star.[7][8][9] In April, Thomas Mann, Taylor Spreitler and Cameron Monaghan signed on to the film,[10] with principal photography beginning in May and a tentative 2015 release date.[11] After another delay, the film's release was delayed to Q4 2016, and later early 2017, with reshoots taking place in February 2016.[12]
Release[edit]
The film was originally scheduled for release on January 2, 2015.[13] However, in September 2014, it was removed from the schedule.[14] In May 2015, it was announced the film would be released on April 15, 2016.[15] When Filmyard Holdings sold Miramax to beIN Media Group on March 2, 2016, Miramax was no longer the production company of Amityville: The Awakening.[16] It was set to be released on April 1, 2016,[17][18] but was delayed due to test screening responses and given the release date of January 6, 2017.[19] On December 16, 2016, just weeks away from the film's January 6 release date, the film was again pushed back, this time to June 30, 2017; it was eventually removed from there as well.[20] In September 2017, it was announced that it would be released in select theaters in the US on October 28, 2017, and for free on Google Play from October 12 to November 8, 2017.[3]
The film was released on DVD, Blu-ray and Digital HD on November 14, 2017.[21]
Box office[edit]
Despite the US delays, the film began its theatrical run in Ukraine and Central America on July 20, 2017, where the film grossed $580,466 from 830 screens. The film was released in the Philippines on August 2, 2017.[22]
The film opened in the US on a limited release on October 28, 2017. Playing in 10 theaters the film made just $742 in its opening weekend (an average of $74 per venue), finishing 60th at the box office.[23]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 15% based on 13 reviews, and an average rating of 3.7/10.[24] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 42 out of 100, based on 4 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[25]
Witney Siebold of IGN gave the film a score of 5.5/10, saying "while largely a generic haunting film without much in the way of a hook beyond its famous setting, can at least claim to be one of the more watchable Amityville films, for whatever that praise may be worth," and deemed it the "perhaps the best Amityville film since 1983."[26] Dread Central gave the film two and a half stars out of five saying "At the end of the day, this isn’t such a bad flick, but viewers looking for an insane new Amityville experience will just have to keep chasing that dragon."[27] Slant Magazine gave the film two out of four stars and called it "an elegant entry in a lame series of horror films."[28]
Home media[edit]
The film was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and on demand on November 14, 2017.[29]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In Amityville: The Awakening, the characters watch and discuss 1979's The Amityville Horror, and a character brings DVDs of the sequels and remake to the protagonist's house; thus, within the narrative diegesis of the film, the 1979 film and its subsequent sequels are fiction.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Amityville: The Awakening Available First on Google Play October 12". ComingSoon.net. September 21, 2017. Archived from the original on September 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amityville: The Awakening (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Amityville: The Awakening' To Stream On Google Play For Free; Gets Limited Theatrical Release". Deadline.com. September 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Brian (May 15, 2011). "The Amityville Horror: The Lost Tapes Moves Forward". Movie Web. Archived from the original on April 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ortega, Xavier (May 17, 2011). "Ghost Theory The Amityville Horror: The Lost Tapes". Ghost Theory. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Hanley, Ken W. (December 30, 2013). ""LOST TAPES" To Remain So; Newly Titled "AMITYVILLE" Opens January 2015". Fangoria. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Sneider, Jeff (March 22, 2014). "Disney Channel Star Bella Thorne Set for New 'Amityville' Horror Movie (Exclusive)". The Wrap. Archived from the original on November 8, 2015. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Mike Jr. (March 22, 2014). "Fox Sets David James Kelly To Script Next 'Wolverine'". Bloody-Disgusting. Archived from the original on March 26, 2017. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Director and Cast Revealed for New Amityville Film". ComingSoon.net. March 22, 2014. Archived from the original on March 27, 2014. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Steve Barton (4 April 2014). "Exclusive: Thomas Mann and Taylor Spreitler Check Into the Amityville House". Dread Central. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Evangelista, Chris (September 21, 2017). "Amityville The Awakening release date revealed". Slashfilm. Archived from the original on September 22, 2017. Retrieved October 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bella Thorne Re-shoots Scenes for Amityville : The Awakening". Beautiful Ballad. February 12, 2016. Archived from the original on August 9, 2016. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Han, Angie (August 22, 2014). "Amityville: The Awakening Trailer Opens a New Chapter of an Old Franchise". Slashfilm. Archived from the original on December 27, 2014. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Douglas, Edward (September 19, 2014). "Dimension Films Reshuffling Release Dates for Demonic and Amityville". ComingSoon.net. Archived from the original on November 23, 2014. Retrieved September 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Miska, Brad (May 21, 2015). "'Amityville' Won't Haunt Until 2016". Bloody-Disgusting. Archived from the original on July 8, 2015. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (March 2, 2016). "Miramax Acquired By Qatar-Based beIN Media Group".
Jump up ^ "'Amityville' Won't Haunt Until 2016". Bloody-Disgusting. May 21, 2015. Archived from the original on July 8, 2015. Retrieved May 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bella Thorne is Haunted in the Amityville: The Awakening Trailer". Comingsoon.net. February 16, 2016. Archived from the original on October 6, 2017. Retrieved February 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Miska, Brad (March 8, 2016). "'Amityville: The Awakening' Pulled From Release By Dimension Films?". Bloody-Disgusting!. Archived from the original on October 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Andderson, Derek. "New Summer 2017 Release Date for AMITYVILLE: THE AWAKENING". Daily Dead. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ McDonald, James (October 16, 2017). ""Amityville: The Awakening" Haunts Blu-ray, DVD, Digital HD & On Demand November 14". Irish Film Critic. Retrieved October 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amityville: The Awakening (2017)". The Numbers. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Brian Brooks. "The Square' Runs Circles Over Most Openers; Weinstein's 'Amityville' Bombs – Specialty Box Office". Deadline.com. Retrieved October 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amityville: The Awakening (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved October 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amityville: The Awakening reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved October 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Siebold, Witney (October 13, 2017). "Amityville: The Awakening Review". IGN. Retrieved October 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ruiz, Freddy (2017-10-20). "Amityville: The Awakening (2017)". Dread Central. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
Jump up ^ Bowen, Chuck (2017-10-23). "Amityville: The Awakening". Slant Magazine. Retrieved 2017-10-23.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Mike (October 2, 2017). "Amityville: The Awakening Blu-ray release date & special features". Arrow in the Head. Retrieved October 16, 2017.
External links[edit]
Amityville: The Awakening on IMDb
Amityville: The Awakening at Rotten Tomatoes
[show]
v
t
e
The Amityville Horror
Ronald DeFeo Jr.
Books
The Amityville Horror
Murder in Amityville
The Amityville Horror Part II
Amityville: The Final Chapter
Amityville: The Evil Escapes
The Amityville Curse
Amityville: The Horror Returns
Amityville: The Nightmare Continues
High Hopes: The Amityville Murders
Films
The Amityville Horror (1979)
Amityville II: The Possession
Amityville 3-D
Amityville 4: The Evil Escapes
The Amityville Curse
Amityville: It's About Time
Amityville: A New Generation
Amityville: Dollhouse
The Amityville Horror (2005)
The Amityville Haunting
The Amityville Asylum
Amityville Death House
The Amityville Playhouse
Amityville: Vanishing Point
The Amityville Legacy
The Amityville Terror
Amityville: No Escape
Amityville: The Awakening
Amityville Exorcism
The Amityville Murders
Authors
Jay Anson
Hans Holzer
Stephen Kaplan
[show]
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Films directed by Franck Khalfoun
P2 (2007)
Wrong Turn at Tahoe (2009)
Maniac (2012)
i-Lived (2015)
Amityville: The Awakening (2017)
Prey (TBA)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amityville:_The_Awakening&oldid=821004552"
Categories:
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Matricide in fiction
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