text:
List of languages by number of native speakers
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For languages by total speakers, see List of languages by total number of speakers.
Current distribution of human language families
This article ranks human languages by their number of native speakers.
However, all such rankings should be used with caution.[1] It is difficult to define the difference between a language and a dialect, or between a language and a macrolanguage; for example, Chinese is sometimes considered a single language and sometimes a macrolanguage whose many varieties are all independent languages. Any division of speakers among languages is the result of the classification of these speakers. Often such classifications are based on political or cultural factors. Although such classifications are not entirely arbitrary, it is not possible to devise a coherent linguistic set of criteria for the boundaries between languages.
For a list of languages with the smallest numbers of native speakers, see lists of endangered languages.
Contents
[hide]
1 Top languages by population
2 Charts and graphs
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Top languages by population
The following table contains the top 100 languages by estimated number of native speakers in the 2007 edition of Nationalencyklopedin. As census methods in different countries vary to a considerable extent, and given that some countries do not record language in their censuses, any list of languages by native speakers, or total speakers, is effectively based on estimates. Updated estimates from 2010 are also provided.[2]
The top eleven languages have additional figures from the 2010 edition of the Nationalencyklopedin. Numbers above 95 million are rounded off to the nearest 5 million.
Top languages by population per Nationalencyklopedin
Rank
Language
Native
speakers
in millions
2007 (2010)
Fraction
of world
population
(2007)
1 Mandarin (entire branch) 935 (955) 14.1%
2 Spanish 390 (405) 5.85%
3 English 365 (360) 5.52%
4 Hindi[a] 295 (310) 4.46%
5 Arabic 280 (295) 4.23%
6 Portuguese 205 (215) 3.08%
7 Bengali (Bangla) 200 (205) 3.05%
8 Russian 160 (155) 2.42%
9 Japanese 125 (125) 1.92%
10 Punjabi 95 (100) 1.44%
11 German 92 (95) 1.39%
12 Javanese 82 1.25%
13 Wu (e.g. Shanghainese) 80 1.20%
14 Malay (inc. Malaysian and Indonesian) 77 1.16%
15 Telugu 76 1.15%
16 Vietnamese 76 1.14%
17 Korean 76 1.14%
18 French 75 1.12%
19 Marathi 73 1.10%
20 Tamil 70 1.06%
21 Urdu 66 0.99%
22 Turkish 63 0.95%
23 Italian 59 0.90%
24 Yue (incl. Cantonese) 59 0.89%
25 Thai 56 0.85%
26 Gujarati 49 0.74%
27 Jin 48 0.72%
28 Southern Min (incl. Hokkien and Teochew) 47 0.71%
29 Persian 45 0.68%
30 Polish 40 0.61%
31 Pashto 39 0.58%
32 Kannada 38 0.58%
33 Xiang (Hunanese) 38 0.58%
34 Malayalam 38 0.57%
35 Sundanese 38 0.57%
36 Hausa 34 0.52%
37 Odia (Oriya) 33 0.50%
38 Burmese 33 0.50%
39 Hakka 31 0.46%
40 Ukrainian 30 0.46%
41 Bhojpuri 29[b] 0.43%
42 Tagalog (Filipino) 28 0.42%
43 Yoruba 28 0.42%
44 Maithili 27[b] 0.41%
45 Uzbek 26 0.39%
46 Sindhi 26 0.39%
47 Amharic 25 0.37%
48 Fula 24 0.37%
49 Romanian 24 0.37%
50 Oromo 24 0.36%
51 Igbo 24 0.36%
52 Azerbaijani 23 0.34%
53 Awadhi 22[b] 0.33%
54 Gan Chinese 22 0.33%
55 Cebuano (Visayan) 21 0.32%
56 Dutch 21 0.32%
57 Kurdish 21 0.31%
58 Serbo-Croatian 19 0.28%
59 Malagasy 18 0.28%
60 Saraiki 17[c] 0.26%
61 Nepali 17 0.25%
62 Sinhalese 16 0.25%
63 Chittagonian 16 0.24%
64 Zhuang 16 0.24%
65 Khmer 16 0.24%
66 Turkmen 16 0.24%
67 Assamese 15 0.23%
68 Madurese 15 0.23%
69 Somali 15 0.22%
70 Marwari 14[b] 0.21%
71 Magahi 14[b] 0.21%
72 Haryanvi 14[b] 0.21%
73 Hungarian 13 0.19%
74 Chhattisgarhi 12[b] 0.19%
75 Greek 12 0.18%
76 Chewa 12 0.17%
77 Deccan 11 0.17%
78 Akan 11 0.17%
79 Kazakh 11 0.17%
80 Northern Min[disputed – discuss] 10.9 0.16%
81 Sylheti 10.7 0.16%
82 Zulu 10.4 0.16%
83 Czech 10.0 0.15%
84 Kinyarwanda 9.8 0.15%
85 Dhundhari 9.6[b] 0.15%
86 Haitian Creole 9.6 0.15%
87 Eastern Min (inc. Fuzhounese) 9.5 0.14%
88 Ilocano 9.1 0.14%
89 Quechua 8.9 0.13%
90 Kirundi 8.8 0.13%
91 Swedish 8.7 0.13%
92 Hmong 8.4 0.13%
93 Shona 8.3 0.13%
94 Uyghur 8.2 0.12%
95 Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (Visayan) 8.2 0.12%
96 Mossi 7.6 0.11%
97 Xhosa 7.6 0.11%
98 Belarusian 7.6[d] 0.11%
99 Balochi 7.6 0.11%
100 Konkani 7.4 0.11%
Total
5,610 85%
Charts and graphs
Bubble chart of languages by proportion of native speakers worldwide[2]
Languages with at least 50 million first-language speakers, millions (according to: Ethnologue[4])
See also
Global language system
Linguistic demography
Linguistic Diversity Index
List of ISO 639-3 codes
List of languages by total number of speakers
List of languages by number of native speakers in India (uses a different definition of Hindi)
List of sign languages by number of native signers
Lists of languages
World language
Languages used on the Internet
Notes
Jump up ^ Refers to only Modern Standard Hindi here. The Census of India defines Hindi on a loose and broad basis. It does not include the entire Hindustani language , only the Hindi register of it. In addition to Standard Hindi, it incorporates a set of other Indo-Aryan languages written in Devanagari script including Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Haryanvi, Dhundhari etc. under Hindi group which have more than 422 million native speakers as of 2001.[3] However, the census also acknowledges Standard Hindi, the above mentioned languages and others as separate mother tongues of the Hindi language and provides individual figures for all these languages.[3]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h This is only a fraction of total speakers; others are counted under "Hindi" as they regard their language a Hindi dialect.
Jump up ^ Numbers may also be counted in Punjabi above
Jump up ^ Only half this many use Belarusian as their home language.
References
Jump up ^ Paolillo, John C.; Das, Anupam (31 March 2006). "Evaluating language statistics: the Ethnologue and beyond" (PDF). UNESCO Institute of Statistics. pp. 3–5. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates for the top dozen languages.
^ Jump up to: a b Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2000, Census of India, 2001
Jump up ^ Summary by language size
External links
The Ethnologue's most recent list of languages by number of speakers
Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Archived 2009-10-31) – Encarta list, based on data from Ethnologue, but some figures (e.g. for Arabic) widely vary from it
Map of World Languages. Download of MP3 audio files in 1600 language combinations.
[show]
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t
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Countries and languages lists
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Countries
By languages
Spoken
Countries by spoken languages
Official
Countries by the number of recognized official languages
Arabic
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Endonyms
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[hide]
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Europe
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Latin Union (Romance)
Hispanidad (Spanish)
Turkic Council (Turkic)
International Organization of Turkic Culture (Turkic)
See also
Lists of languages
Category:Languages
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text:
Smiling Buddha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the religious figure known as the Laughing Buddha, see Budai.
Pokhran-I
Smiling Buddha
The Indian nuclear test site in Rajasthan
Information
Country
India
Test site
Pokhran Test Range (IA)
Period
18 May 1974, 8:05 a.m. (IST)
Number of tests
1
Test type
Underground
Device type
Fission
Max. yield
8 kilotons of TNT (33 TJ)
Test chronology
Pokhran-II →
Smiling Buddha[a] (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the assigned code name of India's first successful nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974.[1] The bomb was detonated on the army base, Pokhran Test Range (PTR), in Rajasthan by the Indian Army under the supervision of several key Indian generals.[2]
Pokhran-I was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[3] Officially, the Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) claimed this test was a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but it was an accelerated nuclear programme.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early origins, 1944–1960s
1.2 Weapons development, 1967–72
1.3 Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–74
1.4 Development teams and sites
2 Nuclear weapon design
2.1 Cross-section
2.2 Controversy regarding the yield
3 Aftermath
3.1 Domestic reaction
3.2 International reaction
3.2.1 Pakistan
3.2.2 Canada and United States
3.2.3 France
4 Subsequent nuclear explosions
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early origins, 1944–1960s[edit]
India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when Homi J. Bhabha founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.[4] Physicist Raja Ramanna played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test.[4]
After Indian independence from the British Empire, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru authorised the development of a nuclear programme headed by Homi Bhabha. The Atomic Energy Act of 1948 focused on peaceful development.[4] India was heavily involved in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.[5]
We must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war – indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.
—  Jawaharalal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India, [4]
In 1954, Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important infrastructure projects were commissioned. The first established Trombay Atomic Energy Establishment at Mumbai (Bombay). The other created a governmental secretariat, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), of which Bhabha was the first secretary. From 1954 to 1959, the nuclear programme grew swiftly. By 1958, the DAE had one-third of the defence budget for research purposes.[4] In 1954, India reached a verbal understanding with Canada and the United States under the Atoms for Peace programme; Canada and the United States ultimately agreed to provide and establish the CIRUS research reactor also at Trombay. The acquisition of CIRUS was a watershed event in nuclear proliferation with the understanding between India and the United States that the reactor would be used for peaceful purposes only.[4] CIRUS was an ideal facility to develop a plutonium device, and therefore Nehru refused to accept nuclear fuel from Canada and started the programme to develop an indigenous nuclear fuel cycle.[4]
In July 1958, Nehru authorised "Project Phoenix" to build a reprocessing plant with a capacity of 20 tons of fuel a year – a size to match the production capacity of CIRUS[clarification needed].[4] The plant used the PUREX process and was designed by the American firm Vitro International.[4] Construction of the plutonium plant began at Trombay on 27 March 1961, and it was commissioned in mid-1964.[4]
The nuclear programme continued to mature, and by 1960, Nehru made the critical decision to move the programme into production.[4] At about the same time, Nehru held discussions with the American firm Westinghouse Electric to construct India's first nuclear power plant in Tarapur, Maharashtra.[4] Kenneth Nichols, a US Army engineer, recalls from a meeting[6] with Nehru, "it was that time when Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked Bhabha for the timeline of the development of a nuclear weapon". Bhabha estimated he would need about a year to accomplish the task.[4]
By 1962, the nuclear programme was still developing, but at a slow rate. Nehru was distracted by the Sino-Indian War, during which India lost territory to China.[4] Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help, but the Soviet Union was preoccupied with the Cuban Missile Crisis.[4] The Soviet Politburo turned down Nehru's request for arms and continued backing the Chinese.[4] India concluded that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, and this conclusion strengthened India's determination to create a nuclear deterrent.[4] Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha and proceeded under Raja Ramanna who took over the programme after the former's death.[4]
Weapons development, 1967–72[edit]
Bhabha was now aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several speeches on Indian radio.[7] In 1964, Bhabha told the Indian public via Indian radio that "such nuclear weapons are remarkably cheap" and supported his arguments by referring to the economical cost of American nuclear testing programme (Plowshare).[7] Bhabha stated to the politicians that a 10 kt device would cost around $350,000, and $600,000 for a 2 mt.[7] From this, he estimated that "a stockpile" of around 50 atomic bombs would cost under $21 million and a stockpile of 50 two-megaton hydrogen bombs would cost around $31.5 million."[7] Bhabha did not realise, however, that the U.S. Plowshare cost-figures were produced by a vast industrial complex costing tens of billions of dollars, which had already manufactured nuclear weapons numbering in the tens of thousands.[7] The delivery systems for nuclear weapons typically cost several times as much as the weapons themselves.[7]
The nuclear programme was partially slowed down when Lal Bahadur Shastri became the prime minister.[8] In 1965, Shastri faced another war with Pakistan. Shastri appointed physicist Vikram Sarabhai as the head of the nuclear programme but because of his Gandhian beliefs Sarabhai directed the programme toward peaceful purposes rather than military development.[8]
In 1967, Indira Gandhi became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed with renewed vigour.[4] Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of weapon-grade plutonium while Ramanna designed and manufactured the whole nuclear device.[8] The first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists because of its sensitivity.[8] The nuclear weapons programme was now directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium.[9]
In 1968–69, P. K. Iyengar visited the Soviet Union with three colleagues and toured the nuclear research facilities at Dubna, Russia.[9] During his visit, Iyengar was impressed by the plutonium-fueled pulsed fast reactor.[9] Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing plutonium reactors approved by the Indian political leadership in January 1969.[9] The secret plutonium plant was known as Purnima,[10] and construction began in March 1969. The plant's leadership included Iyengar, Ramanna, Homi Sethna, and Sarabhai. Sarabhai's presence indicates that, with or without formal approval, the work on nuclear weapons at Trombay had been commenced.[9]
Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–74[edit]
India continued to harbour ambivalent feelings about nuclear weapons, and accorded low priority to their production until the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. In December 1971, Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group led by the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The Soviet response demonstrated the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to Indira Gandhi.[11] India gained the military and political initiative over Pakistan after acceding to the treaty that divided Pakistan into two different political entities.[9]
On 7 September 1972, near the peak of her post-war popularity, Indira Gandhi authorised the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) to manufacture a nuclear device and prepare it for a test.[5] Although the Indian Army was not fully involved in the nuclear testing, the army's highest command was kept fully informed of the test preparations.[9] The preparations were carried out under the watchful eyes of the Indian political leadership, with civilian scientists assisting the Indian Army.[2]
The device was formally called the "Peaceful Nuclear Explosive", but it was usually referred to as the Smiling Buddha.[2] The device was detonated on 18 May 1974, Buddha Jayanti (a festival day in India marking the birth of Gautama Buddha).[12] Indira Gandhi maintained tight control of all aspects of the preparations of the Smiling Buddha test, which was conducted in extreme secrecy; besides Gandhi, only advisers Parmeshwar Haksar and Durga Dhar were kept informed.[2] Scholar Raj Chengappa asserts the Indian Defence Minister Jagjivan Ram was not provided with any knowledge of this test and came to learn of it only after it was conducted.[13] Swaran Singh, the Minister of External Affairs, was given 48 hours advance notice.[14] The Indira Gandhi administration employed no more than 75 civilian scientists while General G. G. Bewoor, Indian army chief, and the commander of Indian Western Command were the only military commanders kept informed.[2]
Development teams and sites[edit]
The head of this entire nuclear bomb project was the director of the BARC, Raja Ramanna. In later years, his role in the nuclear programme would be more deeply integrated as he remained head of the nuclear programme most of his life. The designer and creator of the bomb was P. K. Iyengar, who was the second in command of this project. Iyengar's work was further assisted by the chief metallurgist, R. Chidambaram, and by Nagapattinam Sambasiva Venkatesan of the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, who developed and manufactured the high explosive implosion system. The explosive materials and the detonation system were developed by Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan of the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory.
The overall project was supervised by chemical engineer Homi Sethna, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India. Chidambaram, who would later coordinate work on the Pokhran-II tests, began work on the equation of state of plutonium in late 1967 or early 1968. To preserve secrecy, the project employed no more than 75 scientists and engineers from 1967–74.[5][15] It is theorised that Abdul Kalam also arrived at the test site as the representative of the DRDO, although he had no role whatsoever in the development of the nuclear bomb or even in the nuclear programme.[citation needed]
The device was of the implosion-type design and had a close resemblance to the American nuclear bomb called the Fat Man.[2] The implosion system was assembled at the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) of the DRDO in Chandigarh.[2] The detonation system was developed at the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL) of the DRDO in Pune, Maharashtra State.[2] The 6 kg of plutonium came from the CIRUS reactor at BARC.[2] The neutron initiator was of the polonium–beryllium type and code-named Flower. The complete nuclear bomb was engineered and finally assembled by Indian engineers at Trombay before transportation to the test site.[2]
Nuclear weapon design[edit]
Cross-section[edit]
The fully assembled device had a hexagonal cross section, 1.25 metres in diameter, and weighed 1400 kg.[2] The device was mounted on a hexagonal metal tripod, and was transported to the shaft on rails which the army kept covered with sand.[2] The device was detonated when Dastidar pushed the firing button at 8.05 a.m.; it was in a shaft 107 m under the army Pokhran test range in the Thar Desert (or Great Indian Desert), Rajasthan.[2] Coordinates of the crater are 27°05′42″N 71°45′11″E / 27.095°N 71.753°E / 27.095; 71.753Coordinates: 27°05′42″N 71°45′11″E / 27.095°N 71.753°E / 27.095; 71.753.
Controversy regarding the yield[edit]
The nuclear yield of this test still remains controversial, with unclear data provided by Indian sources, although Indian politicians have given the country's press a range from 2 kt to 20 kt.[2] The official yield was initially set at 12 kt; post-Operation Shakti claims have raised it to 13 kt.[2] Independent seismic data from outside and analysis of the crater features indicate a lower figure.[2] Analysts usually estimate the yield at 4 to 6 kt, using conventional seismic magnitude-to-yield conversion formulas. In recent years, both Homi Sethna and P. K. Iyengar have conceded the official yield to be an exaggeration.[2]
Iyengar has variously stated that the yield was 8–10 kt, that the device was designed to yield 10 kt, and that the yield was 8 kt "exactly as predicted". Although seismic scaling laws lead to an estimated yield range between 3.2 kt and 21 kt,[16] an analysis of hard rock cratering effects suggests a narrow range of around 8 kt for the yield,[2] which is within the uncertainties of the seismic yield estimate.[16]
Aftermath[edit]
Domestic reaction[edit]
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had already gained much popularity and publicity after her successful military campaign against Pakistan in the 1971 war.[17] The test caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its high after the 1971 war. The overall popularity and image of the Congress Party was enhanced and the Congress Party was well received in the Indian Parliament.[17] In 1975, Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer and the chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission (AECI), Raja Ramanna of BARC, and Basanti Nagchaudhuri of DRDO, all were honoured with the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award.[17] Five other project members received the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award.[17] India consistently maintained that this was a peaceful nuclear bomb test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme. However, according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated Indian nuclear programme.[1] In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the Press Trust of India, maintained:
The Pokhran test was a bomb, I can tell you now.... An explosion is an explosion, a gun is a gun, whether you shoot at someone or shoot at the ground.... I just want to make clear that the test was not all that peaceful.
—  Raja Ramanna 1997, giving interview to Press Trust of India in 1997[2]
International reaction[edit]
Main article: Nuclear Suppliers Group
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation.[18] The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals,[19] which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but in 2008 it waived this restriction on nuclear trade with India as part of the Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement.[20]
Pakistan[edit]
Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations.[5] Pakistan's Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the subcontinent".[21] The chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmed Khan, said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb.[22] Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, stated in 2011 that he believed the test "pushed [Pakistan] further into the nuclear arena".[23]
Canada and United States[edit]
The plutonium used in the test was created in the CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and using heavy water supplied by the United States. Both countries reacted negatively, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the economic aid both countries had provided to India.[5][24] Canada concluded that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two heavy water reactors then under construction.[5] The United States concluded that the test did not violate any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor.[5]
France[edit]
France sent a congratulatory telegram to India but later withdrew it.[25]
Subsequent nuclear explosions[edit]
Despite many proposals, India did not carry out further nuclear tests until 1998. After the 1998 general elections, Operation Shakti (also known as Pokhran-II) was carried out at the Pokhran test site, using devices designed and built over the preceding two decades.[5][26]
See also[edit]
India and weapons of mass destruction
History of nuclear weapons
List of countries with nuclear weapons
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This test has many code names. Civilian scientists called it "Operation Smiling Buddha" and the Indian Army referred to it as Operation Happy Krishna. According to United States Military Intelligence, Operation Happy Krishna was the code name for the Indian Army's construction of the underground site in which the tests were conducted. The Ministry of External Affairs designated the test as Pokhran-I.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c FIles. "1974 Nuclear files". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Nuclear files archives. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Smiling Buddha, 1974". India's Nuclear Weapons Program. Nuclear Weapon Archive.
Jump up ^ NSG. "History of the NSG". Nuclear Suppliers Group. Nuclear Suppliers Group. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Sublette, Carey. "Origins of Indian nuclear program". Nuclear weapon Archive. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Perkovich, George (2002). India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5.
Jump up ^ "INDIA THE ULTIMATE POWER with Adi Kalita and 4 others". Facebook.com. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 8 Sep 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f et. al 30 March 2001 (30 March 2001). "On to Weapons Development, 1960–67". India's Nuclear Weapons Program. India's Nuclear Weapons Program. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kanavi, Shivanand. "How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs". Shivanand Kanavi. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "India's First Bomb, 1967–74". India's First Bomb, 1967–74. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
Jump up ^ N/A, N/A (1 Sep 2003). "NTI.org and [1] Andrew Koch, "Selected Indian Nuclear Facilities," Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS), 1999; http://cns.miis.edu; [2] Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), www.barc.ernet.in; [3] George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: the impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 149–150; [4] 2000 World Nuclear Industry Handbook (Wilmington, UK: Nuclear Engineering International, 2000), p. 198". NTI Building a Safer World. NTI. Retrieved 8 Sep 2014.
Jump up ^ "Arihant: the annihilator". Indian Defence Review. 25 October 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Pahuja, Om Parkash. India: A Nuclear Weapon State. Prabhat Prakashan. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-87100-69-0. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Chengappa, Raj (2000). Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers, India. ISBN 81-7223-330-2.
Jump up ^ Perkovich, George (1999). India's nuclear bomb : the impact on global proliferation ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Berkeley [u.a.]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21772-1.
Jump up ^ Richelson, Jefferey T (March 1999). Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. WW Norton. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-393-05383-8.
^ Jump up to: a b http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Reaction and Long Pause". Reaction and Long Pause. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "History". Nuclear Suppliers Group. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)" (PDF). Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2003. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Deal: A chronology of key developments". The Indian Express. 2 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (18 May 1974), Prime minister Secretariat Press Release, Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV), archived from the original on 18 September 2011, India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan...
Jump up ^ Khan, Munir Ahmad (18 May 1974). "India's nuclear explosion: Challenge and Response". International Atomic Energy Agency and Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hoodbhoy, Pervez Amerali, PhD (Nuclear Physics) (23 January 2011). "Pakistan's nuclear bayonet". The Herald. Retrieved 9 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ripples in the nuclear pond". The Deseret News. 22 May 1974. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ [1] Anderson, Robert (24 June – 7 July 2000), "Who is smiling now?", Frontline, The Hindu, 17 (13), retrieved 12 March 2012
Jump up ^ Reed, Thomas C; Stillman, Danny B (2009). The nuclear express: a political history of the bomb and its proliferation. Zenith. ISBN 978-0-7603-3502-4.
External links[edit]
Fairclough, Bill (2015). Beyond Enkription - The Burlington Files. Great Britain: Dolman Scott (Publishers). ISBN 978-1909204720.
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