text:
State of Love and Trust
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"State of Love and Trust"
Song by Pearl Jam
from the album Singles: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
Released
June 30, 1992
Recorded
January 1992 at London Bridge Studios, Seattle (Singles: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack version)
March 27 – April 26, 1991 at London Bridge Studios, Seattle (Ten reissue version)
Genre
Grunge
Length
3:46
Label
Epic
Songwriter(s)
Eddie Vedder, Mike McCready, Jeff Ament
Producer(s)
Rick Parashar, Pearl Jam
Singles: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack track listing
"Birth Ritual"
(Soundgarden)
(Track 7) "State of Love and Trust"
(Track 8) "Overblown"
(Mudhoney)
(Track 9)
"State of Love and Trust" is a song by the American alternative band Pearl Jam. Featuring lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music co-written by guitarist Mike McCready and bassist Jeff Ament, "State of Love and Trust" first appeared on the soundtrack to the 1992 film, Singles. The song was included on Pearl Jam's 2004 greatest hits album, Rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991–2003). An early version of the song was included as part of the reissue of the band's debut album, Ten, in 2009.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and recording
2 Lyrics
3 In other media
4 Live performances
5 Cover versions
6 References
7 External links
Origin and recording[edit]
"State of Love and Trust" features lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music co-written by guitarist Mike McCready and bassist Jeff Ament. The song was originally recorded during the sessions for Ten with the possible intention of appearing in the film Singles.[2] Ament said, "The version of 'State of Love and Trust' with Dave Krusen on drums is so much better than what ended up being released,"[3] and added, "He really plays that song in the spirit it was written in. It has a much trashier, Crazy Horse feel to it. It's awesome."[4] The version of "State of Love and Trust" recorded during the Ten sessions appears on the 2009 Ten reissue.
The version of "State of Love and Trust" heard in the film Singles and on its soundtrack was recorded in 1992 and was one of the first songs to be recorded with drummer Dave Abbruzzese.[5][6] The same sessions also produced "Breath", "Dirty Frank", and the re-recorded version of "Even Flow".
Lyrics[edit]
According to Ament, the lyrics for "State of Love and Trust" are based on what Vedder took from watching the film, and added, "I think he probably took a heavier angle on what the movie was about than a lot of people will, but that's Eddie, which is a beautiful thing."[7] According to Cameron Crowe, director of Singles, the song is "about battling with your instincts in love."[2] Before a performance of the song at Pearl Jam's September 8, 1998 show in East Rutherford, New Jersey at Continental Airlines Arena, Vedder introduced it as "a song about being faithful."[8]
In other media[edit]
In March 2009, a live version of "State of Love and Trust" taken from the band's September 20, 1992 concert was made available as a downloadable bonus track for the Rock Band series for those who purchase the Ten re-release through Best Buy.[9]
Live performances[edit]
"State of Love and Trust" was first performed live at the band's July 12, 1991 concert in Philadelphia at JC Dobbs.[10] Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on MTV Unplugged in 1992. When "State of Love and Trust" was performed by Pearl Jam at the MTV Singles Scene movie release party, Vedder intentionally interjected expletives into the song's lyrics.[11] Clips from the studio version were spliced into the performance by Brendan O'Brien so that it could air on television.[12] Live performances of "State of Love and Trust" can be found on the "Dissident"/Live in Atlanta box set, various official bootlegs, the Live at the Gorge 05/06 box set, the live album Live at Lollapalooza 2007, Live on Ten Legs, and the Drop in the Park LP included in the Super Deluxe edition of the Ten reissue. Performances of the song are also included on the DVD Immagine in Cornice and the MTV Unplugged DVD included in the Ten reissue.
Cover versions[edit]
A live version of "State of Love and Trust" by the band The Gaslight Anthem can be found on the band's 2009 "The '59 Sound" single. A cover of the song also appears on their iTunes Session EP. Gaslight Anthem has played "State of Love and Trust" with Vedder in concert.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hay, Travis (2008-12-10). "Pearl Jam's Ten gets the deluxe treatment with four reissues next year". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Crowe, Cameron. "Making the Scene: A Filmmakers Diary". Rolling Stone. October 1, 1992.
Jump up ^ Light, Alan (2009-03-23). "Pearl Jam's Perfect Ten". MSN Music. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Jonathan (2009-03-24). "Q&A: Pearl Jam's Jeff Ament". Billboard. Archived from the original on September 14, 2014. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Jeff. "Alive & Kicking". Guitar World. September 1992.
Jump up ^ Peiken, Matt (December 1993). "Dave Abbruzzese of Pearl Jam". Modern Drummer. Retrieved 2007-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Interview with Jeff Ament". Hit Parader. September 1992.
Jump up ^ "Pearl Jam: 1998 Concert Chronology: Part 3". fivehorizons.com.
Jump up ^ "Best Buy Exclusive". BestBuy.com.
Jump up ^ "Pearl Jam Songs: "State of Love and Trust"". pearljam.com.
Jump up ^ "Pearl Jam Chronology 1992-September". PearlJam10YearsAgo.no.sapo.pt. February 27, 2002.
Jump up ^ "Pearl Jam: 1992 Concert Chronology: Part 2". fivehorizons.com.
External links[edit]
Lyrics at pearljam.com
[hide]
v
t
e
Pearl Jam
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9.11.2011 Toronto, Canada
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Singles
"Alive"
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"Nothing as It Seems"
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"I Am Mine"
"Save You"
"Love Boat Captain"
"Man of the Hour"
"World Wide Suicide"
"Life Wasted"
"Gone"
"The Fixer"
"Just Breathe"
"Amongst the Waves"
"Crown of Thorns"
"Mind Your Manners"
"Sirens"
"Can't Deny Me"
Other songs
"Once"
"Black"
"Porch"
"State of Love and Trust"
"Breath"
"Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town"
"Glorified G"
"W.M.A.
"Rearviewmirror"
"Yellow Ledbetter"
"Tremor Christ"
"Better Man"
"Nothingman"
"Corduroy"
"I Got Id"
"Red Mosquito"
"In Hiding"
"Do the Evolution"
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"½ Full"
"Brother"
Tours
Mookie Blaylock 1991 United States Tour
1991 United States Tour
Ten Tour
Lollapalooza 1992
1993 European and North American Tour
Vs. Tour
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No Code Tour
Yield Tour
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Riot Act Tour
Vote for Change
2005 North American and Latin American Tour
2006 World Tour
2007 European Tour
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Backspacer Tour
Pearl Jam Twenty Tour
2012 Tour
Lightning Bolt Tour
2015 Latin America Tour
2016 North America Tour
2018 Tour
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Jai Jawan Jai Kisan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For 2015 film, see Jai Jawaan Jai Kisaan (film).
Jai Jawan Jai Kisan (English: "Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer") was a slogan given to India by the Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965 at a public gathering at Ramlila Maidan, Delhi.[1][2]
Soon after Shastri took over the prime ministership of India after Nehru's death, India was attacked by Pakistan. At the same time there was scarcity of food grains in the country. Shastri gave the slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan to enthuse the soldiers to defend India and simultaneously cheering farmers to do their best to increase the production of food grains to reduce dependence on import. It became a very popular slogan.[1][3]
In popular culture[edit]
After the Pokaran tests in 1998, [Atal Bihari Vajpayee] added Jai Vigyan (Hail Science) to the slogan to underline the importance of knowledge in India's progress.[4]
During the acceptance speech of Sunil Bharti Mittal delivered at Teen Murti Bhavan on 15 December 2009 after receiving the 10th Lal Bahadur Shastri National Award from the President of India, the Director of the Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of Management, Delhi, Dr Kailash Chandra Mishra, restated the slogan as
Jai Jawan! Jai Kissan! Jai Vigyan! Jai Vidwan!
Jai Vidwan means "hail the learned" to signify knowledge working as the driver of India's current significant economic growth.
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India) commemorated Shastri on his 48th martyr's day:
Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri was one of those great Indians who has left an indelible impression on our collective life. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri's contribution to our public life were unique in that they were made in the closest proximity to the life of the common man in India. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri was looked upon by Indians as one of their own, one who shared their ideals, hopes and aspirations. His achievements were looked upon not as the isolated achievements of an individual but of our society collectively.
Under his leadership India faced and repulsed the Pakistani invasion of 1965. It is not only a matter of pride for the Indian Army but also for every citizen of the country. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri's slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan reverberates even today through the length and breadth of the country. Underlying this is the inner-most sentiments 'Jai Hindustan'. The war of 1965 was fought and won for our self-respect and our national prestige. For using our Defence Forces with such admirable skill, the nation remains beholden to Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri. He will be remembered for all times to come for his large heartedness and public service.[5]
In 2015, a film based on Shastri's life was released which was named after this slogan.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Gallery of Prime Ministers of India". Govt of India. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "The ground beneath her feet". Livemint. April 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-04-05.
Jump up ^ "State to usher in `Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan' era". The Hindu. Dec 9, 2006. Archived from the original on 6 Apr 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "'Jai jawan, jai kisan aur jai vigyan,' Vajpayee coins new slogan". Rediff.com. May 20, 1998. Archived from the original on 27 Apr 2006. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Hindustan Times, New Delhi Friday, January 11, 2013 page no 5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jai_Jawan_Jai_Kisan&oldid=793683740"
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text:
Adrenaline
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the natural hormone. For the medication, see Epinephrine (medication). For other uses, see Adrenaline (disambiguation).
Adrenaline
Clinical data
Synonyms
adrenaline (BAN UK)
Pharmacokinetic data
Metabolism
adrenergic synapse (MAO and COMT)
Onset of action
Rapid[1]
Elimination half-life
2 minutes
Duration of action
Few minutes[2]
Excretion
Urine
Identifiers
IUPAC name[show]
(R)-4-(1-Hydroxy-2-(methylamino)ethyl)benzene-1,2-diol
CAS Number
51-43-4 Y
PubChem CID
5816
IUPHAR/BPS
479
DrugBank
DB00668 Y
ChemSpider
5611 Y
UNII
YKH834O4BH
KEGG
D00095 Y
ChEBI
CHEBI:28918 Y
ChEMBL
CHEMBL679 Y
PDB ligand
ALE (PDBe, RCSB PDB)
ECHA InfoCard
100.000.090
Chemical and physical data
Formula
C9H13NO3
Molar mass
183.204 g/mol
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
Density
1.283±0.06 g/cm3 @ 20 °C, 760 Torr
SMILES[show]
CNC[C@H](O)C1=CC=C(O)C(O)=C1
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C9H13NO3/c1-10-5-9(13)6-2-3-7(11)8(12)4-6/h2-4,9-13H,5H2,1H3/t9-/m0/s1 Y
Key:UCTWMZQNUQWSLP-VIFPVBQESA-N Y
(verify)
Adrenaline, also known as adrenalin or epinephrine, is a hormone, neurotransmitter, and medication.[3][4] Epinephrine is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons.[3] It plays an important role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level.[5][6] It does this by binding to alpha and beta receptors.[6] It is found in many animals and some single cell organisms.[7][8] Napoleon Cybulski first isolated epinephrine in 1895.[9]
Contents
1 Medical uses
2 Physiological effects
2.1 Exercise
2.2 Emotional Response
2.3 Memory
3 Pathology
4 Terminology
5 Mechanism of action
6 Measurement in biological fluids
7 Biosynthesis and regulation
7.1 Regulation
8 History
9 Society and culture
9.1 Adrenaline junkie
9.2 Strength
10 References
11 External links
Medical uses[edit]
Main article: Epinephrine (medication)
As a medication, it is used to treat a number of conditions including anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest, and superficial bleeding.[1] Inhaled epinephrine may be used to improve the symptoms of croup.[10] It may also be used for asthma when other treatments are not effective. It is given intravenously, by injection into a muscle, by inhalation, or by injection just under the skin.[1] Common side effects include shakiness, anxiety, and sweating. A fast heart rate and high blood pressure may occur. Occasionally it may result in an abnormal heart rhythm. While the safety of its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding is unclear, the benefits to the mother must be taken into account.[1]
A case has been made for the use of Adrenaline (epinephrine) infusion in place of the widely accepted treatment of inotopes for preterm infants with clinical cardiovascular compromise. Although there is sufficient data which strongly recommends Adrenaline infusions as a viable treatment, more trials are needed in order to conclusively determine that these infusions will successfully reduce morbidity and mortality rates among preterm, cardiovascularly compromised infants.[11]
Physiological effects[edit]
The adrenal medulla is a minor contributor to total circulating catecholamines (L-DOPA is at a higher concentration in the plasma),[12] though it contributes over 90% of circulating epinephrine. Little epinephrine is found in other tissues, mostly in scattered chromaffin cells. Following adrenalectomy, epinephrine disappears below the detection limit in the blood stream.[13]
The adrenal glands contribute about 7% of circulating norepinephrine, most of which is a spill over from neurotransmission with little activity as a hormone.[14][15][16] Pharmacological doses of epinephrine stimulate α1, α2, β1, β2, and β3 adrenoceptors of the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nerve receptors are classified as adrenergic, based on their responsiveness to adrenaline.[17]
The term "adrenergic" is often misinterpreted in that the main sympathetic neurotransmitter is norepinephrine (noradrenaline), rather than epinephrine, as discovered by Ulf von Euler in 1946.[18][19]
Epinephrine does have a β2 adrenoceptor-mediated effect on metabolism and the airway, there being no direct neural connection from the sympathetic ganglia to the airway.[20][21][22]
The concept of the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic nervous system being involved in the flight, fight and fright response was originally proposed by Cannon.[23] But the adrenal medulla, in contrast to the adrenal cortex, is not required for survival. In adrenalectomized patients hemodynamic and metabolic responses to stimuli such as hypoglycemia and exercise remain normal.[24][25]
Exercise[edit]
One physiological stimulus to epinephrine secretion is exercise. This was first demonstrated using the denervated pupil of a cat as an assay,[26] later confirmed using a biological assay on urine samples.[27] Biochemical methods for measuring catecholamines in plasma were published from 1950 onwards.[28] Although much valuable work has been published using fluorimetric assays to measure total catecholamine concentrations, the method is too non-specific and insensitive to accurately determine the very small quantities of epinephrine in plasma. The development of extraction methods and enzyme-isotope derivate radio-enzymatic assays (REA) transformed the analysis down to a sensitivity of 1 pg for epinephrine.[29] Early REA plasma assays indicated that epinephrine and total catecholamines rise late in exercise, mostly when anaerobic metabolism commences.[30][31][32]
During exercise the epinephrine blood concentration rises partially from increased secretion from the adrenal medulla and partly from decreased metabolism because of reduced hepatic blood flow.[33] Infusion of epinephrine to reproduce exercise circulating concentrations of epinephrine in subjects at rest has little haemodynamic effect, other than a small β2-mediated fall in diastolic blood pressure.[34][35] Infusion of epinephrine well within the physiological range suppresses human airway hyper-reactivity sufficiently to antagonize the constrictor effects of inhaled histamine.[36]
A link between what we now know as the sympathetic system and the lung was shown in 1887 when Grossman showed that stimulation of cardiac accelerator nerves reversed muscarine-induced airway constriction.[37] In elegant experiments in the dog, where the sympathetic chain was cut at the level of the diaphragm, Jackson showed that there was no direct sympathetic innervation to the lung, but that bronchoconstriction was reversed by release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla.[38] An increased incidence of asthma has not been reported for adrenalectomized patients; those with a predisposition to asthma will have some protection from airway hyper-reactivity from their corticosteroid replacement therapy. Exercise induces progressive airway dilation in normal subjects that correlates with work load and is not prevented by beta blockade.[39] The progressive dilation of the airway with increasing exercise is mediated by a progressive reduction in resting vagal tone. Beta blockade with propranolol causes a rebound in airway resistance after exercise in normal subjects over the same time course as the bronchoconstriction seen with exercise induced asthma.[40] The reduction in airway resistance during exercise reduces the work of breathing.[41]
Emotional Response[edit]
Every emotional response has a behavioral component, an autonomic component, and a hormonal component. The hormonal component includes the release of epinephrine, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to epinephrine is fear. In an experiment, subjects who were injected with epinephrine expressed more negative and fewer positive facial expressions to fear films compared to a control group. These subjects also reported a more intense fear from the films and greater mean intensity of negative memories than control subjects.[42] The findings from this study demonstrate that there are learned associations between negative feelings and levels of epinephrine. Overall, the greater amount of epinephrine is positively correlated with an arousal state of negative feelings. These findings can be an effect in part that epinephrine elicits physiological sympathetic responses including an increased heart rate and knee shaking, which can be attributed to the feeling of fear regardless of the actual level of fear elicited from the video. Although studies have found a definite relation between epinephrine and fear, other emotions have not had such results. In the same study, subjects did not express a greater amusement to an amusement film nor greater anger to an anger film.[42] Similar findings were also supported in a study that involved rodent subjects that either were able or unable to produce epinephrine. Findings support the idea that epinephrine does have a role in facilitating the encoding of emotionally arousing events, contributing to higher levels of arousal due to fear.[43]
Memory[edit]
It has been found that adrenergic hormones, such as epinephrine, can produce retrograde enhancement of long-term memory in humans. The release of epinephrine due to emotionally stressful events, which is endogenous epinephrine, can modulate memory consolidation of the events, ensuring memory strength that is proportional to memory importance. Post-learning epinephrine activity also interacts with the degree of arousal associated with the initial coding.[44] There is evidence that suggests epinephrine does have a role in long-term stress adaptation and emotional memory encoding specifically. Epinephrine may also play a role in elevating arousal and fear memory under particular pathological conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder.[43] Overall, "Extensive evidence indicates that epinephrine (EPI) modulates memory consolidation for emotionally arousing tasks in animals and human subjects.”[45] Studies have also found that recognition memory involving epinephrine depends on a mechanism that depends on β adrenoceptors.[45] Epinephrine does not readily cross the blood–brain barrier, so its effects on memory consolidation are at least partly initiated by β adrenoceptors in the periphery. Studies have found that sotalol, a β adrenoceptor antagonist that also does not readily enter the brain, blocks the enhancing effects of peripherally administered epinephrine on memory.[46] These findings suggest that β adrenoceptors are necessary for epinephrine to have an effect on memory consolidation.
For noradrenaline to be acted upon by PNMT in the cytosol, it must first be shipped out of granules of the chromaffin cells. This may occur via the catecholamine-H+ exchanger VMAT1. VMAT1 is also responsible for transporting newly synthesized adrenaline from the cytosol back into chromaffin granules in preparation for release.[47]
In liver cells, adrenaline binds to the β adrenergic receptor, which changes conformation and helps Gs, a G protein, exchange GDP to GTP. This trimeric G protein dissociates to Gs alpha and Gs beta/gamma subunits. Gs alpha binds to adenyl cyclase, thus converting ATP into cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP binds to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A: Protein kinase A phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Meanwhile, Gs beta/gamma binds to the calcium channel and allows calcium ions to enter the cytoplasm. Calcium ions bind to calmodulin proteins, a protein present in all eukaryotic cells, which then binds to phosphorylase kinase and finishes its activation. Phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase, which then phosphorylates glycogen and converts it to glucose-6-phosphate.[citation needed]
Pathology[edit]
Increased epinephrine secretion is observed in pheochromocytoma, hypoglycemia, myocardial infarction and to a lesser degree in benign essential familial tremor. A general increase in sympathetic neural activity is usually accompanied by increased adrenaline secretion, but there is selectivity during hypoxia and hypoglycaemia, when the ratio of adrenaline to noradrenaline is considerably increased.[48][49][50] Therefore, there must be some autonomy of the adrenal medulla from the rest of the sympathetic system.
Myocardial infarction is associated with high levels of circulating epinephrine and norepinephrine, particularly in cardiogenic shock.[51][52]
Benign familial tremor (BFT) is responsive to peripheral β adrenergic blockers and β2-stimulation is known to cause tremor. Patients with BFT were found to have increased plasma epinephrine, but not norepinephrine.[53][54]
Low, or absent, concentrations of epinephrine can be seen in autonomic neuropathy or following adrenalectomy. Failure of the adrenal cortex, as with Addisons disease, can suppress epinephrine secretion as the activity of the synthesing enzyme, phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase, depends on the high concentration of cortisol that drains from the cortex to the medulla.[55][56][57]
Terminology[edit]
Epinephrine is the pharmaceutical's United States Adopted Name and International Nonproprietary Name, though the name adrenaline is frequently used. The term epinephrine was coined by the pharmacologist John Abel (from the Greek for "on top of the kidneys"), who used the name to describe the extracts he prepared from the adrenal glands as early as 1897.[58] In 1901, Jokichi Takamine patented a purified adrenal extract, and called it "adrenalin" (from the Latin for "on top of the kidneys"), which was trademarked by Parke, Davis & Co in the U.S.[58] In the belief that Abel's extract was the same as Takamine's, a belief since disputed, epinephrine became[when?] the generic name in the U.S.[58] The British Approved Name and European Pharmacopoeia term for this drug is adrenaline and is indeed now one of the few differences between the INN and BAN systems of names.[59]
Among American health professionals and scientists, the term epinephrine is used over adrenaline. However, pharmaceuticals that mimic the effects of epinephrine are often called adrenergics, and receptors for epinephrine are called adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors.
Mechanism of action[edit]
See also: Adrenergic receptor
Physiologic responses to epinephrine by organ
Organ
Effects
Heart Increases heart rate; contractility; conduction across AV node
Lungs Increases respiratory rate; bronchodilation
Systemic Vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Liver Stimulates glycogenolysis
Systemic Triggers lipolysis
Systemic Muscle contraction
Play media
7x speed timelapse video of fish melanophores responding to 200µM adrenaline
As a hormone, epinephrine acts on nearly all body tissues. Its actions vary by tissue type and tissue expression of adrenergic receptors. For example, high levels of epinephrine causes smooth muscle relaxation in the airways but causes contraction of the smooth muscle that lines most arterioles.
Epinephrine acts by binding to a variety of adrenergic receptors. Epinephrine is a nonselective agonist of all adrenergic receptors, including the major subtypes α1, α2, β1, β2, and β3.[60] Epinephrine's binding to these receptors triggers a number of metabolic changes. Binding to α-adrenergic receptors inhibits insulin secretion by the pancreas, stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver and muscle,[61] and stimulates glycolysis and inhibits insulin-mediated glycogenesis in muscle.[62][63] β adrenergic receptor binding triggers glucagon secretion in the pancreas, increased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion by the pituitary gland, and increased lipolysis by adipose tissue. Together, these effects lead to increased blood glucose and fatty acids, providing substrates for energy production within cells throughout the body.[63]
Its actions are to increase peripheral resistance via α1 receptor-dependent vasoconstriction and to increase cardiac output via its binding to β1 receptors. The goal of reducing peripheral circulation is to increase coronary and cerebral perfusion pressures and therefore increase oxygen exchange at the cellular level.[64] While epinephrine does increase aortic, cerebral, and carotid circulation pressure, it lowers carotid blood flow and end-tidal CO2 or ETCO2 levels. It appears that epinephrine may be improving macrocirculation at the expense of the capillary beds where actual perfusion is taking place.[65]
Measurement in biological fluids[edit]
Epinephrine may be quantified in blood, plasma or serum as a diagnostic aid, to monitor therapeutic administration, or to identify the causative agent in a potential poisoning victim. Endogenous plasma epinephrine concentrations in resting adults are normally less than 10 ng/L, but may increase by 10-fold during exercise and by 50-fold or more during times of stress. Pheochromocytoma patients often have plasma adrenaline levels of 1000–10,000 ng/L. Parenteral administration of epinephrine to acute-care cardiac patients can produce plasma concentrations of 10,000 to 100,000 ng/L.[66][67]
Biosynthesis and regulation[edit]
The biosynthesis of adrenaline involves a series of enzymatic reactions.
In chemical terms, epinephrine is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines. It is produced in some neurons of the central nervous system, and in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.[68]
Epinephrine is synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal gland in an enzymatic pathway that converts the amino acid tyrosine into a series of intermediates and, ultimately, epinephrine. Tyrosine is first oxidized to L-DOPA, which is subsequently decarboxylated to give dopamine. Dopamine is the catalyzed to norepinephrine by Dopamine beta-hydroxylase. The final step in epinephrine biosynthesis is the methylation of the primary amine of norepinephrine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) which utilizes S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) as the methyl donor.[69] While PNMT is found primarily in the cytosol of the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla (also known as chromaffin cells), it has been detected at low levels in both the heart and brain.[70]
Biosynthetic pathways for catecholamines and trace amines in the human brain[71][72][73]
L-Phenylalanine
L-Tyrosine
L-DOPA
Epinephrine
Phenethylamine
p-Tyramine
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
N-Methylphenethylamine
N-Methyltyramine
p-Octopamine
Synephrine
3-Methoxytyramine
AADC
AADC
AADC
primary
pathway
PNMT
PNMT
PNMT
PNMT
AAAH
AAAH
brain
CYP2D6
minor
pathway
COMT
DBH
DBH
Epinephrine is produced in a small group of neurons in the human brain via the metabolic pathway shown above.
Regulation[edit]
The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in the central nervous system.[74]
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of adrenaline precursors by enhancing the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, two key enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis.[citation needed] ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing adrenaline synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress.[citation needed] The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of adrenaline. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and, thus, the release of adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the bloodstream.[75]
Unlike many other hormones adrenaline (as with other catecholamines) does not exert negative feedback to down-regulate its own synthesis.[76] Abnormally elevated levels of adrenaline can occur in a variety of conditions, such as surreptitious epinephrine administration, pheochromocytoma, and other tumors of the sympathetic ganglia.
Its action is terminated with reuptake into nerve terminal endings, some minute dilution, and metabolism by monoamine oxidase and catechol-O-methyl transferase.
History[edit]
Main article: History of catecholamine research
Extracts of the adrenal gland were first obtained by Polish physiologist Napoleon Cybulski in 1895. These extracts, which he called nadnerczyna ("adrenalin"), contained adrenaline and other catecholamines.[77] American ophthalmologist William H. Bates discovered adrenaline's usage for eye surgeries prior to 20 April 1896.[78] Japanese chemist Jokichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka independently discovered adrenaline in 1900.[79][80] In 1901, Takamine successfully isolated and purified the hormone from the adrenal glands of sheep and oxen.[81] Adrenaline was first synthesized in the laboratory by Friedrich Stolz and Henry Drysdale Dakin, independently, in 1904.[80]
Society and culture[edit]
Adrenaline junkie[edit]
See also: Novelty seeking
An adrenaline junkie is somebody who engages in sensation-seeking behavior through "the pursuit of novel and intense experiences without regard for physical, social, legal or financial risk".[82] Such activities include extreme and risky sports, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and crime. The term relates to the increase in circulating levels of adrenaline during physiological stress.[83] Such an increase in the circulating concentration of adrenaline is secondary to activation of the sympathetic nerves innervating the adrenal medulla, as it is rapid and not present in animals where the adrenal gland has been removed.[84] Although such stress triggers adrenaline release, it also activates many other responses within the central nervous system reward system which drives behavioral responses, so while the circulating adrenaline concentration is present, it may not drive behavior. Nevertheless, adrenaline infusion alone does increase alertness[85] and has roles in the brain including the augmentation of memory consolidation.[83]:147–8
Strength[edit]
Main article: Hysterical strength
Adrenaline has been implicated in feats of great strength, often occurring in times of crisis. For example, there are stories of a parent lifting part of a car when their child is trapped underneath.[86][87]
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Jump up ^ von Bohlen und Haibach O, Dermietzel R (2006). Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Handbook of Receptors and Biological Effects. Wiley-VCH. p. 125. ISBN 978-3-527-31307-5.
Jump up ^ Kirshner N, Goodall M (June 1957). "The formation of adrenaline from noradrenaline". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 24 (3): 658–9. doi:10.1016/0006-3002(57)90271-8. PMID 13436503.
Jump up ^ Axelrod J (May 1962). "Purification and Properties of Phenylethanolamine-N-methyl Transferase". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 237 (5): 1657–1660.
Jump up ^ Broadley KJ (March 2010). "The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines". Pharmacol. Ther. 125 (3): 363–375. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.11.005. PMID 19948186.
Jump up ^ Lindemann L, Hoener MC (May 2005). "A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family". Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 26 (5): 274–281. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007. PMID 15860375.
Jump up ^ Wang X, Li J, Dong G, Yue J (February 2014). "The endogenous substrates of brain CYP2D". Eur. J. Pharmacol. 724: 211–218. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.12.025. PMID 24374199.
Jump up ^ Nelson L, Cox M (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). New York: Freeman. p. 908. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.
Jump up ^ Pharmacology for Anesthetists 5, p52. PediaPress.
Jump up ^ "Adrenaline – Epinephrine". World of Molecules. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Skalski JH, Kuch J (April 2006). "Polish thread in the history of circulatory physiology". Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 57 (Suppl 1): 5–41. PMID 16766800.
Jump up ^ Bates WH (16 May 1896). "The Use of Extract of Suprarenal Capsule in the Eye". New York Medical Journal. Read before the Section in Ophthalmology of the New York Academy of Medicine, 20 April 1896: 647–650. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Yamashima T (May 2003). "Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), the samurai chemist, and his work on adrenalin". Journal of Medical Biography. 11 (2): 95–102. doi:10.1177/096777200301100211. PMID 12717538.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett MR (June 1999). "One hundred years of adrenaline: the discovery of autoreceptors". Clinical Autonomic Research. 9 (3): 145–59. doi:10.1007/BF02281628. PMID 10454061.
Jump up ^ Takamine J (1901). The isolation of the active principle of the suprarenal gland. The Journal of Physiology. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. pp. xxix–xxx.
Jump up ^ Zuckerman M (2007). Sensation seeking and risky behavior (2. print. ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN 1591477387.
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Jump up ^ Frankenhaeuser M, Jarpe G, Matell G (1961). "Effects of intravenous infusions of adrenaline and noradrenaline on certain psychological and physiological functions". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 51 (2–3): 175–86. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1961.tb02126.x. PMID 13701421.
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External links[edit]
Look up adrenaline junkie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Epinephrine
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Neuropeptides: See here instead.
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AMP
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Cholinergic system: Acetylcholine
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Gasotransmitters: Carbon monoxide (CO)
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XP21279
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Antagonists: Abanoquil
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Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., brexpiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone)
Benoxathian
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Etoperidone
Eugenodilol
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Hydroxyzine
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L-765,314
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Piperoxan
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Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, trimipramine)
Trimazosin
Typical antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, loxapine, thioridazine)
Urapidil
WB-4101
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4-NEMD
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Amitraz
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L-Phenylalanine
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Tiamenidine
Tizanidine
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Urapidil
Vatinoxan
XP21279
Xylazine
Xylometazoline
Antagonists: 1-PP
Adimolol
Amesergide
Aptazapine
Atipamezole
Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., asenapine, brexpiprazole, clozapine, lurasidone, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, zotepine)
Azapirones (e.g., buspirone, gepirone, ipsapirone, tandospirone)
BRL-44408
Buflomedil
Cirazoline
Efaroxan
Esmirtazapine
Fenmetozole
Fluparoxan
Idazoxan
mCPP
Mianserin
Mirtazapine
NAN-190
Olanzapine
Pardoprunox
Phentolamine
Phenoxybenzamine
Piperoxan
Piribedil
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SB-269970
Setiptiline
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Typical antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, loxapine, thioridazine)
Yohimbine
β
Agonists: Abediterol
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PF-610355
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Tretoquinol
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XP21279
Zilpaterol
Zinterol
Antagonists: Acebutolol
Adaprolol
Adimolol
Afurolol
Alprenolol
Alprenoxime
Amosulalol
Ancarolol
Arnolol
Arotinolol
Atenolol
Befunolol
Betaxolol
Bevantolol
Bisoprolol
Bopindolol
Bornaprolol
Brefonalol
Bucindolol
Bucumolol
Bufetolol
Bufuralol
Bunitrolol
Bunolol
Bupranolol
Butaxamine
Butidrine
Butofilolol
Capsinolol
Carazolol
Carpindolol
Carteolol
Carvedilol
Celiprolol
Cetamolol
Cicloprolol
Cinamolol
Cloranolol
Cyanopindolol
Dalbraminol
Dexpropranolol
Diacetolol
Dichloroisoprenaline
Dihydroalprenolol
Dilevalol
Diprafenone
Draquinolol
Ecastolol
Epanolol
Ericolol
Ersentilide
Esatenolol
Esprolol
Eugenodilol
Exaprolol
Falintolol
Flestolol
Flusoxolol
Hydroxycarteolol
Hydroxytertatolol
ICI-118,551
Idropranolol
Indenolol
Indopanolol
Iodocyanopindolol
Iprocrolol
Isoxaprolol
Isamoltane
Labetalol
Landiolol
Levobetaxolol
Levobunolol
Levomoprolol
Medroxalol
Mepindolol
Metipranolol
Metoprolol
Moprolol
Nadolol
Nadoxolol
Nebivolol
Nifenalol
Nipradilol
Oxprenolol
Pacrinolol
Pafenolol
Pamatolol
Pargolol
Penbutolol
Pindolol
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Primidolol
Procinolol
Pronethalol
Propafenone
Propranolol
Ridazolol
Ronactolol
Soquinolol
Sotalol
Spirendolol
SR 59230A
Sulfinalol
Talinolol
Tazolol
Tertatolol
Tienoxolol
Tilisolol
Timolol
Tiprenolol
Tolamolol
Toliprolol
Xibenolol
Xipranolol
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Phenethylamines
Phenethylamines
Psychedelics: 25B-NBOMe
25C-NBOMe
25D-NBOMe
25I-NBOMe
25N-NBOMe
2C-B
2C-B-AN
2C-Bn
2C-Bu
2C-C
2C-CN
2C-CP
2C-D
2C-E
2C-EF
2C-F
2C-G
2C-G-1
2C-G-2
2C-G-3
2C-G-4
2C-G-5
2C-G-6
2C-G-N
2C-H
2C-I
2C-iP
2C-N
2C-NH2
2C-O
2C-O-4
2C-P
2C-Ph
2C-SE
2C-T
2C-T-2
2C-T-3
2C-T-4
2C-T-5
2C-T-6
2C-T-7
2C-T-8
2C-T-9
2C-T-10
2C-T-11
2C-T-12
2C-T-13
2C-T-14
2C-T-15
2C-T-16
2C-T-17
2C-T-18
2C-T-19
2C-T-20
2C-T-21
2C-T-22
2C-T-22.5
2C-T-23
2C-T-24
2C-T-25
2C-T-27
2C-T-28
2C-T-30
2C-T-31
2C-T-32
2C-T-33
2C-TFE
2C-TFM
2C-YN
2C-V
Allylescaline
DESOXY
Escaline
Isoproscaline
Jimscaline
Macromerine
MEPEA
Mescaline
Metaescaline
Methallylescaline
Proscaline
Psi-2C-T-4
TCB-2
Stimulants: Phenylethanolamine
Hordenine
Phenethylamine
α-Methylphenethylamine (amphetamine)
β-Methylphenethylamine
m-Methylphenethylamine
N-Methylphenethylamine
o-Methylphenethylamine
p-Methylphenethylamine
Entactogens: Lophophine
MDPEA
MDMPEA
Others: BOH
DMPEA
Amphetamines
Psychedelics: 3C-BZ
3C-E
3C-P
Aleph
Beatrice
Bromo-DragonFLY
D-Deprenyl
DMA
DMCPA
DMMDA
DOB
DOC
DOEF
DOET
DOI
DOM
DON
DOPR
DOTFM
Ganesha
MMDA
MMDA-2
Psi-DOM
TMA
TeMA
Stimulants: 2-FA
2-FMA
3-FA
3-FMA
Acridorex
Alfetamine
Amfecloral
Amfepentorex
Amphetamine (Dextroamphetamine, Levoamphetamine)
Amphetaminil
Benfluorex
Benzphetamine
Cathine
Clobenzorex
Dimethylamphetamine
Ephedrine
Etilamfetamine
Fencamfamin
Fencamine
Fenethylline
Fenfluramine (Dexfenfluramine, Levofenfluramine)
Fenproporex
Flucetorex
Fludorex
Formetorex
Furfenorex
Gepefrine
4-Hydroxyamphetamine
Iofetamine
Isopropylamphetamine
Lefetamine
Lisdexamfetamine
Mefenorex
Metaraminol
Methamphetamine (Dextromethamphetamine, Levomethamphetamine)
Methoxyphenamine
MMA
Morforex
Norfenfluramine
L -Norpseudoephedrine
N,alpha-Diethylphenylethylamine
Oxifentorex
Oxilofrine
Ortetamine
PBA
PCA
Phenpromethamine
PFA
PFMA
PIA
PMA
PMEA
PMMA
Phenylpropanolamine
Pholedrine
Prenylamine
Propylamphetamine
Pseudoephedrine
Sibutramine
Tiflorex
Tranylcypromine
Xylopropamine
Zylofuramine
Entactogens: 4-FA
4-FMA
4-MA
4-MMA
4-MTA
5-APB
5-APDB
5-EAPB
5-IT
5-MAPB
5-MAPDB
6-APB
6-APDB
6-Chloro-MDMA
6-EAPB
6-IT
6-MAPB
6-MAPDB
EDA
IAP
2,3-MDA
3,4-MDA (tenamfetamine)
MDEA
MDHMA
MDMA (midomafetamine)
MDOH
Methamnetamine
MMDMA
Naphthylaminopropane
TAP
Others: 3,4-DCA
Amiflamine
DiFMDA
Selegiline (also D -Deprenyl)
Phentermines
Stimulants: Chlorphentermine
Cloforex
Clortermine
Etolorex
Mephentermine
Pentorex
Phentermine
Entactogens: MDPH
MDMPH
Others: Cericlamine
Cathinones
Stimulants: 3-FMC
4-MC
4-BMC
4-CMC
4-EMC
4-FMC
4-MEC
4-MeMABP
4-MPD
Amfepramone
Benzedrone
Brephedrone
Buphedrone
Bupropion
Cathinone
Dimethylcathinone
Ethcathinone
Eutylone
Hydroxybupropion
Methcathinone
Methedrone
NEB
Pentedrone
Pentylone
Radafaxine
Entactogens: 3,4-DMMC
3-MMC
Butylone
Ethylone
Methylone
Methylenedioxycathinone
Mephedrone
Phenylisobutylamines
Entactogens: 4-CAB
4-MAB
Ariadne
BDB
Butylone
EBDB
Eutylone
MBDB
Stimulants: Phenylisobutylamine
Phenylalkylpyrrolidines
Stimulants: α-PBP
α-PHP
α-PPP
α-PVP
MDPBP
MDPPP
MDPV
4-MePBP
4-MePHP
4-MePPP
MOPPP
MOPVP
MPBP
MPHP
MPPP
Naphyrone
PEP
Prolintane
Pyrovalerone
Catecholamines
(and close relatives)
6-FNE
6-OHDA
a-Me-DA
a-Me-TRA
Adrenochrome
Ciladopa
D -DOPA (Dextrodopa)
Dimetofrine
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Epinine
Etilefrine
Ethylnorepinephrine
Fenclonine
Ibopamine
Isoprenaline
Isoetarine
L -DOPA (Levodopa)
L -DOPS (Droxidopa)
L -Phenylalanine
L -Tyrosine
m-Tyramine
Metanephrine
Metaraminol
Metaterol
Metirosine
Methyldopa
N,N-Dimethyldopamine
Nordefrin (Levonordefrin)
Norepinephrine
Norfenefrine (m-Octopamine)
Normetanephrine
Orciprenaline
p-Octopamine
p-Tyramine
Phenylephrine
Synephrine
Miscellaneous
AL-LAD
Amidephrine
Arbutamine
Cafedrine
Denopamine
Desvenlafaxine
Diphenidine
Dizocilpine
Dobutamine
Dopexamine
Ephenidine
Etafedrine
ETH-LAD
Famprofazone
Fluorolintane
Hexapradol
IP-LAD
Lysergic acid amide
Lysergic acid 2-butyl amide
Lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide
Lysergic acid diethylamide
Methoxamine
Methoxphenidine
MT-45
PARGY-LAD
Phenibut
PRO-LAD
Pronethalol
Salbutamol (Levosalbutamol)
Solriamfetol
Theodrenaline
Thiamphenicol
UWA-101
Authority control
GND: 4141449-4
LCCN: sh85001007
NDL: 00560062
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenaline&oldid=853393903"
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Адреналин – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Адреналин – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: അഡ്രിനാലിൻ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: ଏପିନେଫ୍ରିନ – Odia

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-or
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Адреналин – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values: ඇඩ්රිනලින් – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Адреналин – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: எபிநெப்ரின் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: เอพิเนฟรีน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Адреналин – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin
Adrenalin – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Адреналін – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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