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First Bank of the United States
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Not to be confused with Bank of America, the modern corporation.
First Bank of the United States
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
3rd Street facade (2009)
Location
120 South Third Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Coordinates
39°56′53″N 75°08′47″W / 39.9481°N 75.1464°W / 39.9481; -75.1464Coordinates: 39°56′53″N 75°08′47″W / 39.9481°N 75.1464°W / 39.9481; -75.1464
Built
1795
Architect
Samuel Blodgett,
possibly with James Hoban
Architectural style
Greek Revival, other
NRHP reference #
87001292 [1]
Added to NRHP
May 4, 1987
The President, Directors and Company, of the Bank of the United States, commonly known as the First Bank of the United States, was a national bank, chartered for a term of twenty years, by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. It followed the Bank of North America, the nation's first de facto central bank.
Establishment of the Bank of the United States was part of a three-part expansion of federal fiscal and monetary power, along with a federal mint and excise taxes, championed by Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton believed a national bank was necessary to stabilize and improve the nation's credit, and to improve handling of the financial business of the United States government under the newly enacted Constitution.
The First Bank building, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, within Independence National Historical Park, was completed in 1797, and is a National Historic Landmark for its historic and architectural significance.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Proposal
3 Opposition
4 Presidential approval
5 Expiration of charter
6 Purchase by Girard
7 Bank building
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
In 1791, the First Bank of the United States was one of the three major financial innovations proposed and supported by Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. In addition to the national bank, the other measures were assumption of the state war debts by the U.S. government, establishment of a mint and imposition of a federal excise tax. The goals of Hamilton's three measures were to:[2]
Establish financial order, clarity and precedence in and of the newly formed United States.
Establish credit—both in country and overseas—for the new nation.
Resolve the issue of the fiat currency, issued by the Continental Congress immediately prior to and during the American Revolutionary War—the "Continental".
In simpler words, Hamilton's four goals were to:
Have the Federal Government assume the Revolutionary War debts of the several states
Pay off the war debts
Raise money for the new government[3]
Establish a national bank and create a common currency[4]
"The tendency of a national bank is to increase public and private credit. The former gives power to the state for the protection of its rights and interests, and the latter facilitates and extends the operations of commerce amongst individuals."
Alexander Hamilton, December, 1790 report to George Washington[5]
Proposal[edit]
According to the plan put before the first session of the First Congress in 1790, Hamilton proposed establishing the initial funding for the First Bank of the United States through the sale of $10 million in stock of which the United States government would purchase the first $2 million in shares. Hamilton, foreseeing the objection that this could not be done since the U.S. government did not have $2 million, proposed that the government make the stock purchase using money lent to it by the bank; the loan to be paid back in ten equal annual installments. The remaining $8 million of stock would be available to the public, both in the United States and overseas. The chief requirement of these non-government purchases was that one-quarter of the purchase price had to be paid in gold or silver; the remaining balance could be paid in bonds, acceptable scrip, etc.[6]
Unlike the Bank of England, the primary function of the bank would be credit issued to government and private interests, for internal improvements and other economic development, per Hamilton's system of Public Credit. The business it would be involved in on behalf of the federal government—a depository for collected taxes, making short term loans to the government to cover real or potential temporary income gaps, serving as a holding site for both incoming and outgoing monies—was considered highly important but still secondary in nature.[7]
There were other, nonnegotiable conditions for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Among these were:[citation needed]
That the bank would have a twenty-year charter running from 1791 to 1811, after which time it would be up to the Congress to approve or deny renewal of the bank and its charter; however, during that time no other federal bank would be authorized; states, for their part, would be free to charter however many intrastate banks they wished.
That the bank, to avoid any appearance of impropriety, would:
be forbidden to buy government bonds.
have a mandatory rotation of directors.
neither issue notes nor incur debts beyond its actual capitalization.
That foreigners, whether overseas or residing in the United States, would be allowed to be First Bank of the United States stockholders, but would not be allowed to vote.
That the Secretary of the Treasury would be free to remove government deposits, inspect the books, and require statements regarding the bank's condition as frequently as once a week.[8]
To ensure that the government could meet both the current and future demands of its governmental accounts, an additional source of funding was required, "for interest payments on the assumed state debts would begin to fall due at the end of 1791...those payments would require $788,333 annually, and... an additional $38,291 was needed to cover deficiencies in the funds that had been appropriated for existing commitments."[9] To achieve this, Hamilton repeated a suggestion he had made nearly a year before—increase the duty on imported spirits, plus raise the excise tax on domestically distilled whiskey and other liquors. Local opposition to the tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion.
Opposition[edit]
"Hamilton’s financial system had then passed. It had two objects; 1st, as a puzzle, to exclude popular understanding and inquiry; 2nd, as a machine for the corruption of the legislature; for he avowed the opinion, that man could be governed by one of two motives only, force or interest; force, he observed, in this country was out of the question, and the interests, therefore, of the members must be laid hold of, to keep the legislative in unison with the executive. And with grief and shame it must be acknowledged that his machine was not without effect; that even in this, the birth of our government, some members were found sordid enough to bend their duty to their interests, and to look after personal rather than public good. "It is well known that during the war the greatest difficulty we encountered was the want of money or means to pay our soldiers who fought, or our farmers, manufacturers and merchants, who furnished the necessary supplies of food and clothing for them. After the expedient of paper money had exhausted itself, certificates of debt were given to the individual creditors, with assurance of payment so soon as the United States should be able. But the distresses of [p. 272] these people often obliged them to part with these for the half, the fifth, and even a tenth of their value; and speculators had made a trade of cozening them from the holders by the most fraudulent practices, and persuasions that they would never be paid. In the bill for funding and paying these, Hamilton made no difference between the original holders and the fraudulent purchasers of this paper."
Thomas Jefferson, February 4 entry in The Anas[10]
Hamilton's bank proposal faced widespread resistance from opponents of increased federal power. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the opposition, which claimed that the bank was unconstitutional, and that it benefited merchants and investors at the expense of the majority of the population.
Like most of the Southern members of Congress,[11] Jefferson and Madison also opposed a second of the three proposals of Hamilton: establishing an official government Mint. They believed this centralization of power away from local banks was dangerous to a sound monetary system and was mostly to the benefit of business interests in the commercial north, not southern agricultural interests, arguing that the right to own property would be infringed by these proposals. Furthermore, they contended that the creation of such a bank violated the Constitution, which specifically stated that congress was to regulate weights and measures and issue coined money (rather than mint and bills of credit).[12]
Bank of the United States check signed by John Jacob Astor in 1792
The first part of the bill, the concept and establishment of a national mint, met with no real objection, and sailed through; it was assumed the second and third part (the bank and an excise tax to finance it) would likewise glide through, and in their own way they did: The House version of the bill, despite some heated objections, easily passed. The Senate version of the bill did likewise, with considerably fewer, and milder, objections. It was when "the two bills changed houses, complications set in. In the Senate, Hamilton's supporters objected to the House's alteration of the plans for the excise tax."[13]
The establishment of the bank also raised early questions of constitutionality in the new government. Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, argued that the bank was an effective means to utilize the authorized powers of the government implied under the law of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that the bank violated traditional property laws and that its relevance to constitutionally authorized powers was weak. Another argument came from James Madison, who believed Congress had not received the power to incorporate a bank, or any other governmental agency. His argument rested primarily on the Tenth Amendment: that all powers not endowed to Congress are retained by the States (or the people). Additionally, his belief was that if the Constitution's writers had wanted Congress to have such power, they would have made it explicit. The decision would ultimately fall on President George Washington, following his deliberate investigation of the cabinet members' opinions.[14]
Presidential approval[edit]
George Washington initially declared that he was hesitant to sign the "bank bill" into law. Washington asked for the written advice and supporting reasons from all his cabinet members—most particularly from Hamilton. Attorney General Edmund Randolph from Virginia felt that the bill was unconstitutional. Jefferson, also from Virginia, agreed that Randolph’s proposal was against both the spirit and letter of the Constitution. Hamilton, who, unlike his fellow cabinet members, came from New York, quickly responded to those who claimed incorporation of the bank unconstitutional. While Hamilton's rebuttals were many and varied, chief among them were these two:
What the government could do for a person (incorporate), it could not refuse to do for an "artificial person", a business. And the First Bank of the United States, being privately owned and not a government agency, was a business. "Thus...unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect corporations to that of the United States, in relation to the objects entrusted to the management of the government."
Any government by its very nature was sovereign "and includes by force of the term a right to attainment of the ends...which are not precluded by restrictions & exceptions specified in the constitution...[15]
On February 25, 1791, convinced that the constitution authorized the measure,[14] Washington signed the "bank bill" into law.
On March 19, 1791 Washington appointed three Commissioners for the taking of subscriptions for this new bank: Thomas Willing, David Rittenhouse, and Samuel Howell.[16]
Expiration of charter[edit]
After Hamilton left office in 1795, the new Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. informed Congress that, due to the existing state of government finances, more money was needed. This could be achieved either by selling the government's shares of stock in the bank, or by raising taxes. Wolcott advised the first choice. Congress quickly agreed. Hamilton objected, believing that the dividends on that stock had been inviolably pledged for the support of the sinking fund to retire the debt. Hamilton tried to organize opposition to the measure, but was unsuccessful.
In 1811, the U.S. Senate tied on a vote to renew the bank's charter. Vice President George Clinton broke the tie and voted against renewal. The bank's charter thus expired in 1811.
In 1816, the bank was succeeded by the Second Bank of the United States.
Purchase by Girard[edit]
After the charter for the First Bank of the United States expired in 1811, Stephen Girard purchased most of its stock as well as the building and its furnishings on South Third Street in Philadelphia and opened his own bank, later known as Girard Bank. Girard hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank of the United States, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees, opened for business on May 18, 1812. He allowed the Trustees of the First Bank of the United States to use some offices and space in the vaults to continue the process of winding down the affairs of the closed bank at a very nominal rent.[17]
Over its early history the bank was known as "Girard’s Bank,"[18] or as "Girard Bank" [19] or also as "Stephen Girard’s Bank" or even the "Bank of Stephen Girard." [18] Girard was the sole proprietor of his bank, and thus avoided the Pennsylvania state law which prohibited an unincorporated association of persons from establishing a bank, and which required a charter from the legislature for a banking corporation.[20]
Bank building[edit]
Measured drawing of the First Bank from the Historic American Buildings Survey.[21]
The First Bank of the United States was established in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the city served as the national capital, from 1790 to 1800. In the eighteenth century, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the English-speaking world. The bank began operations in Carpenters' Hall in 1791, some 200 feet from its permanent home.
Design of the bank building is credited to Samuel Blodgett, Superintendent of Buildings for the new capital in Washington, DC.,[22] although it has also been attributed to James Hoban.[23][24] It was completed in 1795.[25]
The First Bank of the United States has received various designations as a historic building. It was included in Independence National Historical Park when the park was formed in 1956. The building's architecture was studied by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1958.[23] With the rest of Independence National Historical Park, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, and the bank was then declared a National Historic Landmark on May 4, 1987. It is described in the landmark designation as an early masterpiece of monumental Classical Revival design.[26]
Until about 2000, the building housed offices for Independence National Historical Park. A proposal to have it house the collection of the Philadelphia Civil War Museum was abandoned when funding from the state of Pennsylvania was not forthcoming.[27] Future plans are for it to house the National Park Service archaeology lab, currently across the street in the old Visitor Center.
See also[edit]
Philadelphia portal
Bank Bill of 1791
Federal Reserve Act
History of central banking in the United States
United States Department of the Treasury
Stephen Simpson (writer) Outspoken journalist and fierce critic of the 1st Natl Bank and its practices.
List of National Historic Landmarks in Philadelphia
National Register of Historic Places listings in Center City, Philadelphia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2006-03-15). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Bailey, David M. Kennedy, Lizabeth Cohen, Thomas A. (2006). The American pageant : a history of the Republic (13th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 193–95. ISBN 0618479279.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Hamilton's Fiscal Program 1791–1793". Blinn College. Blinn.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Hamilton's Financial Program". Digital History. Digital History. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
Jump up ^ See (ed.) The papers of Alexander Hamilton, Columbia University Press, 1963 p. 256
Jump up ^ The First Bank of the United States: A Chapter in the History of Central Banking
Jump up ^ McDonald, Forrest (1979). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W.W. North & Co. pp. 194–95.
Jump up ^ Report on the Bank, in Syrett, ed., Papers, 7:326–28
Jump up ^ Further Report on Public Credit, 7:226
Jump up ^ See The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson, 1903, p. 30
Jump up ^ Coblenz, Michael (2015). "The Fight Goes on Forever: 'Limited Government' and the First Bank of the United States". Southern Illinois University Law Journal. 39: 408. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Westley, Christopher (Fall 2010). "The Debate Over Money Manipulations: A Short History" (PDF). Intercollegiate Review. 45 (1–2): 3–11. Retrieved February 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Forrest (1979). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W.W. North & Co. p. 194.
^ Jump up to: a b John Marshall, The Life of George Washington, (1838) Chapter 28: Defense, Finance, Foreign Affairs – and the First "Systematic Opposition" (1790 to 1791)
Jump up ^ Washington to Hamilton, February 16, 1791, in Syrett, ed. Papers 8:98
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1961). Papers of Alexander Hamilton. Vol VIII 1781 – July 1791. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 211.
Jump up ^ Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. p. 249. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
^ Jump up to: a b "Girard's Bank". LOC Authorities. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-05-02.
Jump up ^ Konkle, Burton Alva (1937). Thomas Willing and the First American Financial System. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 199–200.
Jump up ^ Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. pp. 249–250. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
Jump up ^ Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. PA-1417, "First Bank of the United States", 7 photos, 3 color transparencies, 18 measured drawings, 3 photo caption pages
Jump up ^ 1984 National Register Nomination
^ Jump up to: a b Baigell, Matthew (1969). "James Hoban and the First Bank of the United States". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 28 (2): 135–36. JSTOR 988511.
Jump up ^ Whiffen, Marcus; Koeper, Frederick (1981). American architecture 1607–1976. Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 125. ISBN 0262231050.
Jump up ^ NPS historical marker at building
Jump up ^ "NHL nomination for First Bank of the United States" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
Jump up ^ Philadelphia Civil War Museum
Further reading[edit]
Danzer, Gerald A.; J. Jorge Klor de Alva; Larry S. Krieger; Louis E Wilson; Nancy Woloch. The Americans. ISBN 0-618-37716-6.
Markham, Jerry (2001). A Financial History of the United States. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0730-1.
Perkins, Edwin J. American public finance and financial services, 1700–1815 (1994) pp. 324–48. Complete text line free
Wilson, George (1995). Stephen Girard. Conshohocken: Combined Books. ISBN 0-938289-56-X.
Rothbard, Murray (2002). A History of Money and Banking in the United States: The Colonial Era to World War II. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig Von Mises Inst. ISBN 978-0-945466-33-8.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to First Bank of the United States.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
An Act to incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States (1791)
Documents produced by the First Bank of the United States on FRASER
Hamilton's opinion
Jefferson's opinion
Record of the Debate
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Cider in the United States
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American Hard Cider in a Bottle
In the United States, the definition of cider is usually more broad than in Europe, specifically Ireland and the UK. There are two types: one being the traditional fermented product, called hard cider, and the second sweet or soft cider.
Contents
[hide]
1 Hard Cider
1.1 History
1.2 Present day
2 By Region
2.1 New England Hard Cider
2.2 New York Hard Cider
2.3 California Hard Cider
3 Sweet or Soft Cider
4 See also
5 References
Hard Cider[edit]
History[edit]
Cider Making, painting by William Sidney Mount, 1840-1841
The history of cider in the United States is very closely tied to the history of apple growing in the country. Most of the 17th- and 18th-century emigrants to America from the British Isles drank hard cider and its variants: water was not a trusted source of hydration and so beer, ale, fruit brandy, and cider were used as more sanitary substitutes. Apples were one of the earliest known crops in the English-speaking New World; ships' manifests show young saplings being carefully planted in barrels and many hopeful farmers bringing bags of seed with them, with the first settlers headed to what is now the Southeast. Within thirty-five years of the settlement of Jamestown in 1607, the land was put to the plow to grow tobacco which provided a source of revenue for the colonists and made British settlement a success in the New World after several failed attempts. However, other edible cash crops were planted, like rice, maize, and apples, since such would have had value in the markets of growing cities like London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Cardiff.
The earliest known provision for cider making is believed to have been carried on the Mayflower itself in 1620. Halfway through the journey, the ship was caught in a storm and one of its beams cracked badly enough to warrant the consideration of turning back to England. "The great iron screw", taken from a cider press, helped brace the beam to keep the ship from breaking up and did it long enough to make it to the New World.[1] Nine days after the Puritans landed (and perhaps in great thanks for having survived the journey at all) a man by the name of William Blackstone planted the first apple trees in the New England colonies.[2] The first recorded shipment of honeybees to America, important for the pollination of apples, is recorded in 1622 in Virginia.[3] In New England, John Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1632, recorded his tenants paying their rent on Governor's Island in two bushels of apples a year.[4] In 1634 Lord Baltimore instructed settlers of the new colony of Maryland to carry across the sea "kernalls of peares and apples, especially of Pipins, Pearemains, and Deesons for maykinge thereafter of Cider and Perry."[5]
There are records of at least one English apple cultivar used for cider and cooking, Catshead, being grown on Berkeley Hundred Plantation in Virginia around this time; later introductions from the UK would have included Foxwhelp, Redstreak, and the extinct Costard.[6] Other records from the Tidewater South show wealthier farmers and plantation owners arranging for the import of French apple varieties, such as Calville Blanc, Pomme d'Api, and Court Pendu Plat, likely in part due to qualities they wanted to improve in the stock available and the difficulty there was in keeping early breed-stock alive. Unbeknownst to the colonists leaving for the New World, they faced an uphill battle in planting some of their favorite foods, including apples. None of the colonists knew that the honeybee is not a native insect to America and knew absolutely nothing about the husbandry of orchard mason bees, something nobody would put to use until three centuries later. In Europe, honeybees were and still are the main means of pollination for apples, cherries, and pears, and thus some of the earliest pleas for new supplies sent home to Britain by Jamestown colonists were for beehives . Only about 20% of apple trees produced from apple seeds shall grow a fruit comparable to the parent plant, while about 60% will be passable for consumption and the remaining 20% will be "crab apples" unfit for most human tastes.[7] and the records of all the thirteen colonies indicate that the favored method of propagation from 1607-1737 was not grafting since this method was expensive and the reserve of the wealthy using crabapple rootstock.[8]
Additionally, the businesses of diseases, pests, and temperature all presented challenges to growing in Eastern America. Normally tent caterpillars are parasites to Southern crab apple trees, black cherry trees, chokecherries, beach plums, and the sweet crabapple, members of the Rosaceae family native to the Eastern United States. They made no distinction between these and the European derived young apple, cherry, quince, plum, and pear trees the colonists had, which had evolved no defense mechanism against moth larvae that would form large silk bags on the branches and destroy the tree by eating the leaves. Fungi like cedar-apple rust destroyed trees' abilities to produce fruit, since it infects the buds they grow, making them sterile. In the case of the British or French derived apples, it proved disastrous since unlike native Malus species it had no immunity and would eventually die, covered in cankers.
In 17th century Britain, orchards had been kept in a relatively open area for generations as most of the forest had been already cleared. But in America, leaving the trees without a surrounding fence in the open resulted in attracting nearby populations of black bears, woodchucks, skunks, raccoons, elk, and deer looking for food. The need for apple cultivars which would have a much higher yield of apples at harvest time proved to be paramount so that the entire crop would not be lost to animals, something that is still practiced today but began in colonial times. The climate of the American Southeast also had more extremes, where temperatures would easily exceed 26 °C in summer but fall below 3 °C in winter. Most of the cider, cooking, and dessert apples brought from the oceanic climate of Northwest Europe were not bred for sweltering humidity or late season frosts; later in the North settlers from the British Isles had to adapt many of their husbandry practices as well because winter temperatures were bone chillingly cold with long snowy winters and the first frost coming mch earlier. In the South, despite the longer growing season, it was a great task just to get apples and pears to live long enough to bear fruit, let alone make cider or perry, and whatever cider they did produce was likely sour and of poor quality.[citation needed]
The earliest known full blown successful orchard in America began in Massachusetts Bay Colony near what is today modern Boston.[9] New England was more successful in producing the first viable apples as evidenced by the fact that the oldest known and named apple varieties come from Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and Providence Plantation: Roxbury Russet in 1634, Hightop Sweet by 1630, and Rhode Island Greening in 1650, all of which still survive and are still used for cidermaking and baking of pies. John Endicott, another New Englander, began one of the first known nurseries for apples and pears, and in 1648 he is recorded as selling 500 young trees to a William Trask, for which he received 250 acres of land; approximately 20 years earlier it is believed that he planted a garden full of fruits selected for alcohol production, near what is present day Salem, Massachusetts of which one example pear tree still survives as evidence. Later as his trees matured he began to sell them to new settlers and their bounty of cider and perry to local taverns, beginning one of the earliest examples of large scale propagation in the New World of apples and cider. By the 1660s regulations on the consumption and distribution[10] of alcohol were being put into place, and fines were being levied for drunkenness on hard cider in Massachusetts Bay Colony, in Maryland, and Virginia among other places, going by the court records. In 1676, Nicholas Spencer, secretary of the Virginia House of Burgesses, speculated on the cause of the riots of the past two years, as keeping the law proved difficult: "All plantations flowing with syder, soe unripe drank by our licentious inhabitants, that they allow no tyme for its fermentation but in their braines."[11]
The Endicott Fruit Tree is a pear tree that was planted in the 1630s. It is the oldest living cultivated fruit tree in North America. Local law stipulates that it must remain undisturbed and is the town's prized possession, appearing on its seal. The Endicott family was a very prominent one that played a role in dispersing cider and perry apples right through the nineteenth century.[12] The USDA has taken cuttings to examine it for its longevity and possibly plant its clones so the DNA may live on after the tree dies; the cultivar itself is quite rare.
As time passed, English settlers began coming from different regions, which ones depending on which colony they chose to settle in, but most of them came from areas with long established traditions of apple growing, including the West Midlands, the West Country (largely these two settled in the South), the Channel Islands (in New Jersey), the Home Counties (New York), and East Anglia (New England). Other settlers came from Sweden, the Highlands of Scotland},[13] Wales, the Netherlands,[14] Western France, the Irish province of Ulster, and (by the end of the 17th century) Southwest Germany and parts of Switzerland, with all of the above settling down on farms and requiring apples that would keep well, could be bartered as payment. In 1682, Governor Carteret of New Jersey wrote, "At Newark is made great quantities of syder, exseeding any that wee have in New England, Rhode Island, or Long Island", significant because colonial New Jersey had a colorful mix of British, Swedish, Dutch, and French Huguenots; a thousand hogsheads were filled that year in Newark, or 238, 481 liters in modern measurement.[15] Even those settlers, such as Germans and Dutch, who did not come from cultures that attached value to alcohol made from apples found that they could sell more of their crop by breeding apples that their neighbors would have wanted. They thus started a trend and bred versatile apples that would go well with a joint of pork, could be peeled and baked in a pie or rendered into apple butter, but also had enough juice to ferment into alcohol[16] and could be pressed into cider come autumn harvest.[17][17] Further, unbeknownst to the British settlers of central colonies (Pennsylvania especially) and Appalachia, it is highly likely some of the cultivars brought by Germans introduced genetics that were much hardier to cold weather than the stock they possessed as evidenced by Germany's natural terrain: German weather was back then and still is today often much more snowy than the British Isles, and areas like Hesse, Thuringia, and Mecklenburg, places of origin for German speaking settlers in the colonies, all have either alpine influenced climates or ones heavily influenced by cold arctic air coming off the Baltic Sea in winter. The crossbreeding of these on Scottish, English, and Irish farmer's lands via pollination introduced genetics that were very valuable to climates like Southern Appalachia, which is a mountainous region and in winter gets several feet of snow even in the present day, or Pennsylvania, where colonists had to race the clock to harvest apples in autumn and get them in storage to survive winter. (Swedish settlers in Delaware, New York. and New Jersey unwittingly repeated the process with their introductions from their arctic homeland and through trade with other ethnic groups, notably the Dutch and Englishmen.) The total result was a rather motley and bizarre foundation stock from all over Northern Europe, and American apples, many of them chance seedlings and strange breeds of mixed provenance, grew into varieties like the Harrison Cider Apple, Rambo, Black Gilliflower, Newtown Pippin, Green Cheese, and Baldwin. Many of these older apples are still used in cookery and in cider making even in the present day.[18][19]
Eagle Vineyard, Baronet Apple Wine. Label from California Historical Society.
By the 18th century apple cider was a staple at every family table; at harvest many apples were pressed into cider and the remainder was placed carefully into barrels to store through winter for eating or replenishing supply. Pehr Kalm, a Swedish naturalist, noted in his travels in 1749 that nearly every home on Staten Island (now a part of modern New York City) had a small orchard attached and in the colonial capital, Albany, apples were being pressed for cider to be exported south to New York City [20] By 1775, one in ten New England families, most of them farmers, had a cider mill on the property.[15] In one of his letters to his wife Abigail, John Adams complained explicitly about the quality of Philadelphia alcohols and being homesick for her cider.[21][22] Thomas Jefferson grew several varieties of apple at his home in Virginia and there are records of his wife Martha Jefferson overseeing their harvest and brewing while she was mistress of the plantation.[23] Ciderkin, a slightly alcoholic beverage made from cider pomace, could also be found on colonial tables, and was often served for breakfast. Applejack, made in the North, was made in a very similar manner to Canadian ice cider every winter and likely would have been familiar to Mrs. Adams as an alternate means to concentrate alcohol when it was far too cold outside to bring out the cider press.[24] The taste for hard cider continued into the 19th century in pockets of the East Coast, but with the double blow of immigration from Central and Eastern Europe, where lager beer is the traditional staple, and the later advent of Prohibition hard cider manufacturing collapsed and did not recover after the ban on alcohol was lifted. Temperance fanatics burned or uprooted the orchards and wrought havoc on farms to the point that only dessert or cooking apples escaped the axe or torch; only a small number of cider apple trees survived on farmland abandoned before the 1920s and in the present day are only now being found by pomologists. [25]
Present day[edit]
A hard cider produced in Michigan
It is only in recent years that interest has been revived in hard cider.[26] Surviving heirloom varieties that would have had a role in the old orchards have been carefully catalogued and others have been put up for sale at city farmer's markets, as well as sold by the bushel to businesses wanting to make their own labels.[27] On the East Coast, many have been taking cuttings of trees planted a hundred years ago and blending them experimentally into new brews, with California and the Great Lakes States following suit.[28][29] Business is currently booming, even outselling the craft beer movement and though it is currently only one percent of the alcoholic beverage market it has skyrocketed and is projected to keep growing. Larger beer brewing companies, whose profits have been suffering for years due to the loss of market share to craft brews and the change in public opinion as to the quality of their product,[30] have bought cider making companies. The company that ferments Bulmers in Ireland purchased Woodchuck Hard Cider in 2012.
There is great diversity of taste in the types of hard cider, made by small local producers all the way up to the big beer conglomerates, and great variation from region to region. Because the US allows brewing for personal use, instructions for making homebrew are readily available on the internet.[31] According to a July 2014 article from a Chicago area newspaper, the city is taking advantage of its proximity to an area in Michigan that has national importance as a major apple growing region. A whole bar dedicated solely to new ciders in the city is up and running and consequentially Great Lakes producers are pressing more and more of the drink: in its first year, Michigan-based Virtue Cider pressed about 20,000 gallons of cider, or 75,708 liters, selling it in Chicago and other markets. In 2013, it pressed about 120,000 gallons (454,249 liters), and for the year 2014 it expects to press more than 200,000 US gallons, or 757,082 liters.[32]
By Region[edit]
New England Hard Cider[edit]
The early 20th century was difficult for the New England region in terms of alcohol production: first, in 1918 the Northeast suffered a particularly brutal winter that led to an apple shortage.[33] Prohibition and the Volstead Act destroyed most of the cider trees. As the after effects of the 18th Amendment wore on, Boston and the coastline of Massachusetts became nationally important as places where contraband alcohol from Eastern Canada and the Caribbean could be smuggled in by boat. Unfortunately, because Boston and the small fishing villages that dot the New England coastline were a gateway from whence the rest of the nation clandestinely got its wine, whiskey, gin, rum, and beer, it was much more lucrative to smuggle contraband alcohol than saving a local rural drink from extinction. Finally, the Great Depression hit and financial difficulties made a lot of the old timers abandon their orchards: the 1985 John Irving book The Cider House Rules correctly shows that much production of the surviving orchards had switched over to sweet cider by the 1940s, when the novel takes place.
However the last quarter of the 20th century proved this region had ample potential for revival: records of how cider was once made were left untouched. The equipment for creating its sweeter, non-alcoholic cousin could easily be switched for hard cider and many of the old presses were still usable. The wine revolution in California had taken off and often beaten European varietals in taste tests, an important step proving the United States could make quality alcohol other than whisky and opening the floodgates to better quality, more modern machinery and tools in greater volume: some of this equipment can also be used in cidermaking, and in New England thus it became possible to order it by catalogue, by asking for the surplus from California winemakers, and by the early 1990s, by internet. Heirloom varieties still survived in more remote areas of the region, sometimes hidden on abandoned farm land, and there was contact with other countries that produced alcohol derived from apples such as Canada and Ireland, the latter country exporting it for the Irish expat community in Boston and the large Irish American population in the Northeast.[34]
Thus it was in this region that the earliest attempts for national revival of hard cider took place in the mid 1980s.[35] By the early 1990s cidermaking was up and running to the point that the first cider festival took place, and as of August 2014 the region boasts more than 44 different cideries, with eighteen of them in Massachusetts alone.[36] Notable in this region is the production of several different types of cider. Farmhouse cider generally designates a simple sweet alcoholic cider, while barrel aged ciders tend to be aged for a few years in red oak barrels creating a much sharper flavor. Typical production methods do not use the horse and masher system of France or Europe but often are partially mechanical. Ice cider is also a product of this region, relished by Canadian French speakers in the northern parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. These producers have learned it from their neighbors and relatives over the border, but now ship their product to twenty different states and with new producers in portions of Massachusetts and New York. Overall this region of the U.S gets much colder than Western Europe with temperatures getting well below 0 °C by the second week of December, but the conditions are ideal for natural freeze distillation.[37] Experimental varietals using ingredients like ginger and spice are also bottled, as is a variety consistent with the original brewing method native to the region in which, after an initial fermentation, sugar and raisins is added to the brew and the liquid is again fermented, boosting the alcoholic content up to 13%.[38]
New York Hard Cider[edit]
New York City sits at the southern tip of the second most productive area for apple production in the country, the Hudson Valley. It also happens to be in a state noted for having a long and extremely productive history in agriculture: it produces more than enough to feed itself and large swathes of the Northeastern USA's large population. New York City shops, in addition to stocking the typical Californian wines and the finest France, Spain, and Italy have to offer, also sell and promote locally produced vintages, since New York State is devoted to many award-winning wines, often right behind the more famous California and Washington with Rieslings and Cabernets.[39]
Naturally, the cider revolution has not left America's largest city indifferent, as the business is proving to be quite lucrative: as of 2013, sales are up 70 percent.[40] New York City also gets many of New England's best brews shipped by truck every week on top of what it gets natively and is becoming a major distribution center for the product. Hard cider has become a very popular drink among restaurant and bar patrons in their 20s and 30s, and it is quite common straight up as an alternative to beer for a simple meal or more recently behind the bar as the darling of mixologists for cocktails.[41] There is a festival called Cider Week that takes place after the harvest in New York State is complete, with the first leg of it taking place a few days before Halloween until All Soul's Day in New York City, and then again from mid-November until just before Thanksgiving in the rest of the Hudson Valley. The event has attracted some big name sponsors, such as Whole Foods and locavore organizations.[42] An October 29, 2013 article of the Village Voice has dubbed the phenomenon as "Applepalooza", and describes VIP taste tests with cheese and a whole plethora of different styles, from foreign French and Spanish types to local, more experimental blends.[43] Across the Hudson River in New Jersey, the oldest producer of Applejack in the land has miraculously been handed down through ten generations and is occasionally found in a New York bartender's arsenal, fueled by a renewed interest in older style cocktails.[44]
As of 2013 there are more than 20 producers in the state of New York, with many more expected to be founded in the years to come. Apple producers in New York are very happy with the increasing demand as it solves a common problem where a crop of apples may be plentiful but have some blemished specimens that supermarkets will not take; on top of that smaller producers may be freed to use older varieties that russet or cosmetically are ugly, but well suited to being juiced or baked.[45]Andrew Cuomo, the governor, and Senator Charles Schumer are re-evaluating how the local product is taxed to make it more competitive nationally.[46] In New York City itself, a new brewery for hard cider is fully operational and thriving, specializing in artisanal brews. It has named itself Original Sin, a tongue-in-cheek reference to the story in Genesis where Eve bites the apple. It nods to its local heritage by basing one of its products on an apple cultivar that was born in one of the five boroughs that make up New York City in the 18th century, what is today Queens: Newtown Pippin.[47]
California Hard Cider[edit]
California is a large contributor to the agriculture business in the United States, growing much of the nation's fruit and vegetables. Settlers coming west over the Sierra Nevadas brought with them their own seeds and saplings in covered wagons, especially to areas north of Sacramento.[citation needed] Very few of these young apple trees would have been of cider making provenance, however their introduction was crucial to intensifying agricultural production in what would become the western United States, contributing to the variety of citrus fruit, grapes, figs, and olives that Spanish settlers had begun in Southern California in the 1700s. New varieties of apples better adapted to the cool and rainy climate slowly were developed, most notably by breeders like Albert Etter and Luther Burbank.[citation needed] During World War II, California often produced the bulk of apples for consumption by troops using just one cultivar: Gravenstein, brought to California by Russian settlers in the 19th century.[48] much of the production was centered around Sonoma and the trees were cut down to make way for vineyards in the subsequent decades.[49]
California is world-famous for grape wine, but a trade magazine listed 28 hard cider producers scattered over the San Joaquin Valley and the Napa region in 2014.[50] Among California’s most prominent cider producers are Ace Cider, Red Branch, Devoto Orchards, Sonoma Cider, Crispin, and Tilted Shed Ciderworks.[citation needed] Surviving orchards partially provide cideries in California with their cider apples while simultaneously importing other, more bitter, varieties from France and England to diversify the available flavor palate. Some cideries are looking at two particular apple cultivars of West Coast origin that were originally envisioned for cooking, but have a rare mutation: Hidden Rose and Pink Pearl. Both are red fleshed apples that, when pressed, will make a rosé cider.
Like their wine growing neighbors, California cideries do offer tours and taste tests, as well as ship their cider for wider distribution.[51]
Sweet or Soft Cider[edit]
Unfiltered sweet (non-alcoholic) apple cider
In current U.S. usage, one must specify if the cider one wants should be hard or regular, for what they receive may be completely devoid of alcohol. Sweet cider typically is the direct result of pressed apples; according to the regulations of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, apple cider is legally defined as an "amber golden, opaque, unfermented, entirely nonalcoholic juice squeezed from apples".[52] This is distinct from apple juice, which has a much sweeter taste, is typically heavily filtered, and may or may not be from concentrate.[53] Both products are pasteurized for safety's sake and are unacceptable for consumption or large scale sale otherwise. Sweet cider is typically drunk in the US as the weather gets colder and in the East it is often served hot and mulled with spices; it is a feature of end of year holidays like Halloween, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.
Sparkling cider, such as that made by a company in California called Martinelli's, is the result of Prohibition Era crackdowns on alcohol and is a carbonated type of juice. At Thanksgiving and Christmas, it is a favorite drink, served chilled. Sparkling cider (or other sparkling juices such as grape) are often given to children or teetotalers instead of champagne for toasts, for example at weddings or New Year's Eve.[54]
Due to tax legislation in the US,[55] a cider becomes classified as a fruit wine when sugar or extra fruit is added and a secondary fermentation increases the strength.[56]
See also[edit]
Applejack (beverage)
American Wine
Beer in the United States
Cider Act
List of cider brands
Drink portal
United States portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Angry Orchard Hard Cider - Refreshing Hard Cider With Attitude". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Three New England Ciders to Watch (and Drink)". Boston Magazine. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "History and Legends of Apples, Apple Recipes, What's Cooking America". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Governors Island". Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-06-14.
Jump up ^ "Gloucestershire". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Apple Trees from Seed". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Watson, Ben (September 2, 2013). Cider, Hard and Sweet: History, Traditions, and Making Your Own (Third ed.). Countryman Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-1581572070.
Jump up ^ Johnny Appleseed and the American Orchard. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
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Jump up ^ "Hard Cider Is Back In Loudoun". Blue Ridge Leader. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Essex Institute Historical Collections. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
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^ Jump up to: a b The New Book Of Apples. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
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^ Jump up to: a b https://journals.psu.edu/index.php/pmhb/article/viewFile/41466/41187
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Jump up ^ Blulab. "George Washington and the Ark of Taste - Food For Thought - Slow Food International - Good, Clean and Fair food.". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
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Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/13/dining/reviews/dry-cider-an-american-favorite-rebounds.html?_r=0
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Jump up ^ "As Brewing Giants Push Craft Beer, Bud and Miller Suffer". Bloomberg. 23 January 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Easy Good Cider Recipe for Newbie - Home Brew Forums". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
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Jump up ^ "Hard cider makers find a new market in Upstate New York". syracuse.com. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.bostonmagazine.com/2007/10/how-d-ya-like-these-apples/[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Domestic Cider". www.cydermarket. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Upside Of All This Cold? A Boom In Ice Cider". NPR.org. 10 March 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Go Back in Time with New England Style Ciders". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/16/dining/reviews/in-the-finger-lakes-devotion-to-riesling-shows.html?pagewanted=all
Jump up ^ "New York bars whip up apple-based cocktails using both fresh and hard cider". NY Daily News. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Time to Get Excited About Hard Cider". Fork in the Road. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cider Week NYC - Cider Week NYC". Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cider Week Ends With a Bang at Applepalooza". Fork in the Road. 29 October 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Story Behind Laird's Applejack Brandy- Which Has Been Around Since the 1800s-www.njmonthly.com". New Jersey Monthly. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Colin Gustafson, The (Westchester County, N.Y.) Journal News (24 October 2013). "New York's cider houses rule". Retrieved 28 September 2014. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Softening a tax on hard cider". Times Union. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hard Cider from the Big Apple". Upstate-Downtown. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Inside Scoop SF » A guide to Gravensteins and summer apple season". Inside Scoop SF. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/02/us/02apples.html
Jump up ^ "California". www.cydermarket. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hard Cider Soars". Sonoma Magazine. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cider Production" (PDF). Pennsylvania Tree Fruit Production Guide, 2010–2011. p. 267. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-10-27). "Eat this! Fresh apple cider, the toast of autumn". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
Jump up ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/12/15/sparkling-cider_n_1152193.html
Jump up ^ E. F. Lindsley (Nov 1960). "Popular Science Vol. 177, No. 5": 137. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Sanborn Conner Brown (1978). Wines & beers of old New England. UPNE. p. 100. ISBN 9780874511482. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
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The Truth and the Light: Music from the X-Files
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Truth And The Light: Music From The X-Files
Soundtrack album by Mark Snow
Released
October 8, 1996
Genre
Soundtrack
ambient music
Length
45:50
Label
Warner Bros.
46448
Producer
Mark Snow
Jeff Charbonneau
The X-Files chronology
Songs in the Key of X: Music from and Inspired by the X-Files
(1996)Songs in the Key of X: Music from and Inspired by the X-Files1996 The Truth and the Light: Music from the X-Files
(1996) The X-Files: Original Motion Picture Score
(1998)The X-Files: Original Motion Picture Score1998
The Truth and the Light: Music from the X-Files is a 1996 album by Mark Snow. The album is composed of excerpts of instrumental music scores from the first three seasons of the American science fiction television series The X-Files, on which Snow was the resident composer. These tracks are linked together with portions of dialogue from the series.
Released on October 8, 1996, the album received mixed reviews from critics. It reached a peak position of number forty-two in the UK albums chart, and spent four weeks in France's album charts, peaking at number nine.
Contents
1 Track listing
2 Personnel
3 Release
4 Reception
5 Footnotes
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Chris Carter and Mark Snow.
No.
Title
Length
1. "Introitus: Praeceps Transito Spatium" ("Død Kalm") 1:51
2. "Materia Primoris: The X-Files Theme (Main Title)" 3:22
3. "Raptus" ("Pilot") 3:16
4. "Adflatus" ("One Breath") 4:00
5. "Deverbero" ("F. Emasculata") 1:28
6. "Cantus Excio" ("The Calusari") 4:42
7. "Mercutura" ("Gender Bender") 3:23
8. "Lamenta" ("Roland") 1:48
9. "Insequi" ("Oubliette") 1:37
10. "Otium" ("Conduit") 1:43
11. "Dubitatio" ("Ghost in the Machine") 2:49
12. "Iter" ("Nisei") 1:20
13. "Progigno De Axis" ("Nisei") 1:35
14. "Carmen Amatorium Ex Arcanum" ("3") 2:38
15. "Facetus Malum" ("Humbug") 2:42
16. "Memoria" ("Shapes") 2:02
17. "Mitus Lumen" ("Soft Light") 2:41
18. "Fides Fragilis" ("The Erlenmeyer Flask") 1:35
19. "Exoptare Ex Veritas" ("Oubliette") 1:30
20. "Kyrie" ("Grotesque") 1:43
21. "The X-Files Theme (Flexifinger Terrestrial mix)" (UK release only) 4:23
Total length: 45:50
Personnel[edit]
Composer – Mark Snow
Concept; sound designer – Jeff Charbonneau
Design, photography and illustration – Megan Snow, Sarah Snow
Sound engineer and mixer – Larold Rebhun
Assistant sound engineers – Richard Veltrap and Brian Virtue
Liner notes – Chris Carter
Sound mastering – Ramon Breton, Joe Gastwirt
Producers – Chris Carter, Jeff Charbonneau, Mark Snow
Cello – Erika Duke-Kirkpatrick
Vocals – Gillian Anderson, Chris Carter, William B. Davis, Teri DeSario, Peter Donat, David Duchovny, Jerry Hardin, Alf Humphreys, Joel Palmer, Mitch Pileggi, Paul Rabwin, Steve Railsback, Larold Rebhun, Frank Spotnitz, Floyd Red Crow Westerman, Steven Williams,
Words – Chris Carter
Release[edit]
The Truth and the Light: Music from The X-Files was released by Warner Bros. Records on October 8, 1996,[1] on both compact disc and compact cassette formats.[2] It spent two weeks in the UK Albums Chart, reaching a peak position of number forty-two on September 12, 1996.[3] The album spent four weeks in France's Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique album chart between September 14 and October 26, 1996. It entered the chart at number forty-two, before peaking at number nine, and finally dropping to number forty-three before leaving the chart entirely.[4] A more comprehensive four-disc collection of Snow's compositions for The X-Files was released by record company La-La Land Records in May 2011, containing several of the cues found on The Truth and the Light.[5][6]
Reception[edit]
The Truth and the Light has received mixed reviews from critics. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine rated the album four stars out of five, calling it "evocative and eerie", noting that "it holds up surprisingly well when isolated from the visuals" of the series.[2] Filmtracks.com's Christian Clemmensen rated it two stars out of five, calling it a "basically adequate souvenir of sorts". Clemmensen lamented that the inclusion of dialogue from the series hindered the album as a whole, explaining that "inconsistent incorporation of dialogue hinders the album's continuity". He also felt that the cues included on the album did not reflect Snow's best work on the series, which in his view would come from the later seasons, but that the album instead reflected "Snow's darker, ambient, and atonal music", though admitting that there was still an audience for "those creepy sounds".[7]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Sprague, David (1996-08-24). "Nothin' Like the Reel Thing". Billboard. 108 (34): 105. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Truth & Light: Music from 'The X-Files' - Mark Snow". AllRovi. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "MARK SNOW | Artist | Official Charts". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "lescharts.com - Mark Snow - The Truth And The Light". Retrieved January 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "LA LA LAND RECORDS, X FILES, Vol-1". La-La Land Records. Archived from the original on December 31, 2011. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "'The X-Files' Soundtrack Set released". Film Music Reporter. May 11, 2011. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Clemmensen, Christian (June 15, 2011). "Filmtracks: The X-Files (Mark Snow)". Filmtracks.com. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
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