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Umayyad conquest of Hispania
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The Umayyad conquest of Hispania was the initial expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate over Hispania, largely extending from 711 to 788. The conquest resulted in the destruction of the Visigothic Kingdom and the establishment of the independent Emirate of Córdoba under Abd ar-Rahman I, who completed the unification of Muslim-ruled Iberia, or al-Andalus (756–788). The conquest marks the westernmost expansion of both the Umayyad Caliphate and Muslim rule into Europe.
Forces commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad disembarked in early 711 at Gibraltar at the head of an army consisting of Berbers (north-western Africa).[1] He campaigned his way northward after the decisive Battle of Guadalete against the usurper Roderic, after which he was reinforced by an Arab force led by his superior wali Musa ibn Nusair. By 717, the combined force had crossed the Pyrenees into Septimania and Provence (734).
Al-Andalus under the Umayyads
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Invasion
3 New territorial and civil administration
4 Ethnic groups and internal tensions
5 Aftermath
6 Chronology
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 Sources
10 External links
Background[edit]
See also: Protofeudalism and Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman
Precisely what happened in Iberia in the early 8th century is uncertain. There is one contemporary Christian source, the Chronicle of 754 (which ends on that date), regarded as reliable but often vague.[2] There are no contemporary Muslim accounts. What Muslim information there is comes from later compilations subject to contemporary ideological influence.[3] The most prominent such compilation is that of Al-Maqqari, which dates from the 17th century. This paucity of sources means that any specific or detailed claims need to be regarded with caution.[4]
The manner of King Roderic's ascent to the throne is unclear; there are accounts of dispute with Achila II, son of his predecessor Wittiza, and later regnal lists who cite Achila omit Roderic, which fits in with the contemporary account of a civil war.[5] Numismatic evidence suggests a division of royal authority, with several coinages being struck, and Achila II remaining king on the Tarraconsense (the Ebro basin) and Septimania until circa 713.[6] Roderic is treated by the nearly contemporary Chronicle of 754 as an usurper who by deception earned the allegiance of other Goths, while the less reliable late-9th century Chronicle of Alfonso III shows a clear hostility towards Oppa, bishop of Seville (or Toledo) and probably a brother of Wittiza, who appears in a unlikely heroic dialogue between him and Pelagius.[7]
There is also a story of one Julian, count of Ceuta, whose wife or daughter was raped by Roderic and who also sought help from Tangier.[8] However, these stories are not included in the earliest accounts of the conquest.[9]
As to the initial nature of the expedition, historical opinion takes four directions:[citation needed] (1) that a force was sent to aid one side in a civil war in the hope of plunder and a future alliance; (2) that it was a reconnaissance force sent to test the military strength of the Visigothic kingdom; (3) that it was the first wave of a full–scale invasion; (4) that it was an unusually large raiding expedition with no direct strategic intentions.
Invasion[edit]
The Caliphate of Cordova in the early 10th century
According to the later chronicler Ibn Abd-el-Hakem, in 711, Tariq Ibn Ziyad led an approximately 1,700-strong raiding force from North Africa to southern Spain.[10] However, 12,000 seems a more accurate figure.[11] Ibn Abd-el-Hakem reports, one and a half centuries later, that "the people of Andalus did not observe them, thinking that the vessels crossing and recrossing were similar to the trading vessels which for their benefit plied backwards and forwards." They defeated the Visigothic army, led by King Roderic, in a decisive battle at Guadalete in 712. Tariq's forces were then reinforced by those of his superior, the wali Musa ibn Nusair, and both took control of most of Iberia with an army estimated at approximately 10,000–15,000 combatants.[12]
According to the Muslim historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari,[13] Iberia was first invaded some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman (Rashidun era). Another prominent Muslim historian of the 13th century, Ibn Kathir,[14] quoted the same narration, pointing to a campaign led by Abd Allah bin Nafi al Husayn and Abd Allah bin Nafi al Abd al Qays[15] in 32 AH. However, this putative invasion is not accepted by modern historians.
The conquering army was made up mainly of Berbers who had themselves only recently come under Muslim influence. It is probable that this army represented a continuation of a historic pattern of large-scale raids into Iberia dating to the pre–Islamic period, and hence it has been suggested that actual conquest was not originally planned. Both the Chronicle of 754 and later Muslim sources speak of raiding activity in previous years, and Tariq's army may have been present for some time before the decisive battle. It has been argued that this possibility is supported by the fact that the army was led by a Berber and that Musa, who was the Umayyad Governor of North Africa, only arrived the following year—the governor had not stooped to lead a mere raid, but hurried across once the unexpected triumph became clear. The Chronicle of 754 states that many townspeople fled to the hills rather than defend their cities, which might support the view that this was expected to be a temporary raid rather than a permanent change of government.
The Chronicle of 754 stated that "the entire army of the Goths, which had come with him [Roderic] fraudulently and in rivalry out of hopes of the Kingship, fled". This is the only contemporary account of the battle and the paucity of detail led many later historians to invent their own. The location of the battle is not totally clear but was probably the Guadalete River.
Roderic was believed to have been killed and a crushing defeat would have left the Visigoths largely leaderless and disorganized. In this regard, the ruling Visigoth population is estimated at a mere 1 to 2% of the total population,[16] which on one hand led to 'a reasonably strong and effective instrument of government’; however, it was highly 'centralised to the extent that the defeat of the royal army left the entire land open to the invaders’.[17] The resulting power vacuum, which may have indeed caught Tariq completely by surprise, would have aided the Muslim conquest immensely. Indeed, it may have been equally welcome to the Hispano-Roman peasants who—as D.W. Lomax claims—were disillusioned by the prominent legal, linguistic and social divide between them and the 'barbaric' and 'decadent' Visigoth royal family.[18]
In 714, Musa ibn Nusayr headed north-west up the Ebro river to overrun the western Basque regions and the Cantabrian mountains all the way to Gallaecia, with no relevant or attested opposition. During the period of the second (or first, depending on the sources) Arab governor Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa (714–716), the principal urban centres of Catalonia surrendered. In 714, his father, Musa ibn Nusair, advanced and overran Soria, the western Basque regions, Palencia, and as far west as Gijón or León, where a Berber governor was appointed with no relevant or attested opposition. The northern areas of Iberia drew little attention to the conquerors and were hard to defend when taken. The high western and central sub-Pyrenean valleys remained unconquered.
At this time, Umayyad troops reached Pamplona, and the Basque town submitted after a compromise was brokered with Arab commanders to respect the town and its inhabitants, a practice that was common in many towns of the Iberian Peninsula.[19] The Umayyad troops met little resistance. Considering that era's communication capabilities, three years was a reasonable time spent almost reaching the Pyrenees, after making the necessary arrangements for the towns' submissions and their future governance.[20]
New territorial and civil administration[edit]
Northwestern al-Andalus, the Pyrenees and southern Gaul at the time of the Berber rebellion (739–742)
In 713, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa subdued the forces of the Visigothic count Theudimer (or Tudmir), who had taken over southeastern Iberia from his base in Murcia after the power vacuum following king Roderic's defeat. Theudimer then signed a conditional capitulation by which his lands were made into an autonomous client state under Umayyad rule ("the rule of God"). His government and the Christian beliefs of his subjects were respected; in exchange, he pledged to pay a tax and to hand over any rebels plotting against Umayyad rule or the Islamic religion. In this way, the life of many inhabitants remained much the same as before Tariq's and Musa's campaigns.[21] The treaty signed with Theudimer set a precedent for the whole of Iberia, and towns surrendering to Umayyad troops experienced a similar fate, including probably the muwallad Banu Qasi based in the Ebro valley, and other counts and landowners.
In exception to this pattern, some towns (Cordova, Toledo, etc.) were stormed and captured unconditionally by the Umayyads, to be governed by direct Arab rule. In the area thought to be part of King Roderic's territory, Mérida also staged a prolonged resistance to the Umayyad advance, but was ultimately conquered in mid-summer 712.[22] As of 713 (or 714), the last Visigothic king Ardo took over from Achila II, with an effective control just over Septimania, and probably the eastern Pyrenean threshold and coastal areas of the Tarraconense.
Islamic laws did not apply to all the subjects of the new rulers. Christians were ruled by their own Visigothic law code (Forum Iudicum) as before. In most of the towns, ethnic communities remained segregated and newly arriving ethnic groups (Syrians, Yemenites, Berbers and others) would erect new boroughs outside existing urban areas. However, this would not apply to towns under direct Umayyad rule. In Cordova, the Cathedral was partitioned and shared to provide for the religious needs of Christians and Muslims. This situation lasted some 40 years until Abd ar-Rahman's conquest of southern Spain (756).
An early governor (wali) of al-Andalus, al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi, spread the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate up to the Ebro valley and the northeastern borders of Iberia, pacifying most of the territory and initiating in 717 the first forays across the Pyrenees into Septimania. In addition, he laid out the foundations of Umayyad civil administration in Iberia, by sending civil administration officials (judges) to conquered towns and lands guarded by garrisons established usually next to the population nuclei.[23] Moreover, al-Hurr restored lands to their previous Christian landowners, which may have added greatly to the revenue of the Umayyad governors and the caliph of Damascus, since only non-Muslims were subject to taxation. The task of establishing a civil administration in conquered al-Andalus was essentially completed by the governor Yahya ibn Salama al-Kalbi 10 years later.
The period following al-Hurr's office saw the establishment of the Arabs in southern Septimania during Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani's tenure as wali. Narbonne fell (720), and no sooner had he garrisoned it than the Arab commander led an offensive against Toulouse. During this Umayyad thrust or its aftermath, King Ardo died (721).
Ethnic groups and internal tensions[edit]
Northeast of Iberia, Duchy of Vasconia, and Septimania just after its conquest by Pepin (760)
In the first stage of the invasion, the armies were made up of Berbers and different Arab groups. These peoples clustered around the banner of the Umayyads didn't mix together, but remained in separate towns and boroughs. The Berbers, recently subdued and superficially Islamized, were usually in charge of the most difficult tasks and the most rugged terrains, similar to the ones found in their homeland of north Africa, while the Arabs occupied the more gentle plains of southern Iberia.[24]
Consequently, the Berbers went on to station in Galicia (possibly including Asturias) and the Upper Marches (Ebro basin), but these lands remained unpleasant, humid and cold. The grievances resented by the Berbers under Arab rulers (attempts to impose a tax on Muslim Berbers, etc.) sparked rebellions in north Africa that expanded into Iberia. An early uprising took place in 730, when Uthman ibn Naissa (Munuza), master of the eastern Pyrenees (Cerretanya), allied with the duke Odo of Aquitaine and detached from Cordova.
Those internal frictions continually threatened (or sometimes may, paradoxically, have spurred) the Umayyad ever-expanding military effort in al-Andalus during the conquest period. Circa 739, on learning the news of Charles Martel's second intervention in Provence, Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj had to call off an expedition to the Lower Rhone in order to deal with the Berber Revolt in the south instead. Later next year, the Berber garrisons stationed in León, Astorga and other north-western outposts gave up their positions, and some of them even embraced the Christian religion.[25] The Muslim settlement was thereafter established permanently south of the Douro's banks.
The Berber rebellions swept the whole al-Andalus under Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri's term as governor. Reinforcements were then called from the other end of the Mediterranean in a military capacity: the "Syrian" junds (actually Yemeni Arabs). The Berber rebellions were quelled in blood, and the Arab commanders came up reinforced after 742. Different Arab factions reached an agreement to alternate in office, but this didn't last long, since Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri (opposed to the Umayyads) remained in power up to his defeat by Abd-ar-Rahman I in 756, and the establishment of the independent Umayyad Emirate of Cordova. It was in this period of unrest that the Frankish king Pepin finally captured Narbonne from the Andalusians (759).
In Yusuf's and Abd-ar-Rahman's fight for power in al-Andalus, the "Syrian" troops, a mainstay of the Umayyad Caliphate, split. For the most part, Arabs from the Mudhar and Qais tribes sided with Yusuf, so did the indigenous (second or third generation) Arabs from northern Africa, while Yemeni units and some Berbers took sides with Abd-ar-Rahman, probably born to a north African Berber mother himself. In 756, south and central al-Andalus (Cordova, Sevilla) were in the hands of Abd-ar-Rahman, but it took still 25 years for him to hold sway over the Upper Marches (Pamplona, Zaragoza and all the northeast).[26]
Aftermath[edit]
The Iberian Peninsula was the westernmost tip of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus and was under the rule of the governor of Ifriqiya. In 720, the caliph even considered abandoning the territory. The conquest was followed by a period of several hundred years during which most of the Iberian peninsula was known as Al-Andalus, dominated by Muslim rulers. Only a handful of new small Christian realms managed to reassert their authority across the faraway mountainous north of the peninsula.
In 756, Abd ar-Rahman I, a survivor of the recently overthrown Umayyad Dynasty, landed in al-Andalus and seized power in Cordova and Seville, and proclaimed himself emir or malik, removing any mentions of the Abbasid Caliphs of Damascus from the Friday prayers.[27] In the wake of these events, southern Iberia became de jure and de facto independent from the Damascus Caliphate. Although this was not accepted outside al-Andalus and those North African territories with which it was affiliated, Abd ar-Rahman, and especially his successors, considered that they were the legitimate continuation of the Umayyad caliphate, i.e. that their rule was more legitimate than that of the Abbasids. It seems that Abd ar-Rahman never considered establishing a separate principality. (See Caliphate of Córdoba.)
During the unification of al-Andalus in the reign of Abd ar-Rahman before his death in 788, al-Andalus underwent centralization and slow but steady homogenization. The autonomous status of many towns and regions negotiated in the first years of the conquest was reversed by 778,[28] in some cases much earlier (Pamplona by 742, for example). The Hispanic Church based in Toledo, whose status remained largely undiminished under the new rulers, fell out with the Roman Church during the Adoptionist controversy (late 8th century). Rome relied on an alliance with Charlemagne (in war with the Cordovan emirs) to defend its political authority and possessions, and went on to recognize the northern Asturian principality (Gallaecia) as a kingdom apart from Cordova, and Alfonso II as king.
The population of al-Andalus, especially local nobles who aspired to a share in power, began to embrace Islam and the Arabic language. However, the majority of the population remained Christian (using the Mozarabic Rite), and Latin (Mozarabic) remained the principal language until the 11th century.
Abd ar-Rahman I founded an independent dynasty that survived until the 11th century. That line was succeeded by a variety of short and small emirates (taifas) unable to stop the push of the expansionist northern Christian kingdoms. The Almoravids (1086-1094) and the Almohads (1146-1173) occupied al-Andalus next, and the Marinids in 1269, but that could not prevent the fragmentation of Muslim-ruled territory. The last Muslim emirate, Granada, was defeated by the armies of Castile (successor to Asturias) and Aragon under Isabella and Ferdinand in 1492. The last wave of expulsions from Spain of the native population of Muslim descent took place in 1614.
Chronology[edit]
History of Al-Andalus
Muslim conquest
(711–732)
Battle of Guadalete
Battle of Toulouse
Battle of Tours
Umayyads of Córdoba
(756–1031)
Emirate of Córdoba
Caliphate of Córdoba
Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
First Taifa period
(1009–1110)
Almoravid rule
(1085–1145)
Conquest
Battle of Sagrajas
Second Taifa period
(1140–1203)
Almohad rule
(1147–1238)
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
Third Taifa period
(1232–1287)
Emirate of Granada
(1238–1492)
Nasrid dynasty
Granada War
Related articles
Iberia
Reconquista
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As discussed above, much of the traditional narrative of the Conquest is more legend than reliable history. Some of the key events and the stories around them are outlined below.
710 – Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Berber freedman, lands with 400 men and 100 horses on the tiny peninsula now called Gibraltar (Jebel Tarik), after his name.
711 – Musa ibn Nusair, Governor of Ifriqiya in North Africa, dispatches Tariq into the Iberian Peninsula.
711 (July 19) – King Roderick's army utterly routed in the Battle of Guadalete somewhere in the Guadalquivir valley.
712 – Musa ibn Nusair joins Tariq after the Battle of Guadalete and both go on to attack towns and strongholds previously avoided. Abu Zora Tarif lands in Algeciras.[29]
713 – Theudimer's conditional surrender, allowing him to remain lord of his south-eastern region around Murcia (Tudmir).
715 – Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa announces first wali of Andalus and marries the widow of King Roderick, Egilona. Seville becomes the capital.
717–18 – Al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi starts the first military campaigns into Gothic Septimania.
719 – Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, 4th wali, transfers the seat of Governor from Seville to Cordova. Barcelona and Narbonne captured.
721 – An Umayyad army led by Al-Samh crushed by duke Odo's Aquitanian army at the Battle of Toulouse ("Balat Al Shuhada" of Toulouse).
722 – An Umayyad patrol defeated by Pelagius at the Battle of Covadonga in the mountains of Asturias.
725 – Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi subdues all Septimania, raids the Lower Rhone, and captures Autun.
731 – Munuza defeated in Cerdanya by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi.
Spring 732 – An expedition led by the wali Al Ghafiqi vanquishes duke Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne.
October 732 – Al Ghafiqi totally routed by Charles Martel (Mayor of the Palace at the Merovingian court) at the Battle of Tours ("Balat Al Shuhada" of Poitiers).
734 – Count Maurontus calls Umayyad forces on a military capacity into Arles, Avignon, and probably Marseille.
740–42 – Berbers in northern Iberia (Galicia, Leon, Astorga, upper Ebro) give up their positions to join the Berber Revolts.
743-757 – Alfonso I of Asturias raids the territory between the rivers Duero and Ebro but doesn't retain it.
743 – Mudarites and Yemenites agree on choosing alternately one of their numbers each year to rule Al–Andalus.
747 – Governor Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, a Mudarite and descendant of Uqbah ibn Nafia, refuses to give turn to the Yemenite candidate and rules autonomously.
755 – Rebellion in Zaragoza quashed, and Yusuf's detachment annihilated by the Basques near Pamplona.
755 – Abd Al-Rahman Al Dakhel ("Saqr Quraysh") lands on the southern coast, taking in a quick succession Granada, Seville and Cordova.
756 – After refusing to compromise with Yusuf, Abd ar-Rahman I independent Umayyad emir of Córdova. Yusuf defeated.
759 – Narbonne captured by the Frankish king Pepin the Short.
763 – Pro-Abbasid army defeated by Abd ar-Rahman I in Carmona.
778 – Charlemagne repelled in Zaragoza by Muslim local lords.
779 – Abd ar-Rahman I campaigns to the Upper Marches and subdues its main city, Zaragoza.
781 – Pamplona and the Basque lords south of the Pyrenean fringes subdued. All Al Andalus unified.
788 – Abd ar-Rahman I dies.
See also[edit]
Islamic invasion of Gaul
Crusades
History of Portugal
History of Spain
Muslim conquests
Reconquista
Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
Timeline of Portuguese history
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Maroc et Espagne: une histoire commune publié par Fundación El Legado Andalusí". Books google. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 25-26.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 32–33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 17, 32–33.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ Rucquoi notes that the tale of Count Julian's wife or daughter does not appear in the Chronicle of 754 and considers it to be "probably a legend", but considers there may be more truth in the stories concerning Wittiza's family; Rucquoi, Adèle (1993), Histoire médiéval de la Péninsule ibérique, Éditions du Seuil, p. 71, ISBN 2-02-012935-3
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1983). Early Medieval Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 151. ISBN 0-312-22464-8.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain 710-797. Oxford, UK / Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. p. 97. ISBN 0-631-19405-3.
Jump up ^ "El País". 2008-12-05.
Jump up ^ See: History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Tabari)
Jump up ^ See: Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah (Tarikh ibn Kathir)
Jump up ^ Humphreys, R. Stephen (1990). The History of al-Tabari Vol. 15. p. 22.
Jump up ^ Ripoll López, Gisela (1989). "Características generales del poblamiento y la arqueología funeraria visigoda de Hispania" (PDF). Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, S. I, Prehist. y Arqueol., t. 2. pp. 389–418. En resumen se puede considerar que el pueblo visigodo —sin diferenciar la población civil de la militar— representó de un uno a un dos por ciento sobre la totalidad de la población de Hispania.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Hugh (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A political history of al-Andalus. Longman. pp. 1–14.
Jump up ^ Lomax, D.W. (1978). The Reconquest of Spain. Longman. pp. 15–16.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. p. 116. ISBN 0-631-17565-2.
Jump up ^ Collins 1990, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain 710-797. Oxford, UK / Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0-631-19405-3.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 42–43.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 45–46.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 49–50.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, pp. 158.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Collins 1989, p. 174.
Jump up ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 208. ISBN 1851096728. Retrieved August 6, 2015.
Sources[edit]
Kennedy. Muslim Spain and Portugal.
AD Taha. The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain.
External links[edit]
Gibbon, Edward. "51". History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
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Fielding (cricket)
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"Third Man" redirects here. For other uses, see Third Man (disambiguation).
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A wicket-keeper (bending down) and three slips wait for the next ball. The batsman – out of shot – is a left-hander.
Fielding in the sport of cricket is the action of fielders in collecting the ball after it is struck by the batsman, to limit the number of runs that the batsman scores and/or to get the batsman out by catching the ball in flight or by running the batsman out. There are a number of recognised fielding positions, and they can be categorised into the offside and leg side of the field.
A fielder or fieldsman may field the ball with any part of his body. However, if while the ball is in play he wilfully fields it otherwise (e.g. by using his hat), the ball becomes dead and five penalty runs are awarded to the batting side, unless the ball previously struck a batsman not attempting to hit or avoid the ball. Most of the rules covering fielders are in Law 41 of the Laws of cricket.
In the early days of Test cricket, fielding was not a priority and many players were sloppy when it came to fielding.[citation needed] Fielding later became more professional, and much later, with the advent of limited overs cricket matches, saving runs became even more important.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fielding position names and locations
1.1 Catching positions
1.2 Other positions
1.3 Modifiers
2 Restrictions on field placement
3 Tactics of field placement
3.1 Attacking and defending
3.2 Off- and leg-side fields
4 Protective equipment
5 Fielding skills
5.1 Fielding specialities
5.2 Throwing a cricket ball
5.3 Specialist fielding coaches
6 See also
7 Notes and references
7.1 Notes
7.2 References
8 External links
Fielding position names and locations[edit]
Fielding positions for a right-handed batsman. The outfield is shown in light green, the infield in mid green, and the close catching positions in dark green.
There are 11 players in a team: one of them is the bowler and another is the wicket-keeper, so only nine other fielding positions can be occupied at any time. Where fielders are positioned is a tactical decision made by the captain of the fielding team. The captain (usually in consultation with the bowler and sometimes other members of the team) may move players between fielding positions at any time except when a bowler is in the act of bowling to a batsman.
There are a number of named basic fielding positions, some of which are employed very commonly and others that are used less often. However, these positions are neither fixed nor precisely defined, and fielders can be placed in positions that differ from the basic positions. The nomenclature of the positions is somewhat esoteric, but roughly follow a system of polar coordinates – one word (leg, cover, mid-wicket) specifies the angle from the batsman, and is sometimes preceded by an adjective describing the distance from the batsman (silly, short, deep or long). Words such as "backward", "forward", or "square" can further indicate the angle.
The image shows the location of most of the named fielding positions based on a right-handed batsman. The area to the left of a right-handed batsman (from the batsman's point of view – facing the bowler) is called the leg side or on side, while that to the right is the off side. If the batsman is left-handed, the leg and off sides are reversed and the fielding positions are a mirror image of those shown.
Catching positions[edit]
Some fielding positions are used offensively. That is, players are put there with the main aim being to catch out the batsman rather than to stop or slow down the scoring of runs. These positions include Slip (often there are multiple slips next to each other, designated First slip, Second slip, Third slip, etc., numbered outwards from the wicket-keeper—collectively known as the slips cordon) meant to catch balls that just edge off the bat; Gully; Fly slip; Leg slip; Leg gully; the short and silly positions. Short leg, also known as bat pad, is a position specifically intended to catch balls that unintentionally strike the bat and leg pad, and thus end up only a metre or two to the leg side.
Other positions[edit]
Other positions worth noting include:
Wicket-keeper
Long stop, who stands behind the wicket-keeper towards the boundary (usually when a wicket-keeper is believed to be inept and almost never seen in professional cricket). This position is sometimes euphemistically referred to as very fine leg.[1]
Sweeper, an alternative name for deep cover, deep extra cover or deep midwicket (that is, near the boundary on the off side or the on side), usually defensive and intended to prevent a four being scored.
Cow corner, an informal jocular term for the position on the boundary between deep midwicket and long on.
on the 45. A position on the leg side 45° behind square, defending the single. An alternative description for backward short leg or short fine leg.
Also the bowler, after delivering the ball, must avoid running on the pitch so usually ends up fielding near silly mid on or silly mid off, but somewhat closer to the pitch.
Modifiers[edit]
Example of two close fielders: a short leg and a silly point stand close to the batsmen on either side of the pitch. They are both wearing protective equipment (helmets and leg pads). The wicket keeper is 'standing up' to the stumps, and the square leg umpire is also visible.
Saving one or On the single
As close as the fielder needs to be to prevent the batsmen from running a quick single, normally about 15–20 yards (14–18 m) from the wicket.
Saving two
As close as the fielder needs to be to prevent the batsmen from running two runs, normally about 50–60 yards (46–55 m) from the wicket.
Right on
Literally, right on the boundary.
Deep, long
Farther away from the batsman.
Short
Closer to the batsman.
Silly
Very close to the batsman, so-called because of the perceived danger of doing so.[2]
Square
Somewhere along an imaginary extension of the popping crease.
Fine
Closer to an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps, when describing a fielder behind square.
Straight
Closer to an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps, when describing a fielder in front of square.
Wide
Further from an extension of an imaginary line along the middle of the pitch bisecting the stumps.
Forward
In front of square; further towards the end occupied by the bowler and further away from the end occupied by the batsman on strike.
Backward
Behind square; further towards the end occupied by the batsman on strike and further away from the end occupied by the bowler.
Additionally, commentators or spectators discussing the details of field placement will often use the terms for descriptive phrases such as "gully is a bit wider than normal" (meaning he is more to the side than normal) or "mid off is standing too deep, he should come in shorter" (meaning he is too far away and should be positioned closer to the batsman).
Restrictions on field placement[edit]
Main article: Fielding restrictions (cricket)
Fielders may be placed anywhere on the field, subject to the following rules. At the time the ball is bowled:
No fielder may be standing on or with any part of his body over the pitch (the central strip of the playing area between the wickets). If his body casts a shadow over the pitch the shadow must not move until after the batsman has played (or had the opportunity to play) at the ball.
There may be no more than two fielders, other than the wicket-keeper, standing in the quadrant of the field behind square leg. See Bodyline for details on one reason this rule exists.
In some one-day matches:
During designated overs of an innings (see Powerplay), there may be no more than two fielders standing outside an oval line marked on the field, being semicircles centred on the middle stump of each wicket of radius 30 yards, joined by straight lines parallel to the pitch. This is known as the fielding circle.
For overs no. 11-40(powerplay 2), no more than four fielders should be outside 30 yard circle.
For overs no. 41-50(powerplay 3) maximum of five fielders could be outside 30 yard circle.
The restriction for one-day cricket is designed to prevent the fielding team from setting extremely defensive fields and concentrating solely on preventing the batting team from scoring runs.
If any of these rules is violated, an umpire will call the delivery a no ball. Additionally a player may not make any significant movement after the ball comes into play and before the ball reaches the striker. If this happens, an umpire will call and signal 'dead ball'. For close fielders anything other than minor adjustments to stance or position in relation to the striker is significant. In the outfield, fielders may move in towards the striker or striker's wicket; indeed, they usually do. However, anything other than slight movement off line or away from the striker is to be considered significant.
Tactics of field placement[edit]
With only nine fielders (apart from the bowler and wicket-keeper), the captain of the fielding team must decide which fielding positions to cover, and which to leave vacant. The placement of fielders is one of the major tactical considerations for the fielding captain.
Attacking and defending[edit]
Marcus Trescothick fields at slip during a Twenty20 match.
The main decision for a fielding captain is to strike a balance between setting an attacking field and a defensive field. An attacking field is one in which fielders are positioned in such a way that they are likely to take catches, and thus likely to get the batsman out. Such a field generally involves having many fielders close to the batsman, especially multiple slips (in what is termed a cordon) and a gully: common positions for catching mishit shots.
A defensive field is one in which most of the field is covered by a fielder; the batsman will therefore find it hard to score large numbers of runs. This generally involves having many fielders far from the batsman and in front of him, in the positions where he is most likely to hit the ball.
Many elements govern the decisions on field placements, including: the tactical situation in the match; which bowler is bowling; how long the batsman has been in; the wear on the ball; the state of the wicket; the light; or even how close you are to an interval in play.
Some general principles:
Attack…
… new batsmen
Lack of familiarity means a batsman early in his innings is more likely to make a miscalculated or rash shot, so it pays to have catching fielders ready.
… with the new ball
Fast bowlers get the most swing and bounce with a newer ball, factors that make it harder to bat without making an error.
… when returning from a break in play
Batsmen must settle into a batting rhythm again when resuming play after a break (new session, bad weather, injury etc.). While doing so, they are more likely to make mistakes.
… with quality bowlers
A team's best bowlers tend to deliver the most difficult balls to hit, so they get the most benefit from the support of an attacking field.
… when the pitch helps the bowler
A moist pitch helps fast bowlers get unpredictable seam-movement of the ball, while a dry, crumbling pitch helps spin bowlers get unpredictable spin and damp, overcast conditions help swing bowlers. All three situations can lead to catches flying to close attacking fielders.
… when the batting team is under pressure
If the batting team is doing poorly or has low morale, increase the pressure by attacking with the field.
… when the batting side are playing for a draw
when a team is a long way behind in a first-class game and there is not much time left to play, it becomes more important to bowl out the side and finish the game than to control runs.
Mark Turner executes a sliding stop at Taunton during a Twenty20 match.
Defend…
… when batsmen are settled in
It is difficult to get batsmen out when they have been batting for a long time and are comfortable with the bowling. The best tactic is often to defend and force the run scoring rate to slow down, which can frustrate the batsman into playing a rash shot.
… when the batting team needs to score runs quickly
In situations where the batting team must score quickly in order to win or press an advantage (e.g. the "death overs" at the end of a limited-over innings), slowing down the scoring becomes more important than trying to dismiss the batsmen.
… when the batting team is scoring quickly
If the batsmen are managing to score runs quickly, it is unlikely they are offering many chances to get them out, so reduce the run scoring rate.
… when the ball and pitch offer no help to the bowlers
If there is no movement of the ball and the batsmen can hit it comfortably every time, there is little point in having lots of close catching fielders.
… when using weak bowlers
If a relatively poor bowler must bowl for any reason, the best tactic is often to limit the potential damage by containing the free scoring of runs.
Off- and leg-side fields[edit]
Another consideration when setting a field is how many fielders to have on each side of the pitch. With nine fielders to place, the division must necessarily be unequal, but the degree of inequality varies.
When describing a field setting, the numbers of fielders on the off side and leg side are often abbreviated into a shortened form, with the off side number quoted first. For example, a 5–4 field means 5 fielders on the off side and 4 on the leg side.
Usually, most fielders are placed on the off side. This is because most bowlers tend to concentrate the line of their deliveries on or outside the off stump, so most shots are hit into the off side.
When attacking, there may be 3 or 4 slips and 1 or 2 gullies, potentially using up to six fielders in that region alone. This would typically be accompanied by a mid off, mid on, and fine leg, making it a 7–2 field. Although there are only two fielders on the leg side, they should get relatively little work as long as the bowlers maintain a line outside off stump. This type of field leaves large gaps in front of the wicket, and is used to entice the batsmen to attack there, with the hope that they make a misjudgment and edge the ball to the catchers waiting behind them.
As fields get progressively more defensive, fielders will move out of the slip and gully area to cover more of the field, leading to 6–3 and 5–4 fields.
If a bowler, usually a leg spin bowler, decides to attack the batsman's legs in an attempt to force a stumping, bowl him behind his legs, or induce a catch on the leg side, the field may stack 4–5 towards the leg side. It is unusual to see more than 5 fielders on the leg side, because of the restriction that there must be no more than two fielders placed behind square leg.
Main article: Leg theory
Sometimes a spinner will bowl leg theory and have seven fielders on the leg side, and will bowl significantly wide of the leg stump to prevent scoring. Often the ball is so wide that the batsman cannot hit the ball straight of mid-on while standing still, and cannot hit to the off side unless they try unorthodox and risky shots such as a reverse sweep or pull, or switch their handedness. The batsman can back away to the leg side to hit through the off side, but can expose their stumps in doing so.
Main article: Off theory
The reverse tactic can be used, by fast and slow bowlers alike, by placing seven or eight fielders on the off side and bowling far outside off stump. The batsman can safely allow the ball to pass without fear of it hitting the stumps, but will not score. If they want to score they will have to try and risk an edge to a wide ball and hit through the packed off side, or trying and drag the ball from far outside the stumps to the sparsely-populated leg side.
Another attacking placement on the leg side is the leg side trap, which involves placing fielders near the boundary at deep square and backward square leg and bowling bouncers to try to induce the batsman to hook the ball into the air. For slower bowlers, the leg trap fieldsmen tend to be placed within 10–15 m from the bat behind square, to catch leg glances and sweeps.
Protective equipment[edit]
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A silly point (far) and a short leg (near) fielding for Nottinghamshire. Both are wearing helmets. The wicket-keeper's shin pads are on the outside of his trousers, but the fielders must fit their guards underneath their clothing.
No member of the fielding side other than the wicket-keeper may wear gloves or external leg guards, though fielders (in particular players fielding near to the bat) may also wear shin protectors, groin protectors ('boxes') and chest protectors beneath their clothing. Apart from the wicket-keeper, protection for the hand or fingers may be worn only with the consent of the umpires[3].
Fielders are permitted to wear a helmet and face guard. This is usually employed in a position such as silly point or silly mid-wicket, where proximity to the batsman gives little time to avoid a shot directly at their head. Due to the discomfort and risk of being hit, the duty of fielding "under the helmet" or "under the lid" is often delegated to the most junior member of the team. If the helmet is only being used for overs from one end, it will be placed behind the wicketkeeper when not in use. Some grounds have purpose-built temporary storage in the form of a cavity beneath the pitch, approximately 1m x 1m x 1m in size, accessed through a hatch flush with the grass, which can be used for storing a helmet, shin pads or drinks for the fielding side. 5 penalty runs are awarded to the batting side should the ball touch a fielder's headgear whilst it is not being worn unless the ball previously struck a batsman not attempting to hit or avoid the ball. This rule was introduced in the 19th century to prevent the unfair practice of a fielder using a hat (often a top hat) to take a catch[4].
As cricket balls are hard and can travel at high speeds off the bat, protective equipment is recommended to prevent injury. There have been a few recorded deaths in cricket,[5] but they are extremely rare, and not always related to fielding.[6]
Fielding skills[edit]
Fielding in cricket requires a range of skills.
Close catchers require the ability to be able to take quick reaction catches with a high degree of consistency. This can require considerable efforts of concentration as a catcher may only be required to take one catch in an entire game, but his success in taking that catch may have a considerable effect on the outcome of the match.
Infielders field between 20 and 40 yards away from the batsman. The ball will often be hit at them extremely hard, and they require excellent athleticism as well as courage in stopping it from passing them. Infield catches range from simple, slow moving chances known as "dollies" to hard hit balls that require a spectacular diving catch. Finally, infielders are the main source of run outs in a game of cricket, and their ability to get to the ball quickly, throw it straight and hard and make a direct hit on the stumps is an important skill.
Outfielders field furthest from the bat, typically right on the boundary edge. Their main role is to prevent the ball from going over the boundary and scoring four or six runs. They need good footspeed to be able to get around the field quickly, and a strong arm to be able to make the 50–80-yard throw. Outfielders also often have to catch high hit balls that go over the infield.
Fielding specialities[edit]
Many cricketers are particularly adept in one fielding position and will usually be found there:
Slips and bat pad require fast reactions, an ability to anticipate the trajectory of the ball as soon as it takes the edge, and intense concentration. Most top slip fielders tend to be top-order batsmen like Virender Sehwag, Graeme Smith and Rahul Dravid (although Shane Warne, Andrew Flintoff and Graeme Swann are a few recent notable exceptions to this rule), as these are both skills that require excellent hand–eye coordination. Wicket keepers and Bat pad tend to be amongst the shortest players of the team.
Pace bowlers will often be found fielding in the third man, fine leg and deep backward square positions during the overs between those they are bowling. These positions mean that they are at the correct end for their bowling over. They should see relatively little fielding action with plenty of time to react, allowing them to rest between overs. They also usually have an ability to throw the ball long distances accurately.
Players noted for their agility, acceleration, ground diving and throwing accuracy will often field in the infield positions such as point, cover and mid-wicket.
However, players are rarely selected purely because of their fielding skills, and all players are expected to win their place in the team as either a specialist batsman or bowler (or both). This even applies to wicket keepers, who are generally expected to be competent middle-order batsmen, where more than one wicketkeeper can be selected to play as an on-field substitution. Some wicketkeepers may also be called on to bowl.
Throwing a cricket ball[edit]
Jonty Rhodes, who typically fielded at backward point, has been fielding coach for South Africa, Mumbai Indians and Kenya
There have been many competitions for throwing a cricket ball the furthest distance, particularly in the earlier years of the game. Wisden describes how the record was set around 1882, by one Robert Percival at Durham Sands Racecourse, at 140 yards and two feet (128.7 m). Former Essex all-rounder Ian Pont threw a ball 138 yards (126.19 m) in Cape Town in 1981. There are unconfirmed reports that Jānis Lūsis, the non-cricketer Soviet javelin thrower, who won the Olympic gold medal in 1968, once threw a ball 150 yards.[7]
Specialist fielding coaches[edit]
Julien Fountain, specialist fielding coach and designer of "Direct Hit", a fielding performance analysis software.
The use of specialist fielding coaches has become more prevalent in recent years, following the trend of specialist batting & bowling coaches within professional cricket. The most well known specialist fielding coaches currently working in cricket are:
Julien Fountain (joined West Indies cricket team in 1998, current Pakistan cricket team fielding coach, a former cricketer and British Olympic baseball player)[8]
Mike Young (joined Australia cricket team in 2001, a former professional baseball player, manager and coach)
Richard Halsall (joined England Cricket Team in 2008,a former PE teacher and former professional cricketer from Zimbabwe)
Trevor Penney (joined Sri Lanka Cricket Team in 2005, a former professional cricketer from Zimbabwe)
Greg Blewett (joined Australia in 2014, former professional cricketer)
See also[edit]
Cricket terminology
Laws of cricket
Bowling
Batting
Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bluffer's Guide to Cricket
Jump up ^ 'silly, adj., n., and adv' (definition 5d), Oxford English Dictionary
Jump up ^ MCC Laws of cricket, Law 41
Jump up ^ MCC Laws of cricket, Law 41 (Section 3)
Jump up ^ On February 20, 1998, Raman Lamba fielding at forward short-leg without a helmet on, was struck on the forehead.
Jump up ^ On November 25, 2014, Phil Hughes batting with a helmet on, suffered a blow to the back of the neck.
Jump up ^ Wisden 2012, p. 1383.
Jump up ^ Good move by Windies Board Cricinfo retrieved 3 November 2009
External links[edit]
Fielding Tactics and Tips
A guide to fielding positions – BBC
cricket fielding positions – sportskeeda
Fielding Techniques videos – wisdomtalkies
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