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Jephthah
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This article is about the Judge of Israel. For the oratorio, see Jephtha (Handel). For the community in the United States, see Jeptha, Kentucky.
Jephthah
Jephthah, depicted here in Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum of Guillaume Rouillé
Predecessor
Jair
Successor
Ibzan
שופטים
Judges in the Bible
Italics indicate individuals not explicitly described as judges
Book of Joshua
Joshua
Book of Judges
Othniel
Ehud
Shamgar
Deborah
Gideon
Abimelech
Tola
Jair
Jephthah
Ibzan
Elon
Abdon
Samson
First Book of Samuel
Eli
Samuel
v
t
e
Jephthah (pronounced /ˈdʒɛfθə/; Hebrew: יפתח Yip̄tāḥ), appears in the Book of Judges as a judge over Israel for a period of six years (Judges 12:7). According to Judges, he lived in Gilead. His father's name is also given as Gilead, and, as his mother is described as a prostitute, this may indicate that his father might have been any of the men of that area.[1] Jephthah led the Israelites in battle against Ammon and, in exchange for defeating the Ammonites, made a vow to sacrifice whatever would come out of the door of his house first. When his daughter was the first to come out of the house, he immediately regretted the vow, which would require him to sacrifice his daughter to God. It is disputed whether or not the sacrifice was actually carried out. Traditionally, Jephthah is listed among major judges because of the length of the biblical narrative referring to him, but his story also shares features with those of the minor judges, such as his short tenure—only six years—in office.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Story
2 Commentary
2.1 Sacrifice of daughter
2.2 Parallels with Greek mythology
2.3 Possible origins
3 Cultural influence
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
Story[edit]
The Return of Jephtha, by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini
The story of Jephthah is found in the Old Testament Book of Judges, chapters 11–12. The Israelites "again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord ... they forsook the Lord and did not serve him. So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he sold them into the hand of the Philistines and into the hand of the Ammonites ...".[3]
Jephthah, having been born illegitimately, is driven out by his half-brothers and takes up his dwelling in Tob, east of Gilead. "Outlaws collected around Jephthah and went raiding with him."[4] The elders of Gilead ask him to be their leader in the campaign against the Ammonites, but he holds out for a more permanent and a broader position, and the elders agree that, provided Jephthah succeeds in defeating Ammon, he will be their permanent chieftain. On behalf of Israel as a whole and in reliance on the might of God the Judge, Jephthah challenges the Ammonites. Jephthah swears an oath:
". . . and whatever [footnote: Or whoever] comes out from the doors of my house to meet me when I return in peace from the Ammonites shall be the LORD's, and I will offer it [footnote: Or him] up for a burnt offering.[5]
—Judges 11:31, English Standard Version
The victorious Jephthah is met on his return by his only child, a daughter. Jephthah tears his clothes and cries, "Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low!" but is bound by his vow: "I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow".[6] The girl asks for two months' grace, "...that I may go up and down on the mountains and weep for my virginity".[7] And so Jephthah "did with her according to his vow that he had made".[8] The story ends by recounting how "the daughters of Israel went year by year to lament the daughter of Jephthah, the Gileadite, four days in the year".[9]
Later, Jephthah was forced to fight against the Ephraimites, who refused to aid him in his struggle against the Ammonites. The story is remembered for the killing of the fugitive Ephraimites who were identified by their accent; they said the Hebrew word shibboleth as sibboleth. "At that time 42,000 of the Ephraimites fell" (Judges 12:5–6).
Commentary[edit]
Sacrifice of daughter[edit]
Jephthah's sacrifice of his daughter stands in stark contrast to the Binding of Isaac in the Book of Genesis, in which Abraham was about to perform a divinely-ordered sacrifice of his son, when an angel of God directly intervened and stopped the sacrifice. There was no intervention in the case of Jephthah's daughter who was, contrary to Mosaic law, given as a burnt offering. Unlike other instances of burnt offerings that were in fact in line with Mosaic law, there is no divine acknowledgement of this offering.
Some writers have observed that the Israelites of the time were decidedly barbarous; that Mosaic law (which forbade human sacrifice) was at this time widely disrespected; and that there are several other examples of rash vows to God with similarly terrible consequences.[10] Of course, the barbarism of the Israelites says nothing about why the God of the Bible would accept a child sacrifice. David Janzen argued that the story was an integral part of the Deuteronomist picture of moral decline through adoption of non-Israelitic practices such as child sacrifice.[11] Solomon Landers believed that the absence of express judgement implies that the sacrifice was not acceptable to God, notwithstanding the fact that the sacrifice nevertheless happened.[12] The Book of Judges has been seen as teaching a cycle of pride associated with rejection of God's law and subsequent suffering of the people.
Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum gives a name for Jephthah's daughter, Seila. Her character is elaborated and emphasized;[13] [14] "the author has done his utmost to put this woman on the same level as the patriarchs, in this case especially Isaac."[15] John Chrysostom held that God allowed Jephthah to kill his daughter in order to prevent similar rash vows being made in the future and that it was for that purpose that the annual bewailing of the event took place as a constant reminder.[16] Ambrose cited the story as an example of how it is "sometimes contrary to duty to fulfill a promise, or to keep an oath".[17]
Since at least the 12th or 13th century, Jewish scholars, among them the compiler and summarizer David Kimhi (1160–1235) and Levi Ben Gershon (1288–1344), have taken fulfilment of Jephthah's vow as meaning that he only kept her in seclusion.[18] This view is put forward also by Christian scholars from the 14th century[19] and continues to be propounded today, as by Solomon Landers, who considers it most likely that the fate of Jephthah's daughter was perpetual virginity or solitary confinement.[20][21] Rashi also quotes the Midrash Rabba saying that he was punished for not going to the high priest to get the vow annulled and was afflicted with an illness that caused his limbs to decompose off of his body at which point it would be buried where it fell thereby explaining the verse that said he was buried in the cities as opposed to city of Gilead.[22][23]
Ethelbert William Bullinger,[24] looks at the word "and" in Jephthah's vow (Judges 11:31: "whatever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the people of Ammon, shall surely be the Lord's, and I will offer it up as a burnt offering"). As he explains [25] the Hebrew prefix "ו" that is translated in the above passage as "and" is often used as a disjunctive, and means "or", when there is a second proposition. Indeed, this rendering is suggested in the margin of the A. V. Bullinger goes on to give examples from the Bible where the same word has been translated as "or". According to him, the right translation of this passage is: "whatever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the people of Ammon, shall surely be the Lord's, or I will offer it up as a burnt offering." Jephthah's daughter, being the first that came out of the house, was thus, according to Bullinger, dedicated to God. He also says:
In any case, it should have been unlawful, and repugnant to Jehovah, to offer a human being to Him as a burnt-offering, for His acceptance. Such offerings were common to heathen nations at that time, but it is noteworthy that Israel stands out among them with this great peculiarity, that human sacrifices were unknown in Israel.
Adam Clarke's Commentary[26] has an exposition of the issues at stake in this passage and contends that the vow Jephthah made was not as rash as it sounds.
In the writings of Pseudo-Philo Jephthah's daughter is given the name "Seila". The Order of the Eastern Star refers to her as Adah.[27]
Parallels with Greek mythology[edit]
The Daughter of Jephthah, by Alexandre Cabanel (1879).
The 18th-century French philosopher Voltaire noted the similarities between Jepththa and the Greek mythological general, Idomeneus, speculating whether one story had in fact imitated the other. Idomeneus had asked the gods to calm a storm, promising in return that he would sacrifice the first living thing he saw upon his return, which turned out to be his son.[28]
The story of Jephthah's daughter is also sometimes compared to that of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia. In his play Jephthas sive votum - Jeptha or the Vow, the Scottish scholar and dramatist George Buchanan (1506–1582) called Jephthah's daughter "Iphis", obviously alluding to Iphigenia,[29][30] and Handel's 1751 oratorio, Jephtha, based on Buchanan's play, uses the same name.
Israel Finkelstein has suggested that the story of Jephthah's vow may have been added into the story as late as the Hellenistic period.[31]
Possible origins[edit]
Israel Finkelstein has suggested that behind multiple and large-scale Deuteronomistic and post-Deuteronomistic additions and redactions, there may lie an oral story which reflects a conflict on the boundary between Israelite and Ammonite settlements in Transjordan, around the towns of Gilead and Mizpah. It may have been first written down in the 8th century BCE, when the Northern kingdom of Israel (Samaria) began to collect its heroic tales, royal stories, and foundation myths.[32]
Cultural influence[edit]
Historia di Jephta, an oratorio by Giacomo Carissimi.
Jephtes, sive votum, a tragedy by George Buchanan (1554).
Jefta, een offerbelofte, a play by Joost van den Vondel (1659), translation of the play of Buchanan.
Two Treatises of Government, A political and theological book John Locke (1689) challenging the divine right of kings, using Jephthah to demonstrate his "appeal to heaven" for changing government by the use of force in the absence of an earthly authority to petition to. See Book II, section 21. This concept is extremely important in first amendment jurisprudence, and is one of the strangest arguments against temporary restraining orders that enjoin speech, also known as a prior restraint, because of how dangerous they are. See for example Milk Wagon Drivers v. Meadowmoor Dairies, Inc. 312 U.S. 287,293 (1941).
Jephté, an opera by Michel Pignolet de Montéclair (1732).
Jephtha, the oratorio by George Frideric Handel (1751).
Songs from Oratorio of Jephtha by John H. Hewitt (1845).
Jephtas Gelübde, an opera on the story by Meyerbeer.
The Vow, an opera by Colin McAlpin.
The story of Jephthah and his daughter is the subject of Lion Feuchtwanger's historical novel, Jefta und seine Tochter (1957), English translation, Jephta and His Daughter, also known as Jephthah and His Daughter, published 1958
In Hamlet, Polonius tells Hamlet "If you call me Jephthah, my lord, I have a daughter I love passing well."
The 2015 winner of the BP Portrait Award, Annabelle and Guy by Matan Ben-Cnaan was inspired by the story of Jephthah and his daughter.[33]
The 2008 novel Ever by Gail Carson Levine is based on the story of Jephthah's daughter; Judges 11:34 is quoted in the foreword, and the plot follows the story of a girl in a Bronze Age Middle Eastern–inspired society whose father promises to sacrifice to his god the first person who congratulates him on his wife's recovery from an illness.
See also[edit]
Abel-cheramim
Biblical judges
Binding of Isaac
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Karla Bohmbach. "Daughter of Jephthah: Bible - Jewish Women's Archive".
Jump up ^ "The "Minor Judges"- A Re-evaluation". Alan J. Hauser. 1975. Retrieved 2015-03-27.
Jump up ^ Judges 10:6–7, English Standard Version
Jump up ^ Judges 11:3
Jump up ^ The Hebrew words (והעליתהו עולה) translated here as "I will offer it up for a holocaust" are capable of other interpretations, and the ambiguity has been the subject of much discussion – see below. For the word translated here as "holocaust" the Greek term used in the Septuagint translation is ὁλοκαύτωμα (holokautoma), which has the literal meaning of "wholly burnt", while the Hebrew עלה (`olah) literally means "ascent".
Jump up ^ Judges 11:35, English Standard Version
Jump up ^ Judges 11:37, English Standard Version
Jump up ^ Judges 11:39, English Standard Version
Jump up ^ Judges 11:40
Jump up ^ "Jephta", Catholic Encyclopaedia
Jump up ^ "Why the Deuteronomist Told about the Sacrifice of Jephthah's Daughter", Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Sage Publications, p7
Jump up ^ Solomon Landers "Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991.
Jump up ^ Philip Alexander (1988), "Retelling the Old Testament", in It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: Cambridge.
Jump up ^ Frederick Murphy (1993), Pseudo-Philo: Rewriting the Bible, New York: Oxford.
Jump up ^ Pieter Van der Horst (1989), "Portraits of Biblical Women in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum", Journal for the Study of Pseudepigrapha, 5, 29-46, at 42.
Jump up ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Homily 14 on the Statues (Chrysostom)".
Jump up ^ Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, Book I, chapter 50: p. 141 in Schaff's edition
Jump up ^ "Jephthah (יפתח)" in Jewish Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Carol Ann Newsom et al. (editors), Women's Bible Commentary (Westminster John Knox Press 2012 ISBN 978-0-66423707-3), p. 136
Jump up ^ "Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Solomon Landers, Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991.
Jump up ^ Staves, Susan. "Jephtha's Vow Reconsidered". 71 (4): 651–669. doi:10.1525/hlq.2008.71.4.651.
Jump up ^ Sefaria
Jump up ^ "KNOW YOUR BIBLE".
Jump up ^ Great Cloud of Witnesses in Hebrew 11 (1911) ISBN 0-8254-2247-7
Jump up ^ "Did Jephthah really sacrifice his daughter? An analysis of Judges 11:31".
Jump up ^ " Adam Clarke's Commentary, Judges 11.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=NXM4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA289&lpg=PA289&dq=adah+jephthah%27s+daughter
Jump up ^ Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Debora Kuller Shuger, The Renaissance Bible: Scholarship, Sacrifice, and Subjectivity, by 1998, page 136)
Jump up ^ George Buchanan, Sacred Dramas
Jump up ^ Israel Finkelstein (2016). "The Old Jephthah Tale in Judges: Geographical and Historical Considerations". Biblical Studies on the Web. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Israel Finkelstein (2016). "The Old Jephthah Tale in Judges: Geographical and Historical Considerations". Biblical Studies on the Web. p. 15.
Jump up ^ "BP Portrait Award 2015 - First Prize". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 18 June 2015. , National Portrait Gallery
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jephthah.
Jephthah in Jewish Encyclopedia
Jephthah
Tribe of Manasseh or Tribe of Gad
Preceded by
Jair Judge of Israel Succeeded by
Ibzan
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God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Michael Mason
Produced by
David A. R. White
Michael Scott
Brittany Yost
Elizabeth Travis
Alysoun Wolfe
Written by
Michael Mason
Starring
David A. R. White
John Corbett
Shane Harper
Ted McGinley
Tatum O'Neal
Music by
Pancho Burgos-Goizueta
Cinematography
Brian Shanley
Edited by
Joseph Sandoval
Production
company
Pure Flix
Distributed by
Pure Flix Entertainment
Release date
March 30, 2018 (2018-03-30)
Running time
106 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$7.3 million[1]
God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness is a 2018 American Christian drama film written and directed by Michael Mason. It is the third installment of the God's Not Dead series, following the 2014 film God's Not Dead and its 2016 sequel. It stars David A. R. White, John Corbett, Shane Harper, Benjamin Onyango, Ted McGinley, Jennifer Taylor, Tatum O'Neal, Shwayze and Cissy Houston.[2]
Principal photography was completed in Little Rock, Arkansas in December 2017. It was released in the United States on March 30, 2018. Unlike the first two films, A Light in Darkness was a box office bomb, making less in its entire theatrical run ($7.3 million) than the others grossed in their respective domestic opening weekends ($9.7 million and $7.6 million).
Contents
1 Plot summary
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
5 References
6 External links
Plot summary[edit]
After Rev. David Hill is released from prison (as seen in the previous film), controversy is sparked against Dave's St. James Church, which is on college campus grounds. This causes the college to start the process of shutting down the church, much to the dismay of Dave and his partner Jude. When informed of the decision to shut down the church and to replace it with a building to expand the school, Dave and Jude begin the process of suing the college to save St. James. Things get worse when college student Adam Richertson, in protest, tosses a brick into the church, igniting a fire that kills Jude and nearly destroys the church. Dave is forced to come to grips with the loss of these events. Adam is horrified by his actions and contemplates whether to confess to the crime, leading him to reconnect with his skeptical girlfriend, Keaton.
During the lawsuit against the church, Dave seeks the help of his estranged brother, attorney Pearce Hill, who tries to explain to Dave that it is not a case worth fighting for. Dave refuses to listen to his brother's advice and continues the case into court. After failing to reach a settlement with the college, the trial date is set for the lawsuit. At the same time, Adam sends an anonymous text to Dave, confessing to the church fire, causing a furious Dave to assault him when confronting him. This severely wounds his lawsuit's case and leads to Adam being arrested and charged as a felony case.
After seeking God's help in church through prayer, Dave eventually realizes that his case has only made things worse and that St. James is not the right church for God and his followers. He drops his lawsuit, reaches an out-of-court settlement with the college, and after talking with a repentant Adam and consulting with Jude's family, ultimately asks to have the criminal charges against Adam dropped. He then announces to his college protesters that while St. James will be torn down, he will reopen a new church not far from the school for future followers.
Cast[edit]
Jennifer Taylor as Meg Harvey
John Corbett as Pearce Hill
Tatum O'Neal as Barbara Solomon
Ted McGinley as Thomas Ellsworth
Shane Harper as Josh Wheaton
David A. R. White as Rev. Dave Hill
Benjamin Onyango as Reverend Jude
Cissy Houston as lead choir vocalist
Samantha Boscarino as Keaton
Mike C. Manning as Adam Richertson
Shwayze
Production[edit]
Principal photography took place in December 2017 around Little Rock, Arkansas.[3]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
In the United States and Canada, God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness was released on March 30, 2018, alongside Acrimony and Ready Player One, and was projected to gross $4–6 million from 1,685 theaters in its opening weekend.[4] It ended up debuting to just $2.6 million, finishing 12th at the box office and marking the lowest opening of the series. Deadline Hollywood noted the film suffered from being the third film of a trilogy and also said religious audiences saw the film as "a cash grab and not a movie promoting a Christian message anymore", and were more inclined to go to other faith-based films in theaters like I Can Only Imagine and Paul, Apostle of Christ.[5] It fell 58% in its second weekend to $1.1 million, finishing 17th.[6] By the end of its North American run the film grossed a total of $5.5 million, less than other two films grossed simply in their opening weekends ($9.7 million and $7.6 million, respectively).[7]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13% based on 15 reviews, and an average rating of 3.2/10.[8] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 33 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[9] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale,[10] though as with the second film, Deadline Hollywood noted that "faith-based films have an easy time gaining an A on CinemaScore".[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness (2018)". The Numbers. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ Truitt, Brian (December 19, 2017). "Watch the fiery trailer for the faith-based film 'God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness'". USA Today. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pure Flix Announces Theatrical Release Date For GOD'S NOT DEAD: A LIGHT IN DARKNESS" (Press release). Pure Flix. PR Newswire. December 19, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony; Tartaglione, Nancy (March 27, 2018). "Steven Spielberg's 'Ready Player One' To Get Its Game On With $140M+ Global Start". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (April 1, 2018). "Audiences Plug Into 'Ready Player One': Steven Spielberg Movie Looking At $53M+ 4-Day Score – Early Sunday Update". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (April 8, 2018). "'A Quiet Place' Screams To $50M+ Opening; 'Blockers' Breaks Through To $21M+ – Early Sunday Update". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead Movies at the Box Office". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness (2018)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved September 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ "God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved April 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Brad Brevet (March 31, 2018). "'Ready Player One' Hopes to End March 2018 with a Bang, Not a Whimper". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (April 4, 2016). "Batman V Superman's Knock-Down, Drag-Out Fight with the Box Office: 2nd Weekend At $52M+, -68%". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness on IMDb
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Sun path
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Sun's seasonal declination differences, viewed from some northern mid-latitude
Sun path polar chart for any location at the latitude of Rotterdam
Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the daily and seasonal arc-like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun. The Sun's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season.
The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems.[1] Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of solar trackers.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Effect of the Earth's axial tilt
1.1 Shadow of Vertical Stick at Solar Noon
1.2 Duration of Daylight
2 Building design simulation
3 Visualization
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt[edit]
This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings, or condensing it. (June 2017)
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry.[4] The Earth's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees, relative to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, this creates the 47° declination difference between the solstice sun paths, as well as the hemisphere-specific difference between summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winter sun (December, January, February) rises in the southeast, transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south (more than 43° above the southern horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the southwest. It is on the south (equator) side of the house all day long. A vertical window facing south (equator side) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy. For comparison, the winter sun in the Southern Hemisphere (June, July, August) rises in the northeast, peaks out at a low angle in the north (more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the northwest. There, the north-facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house.
In the Northern Hemisphere in summer (June, July, August), the Sun rises in the northeast, peaks out slightly south of overhead point (lower in the south at higher latitude), and then sets in the northwest, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere in summer (December, January, February), the Sun rises in the southeast, peaks out slightly north of overhead point (lower in the north at higher latitude), and then sets in the southwest. A simple latitude-dependent equator-side overhang can easily be designed to block 100% of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator-facing windows on the hottest days of the year. Roll-down exterior shade screens, interior translucent-or-opaque window quilts, drapes, shutters, movable trellises, etc. can be used for hourly, daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control (without any active electrical air conditioning).
Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes (March 20/21 and September 22/23) except for the poles, the sun rises due east and sets due west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the equinox sun peaks in the southern half (about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude) of the sky, while in the Southern Hemisphere, that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky. When facing the equator, the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The latitude (and hemisphere)-specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design. They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design. Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for, and how they compare to place-based seasonal heating and cooling requirements.
In the U.S., the precise location-specific altitude-and-azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA – the "equator side" of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere, and north in the Southern Hemisphere, where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21.
Shadow of Vertical Stick at Solar Noon[edit]
On the equator, the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes. On the vernal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator) the vertical stick's shadow will point a little westwards of true north (NNW) reading 336.5° from true north and little eastwards of true south (SSE) reading 156.5° from true north. On the autumnal equinox, north of the subsolar point (on the equator), the shadow will point a little eastwards of true north (NNE) reading 23.5° from true north (and south of the subsolar, the shadow will point a little westward of true south (SSW) reading 203.5° from true north).
The same stick will cast no shadow on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point is on the Tropic of Cancer 23.44° north of equator. Although north of 23.44°N the shadow will point towards true north and south of 23.44°N the shadow will point towards true south. The reverse occurs on the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere when the subsolar point will be on the Tropic of Capricorn 23.44°S and a vertical stick will cast no shadow along that point. But north of the Tropic of Capricorn solar noon shadows will point towards true north and south of the Tropic of Capricorn shadows will point towards true south.
The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive (δ☉ = +23.44°) or maximum negative (δ☉ = −23.44°) value. On the other hand, on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south (δ☉ = 0°) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox (and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox).
Duration of Daylight[edit]
North of the Arctic circle and south of the Antarctic circle, there will be at least one day a year when the sun is not above the horizon for 24 hours during the winter solstice, and at least one day when the sun is above the horizon for 24 hours during the summer solstice.
In the moderate latitudes (between the circles and tropics, where most humans live), the length of the day, solar altitude and azimuth vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the length of a long summer day and a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the equator.[2]
A solargraph showing the path of the sun as seen in Budapest for every day in 2014. Photo credit: Elekes Andor
Building design simulation[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Before the days of modern, inexpensive, 3D computer graphics, a heliodon (precisely-movable light source) was used to show the angle of the sun on a physical model of a proposed building. Today, mathematical computer models calculate location-specific solar gain (shading) and seasonal thermal performance, with the ability to rotate and animate a 3D color graphic model of a proposed building design.
Heating and cooling issues in passive solar building design can be counterintuitive. Precise performance calculations and simulations are essential to avoid reinventing the wheel and duplicating expensive experimental design errors, such as skylights that turn a building into a solar furnace in summer (see Daylighting#Sawtooth roof).
Visualization[edit]
These pictures show such a perspective as follows. They show the day arcs of the Sun, the paths the Sun tracks along the celestial dome in its diurnal movement. The pictures show this for every hour on both solstice days. The longer arc is always the summer track and the shorter one the winter track. The two tracks are at a distance of 46.88° (2 × 23.44°) away from each other.
In addition, some "ghost" suns are indicated below the horizon, as much as 18° down. The Sun in this area causes twilight. The pictures can be used for both the northern and southern hemispheres. The observer is supposed to sit near the tree on the island in the middle of the ocean. The green arrows give the cardinal directions.
On the northern hemisphere the north is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (far arrow), culminates in the south (to the right) while moving to the right and sets in the west (near arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the north in summer, and towards the south for the winter track.
On the southern hemisphere the south is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (to the right) while moving to the left and sets in the west (far arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the south in summer, and towards the north for the winter track.
The following special cases are depicted.
On the imaginary line of the equator the Sun maximum elevation is great during all the year but it doesn't form every day a perfect right angle with the ground at noon. In fact it happens two days of the year, during the equinoxes. The solstices are the dates that the Sun stays farthest away from the zenith but anyway also in those cases it's high in the sky, reaching an altitude of 66.56° either to the north or the south. All days of the year, solstices included, have the same length of 12 hours.
The day arcs at 20° latitude. The Sun culminates at 46.56° altitude in winter and 93.44° altitude in summer. In this case an angle larger than 90° means that the culmination takes place at an altitude of 86.56° in the opposite cardinal direction. For example, in the southern hemisphere, the Sun remains in the north during winter, but can reach over the zenith to the south in midsummer. Summer days are longer than winter days, but approximately the difference is no more than only two and a half hours. The daily path of the Sun is steep at the horizon the whole year round, resulting in a twilight of only about one hour and 20 minutes in the morning and in the evening.
The day arcs at 50° latitude. During the winter solstice Sun does not rise more than 16.56° above the horizon at midday, but 63.44° in summer solstice above the same horizon direction. The difference in the length of the day between summer and winter, from here to the north, begin to be striking – slightly more than 8 hours at winter solstice, to more than 16 hours during the summer solstice. Likewise is the difference in direction of sunrise and sunset. At this latitude at midnight (around 1 a.m. with summer legal hour) the summer sun is 16.56° below the horizon, which means that astronomical twilight continues the whole night. This phenomenon is known as the grey nights, nights when it does not get dark enough for astronomers to do their observations of the deep sky. Above 60° latitude the Sun would be even closer to the horizon, only 6.56° away from it. Then civil twilight continues almost all night, only a little bit of "nautical twilight" obviously around the local midnight. And above 66.56° latitude, there is no sunset at all, a phenomenon referred to as the midnight sun.
The day arcs at 70° latitude. At local noon the winter Sun culminates at −3.44°, and the summer Sun at 43.44°. Said another way, during the winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon, it is the polar night. There will be still a strong twilight though. At local midnight the summer Sun culminates at 3.44°, said another way, it does not set, it is the polar day.
The day arcs at the pole. At the time of the summer or winter solstices, the Sun is 23.44° degrees above or below the horizon respectively, irrespective of time of day. Whilst the Sun is up (during summer months) it will circle around the whole sky (clockwise from the North Pole and counter-clockwise from the South Pole), appearing to stay at the same angle from the horizon, therefore the concept of day or night is meaningless. The angle of elevation will gradually change on an annual cycle, with the Sun reaching its highest point at the summer solstice, and rising or setting at the equinox, with extended periods of twilight lasting several days after the autumn equinox and before the spring equinox.
Day arcs at 0° latitude, equator.
Day arcs at 20° latitude.
Day arcs at 50° latitude.
Day arcs at 70° latitude.
Day arcs at 90° latitude, pole.
See also[edit]
Ecliptic
Passive solar design
Solar access
Pyranometer
Pyrheliometer
Heliostat
Daylighting
Analemma
Effect of sun angle on climate
Position of the Sun
Equinox
Solstice
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Solar Resource Information". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Khavrus, V.; Shelevytsky, I. (2010). "Introduction to solar motion geometry on the basis of a simple model". Physics Education. 45 (6): 641. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/45/6/010.
Jump up ^ Khavrus, V.; Shelevytsky, I. (2012). "Geometry and the physics of seasons". Physics Education. 47 (6): 680. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/47/6/680.
Jump up ^ Librorum, Helluo (2012). "Notes from Noosphere: The simple geometry of sun, moon, and star paths". notesfromnoosphere.blogspot.com. Retrieved September 19, 2013. [unreliable source?]
External links[edit]
U.S. Naval Observatory Sun or Moon Altitude/Azimuth Table
The simple geometry of sun, moon, and star paths
Sun path calculation and visualization on Android
Sun path in augmented reality
Sun path by location and date
Sun positions, diagram and paths around the world by location and date
Seasonal and Hourly Sun Path Design Issue Tutorial
"Three Decades of Passive Solar Heating and Cooling Lessons Learned"
Sun path on map, charts and table, sun position for every location and date
Sun position by location and date
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Foreign trade in India includes all imports and exports to and from India. At the level of Central Government it is administered by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.[1] Foreign trade accounted for 48.8% of India's GDP in 2015.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Around 100CE
1.2 Around 1500
1.3 1991 economic reform
2 Trade in goods
3 Trade in services
4 Exports and imports
5 Trade statistics
6 Trading partners
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
See also: Indo-Roman trade relations
There are records throughout history of India's trade with foreign countries. Even before independence, the Government of India maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), who sent and received full missions,[3] and was a founder member of both the League of Nations[4] and the United Nations.[5] After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution.[6] The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc. However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it.
Around 100CE[edit]
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is a document written by an anonymous sailor from Alexandria about 100CE describing trade between countries, including India.
Around 1500[edit]
In 1498 Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut (modern day Kozhikode in Kerala) as the first European to ever sail to India. The tremendous profit made during this trip made the Portuguese eager for more trade with India and attracted other European navigators and tradesmen.[7]
Pedro Álvares Cabral left for India in 1500 and established Portuguese trading posts at Calicut and Cochin (modern day Kochi), returning to Portugal in 1501 with pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, nutmeg, mace, and cloves. The profits made from this trip were huge.[8]
1991 economic reform[edit]
Prior to the 1991 economic liberalisation,India was a closed economy due to the average tariffs exceeding 200 percent and the extensive quantitative restrictions on imports. Foreign investment was strictly restricted to only allow Indian ownership of businesses. Since the liberalisation, India's economy has improved mainly due to increased foreign trade.[9]
Trade in goods[edit]
India accounted for 1.7% of the global trade in goods and increased in 2016.[10]
Trade in services[edit]
India was the eighth largest exporter of commercial services in the world in 2016, accounting for 3.4% of global trade in services. India recorded a 5.7% growth in services trade in 2016-17.[10]
Exports and imports[edit]
Main article: List of exports of India
India exports approximately 7500 commodities to about 190 countries, and imports around 6000 commodities from 140 countries.[11] India exported US$318.2 billion and imported $462.9 billion worth of commodities in 2014.[12][13]
The Government of India's Economic Survey 2017-18 noted that five states — Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Telangana — accounted for 70% of India's total exports. It was the first time that the survey included international export data for states. The survey found a high correlation between a state's Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) per capita and its share of total exports. With a high GSDP per capita but low export share, Kerala was the only major outlier because the state's GSDP per capita was heavily influenced by remittances.[14]
The survey also found that the largest firms in India contributed to a smaller percentage of exports when compared to countries like Brazil, Germany, Mexico, and the United States. The top 1% of India's companies accounted for 38% of total exports.[14]
Trade statistics[edit]
Summary table of recent India Foreign Trade:[15][16] [17]
Year
Export
Import
Trade Deficit
1999 36.3 50.2 -13.9
2000 43.1 60.8 -17.7
2001 42.5 54.5 -12.0
2002 44.5 53.8 -9.3
2003 48.3 61.6 -13.3
2004 57.24 74.15 -16.91
2005 69.18 89.33 -20.15
2006 76.23 113.1 -36.87
2007 112.0 187.9 -75.9
2008 176.4 305.5 -129.1
2009 168.2 274.3 -106.1
2010 201.1 327.0 -125.9
2011 299.4 461.4 -162.0
2012 298.4 500.4 -202.0
2013 313.2 467.5 -154.3
2014 318.2 462.9 -144.7
2015[18] 310.3 447.9 -137.6
2016 262.3 381 -118.7
2017 275.8 384.3 -108.5
The top 10 commodity exports in 2014 were as follows:
Rank
Commodity
HS Code
Value (US$ billion)
Share (%)
1 Refined Petroleum 27 61.2 19.2
2 Gems, precious metals, coins 71 41.2 13
3 Vehicles 87 14.5 4.6
4 Machines, engines, pumps 85 13.6 4.3
5 Organic chemicals 29 12.1 3.8
6 Pharmaceuticals 30 11.7 3.7
7 Cereals 10 10.1 3.2
8 Iron and steel 72 9.1 2.9
9 Clothing (not knit or crotchet) 58 9.1 2.9
10 Electronics 85 9.1 2.8
The top 10 commodity imports in 2014 were as follows:
Rank
Commodity
HS Code
Value (US$ billion)
Share (%)
1 Oil 27 177.5 38.3
2 Gems, precious metals, coins 71 60 13
3 Electronics 85 32 6.9
4 Machines, engines, pumps 85 31.2 6.7
5 Organic chemicals 29 18.3 4
6 Plastics 39 11.8 2.6
7 Iron and steel 72 11.4 2.5
8 Animal/vegetable fats and oils 15 10.7 2.3
9 Ores, slag and ash 26 7.4 1.6
10 Medical and technical equipment 90 7.1 1.5
Trading partners[edit]
Further information: List of the largest trading partners of India
India's largest trading partners in descending order of value of total trade are the United Arab Emirates, China, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iraq and Japan.
See also[edit]
Economy of India
Foreign relations of India
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Country comparison: Exports". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Human Development Report 2016" (PDF). narendhar. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
Jump up ^ High Commission of India in Australia: India Australia Relations. Hcindia-au.org (20 April 2011). Retrieved 12 November 2011.
Jump up ^ First Assembly, Geneva, 15 November – 18 December 1920. Indiana.edu (18 December 1920). Retrieved 12 November 2011.
Jump up ^ UN list of members by admission Archived July 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.. Un.org. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ John, K. C.; Kevin, S (2004). Traditional Exports of India: Performance and Prospects. Delhi: New Century Publications. p. 59. ISBN 81-7708-062-8.
Jump up ^ John, K. C.; Kevin, S (2004). Traditional Exports of India: Performance and Prospects. Delhi: New Century Publications. p. 59. ISBN 81-7708-062-8.
Jump up ^ "International Economics & Trade - India: Foreign Trade Policy". worldbank.org. 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Chakraborty, Subhayan (29 January 2018). "Only 5 states account for 70% of exports, Economic Survey shows". Business Standard India. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.co.in/books?id=MvudnXqAPWAC&pg=PA358&lpg=PA358&dq=india+export+190+countries&source=bl&ots=yvkMPIweC9&sig=G5gqTQbX1BsMLkQoWIpdj4I4544&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY6v70lsrJAhVBfaYKHSFYA4UQ6AEIHTAB#v=onepage&q=india%20export%20190%20countries&f=false
Jump up ^ "Top India Exports". www.worldsrichestcountries.com. Retrieved 2015-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Top India Imports". www.worldsrichestcountries.com. Retrieved 2015-12-07.
^ Jump up to: a b "Economic Survey 2018: 5 states show the way with 70% of exports, enjoy higher standard of living". The Indian Express. 30 January 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "India - Imports - Historical Data Graphs per Year". Retrieved 2015-12-27.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Export Import Data". www.eximatlasindia.com. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Total Trade". commerce.nic.in. Department of Commerce. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
External links[edit]
Import Export Data
Directorate General of Foreign Trade
Major Problems Hindering Indias Export Growth
India Exports and Imports
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