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State (polity)
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"The state" redirects here. For other uses, see State (disambiguation).
The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan
A state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory.[1][2]
Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, however for most of pre-history people lived in stateless societies. The first states arose about 5,500 years ago in conjunction with rapid growth of cities, invention of writing, and codification of new forms of religion. Over time, a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, however, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject.
Some states are sovereign. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state.[3] The term state is also applied to federated states that are members of a federal union, which is the sovereign state.[4]
Speakers of American English often use the terms state and government as synonyms,[note 1] with both words referring to an organized political group that exercises authority over a particular territory.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Definition issues
2.1 Types of states
2.2 The state and government
2.3 States and nation-states
2.4 The state and civil society
2.5 The man versus the state
3 Theories of state function
3.1 Anarchist
3.2 Marxist perspective
3.3 Pluralism
3.4 Contemporary critical perspectives
3.5 State autonomy (institutionalism)
4 Theories of state legitimacy
4.1 Divine right of kings
4.2 Rational-legal authority
5 History
5.1 Pre-historic stateless societies
5.2 The Neolithic period
5.3 The state in ancient Eurasia
5.4 The state in classical antiquity
5.5 The feudal state
5.6 The modern state
6 Weak states and late state formation
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Notes
8.2 Bibliography
9 Further reading
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
Look up state, estate, or status in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The word state and its cognates in some other European languages (stato in Italian, estado in Spanish and Portuguese, état in French, Staat in German) ultimately derive from the Latin word status, meaning "condition, circumstances".[6]
The English noun state in the generic sense "condition, circumstances" predates the political sense. It is introduced to Middle English c. 1200 both from Old French and directly from Latin.
With the revival of the Roman law in 14th-century Europe, the term came to refer to the legal standing of persons (such as the various "estates of the realm" – noble, common, and clerical), and in particular the special status of the king. The highest estates, generally those with the most wealth and social rank, were those that held power.[7] The word also had associations with Roman ideas (dating back to Cicero) about the "status rei publicae", the "condition of public matters". In time, the word lost its reference to particular social groups and became associated with the legal order of the entire society and the apparatus of its enforcement.[8]
The early 16th-century works of Machiavelli (especially The Prince) played a central role in popularizing the use of the word "state" in something similar to its modern sense.[9] The contrasting of church and state still dates to the 16th century. The North American colonies were called "states" as early as the 1630s. The expression L'Etat, c'est moi ("I am the State") attributed to Louis XIV of France is probably apocryphal, recorded in the late 18th century.[10]
Definition issues[edit]
There is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state.[11] The term "state" refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, theories about a certain range of political phenomena.[12] The act of defining the term can be seen as part of an ideological conflict, because different definitions lead to different theories of state function, and as a result validate different political strategies.[13] According to Jeffrey and Painter, "if we define the 'essence' of the state in one place or era, we are liable to find that in another time or space something which is also understood to be a state has different 'essential' characteristics".[14]
The most commonly used definition is Max Weber's,[15][16][17][18][19] which describes the state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.[1][2] General categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations.[20]
Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States in 1933. It defined state as a space that possess the following : A permanent population, a defined territory and a government that is capable of maintaining effective control over the corresponding territory and of conducting International relations with other states.[21]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is "a. an organized political community under one government; a commonwealth; a nation. b. such a community forming part of a federal republic, esp the United States of America".[4]
Confounding the definition problem is that "state" and "government" are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this definition schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law, governments are organizations of people.[22] The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency.[23]
Types of states[edit]
States may be classified by Political philosophers as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state.[4][24] Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation.[25] (Compare confederacies or confederations such as Switzerland.) Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government.[4]
One can commonly and sometimes readily (but not necessarily usefully) classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus. The concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a "nation", became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. In contrast, some states have sought to make a virtue of their multi-ethnic or multi-national character (Hapsburg Austria-Hungary, for example, or the Soviet Union), and have emphasised unifying characteristics such as autocracy, monarchical legitimacy, or ideology. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority.[26] Other states may bring ideas of commonality and inclusiveness to the fore: note the res publica of ancient Rome and the Rzeczpospolita of Poland-Lithuania which finds echoes in the modern-day republic. The concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world.[27] Relatively small city-states, once a relatively common and often successful form of polity in the days before folk[vague] worried about failed states,[28] have become rarer and comparatively less prominent in modern times,[29] although a number of them survive as federated states, like the present day German city-states, or as otherwise autonomous entities with limited sovereignty, like Hong Kong, Gibraltar and Ceuta. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state (sovereign or federated), continues to be discussed in the early 21st century in cities such as London.
The state and government[edit]
See also: Government
A state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the particular group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time.[30][31][32] That is, governments are the means through which state power is employed. States are served by a continuous succession of different governments.[32] States are immaterial and nonphysical social objects, whereas governments are groups of people with certain coercive powers.[33]
Each successive government is composed of a specialized and privileged body of individuals, who monopolize political decision-making, and are separated by status and organization from the population as a whole. Their function is to enforce existing laws, legislate new ones, and arbitrate conflicts. In some societies, this group is a self-perpetuating or hereditary class. In other societies, such as democracies, the political roles remain, but there is frequent turnover of the people actually filling the positions.[34]
States and nation-states[edit]
See also: Nation-state
States can also be distinguished from the concept of a "nation", where "nation" refers to a cultural-political community of people. A nation-state refers to a situation where a single ethnicity is associated with a specific state.
The state and civil society[edit]
In the classical thought, the state was identified with both political society and civil society as a form of political community, while the modern thought distinguished the nation state as a political society from civil society as a form of economic society.[35] Thus in the modern thought the state is contrasted with civil society.[36][37][38]
The man versus the state[edit]
Antonio Gramsci believed that civil society is the primary locus of political activity because it is where all forms of "identity formation, ideological struggle, the activities of intellectuals, and the construction of hegemony take place." and that civil society was the nexus connecting the economic and political sphere. Arising out of the collective actions of civil society is what Gramsci calls "political society", which Gramsci differentiates from the notion of the state as a polity. He stated that politics was not a "one-way process of political management" but, rather, that the activities of civil organizations conditioned the activities of political parties and state institutions, and were conditioned by them in turn.[39][40] Louis Althusser argued that civil organizations such as church, schools, and the family are part of an "ideological state apparatus" which complements the "repressive state apparatus" (such as police and military) in reproducing social relations.[41][42][43]
Jürgen Habermas spoke of a public sphere that was distinct from both the economic and political sphere.[44]
Given the role that many social groups have in the development of public policy, and the extensive connections between state bureaucracies and other institutions, it has become increasingly difficult to identify the boundaries of the state. Privatization, nationalization, and the creation of new regulatory bodies also change the boundaries of the state in relation to society. Often the nature of quasi-autonomous organizations is unclear, generating debate among political scientists on whether they are part of the state or civil society. Some political scientists thus prefer to speak of policy networks and decentralized governance in modern societies rather than of state bureaucracies and direct state control over policy.[45]
Theories of state function[edit]
See also: Corporatism and Elite theory
Most political theories of the state can roughly be classified into two categories. The first are known as "liberal" or "conservative" theories, which treat capitalism as a given, and then concentrate on the function of states in capitalist society. These theories tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and the economy. Marxist theories on the other hand, see politics as intimately tied in with economic relations, and emphasize the relation between economic power and political power. They see the state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper class.[32]
Anarchist[edit]
Main article: Anarchism
IWW poster "Pyramid of Capitalist System" (c. 1911), depicting an anti-capitalist perspective on statist/capitalist social structures
Anarchism is a political philosophy which considers the state immoral, unnecessary, and harmful and instead promotes a stateless society, or anarchy.
Anarchists believe that the state is inherently an instrument of domination and repression, no matter who is in control of it. Anarchists note that the state possesses the monopoly on the legal use of violence. Unlike Marxists, anarchists believe that revolutionary seizure of state power should not be a political goal. They believe instead that the state apparatus should be completely dismantled, and an alternative set of social relations created, which are not based on state power at all.[46][47]
Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation.[48][49]
Marxist perspective[edit]
Main article: Marx's theory of the state
Marx and Engels were clear in that the communist goal was a classless society in which the state would have "withered away".[50] Their views are scattered throughout the Marx/Engels Collected Works and address past or the then extant state forms from an analytical or tactical viewpoint, not future social forms, speculation about which is generally anathema to groups considering themselves Marxist but who, not having conquered the existing state power(s) are not in the situation of supplying the institutional form of an actual society. To the extent that it makes sense, there is no single "Marxist theory of state", but rather many different "Marxist" theories that have been developed by adherents of Marxism.[51][52][53]
Marx's early writings portrayed the state as "parasitic", built upon the superstructure of the economy, and working against the public interest. He also wrote that the state mirrors class relations in society in general, acts as a regulator and repressor of class struggle, and acts as a tool of political power and domination for the ruling class.[54] The Communist Manifesto claimed that the state is nothing more than "a committee for managing the common affairs of the bourgeoisie.[51]
For Marxist theorists, the role of the non-socialist state is determined by its function in the global capitalist order. Ralph Miliband argued that the ruling class uses the state as its instrument to dominate society by virtue of the interpersonal ties between state officials and economic elites. For Miliband, the state is dominated by an elite that comes from the same background as the capitalist class. State officials therefore share the same interests as owners of capital and are linked to them through a wide array of social, economic, and political ties.[55]
Gramsci's theories of state emphasized that the state is only one of the institutions in society that helps maintain the hegemony of the ruling class, and that state power is bolstered by the ideological domination of the institutions of civil society, such as churches, schools, and mass media.[56]
Pluralism[edit]
See also: Polyarchy
Pluralists view society as a collection of individuals and groups, who are competing for political power. They then view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever groups dominate the electoral process.[57] Within the pluralist tradition, Robert Dahl developed the theory of the state as a neutral arena for contending interests or its agencies as simply another set of interest groups. With power competitively arranged in society, state policy is a product of recurrent bargaining. Although pluralism recognizes the existence of inequality, it asserts that all groups have an opportunity to pressure the state. The pluralist approach suggests that the modern democratic state's actions are the result of pressures applied by a variety of organized interests. Dahl called this kind of state a polyarchy.[58]
Pluralism has been challenged on the ground that it is not supported by empirical evidence. Citing surveys showing that the large majority of people in high leadership positions are members of the wealthy upper class, critics of pluralism claim that the state serves the interests of the upper class rather than equitably serving the interests of all social groups.[59][60]
Contemporary critical perspectives[edit]
Jürgen Habermas believed that the base-superstructure framework, used by many Marxist theorists to describe the relation between the state and the economy, was overly simplistic. He felt that the modern state plays a large role in structuring the economy, by regulating economic activity and being a large-scale economic consumer/producer, and through its redistributive welfare state activities. Because of the way these activities structure the economic framework, Habermas felt that the state cannot be looked at as passively responding to economic class interests.[61][62][63]
Michel Foucault believed that modern political theory was too state-centric, saying "Maybe, after all, the state is no more than a composite reality and a mythologized abstraction, whose importance is a lot more limited than many of us think." He thought that political theory was focusing too much on abstract institutions, and not enough on the actual practices of government. In Foucault's opinion, the state had no essence. He believed that instead of trying to understand the activities of governments by analyzing the properties of the state (a reified abstraction), political theorists should be examining changes in the practice of government to understand changes in the nature of the state.[64][65][66]Foucault argues that it is technology that has created and made the state so elusive and successful instead of looking at the state as something to be toppled we should look at the state as technological manifestation or system with many heads;Foucault argues instead of something to be overthrown as in the sense of the Marxist and Anarchist understanding of the state.Every single scientific technological advance has come to the service of the state Foucault argues and it is with the emergence of the Mathematical sciences and essentially the formation of Mathematical statistics that you get a understanding of the complex technology of producing how the modern state was so successfully created.The nation(Nation state) wasn't an historical accident insist Foucault but a deliberate production in which the modern state had to now manage coincidentally with the emerging practice of the Police (Cameral science)'allowing' the population to now 'come in' into jus gentium and civitas(Civil society) after deliberately being excluded for several millennia.[67]Democracy wasn't(the newly formed voting franchise)as is always painted by both political revolutionaries and political philosophers as a cry for political freedom or wanting to be accepted by the 'ruling elite',Foucault insists,but was a part of a skilled endeavour of switching over new technology such as;Translatio imperii, Plenitudo potestatis and extra Ecclesiam nulla salus readily available from the past Medieval period, into mass persuasion for the future industrial 'political' population(deception over the population) in which the political population was now asked to insist upon itself “the president must be elected”.Where these political symbol agents,represented by the pope and the president are now democratised.Foucault calls these new forms of technology Biopower[68][69][67] and form part of our political inheritance which he calls Biopolitics.
Heavily influenced by Gramsci, Nicos Poulantzas, a Greek neo-Marxist theorist argued that capitalist states do not always act on behalf of the ruling class, and when they do, it is not necessarily the case because state officials consciously strive to do so, but because the 'structural' position of the state is configured in such a way to ensure that the long-term interests of capital are always dominant. Poulantzas' main contribution to the Marxist literature on the state was the concept of 'relative autonomy' of the state. While Poulantzas' work on 'state autonomy' has served to sharpen and specify a great deal of Marxist literature on the state, his own framework came under criticism for its 'structural functionalism'.[citation needed]
State autonomy (institutionalism)[edit]
Main article: New institutionalism
State autonomy theorists believe that the state is an entity that is impervious to external social and economic influence, and has interests of its own.[70]
"New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of Theda Skocpol, suggest that state actors are to an important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion, and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse, state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society.[71]
Theories of state legitimacy[edit]
Main article: Legitimacy (political)
See also: Social contract and State of nature
States generally rely on a claim to some form of political legitimacy in order to maintain domination over their subjects.[7][72][73]
Divine right of kings[edit]
Main article: Divine right of kings
The rise of the modern day state system was closely related to changes in political thought, especially concerning the changing understanding of legitimate state power and control. Early modern defenders of absolutism(Absolute monarchy), such as Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin undermined the doctrine of the divine right of kings by arguing that the power of kings should be justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular went further to argue that political power should be justified with reference to the individual(Hobbes wrote in the time of the English Civil war), not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and Bodin thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating for democracy, but their arguments about the nature of sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more traditional defenders of the power of kings, such as Sir Robert Filmer in England, who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to more democratic claims.[citation needed]
Rational-legal authority[edit]
Main article: Rational-legal authority
Max Weber identified three main sources of political legitimacy in his works. The first, legitimacy based on traditional grounds is derived from a belief that things should be as they have been in the past, and that those who defend these traditions have a legitimate claim to power. The second, legitimacy based on charismatic leadership is devotion to a leader or group that is viewed as exceptionally heroic or virtuous. The third is rational-legal authority, whereby legitimacy is derived from the belief that a certain group has been placed in power in a legal manner, and that their actions are justifiable according to a specific code of written laws. Weber believed that the modern state is characterized primarily by appeals to rational-legal authority.[74][75][76]
History[edit]
The earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize power in a durable way. Agriculture and writing are almost everywhere associated with this process: agriculture because it allowed for the emergence of a social class of people who did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence, and writing (or an equivalent of writing, like Inca quipus) because it made possible the centralization of vital information.[77]
The first known states were created in the Fertile Crescent, India, China, Mesoamerica, the Andes, and others, but it is only in relatively modern times that states have almost completely displaced alternative "stateless" forms of political organization of societies all over the planet.[78] Roving bands of hunter-gatherers and even fairly sizable and complex tribal societies based on herding or agriculture have existed without any full-time specialized state organization, and these "stateless" forms of political organization have in fact prevailed for all of the prehistory and much of the history of the human species and civilization.[78]
Initially states emerged over territories built by conquest in which one culture, one set of ideals and one set of laws have been imposed by force or threat over diverse nations by a civilian and military bureaucracy.[78] Currently, that is not always the case and there are multinational states, federated states and autonomous areas within states.
Since the late 19th century, virtually the entirety of the world's inhabitable land has been parcelled up into areas with more or less definite borders claimed by various states. Earlier, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or uninhabited, or inhabited by nomadic peoples who were not organised as states. However, even within present-day states there are vast areas of wilderness, like the Amazon rainforest, which are uninhabited or inhabited solely or mostly by indigenous people (and some of them remain uncontacted). Also, there are states which do not hold de facto control over all of their claimed territory or where this control is challenged. Currently the international community comprises around 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of which are represented in the United Nations.[citation needed]
Pre-historic stateless societies[edit]
Main article: Stateless societies
For most of human history, people have lived in stateless societies, characterized by a lack of concentrated authority, and the absence of large inequalities in economic and political power.
The anthropologist Tim Ingold writes:
It is not enough to observe, in a now rather dated anthropological idiom, that hunter gatherers live in 'stateless societies', as though their social lives were somehow lacking or unfinished, waiting to be completed by the evolutionary development of a state apparatus. Rather, the principal of their socialty, as Pierre Clastres has put it, is fundamentally against the state.[79]
The Neolithic period[edit]
Main article: Neolithic
During the Neolithic period, human societies underwent major cultural and economic changes, including the development of agriculture, the formation of sedentary societies and fixed settlements, increasing population densities, and the use of pottery and more complex tools.[80][81]
Sedentary agriculture led to the development of property rights, domestication of plants and animals, and larger family sizes. It also provided the basis for the centralized state form[82] by producing a large surplus of food, which created a more complex division of labor by enabling people to specialize in tasks other than food production.[83] Early states were characterized by highly stratified societies, with a privileged and wealthy ruling class that was subordinate to a monarch. The ruling classes began to differentiate themselves through forms of architecture and other cultural practices that were different from those of the subordinate laboring classes.[84]
In the past, it was suggested that the centralized state was developed to administer large public works systems (such as irrigation systems) and to regulate complex economies. However, modern archaeological and anthropological evidence does not support this thesis, pointing to the existence of several non-stratified and politically decentralized complex societies.[85]
The state in ancient Eurasia[edit]
See also: Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Indus Valley Civilization, and Government of the Han Dynasty
Mesopotamia is generally considered to be the location of the earliest civilization or complex society, meaning that it contained cities, full-time division of labor, social concentration of wealth into capital, unequal distribution of wealth, ruling classes, community ties based on residency rather than kinship, long distance trade, monumental architecture, standardized forms of art and culture, writing, and mathematics and science.[86] It was the world's first literate civilization, and formed the first sets of written laws.[87][88]
The state in classical antiquity[edit]
See also: Athenian democracy and Roman Republic
Painting of Roman Senators encircling Julius Caesar
Although state-forms existed before the rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.[89]
Several important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population, and in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.
The feudal state[edit]
See also: Feudalism and Middle Ages
During Medieval times in Europe, the state was organized on the principle of feudalism, and the relationship between lord and vassal became central to social organization. Feudalism led to the development of greater social hierarchies.[90]
The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the Standestaat, or the state of Estates, characterized by parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. These estates of the realm sometimes evolved in the direction of fully-fledged parliaments, but sometimes lost out in their struggles with the monarch, leading to greater centralization of lawmaking and military power in his hands. Beginning in the 15th century, this centralizing process gives rise to the absolutist state.[91]
The modern state[edit]
See also: Bureaucracy, Constitution, Corporation, Globalization, and Neoliberalism
Cultural and national homogenization figured prominently in the rise of the modern state system. Since the absolutist period, states have largely been organized on a national basis. The concept of a national state, however, is not synonymous with nation state. Even in the most ethnically homogeneous societies there is not always a complete correspondence between state and nation, hence the active role often taken by the state to promote nationalism through emphasis on shared symbols and national identity.[92]
Weak states and late state formation[edit]
Some states are often labeled as weak or failed. In David Samuels's words "...a failed state occurs when sovereignty over claimed territory has collapsed or was never effectively at all".[93] Authors like Samuels and Joel S. Migdal have explored the emergence of weak states, how they are different from Western "strong" states and its consequences to the economic development of developing countries.
Early state formation
To understand the formation of weak states, Samuels compares the formation of European states in the 1600 with the conditions under which more recent states were formed in the twentieth century. In this line of argument, the state allows a population to resolve a collective action problem, in which citizens recognize the authority of the state and this exercise the power of coercion over them. This kind of social organization required a decline in legitimacy of traditional forms of ruling (like religious authorities) and replaced them with an increase in the legitimacy of depersonalized rule; an increase in the central government's sovereignty; and an increase in the organizational complexity of the central government (bureaucracy).
The transition to this modern state was possible in Europe around 1600 thanks to the confluence of factors like the technological developments in warfare, which generated strong incentives to tax and consolidate central structures of governance to respond to external threats. This was complemented by the increasing on the production of food (as a result of productivity improvements), which allowed to sustain a larger population and so increased the complexity and centralization of states. Finally, cultural changes challenged the authority of monarchies and paved the way to the emergence of modern states.[94]
Late state formation
The conditions that enabled the emergence of modern states in Europe were different for other countries that started this process later. As a result, many of these states lack effective capabilities to tax and extract revenue from their citizens, which derives in problems like corruption, tax evasion and low economic growth. Unlike the European case, late state formation occurred in a context of limited international conflict that diminished the incentives to tax and increase military spending. Also, many of these states emerged from colonization in a state of poverty and with institutions designed to extract natural resources, which have made more difficult to form states. European colonization also defined many arbitrary borders that mixed different cultural groups under the same national identities, which has made difficult to build states with legitimacy among all the population, since some states have to compete for it with other forms of political identity.[94]
As a complement of this argument, Migdal gives a historical account on how sudden social changes in the Third World during the Industrial Revolution contributed to the formation of weak states. The expansion of international trade that started around 1850, brought profound changes in Africa, Asia and Latin America that were introduced with the objective of assure the availability of raw materials for the European market. These changes consisted in: i) reforms to landownership laws with the objective of integrate more lands to the international economy, ii) increase in the taxation of peasants and little landowners, as well as collecting of these taxes in cash instead of in kind as was usual up to that moment and iii) the introduction of new and less costly modes of transportation, mainly railroads. As a result, the traditional forms of social control became obsolete, deteriorating the existing institutions and opening the way to the creation of new ones, that not necessarily lead these countries to build strong states.[95] This fragmentation of the social order induced a political logic in which these states were captured to some extent by "strongmen", who were capable to take advantage of the above-mentioned changes and that challenge the sovereignty of the state. As a result, these decentralization of social control impedes to consolidate strong states.[96]
See also[edit]
Civilian control of the military
International relations
Rule of law
Statism
Warlordism
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The two are especially synonymous when phrased as "the state" and "the government." See "government" under List of words having different meanings in American and British English: A–L.
^ Jump up to: a b Cudworth et al., 2007: p. 95
^ Jump up to: a b Salmon, 2008: p. 54 Archived 15 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ For example the Vichy France (1940–1944) officially referred to itself as l'État français.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thompson, Della, ed. (1995). "state". Concise Oxford English Dictionary (9th ed.). Oxford University Press. 3 (also State) a an organized political community under one government; a commonwealth; a nation. b such a community forming part of a federal republic, esp the United States of America
Jump up ^ ""state" (definition 5) and "government" (definitions 4, 5, and 6)", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2015, archived from the original on 22 September 2017
Jump up ^ Hay, 2001: p. 1469 Archived 3 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Vincent, 1992: p. 43 Archived 24 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Skinner, 1989:[page needed]
Jump up ^ Bobbio, 1989: pp.57–58 Archived 30 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ C. D. Erhard, Betrachtungen über Leopolds des Weisen Gesetzgebung in Toscana, Richter, 1791, p. 30 Archived 19 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine.. Recognized as apocryphal in the early 19th century. Jean Etienne François Marignié, The king can do no wrong: Le roi ne peut jamais avoit tort, le roi ne peut mal faire, Le Normant, 1818 p. 12 Archived 19 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Cudworth et al., 2007: p. 1
Jump up ^ Barrow, 1993: pp. 9–10
Jump up ^ Barrow, 1993: pp. 10–11
Jump up ^ Painter, Joe; Jeffrey, Alex (2009). Political Geography (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4129-0138-3.
Jump up ^ Dubreuil, Benoít (2010). Human Evolution and the Origins of Hierarchies: The State of Nature. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-521-76948-8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Gordon, Scott (2002). Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-674-00977-6. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Hay, Colin (2001). Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 1469–1474. ISBN 0-415-14532-5. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Donovan, John C. (1993). People, power, and politics: an introduction to political science. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8226-3025-8. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Martin (2003). War and genocide: organized killing in modern society. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-7456-1907-1. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Earle, Timothy (1997). "State, State Systems". In Barfield, Thomas. The Dictionary of Anthropology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-57718-057-9. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States". Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Robinson, E. H. 2013. The Distinction Between State and Government Archived 2 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. The Geography Compass 7(8): pp. 556–566.
Jump up ^ Crawford, J. (2007) The Creation of States in International Law. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ "sovereign", The New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-19-517077-6, adjective ... [ attrib.] (of a nation or state) fully independent and determining its own affairs: a sovereign, democratic republic.
Jump up ^ The Australian National Dictionary: Fourth Edition, pg 1395. (2004) Canberra. ISBN 0-19-551771-7.
Jump up ^ Compare mission civilisatrice, Japanese colonial empire.
Jump up ^ For example: Pastor, Jack (1997). "3: The Early Hellenistic Peiod". Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine. London: Routledge (published 2013). p. 32. ISBN 9781134722648. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2017. The idea of Jerusalem as a temple state is an analogy to the temple states of Asia Minor and the Seleucid Empire, but it is an inappropriate analogy. [...] Rostovtzeff referred to Judea as a sort of temple state, notwithstanding his own definition that stipulates ownership of territory and state organization. [...] Hengel also claims that Judea was a temple state, ignoring his own evidence that the Ptolemies hardly would have tolerated such a situation.
Jump up ^ Athens, Carthage, Rome, Novgorod, Pskov, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfurt, Lübeck, Florence, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, Danzig, Fiume, Dubrovnik.
Jump up ^ Vatican City, Monaco, Singapore.
Jump up ^ Bealey, Frank, ed. (1999). "government". The Blackwell dictionary of political science: a user's guide to its terms. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-631-20695-8. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Sartwell, 2008: p. 25 Archived 23 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Flint & Taylor, 2007: p. 137
Jump up ^ Robinson, E. H. 2013. The Distinction Between State and Government. Archived 2 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. The Geography Compass 7(8): pp. 556–566.
Jump up ^ Barclay, Harold (1990). People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy. Left Bank Books. p. 31. ISBN 1-871082-16-1.
Jump up ^ Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality". Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte. Felix Meiner Verlag. 50.
Jump up ^ Ehrenberg, John (1999). "Civil Society and the State". Civil society: the critical history of an idea. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2207-7. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Kaviraj, Sudipta (2001). "In search of civil society". In Kaviraj, Sudipta; Khilnani, Sunil. Civil society: history and possibilities. Cambridge University Press. pp. 291–293. ISBN 978-0-521-00290-5. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Reeve, Andrew (2001). "Civil society". In Jones, R.J. Barry. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 158–160. ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Sassoon, Anne Showstack (2000). Gramsci and contemporary politics: beyond pessimism of the intellect. Psychology Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-415-16214-2. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Augelli, Enrico & Murphy, Craig N. (1993). "Gramsci and international relations: a general perspective with examples from recent US policy towards the Third World". In Gill, Stephen. Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-521-43523-9. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Ferretter, Luke (2006). Louis Althusser. Taylor & Francis. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-415-32731-2. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Flecha, Ramon (2009). "The Educative City and Critical Education". In Apple, Michael W.; et al. The Routledge international handbook of critical education. Taylor & Francis. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-415-95861-5. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Malešević, 2002: p. 16 Archived 23 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Morrow, Raymond Allen & Torres, Carlos Alberto (2002). Reading Freire and Habermas: critical pedagogy and transformative social change. Teacher's College Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8077-4202-0. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Kjaer, Anne Mette (2004). Governance. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-7456-2979-7. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. --[page needed]
Jump up ^ Newman, Saul (2010). The Politics of Postanarchism. Edinburgh University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-7486-3495-8. Archived from the original on 29 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Roussopoulos, Dimitrios I. (1973). The political economy of the state: Québec, Canada, U.S.A. Black Rose Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-919618-01-5. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre (2010). Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel. Exeter: Imprint Academic. pp. 123–126. Revelation
Jump up ^ Ellul, Jacques (1988). Anarchy and Christianity. Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 71–74. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. The first beast comes up from the sea...It is given 'all authority and power over every tribe, every people, every tongue, and every nation' (13:7). All who dwell on earth worship it. Political power could hardly, I think, be more expressly described, for it is this power which has authority, which controls military force, and which compels adoration (i.e., absolute obedience).
Jump up ^ Frederick Engels – Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. 1880 Archived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Full Text. From Historical Materialism: "State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The State is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time the lord over Nature, his own master — free."
^ Jump up to: a b Flint & Taylor, 2007: p. 139
Jump up ^ Joseph, 2004: p. 15 Archived 6 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Barrow, 1993: p. 4
Jump up ^ Smith, Mark J. (2000). Rethinking state theory. Psychology Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-20892-5. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Miliband, Ralph. 1983. Class power and state power. London: Verso.
Jump up ^ Joseph, 2004: p. 44 Archived 29 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vincent, 1992: pp. 47–48 Archived 30 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dahl, Robert (1973). Modern Political Analysis. Prentice Hall. p. [page needed]. ISBN 0-13-596981-6.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, Frank (2002). Theories of democracy: a critical introduction. Psychology Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-415-22879-4. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Zweigenhaft, Richard L. & Domhoff, G. William (2006). Diversity in the power elite: how it happened, why it matters (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7425-3699-9. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Duncan, Graeme Campbell (1989). Democracy and the capitalist state. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-521-28062-4. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Edgar, Andrew (2005). The philosophy of Habermas. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 5–6; 44. ISBN 978-0-7735-2783-6.
Jump up ^ Cook, Deborah (2004). Adorno, Habermas, and the search for a rational society. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-415-33479-2. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Melossi, Dario (2006). "Michel Foucault and the Obsolescent State". In Beaulieu, Alain; Gabbard, David. Michel Foucault and power today: international multidisciplinary studies in the history of the present. Lexington Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7391-1324-0. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Gordon, Colin (1991). "Government rationality: an introduction". In Foucault, Michel; et al. The Foucault effect: studies in governmentality. University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-226-08045-1. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Timothy (2006). "Society, Economy, and the State Effect". In Sharma, Aradhana; Gupta, Akhil. The anthropology of the state: a reader. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-4051-1467-7. Archived from the original on 18 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Michel, Foucault (2007). Security,Territory,Population. pp. 311–332.
Jump up ^ Michel, Foucault (2007). Security,Territory,Population. pp. 1–27.
Jump up ^ Michel, Foucault (2007). Security,Territory,Population. pp. 87–115 115–135.
Jump up ^ Sklair, Leslie (2004). "Globalizing class theory". In Sinclair, Timothy. Global governance: critical concepts in political science. Taylor & Francis. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0-415-27665-8. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Rueschemeyer, Skocpol, and Evans, 1985:[page needed]
Jump up ^ Malešević, 2002: p. 85 Archived 20 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dogan, 1992: pp. 119–120 Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, Immanuel (1999). The end of the world as we know it: social science for the twenty-first century. University of Minnesota Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-8166-3398-2. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Collins, Randall (1986). Weberian Sociological Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-521-31426-8. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Swedberg, Richard & Agevall, Ola (2005). The Max Weber dictionary: key words and central concepts. Stanford University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-8047-5095-0. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Giddens, Anthony. 1987. Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. 3 vols. Vol. II: The Nation-State and Violence Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 0-520-06039-3. See chapter 2 Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine..
^ Jump up to: a b c klaus kästle. "Countries of the World". Nationsonline.org. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Ingold, Tim (1999). "On the social relations of the hunter-gatherer band". In Lee, Richard B.; Daly, Richard Heywood. The Cambridge encyclopedia of hunters and gatherers. Cambridge University Press. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-521-57109-8. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian & Jameson, Robert (2002). "Neolithic". A dictionary of archaeology (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 423. ISBN 978-0-631-23583-5. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Hassan, F.A. (2007). "The Lie of History: Nation-States and the Contradictions of Complex Societies". In Costanza, Robert; et al. Sustainability or collapse?: an integrated history and future of people on earth. MIT Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-262-03366-4. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Scott, 2009: p. 29 Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Langer, Erick D. & Stearns, Peter N. (1994). "Agricultural systems". In Stearns, Peter N. Encyclopedia of social history. Taylor & Francis. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-8153-0342-8. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Ronald (1978). "State Origins: A Reappraisal". The Early State. Walter de Gruyter. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-279-7904-9. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Anna C. (1999). "The Maritime, Highland, Forest Dynamic and the Origins of Complex Culture". In Salomon, Frank; Schwartz, Stuart B. Cambridge history of the Native peoples of the Americas: South America, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-0-521-63075-7. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Mann, Michael (1986). "The emergence of stratification, states, and multi-power-actor civilization in Mesopotamia". The sources of social power: A history of power from the beginning to A. D. 1760, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31349-0. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Yoffee, Norman (1988). "Context and Authority in Early Mesopotamian Law". In Cohen, Ronald; Toland, Judith D. State formation and political legitimacy. Transaction Publishers. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-88738-161-4. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Yoffee, Norman (2005). Myths of the archaic state: evolution of the earliest cities, states and civilizations. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-521-81837-7. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Nelson, 2006: p. 17 Archived 16 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Jones, Rhys (2007). People/states/territories: the political geographies of British state transformation. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-1-4051-4033-1. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. ... see also pp. 54-... Archived 16 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine. where Jones discusses problems with common conceptions of feudalism.
Jump up ^ Poggi, G. 1978. The Development of the Modern State: A Sociological Introduction. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Jump up ^ Breuilly, John. 1993. Nationalism and the State Archived 1 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN SBN0719038006.
Jump up ^ Samuels, David (2012). Comparative Politics. Pearson Higher Education. p. 29.
^ Jump up to: a b Samuels, David. Comparative Politics. Pearson Higher Education.
Jump up ^ Migdal, Joel (1988). Strong societies and weak states: state-society relations and state capabilities in the Third World. pp. Chapter 2.
Jump up ^ Migdal, Joel (1988). Strong societies and weak states: state-society relations and state capabilities in the Third World. Princeton University Press. pp. Chapter 8.
Bibliography[edit]
Barrow, Clyde W. (1993). Critical Theories of State: Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Post-Marxist. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-13714-7.
Bobbio, Norberto (1989). Democracy and Dictatorship: The Nature and Limits of State Power. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1813-5.
Cudworth, Erika (2007). The Modern State: Theories and Ideologies. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2176-7.
Dogan, Mattei (1992). "Conceptions of Legitimacy". In Paynter, John; et al. Encyclopedia of government and politics. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3.
Flint, Colin & Taylor, Peter (2007). Political Geography: World Economy, Nation-State, and Locality (5th ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-196012-1.
Hay, Colin (2001). "State theory". In Jones, R.J. Barry. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1469–1475. ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0.
Joseph, Jonathan (2004). Social theory: an introduction. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4277-8.
Malešević, Siniša (2002). Ideology, legitimacy and the new state: Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-5215-3.
Nelson, Brian T. (2006). The making of the modern state: a theoretical evolution. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-7189-0.
Rueschemeyer, Dietrich; Skocpol, Theda; Evans, Peter B. (1985). Bringing the State Back In. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31313-9.
Salmon, Trevor C. (2008). Issues in international relations. Taylor & Francis US. ISBN 978-0-415-43126-2.
Sartwell, Crispin (2008). Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7447-1.
Scott, James C. (2009). The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15228-9.
Skinner, Quentin (1989). "The state". In Ball, T; Farr, J.; Hanson, R.L. Political Innovation and Conceptual Change. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–131. ISBN 0-521-35978-3.
Vincent, Andrew (1992). "Conceptions of the State". In Paynter, John; et al. Encyclopedia of government and politics. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3.
Further reading[edit]
Barrow, Clyde W. (2002). "The Miliband-Poulantzas Debate: An Intellectual History". In Aronowitz, Stanley; Bratsis, Peter. Paradigm lost: state theory reconsidered. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3293-0.
Bottomore, T. B., ed. (1991). "The State". A Dictionary of Marxist thought (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1.
Bratsis, Peter (2006). Everyday Life and the State. Paradigm. ISBN 978-1-59451-219-3.
Faulks, Keith (2000). "Classical Theories of the State and Civil Society". Political sociology: a critical introduction. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2709-6.
Feldbrugge, Ferdinand J. M., ed. (2003). The law's beginning. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13705-9.
Fisk, Milton (1989). The state and justice: an essay in political theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38966-2.
Friedeburg, Robert von (2011). State Forms and State Systems in Modern Europe. Institute of European History,.
Green, Penny & Ward, Tony (2009). "Violence and the State". In Coleman, Roy; et al. State, Power, Crime. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-4805-0.
Hall, John A., ed. (1994). The state: critical concepts (Vol. 1 & 2). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-08683-7.
Hansen, Thomas Blom; Stepputat, Finn, eds. (2001). States of imagination: ethnographic explorations of the postcolonial state. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2798-1.
Hoffman, John (1995). Beyond the state: an introductory critique. Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-1181-5.
Hoffman, John (2004). Citizenship beyond the state. SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-4942-8.
Jessop, Bob (1990). State theory: putting the Capitalist state in its place. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00735-9.
Jessop, Bob (2009). "Redesigning the State, Reorienting State Power, and Rethinking the State". In Leicht, Kevin T.; Jenkins, J. Craig. Handbook of Politics: State and Society in Global Perspective. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-68929-6.
Lefebvre, Henri (2009). Brenner, Neil; Elden, Stuart, eds. State, space, world: selected essays. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-5317-1.
Long, Roderick T. & Machan, Tibor R. (2008). Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6066-8.
Mann, Michael (1994). "The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms, and Results". In Hall, John A. The State: critical concepts, Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-08680-6.
Oppenheimer, Franz (1975). The state. Black Rose Books. ISBN 978-0-919618-59-6.
Poulantzas, Nicos & Camiller, Patrick (2000). State, power, socialism. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-274-4.
Sanders, John T. & Narveson, Jan (1996). For and against the state: new philosophical readings. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-8165-5.
Scott, James C. (1998). Seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07815-2.
Taylor, Michael (1982). Community, anarchy, and liberty. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27014-4.
Zippelius, Reinhold (2010). Allgemeine Staatslehre, Politikwissenschaft (16th ed.). C.H. Beck, Munich. ISBN 978-3-406-60342-6.
Uzgalis, William (May 5, 2007). "John Locke". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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mw-redirect
Legal systems

values:
/wiki/Federal_government
mw-redirect
Federal government

values: Ethnic and religious composition of Austria-Hungary

values: This information is too vague. (March 2017)

values:
/wiki/Failed_states
mw-redirect
Failed states

values: Edit section: The state and civil society

values:
/wiki/Christian_church
mw-redirect
Christian church

values: Edit section: Theories of state function

values:
/wiki/Political_power
mw-redirect
Political power

values:
/wiki/Frederick_Engels
mw-redirect
Frederick Engels

values:
/wiki/Stateless_communism
mw-redirect
Stateless communism

values:
/wiki/Communist_Manifesto
mw-redirect
Communist Manifesto

values:
/wiki/Robert_Dahl
mw-redirect
Robert Dahl

values:
/wiki/Interest_group
mw-redirect
Interest group

values: Edit section: Contemporary critical perspectives

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: State autonomy (institutionalism)

values: Edit section: Theories of state legitimacy

values:
/wiki/Sir_Robert_Filmer
mw-redirect
Sir Robert Filmer

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)

values:
/wiki/Ancient_India
mw-redirect
Ancient India

values:
/wiki/Tribal_society
mw-redirect
Tribal society

values:
/wiki/Autonomous_area
mw-redirect
Autonomous area

values:
/wiki/Indigenous_people
mw-redirect
Indigenous people

values:
/wiki/Uncontacted_people
mw-redirect
Uncontacted people

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)

values: Edit section: Pre-historic stateless societies

values:
/wiki/Hunter_gatherers
mw-redirect
Hunter gatherers

values:
/wiki/Property_rights
mw-redirect
Property rights

values:
/wiki/Division_of_labor
mw-redirect
Division of labor

values: Edit section: The state in ancient Eurasia

values:
/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization
mw-redirect
Indus Valley Civilization

values:
/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Government of the Han Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Income_inequality
mw-redirect
Income inequality

values: Edit section: The state in classical antiquity

values:
/wiki/Political_absolutism
mw-redirect
Political absolutism

values: Edit section: Weak states and late state formation

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
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http://www.merriam-webster.com/
external text

values:
/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary
mw-redirect
Merriam-Webster Dictionary

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2011)

values:
/wiki/Mission_civilisatrice
mw-redirect
Mission civilisatrice

values:
/wiki/Athens_(city-state)
mw-redirect
Athens (city-state)

values:
/wiki/Alexandre_Christoyannopoulos
mw-redirect
Alexandre Christoyannopoulos

values:
/wiki/Historical_Materialism
mw-redirect
Historical Materialism

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
/wiki/Institute_of_European_History
mw-redirect
Institute of European History

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4056618-3

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2011

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles needing clarification

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012

values: Category:Use dmy dates from January 2011

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/State_(polity)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

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p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
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Visit the main page

values:
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Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

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Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
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values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

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Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd
display: none;

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: አገር ግዛት – Amharic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estato
Estato – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet%C3%A3
Tetã – Guarani
gn
gn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

values: Пачалихъ – Avaric

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-av
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: রাষ্ট্র – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms
display: none;

values: Дәүләт – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Дзяржава – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoot
Stoot – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stad
Stad – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Патшалăх – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A1t
Stát – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statu
Statu – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-co
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Lower Sorbian
dsb
dsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riik
Riik – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Κράτος – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estau
Estau – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatu
Estatu – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/State
State – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tat
État – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steat
Steat – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leydi
Leydi – Fulah
ff
ff
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ff
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fur
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADr
Tír – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-haw
display: none;

values: Պետություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: राज्य – Hindi

values:
https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Upper Sorbian
hsb
hsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb
display: none;

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values: Паддзахад – Ossetic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADki
Ríki – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: מדינה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagara
Nagara – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-krc
display: none;

values: სახელმწიფო – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-csb
display: none;

values: Мемлекет – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dola
Dola – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values: Канму – Komi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kv
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eehr
Şehr – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Мамлекет – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Ladino
lad
lad
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lad
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lo
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitas
Civitas – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valsts
Valsts – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lij
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staot
Staot – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%A1
Letá – Lingala
ln
ln
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ln
display: none;

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: രാഷ്ട്രം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: სახენწჷფო – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values:
https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stado
Stado – Mirandese
mwl
mwl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staot
Staot – Low Saxon
nds-NL
nds-NL
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: राज्य – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values: Пачхьалкх – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estat
Estat – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davlat
Davlat – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਰਾਜ (ਰਾਜ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ) – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schdaad
Schdaad – Palatine German
pfl
pfl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-koi
display: none;

values: ប្រទេស – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantri
Kantri – Tok Pisin
tpi
tpi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi
display: none;

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat
Staat – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Κράτος – Pontic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Romani
rmy
rmy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Штат – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Государство – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shteti
Shteti – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statu
Statu – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values: රාජ්‍යය (ආණ්ඩුක්‍රමය) – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/State
State – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: رياست – Sindhi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-szl
display: none;

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowlad
Dowlad – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Држава – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagara
Nagara – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtio
Valtio – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat
Stat – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: அரசு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Дәүләт – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Давлат – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-chr
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devlet
Devlet – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-udm
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ریاست – Urdu

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato
Stato – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdkund
Valdkund – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riik
Riik – Võro
fiu-vro
fiu-vro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado
Estado – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ew
Réew – Wolof
wo
wo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wo
display: none;

values:
https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiko
Tiko – Tsonga
ts
ts
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ts
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewlete
Dewlete – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
Land – Zeelandic
zea
zea
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zea
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-State_polity rootpage-State_polity skin-vector action-view