text:
Field goal percentage
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Field goal percentage in basketball is the ratio of field goals made to field goals attempted. Its abbreviation is FG%. Although three-point field goal percentage is often calculated separately, three-point field goals are included in the general field goal percentage. Instead of using scales of 0 to 100%, the scale .000 to 1.000 is commonly used. A higher field goal percentage denotes higher efficiency. In basketball, a FG% of .500 (50%) or above is considered a good percentage, although this criterion does not apply equally to all positions. Guards usually have lower FG% than forwards and centers. Field goal percentage does not completely tell the skill of a player, but a low field goal percentage can indicate a poor offensive player or a player who takes many difficult shots. In the NBA, Center Shaquille O'Neal has a high career FG% (around .580) because he plays near the basket making many high percentage layups and slam dunks. Guard Allen Iverson often had a low FG% (around .420) because he took the bulk of his team's shot attempts, even with high difficulty shots.
The NBA career record for field goal percentage is held by DeAndre Jordan at 0.677. The highest field goal percentage for a single season was set by Wilt Chamberlain with 0.727 in the 1972–73 season.
Field goal percentages were substantially lower in the NBA until the mid-to-late 1960s.[1] For this reason, many early NBA stars have low field goal percentages, such as Bob Cousy at .375, and George Mikan, Bob Pettit, and Bill Russell, whose career field goal percentages of .404, .436, and .440, respectively, are much lower than later post players.[2]
Three-point field goal percentage is usually kept as additional statistics. Its abbreviation is 3FG%. A 3FG% of .400 and above is a very good percentage.
See also[edit]
50–40–90 club, an exclusive group of players with one criterion being shooting at least 50 percent of field goals
List of National Basketball Association top individual field goal percentage seasons
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NBA & ABA Year-by-Year Leaders and Records for Field Goal Pct - Basketball-Reference.com". Basketball-Reference.com.
Jump up ^ "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Inductees - Basketball-Reference.com". Basketball-Reference.com.

This basketball-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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List of national parks of India
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Valley of Flowers National Park is UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2004.
Part of a series on the
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National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species.
Further federal legislation strengthening protections for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s. As of July 2017, there were 103 national parks encompassing an area of 40,500 km2 (15,600 sq mi), comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area.[1]
Plans are underway to establish many more national parks in India. All of India's national parks are listed below alongside their home state or territory, area and the date that they were established. See Protected areas of India for an overview of all Indian protected areas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 List
3 See also
4 Notes and references
5 External links
Definition[edit]
According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is "[a]n area, whether within a sanctuary or not, [that] can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment. No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972".[1]
List[edit]
List of national parks in India:[1]
Name
State
Established
Area (in km2)
Notability
Anamudi Shola National Park Kerala 2003 7.50
Anshi National Park Karnataka 1987 417.34 The great Indian Hornbill, Tiger, Leopard, Black panther, Bear, Elephant, Deer, etc
Balphakram National Park Meghalaya 1986 220 Wild water buffalo, Red panda, elephant and eight cat species, including the tiger and marbled cat
Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh 1968 446 1336 species of endemic plants
Bandipur National Park Karnataka 1974 874.20 Chital, bengal tiger, gray langurs, Indian giant squirrel, gaur, leopard, sambar deer, indian elephants, honey buzzard, red-headed vulture
Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka 1986 104.3
Tiger, sloth bear, peacock, elephant, sambar deer, mouse deer
Betla National Park Jharkhand 1986 1135
Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha 1988 145 Mangroves, saltwater crocodile, white crocodile, Indian python, black ibis, wild pigs, rhesus monkeys, chital
Bison (Rajbari) National Park Tripura 2007 31.63
Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar Gujarat 1976 34.08 Hunting cheetahs, Blackbuck Lodge, the endangered Indian grey wolf, the nocturnal striped hyena, Indian fox, golden jackal, jungle cat and many small mammals like hare, gerbil, field mice, mongoose and hedgehog.
Buxa Tiger Reserve West Bengal 1992 760
Campbell Bay National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1992 426.23
Chandoli National Park Maharashtra 2004 317.67
Clouded Leopard National Park Tripura 2003 5.08
Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981 141 Only area where Kashmir stag is found[2]
Desert National Park Rajasthan 1980 3162 Greatest attraction of the park is a bird called the great Indian bustard, an endangered species found only in India
Dibru-Saikhowa National Park Assam 1999 340 Known for feral horse
Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh 1977 490.29 Tiger Panthera tigris, Sambhar Axis axis,Hog Deer Axis porcinus
Eravikulam National Park Kerala 1978 97
Galathea National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1992 110
Gangotri National Park Uttarakhand 1989 2390
Gir Forest National Park Gujarat 1965 1412 Asiatic lion
Gorumara National Park West Bengal 1994 79.45
Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary Uttarakhand 1990 472.08
Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh, 1984 754.40 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Gugamal National Park Maharashtra 1987 361.28
Guindy National Park Tamil Nadu 1976 2.82
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Tamil Nadu 1980 6.23
Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park Chhattisgarh 1981 1440.71
Hemis National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981 4400
Inderkilla National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010 104
Indra Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park Tamil Nadu 1989 117.10
Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh 1981 1258.37 Wild Asian buffalo, tiger reserve, hill mynas
Jaldapara National Park West Bengal 2012 216 Indian rhinoceros
Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand 1936 1318.5 First national park in India (established in 1936 as Hailey National Park)
Kalesar National Park Haryana 2003 100.88
Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh 1955 940
Kanger Ghati National Park Chhattisgarh 1982 200
Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park Telangana 1994 1.42
Kaziranga National Park Assam 1974 858.98 Highest known tiger density in the World Indian rhinoceros, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur 1977 40 Only floating park in the world
Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1981 28.73 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim 1977 1784 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Khirganga National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010 710
Kishtwar National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1981 400
Kudremukh National Park Karnataka 1987 600.32
Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh 1959 375.22
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1983 281.50
Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park Telangana 1994 14.59
Manas National Park Assam 1990 950 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Mandla Plant Fossils National Park Madhya Pradesh 1983 0.27
Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch Gujarat 1980 162.89
Mathikettan Shola National Park Kerala 2003 12.82
Middle Button Island National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1987 44
Mollem National Park Goa 1978 107
Mouling National Park Arunachal Pradesh 1986 483
Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan 1960 288.84
Mount Harriet National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1987 46.62 Important bird area as attributed by BirdLife International, new species frog named Rana CharlesDarwini
Mrugavani National Park Telangana 1994 3.60
Mudumalai National Park Tamil Nadu 1940 321.55
Mukundra Hills National Park Rajasthan 2006 200.54
Mukurthi National Park Tamil Nadu 2001 78.46 Nilgiri tahr
Murlen National Park Mizoram 1991 100
Nagarhole National Park Karnataka 1988 643.39
Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh 1974 1985.24
Nameri National Park Assam 1978 137.07
Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand 1982 630.33 UNESCO World Heritage Site, UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve
Navegaon National Park Maharashtra 1975 133.88
Neora Valley National Park West Bengal 1986 88
Nokrek National Park Meghalaya 1986 47.48 UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve
North Button Island National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1979 0.44
Ntangki National Park Nagaland 1993 202.02
Orang National Park Assam 1999 78.81
Pambadum Shola National Park Kerala 2003 1.32
Panna National Park Madhya Pradesh 1981 542.67
Papikonda National Park Andhra Pradesh 2008 1012.85
Pench National Park[3] Madhya Pradesh 1977 758
Periyar National Park Kerala 1982 305
Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park Mizoram 1992 50
Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh 1987 807.36
Rajaji National Park Uttarakhand 1983 820 Mainly known for Elephants, Tigers, Leopards and several species of birds, reptiles and Mammals.
Rani Jhansi Marine National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1996 256.14
Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan 1981 392
Saddle Peak National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1979 32.54
Salim Ali National Park Jammu and Kashmir 1992 9.07
Sanjay National Park[4] Madhya Pradesh 1981 466.7
Sanjay Gandhi National Park Maharashtra 1969 104 Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Indian Leopard, Rhesus Macaque, Bonnet Macaque, Spotted Deer, Hanuman Langur, Indian Flying Fox, Indian Hare, Barking Deer, Porcupine, Palm Civet, Mouse Deer
Sariska Tiger Reserve Rajasthan 1955 866
Satpura National Park Madhya Pradesh 1981 524
Silent Valley National Park Kerala 1980 237 Absence of noisy cicadas, hence the name 'Silent Valley'
Simbalbara National Park Himachal Pradesh 2010 27.88
Sirohi National Park Manipur 1982 41.30
Simlipal National Park Odisha 1980 2750 Tiger, leopard, Asian elephant, sambar, barking deer, gaur, jungle cat, wild boar
Singalila National Park West Bengal 1986 78.60
South Button Island National Park Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1987 0.03 Dugong, dolphin, water monitor lizard, blue whale
Sri Venkateswara National Park Andhra Pradesh 1989 353
Sultanpur National Park Haryana 1989 1.43
Sundarbans National Park West Bengal 1984 1330.12 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Tadoba National Park Maharashtra 1955 625 Tigers
Valley of Flowers National Park Uttarakhand 1982 87.50 UNESCO World Heritage Site
Valmiki National Park Bihar 1976 898.45
Vansda National Park Gujarat 1979 23.99
Van Vihar National Park Madhya Pradesh 1983 4.48
See also[edit]
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "National Parks". wiienvis.nic.in. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
Jump up ^ Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
Jump up ^ The Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh parts of the Pench National Park are administered separately.
Jump up ^ The Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh parts of the Sanjay National Park are administered separately.
Directory of Wildlife Protected Areas in India
ENVIS Centre, WII, Dehradun
List of Proposed National Parks
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National parks of India.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Indian National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
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Siachen conflict
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the region, see Siachen Glacier.
Siachen conflict
Part of the Indo-Pakistani Wars and the Kashmir conflict

Siachen (white) in a map of Indian-administered Kashmir Siachen Glacier lies in the Karakoram range. Its snout is less than 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of the Ladakh Range.
Date
April 13, 1984 (1984-04-13) – ongoing
(33 years, 8 months, 3 weeks and 5 days)
2003 cease-fire [1]
Location
Siachen Glacier, in a disputed and undemarcated region of Kashmir
Result
Ceasefire since 2003
Territorial
changes
Siachen Glacier comes under Indian control; Continues to be disputed by Pakistan
Belligerents
India Pakistan
Commanders and leaders
Col. Narendra Kumar
LGen P.N.Hoon
LGen M.L.Chibber
MGen Shiv Sharma
LGen V.R.Raghavan
BGen C.S.Nugyal
BGen R.K.Nanavatty
BGen V.K.Jaitley LGen Zahid Ali Akbar
BGen Pervez Musharraf
Strength
3,000+ [2] 3,000[2]
Casualties and losses
846 dead (including non-combat fatalities) since 1984[3][4]
36 casualties during combat (1984)[5] 213 dead (including non-combat fatalities between 2003 and 2010)[4][6][7]
200 casualties during combat (1984)[5]
Main article: Siachen Glacier
[show]
v
t
e
Indo-Pakistani conflicts
Kashmir conflict
War of 1947
War of 1965
War of 1971
Siachen conflict
Kargil War
2001–02 standoff
2008 standoff
Border skirmishes
2011
2013
2014–15
2016–present confrontation
The Siachen conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen War, is a military conflict between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003.[8] The contentious area is about 900 square miles (2,300 km2)[9] to nearly 1,000 square miles (2,600 km2) of territory.[10] The conflict began in 1984 with India's successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier (unoccupied and undemarcated area). India has established control over all of the 70-kilometre-long (43 mi) Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as the three main passes of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier—Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La. Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge.[11][12] According to TIME magazine, India gained more than 1,000 square miles (3,000 km2) of territory because of its military operations in Siachen.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
1.1 Paragraph B 2 (d) of Karachi Agreement
1.1.1 U.N. map of ceasefire line
1.2 Oropolitics
1.3 Historic maps of Siachen Glacier
2 Military expeditions
3 Major combat operations
4 Ground situation
5 Severe conditions
6 Kargil War
7 Visits
8 Artistic depiction
9 List of post-ceasefire avalanches and landslides
9.1 2010–2011
9.2 2012–2014
9.3 2015
9.4 2016
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Causes[edit]
UN map of Siachen
The Siachen Glacier is the highest battleground on earth,[14][15] where India and Pakistan have fought intermittently since April 13, 1984. Both countries maintain permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). More than 2000 people have died in this inhospitable terrain, mostly due to weather extremes and the natural hazards of mountain warfare.
The conflict in Siachen stems from the incompletely demarcated territory on the map beyond the map coordinate known as NJ9842 (35°00′30″N 77°00′32″E / 35.008371°N 77.008805°E / 35.008371; 77.008805). The 1949 Karachi Agreement and 1972 Simla Agreement did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, merely stating that the Cease Fire Line (CFL) terminated at NJ9842.[16] UN officials presumed there would be no dispute between India and Pakistan over such a cold and barren region.[17]
Paragraph B 2 (d) of Karachi Agreement[edit]
Following the UN-mediated ceasefire in the 1949, the line between India and Pakistan was demarcated up to point NJ9842 at the foot of the Siachen Glacier. The largely inaccessible terrain beyond this point was not demarcated,[16] but delimited as thence north to the glaciers in paragraph B 2 (d) of the Karachi Agreement.
Paragraph B 2 (d) of 1949 Karachi Agreement states:
(d) From Dalunang eastwards the cease-fire line will follow the general line point 15495, Ishman, Manus, Gangam, Gunderman, Point 13620, Funkar (Point 17628), Marmak, Natsara, Shangruti (Point 1,531), Chorbat La (Point 16700), Chalunka (on the Shyok River), Khor, thence north to the glaciers. This portion of the cease- fire line shall be demarcated in detail on the basis of the factual position as of 27 July 1949, by the local commanders assisted by United Nations military observers.
Later, following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and the Simla Agreement in July 1972, the ceasefire line was converted into the "Line of Control" extending from the "Chhamb sector on the international border [to] the Turtok-Partapur sector in the north."[16] The detailed description of its northern end stated that from Chimbatia in the Turtok sector "the line of control runs north-eastwards to Thang (inclusive to India), thence eastwards joining the glaciers." This vague formulation further sowed the seed for the bitter dispute to follow.[16] The general description of CFL given in Section 1 of Karachi Agreement is further explained at Page 38 where it states:
"thence northwards along the boundary line going through Point 18402 up to NJ-9842"[16]
The U.N. document number S/1430/Add.2.[18] is the second addendum to the 1949 Karachi Agreement, and shows the CFL marked on the Map of the State of Jammu and Kashmir as per the explanation of CFL in paragraph 'B' 2 (d) of the Karachi Agreement.
U.N. map of ceasefire line[edit]
Title of U.N. document number S/1430/Add.2 which illustrates the CFL as per the Karachi Agreement reads:
Map of the State of Jammu and Kashmir showing the Cease Fire Line as Agreed Upon in the Karachi Agreement, Ratified by the Governments of India and Pakistan on 29 and 30 July Respectively. (See Annex 26 to the third Interim Report of the United Nation Commission for India and Pakistan)[19][20]
Page-1 of U.N. Map Number S/1430/Add.2 to Karachi Agreement 1949
Page-2 of U.N. Map Number S/1430/Add.2 showing the CFL
Page-3 U.N. Map Number S/1430/Add.2 showing the CFL up to Point NJ 9842
Present Map of Indian Jammu and Kashmir state including entire Siachen glacier
A U.N. map showing CFL alignment superimposed on a satellite image depicts the CFL terminating at NJ9842.[21] The extension of this line "thence north to the glaciers" never appeared on any authoritative map associated with either the 1948 or 1972 agreements, just in the text.
Oropolitics[edit]
In 1949, a Cease-Fire Line Agreement (CFL) was signed and ratified by India, Pakistan and the UN Military Observer Group that delineated entire CFL. In 1956–58, a scientific team led by the Geological Survey of India recorded its findings publicly including information about the Siachen and other glaciers.[22]
After Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China in a boundary agreement in 1963, Pakistan started giving approval to western expeditions to the east of mountain K2.[22] In 1957 Pakistan permitted a British expedition under Eric Shipton to approach the Siachen glacier through the Bilafond La, and recce Saltoro Kangri.[23] Five years later a Japanese-Pakistani expedition put two Japanese and a Pakistani Army climber on top of Saltoro Kangri.[24] These were early moves in this particular game of oropolitics.
In the 1970s and early 1980s several mountaineering expeditions applied to Pakistan to climb high peaks in the Siachen area due in part to US Defense Mapping Agency and most other maps and atlases showing it on the Pakistani side of the line. Pakistan granted a number of permits. This in turn reinforced the Pakistani claim on the area, as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan. Teram Kangri I (7,465 m or 24,491 ft) and Teram Kangri II (7,406 m or 24,298 ft) were climbed in 1975 by a Japanese expedition led by H. Katayama, which approached through Pakistan via the Bilafond La.[25]
In 1978 a German Siachen-Kondus Expedition under the leadership of Jaroslav Poncar (further members Volker Stallbohm and Wolfgang Kohl, liaison officer major Asad Raza) entered Siachen via Bilafond La and established the base camp on the confuence of Siachen and Teram Shehr. The documentary "Expedition to the longest glacier" was shown on the 3rd channel of WDR (German TV) in 1979.
The Indian government and military took notice, and protested the cartography. Prior to 1984 neither India nor Pakistan had any permanent presence in the area. Having become aware of the US military maps and the permit incidents, Colonel Narendra Kumar, then commanding officer of the Indian Army's High Altitude Warfare School, mounted an Army expedition to the Siachen area as a counter-exercise. In 1978 this expedition climbed Teram Kangri II, claiming it as a first ascent in a typical 'oropolitical' riposte. Unusually for the normally secretive Indian Army, the news and photographs of this expedition were published in The Illustrated Weekly of India, a widely circulated popular magazine.[26]
The first public acknowledgment of the maneuvers and the developing conflict situation in the Siachen was an abbreviated article titled "High Politics in the Karakoram" by Joydeep Sircar in The Telegraph newspaper of Calcutta in 1982.[27] The full text was re-printed as "Oropolitics" in the Alpine Journal, London, in 1984.[28]
Historic maps of Siachen Glacier[edit]
Maps from Pakistan, the United Nations and other global atlases depicted the CFL correctly till around 1967–72.[22] The United States Defense Mapping Agency (now National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) began in about 1967 to show international boundary on their Tactical Pilotage Charts as proceeding from NJ9842 east-northeast to the Karakoram Pass at 5,534 m (18,136 ft) on the China border.
US, Pakistani and Indian maps in the 1970s and 1980s were consistently showing a dotted line from NJ9842 (the northernmost demarcated point of the India-Pakistan cease-fire line, also known as the Line of Control) to the Karakoram Pass, which India believed to be a cartographic error.
Map showing Siachen Glacier as part of Pakistan
Map showing Siachen Glacier as part of Pakistan
Military expeditions[edit]
In 1977, an Indian colonel named Narendra Kumar, offended by international expeditions venturing onto the glacier from the Pakistani side, persuaded his superiors to allow him to lead a 70-man team of climbers and porters to the glacier.[13] They returned in or around 1981, climbed several peaks and walked the length of Siachen.
Major combat operations[edit]
At army headquarters in Rawalpindi, the discovery of repeated Indian military expeditions to the glacier drove Pakistani generals to the idea of securing Siachen before India did. In the haste to pull together operational resources, Pakistan planners made a tactical error, according to a now retired Pakistani army colonel. "They ordered Arctic-weather gear from a London outfitters who also supplied the Indians," says the colonel. "Once the Indians got wind of it, they ordered 300 outfits—twice as many as we had—and rushed their men up to Siachen". The acquisition of key supplies needed for operations in glaciated zones marked the start of major combat operations on the glacier.[2]
A memorial at the headquarters of the Dogra Regiment of the Indian Army in remembrance of members of the regiment who died or served in the Siachen Conflict.
April 1984 Operation Meghdoot: Indian Army under the leadership of Lt. Gen. Manohar Lal Chibber, Maj. Gen. Shiv Sharma, and Lt. Gen. P. N. Hoon learned of the plan by Pakistan Army to seize Sia La, and Bilafond La, on the glacier. Indian Army launched an operation to preempt the seizure of the passes by the Pakistan Army. Men of the Ladakh Scouts and Kumaon Regiment occupy Bilafond La on 13 April and Sia La on 17 April 1984 with the help of the Indian Air Force. Pakistan Army in turn learned of the presence of Ladakh Scouts on the passes during a helicopter recon mission. In response to these developments Pakistan Army initiated an operation using troops from the Special Services Group and Northern Light Infantry to displace the three hundred or so Indian troops on the key passes. This operation led by the Pakistan Army led to the first armed clash on the glacier on April 25, 1984.[29]
June – July 1987: Operation Rajiv: Over the next three years, with Indian troops positioned at the critical passes, Pakistan Army attempted to seize heights overlooking the passes. One of the biggest successes achieved by Pakistan in this period was the seizure of a feature overlooking Bilafond La. This feature was named "Qaid Post" and for three years it dominated Indian positions on the glacier. Pakistani Army held Qaid post overlooked Bilafond La area and offered and excellent vantage point to view Indian Army activities. On 25 June 1987 Indian Army under the leadership of Brig. Gen. Chandan Nugyal, Major Varinder Singh, Lt. Rajiv Pande and Naib Subedar Bana Singh launched a successful strike on Qaid Post and captured it from Pakistani forces. For his role in the assault, Subedar Bana Singh was awarded the Param Vir Chakra – India's highest gallantry award. The post was renamed Bana Post in his honour.
September 1987: Operation Vajrashakti/Op Qaidat: The Pakistan Army under Brig. Gen. Pervez Musharraf (later President of Pakistan) launched Operation Qaidat to retake Qaid peak. For this purpose units from Pakistan Army SSG (1st and 3rd battalions) assembled a major task force at the newly constructed Khaplu garrison.[30] Having detected Pakistani movements ahead of Operation Qaidat, the Indian Army initiated Op Vajrashakti to secure the now renamed Bana Post from Pakistani attack.[31][32]
March – May 1989: In March 1989 Operation Ibex by Indian Army attempted to seize the Pakistani post overlooking the Chumik Glacier. The operation was unsuccessful at dislodging Pakistani troops from their positions. Indian Army under Brig. R. K. Nanavatty launched an artillery attack on Kauser Base, the Pakistani logistical node in Chumik and successfully destroyed it. The destruction of Kauser Base induced Pakistani troops to vacate Chumik posts concluding Operation Ibex.[33]
July 28 – August 3, 1992: Indian Army launched Operation Trishul Shakti to protect the Bahadur post in Chulung when it was attacked by a large Pakistani assault team. On August 1, 1992, Pakistani helicopters were attacked by an Indian Igla missile and Brig. Masood Navid Anwari (PA 10117) then Force Commander Northern Areas and other accompanying troops were killed. This led to a loss of momentum on the Pakistani side and the assault stalled.[34]
May 1995: Battle of Tyakshi Post: Pakistan Army NLI units attacked Tyakshi post at the very southern edge of the Saltoro defense line. The attack was repulsed by Indian troops.[35]
June 1999: Indian Army under Brig. P. C. Katoch, Col. Konsam Himalaya Singh seized control of pt 5770 (Naveed Top/Cheema Top/Bilal Top) in southern edge of the Saltoro defense line from Pakistan troops.[36]
Ground situation[edit]
Actual Ground Position Line shown with yellow-colored dotted line
Red dotted line is AGPL, right of which is Siachen Glacier controlled by Indian army.
In his memoirs, former Pakistani president General Pervez Musharraf states that Pakistan lost almost 900 square miles (2,300 km2) of territory that it claimed.[9] TIME states that the Indian advance captured nearly 1,000 square miles (2,600 km2) of territory claimed by Pakistan.[10]
Further attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996 and even in early 1999, just prior to the Lahore Summit.[citation needed]
The Indian army controls all of the 76 kilometres (47 mi) long Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as the three main passes of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier—Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La—thus holding onto the tactical advantage of high ground.[37][38][39][40][41] "Indians have been able to hold on to the tactical advantage of the high ground..... Most of India's many outposts are west of the Siachen Glacier along the Saltoro Range. In an academic study with detailed maps and satellite images, co-authored by brigadiers from both the Pakistani and Indian military, pages 16 and 27: "Since 1984, the Indian army has been in physical possession of most of the heights on the Saltoro Range west of the Siachen Glacier, while the Pakistan army has held posts at lower elevations of western slopes of the spurs emanating from the Saltoro ridgeline. The Indian army has secured its position on the ridgeline."
The Pakistanis control the glacial valley just five kilometers southwest of Gyong La. The Pakistanis have been unable get up to the crest of the Saltoro Ridge, while the Indians cannot come down and abandon their strategic high posts.
The line between where Indian and Pakistani troops are presently holding onto their respective posts is being increasingly referred to as the Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL).[42][43]
Severe conditions[edit]
A cease-fire went into effect in 2003. Even before then, every year more soldiers were killed because of severe weather than enemy firing. The two sides by 2003 had lost an estimated 2,000 personnel primarily due to frostbite, avalanches and other complications. Together, the nations have about 150 manned outposts along the glacier, with some 3,000 troops each. Official figures for maintaining these outposts are put at ~$300 and ~$200 million for India and Pakistan respectively. India built the world's highest helipad on the glacier at Point Sonam, 21,000 feet (6,400 m) above the sea level, to supply its troops. The problems of reinforcing or evacuating the high-altitude ridgeline have led to India's development of the Dhruv Mk III helicopter, powered by the Shakti engine, which was flight-tested to lift and land personnel and stores from the Sonam post, the highest permanently manned post in the world.[44] India also installed the world's highest telephone booth on the glacier.[45]
According to some estimates, 97% of the casualties in Siachen have been due to weather and altitude, rather than actual fighting.[7] In 2012, an avalanche hit Pakistan's Gayari military base, killing 129 soldiers and 11 civilians.[46][47]
Kargil War[edit]
One of the factors behind the Kargil War in 1999 when Pakistan sent infiltrators to occupy vacated Indian posts across the Line of Control was their belief that India would be forced to withdraw from Siachen in exchange of a Pakistani withdrawal from Kargil.[48] After the Kargil War, India decided to maintain its military outposts on the glacier, wary of further Pakistani incursions into Kashmir if they vacate from the Siachen Glacier posts.[49]
Visits[edit]
During her tenure as Prime Minister of Pakistan, Ms Benazir Bhutto, visited the area west of Gyong La, making her the first premier from either side to get to the Siachen region. On June 12, 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit the area, calling for a peaceful resolution of the problem. In 2007, the President of India, Abdul Kalam became the first head of state to visit the area. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Siachen on 23 October 2014 to celebrate Diwali with the troops and boost their morale.[50]
The Chief of Staff of the US Army, General George Casey on October 17, 2008 visited the Siachen Glacier along with Indian Army Chief, General Deepak Kapoor. The US General visited for the purpose of "developing concepts and medical aspects of fighting in severe cold conditions and high altitude".[51][52]
Since September 2007, India has welcomed mountaineering and trekking expeditions to the forbidding glacial heights. The expeditions have been meant to show the international audience that Indian troops hold "almost all dominating heights" on the important Saltoro Ridge west of Siachen Glacier, and to show that Pakistani troops are not within 15 miles (24 km) of the 43.5-mile (70 km) Siachen Glacier.[53]
Artistic depiction[edit]
The Siachen glacier and its conflict was depicted in a 48-page comic book, Siachen: The cold war, released in August 2012. Later its sequel, Battlefield Siachen, was released in January 2013.[54][55][56][57]
List of post-ceasefire avalanches and landslides[edit]
2010–2011[edit]
On February 11, 2010, an avalanche struck an Indian army post in the Southern Glacier, killing one soldier. A base camp was also struck, that killed two Ladakh scouts. The same day, a single avalanche hit a Pakistani military camp in Bevan sector, killing 8 soldiers.[58]
In 2011, 24 Indian soldiers died on the Siachen glacier from the climate and accidents.[59] On July 22, two Indian officers burned to death when a fire caught on their shelter.[60]
2012–2014[edit]
Main article: 2012 Gayari Sector avalanche
In the early morning of 7 April 2012, an avalanche hit a Pakistani military headquarters in the Gayari Sector, burying 129 soldiers of the 6th Northern Light Infantry battalion and 11 civilian contractors.[61][62] In the aftermath of the disaster, Pakistan's army chief General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani suggested India and Pakistan should withdraw all troops from the contested glacier.[63]
On May 29, two Pakistani soldiers were killed in a landslide in the Chorbat Sector.[64]
On 12 December, an avalanche killed 6 Indian soldiers in the Sub Sector Hanif in Turtuk area, when troops of the 1st Assam regiment were moving between posts.[65][66] In 2012, a total of 12 Indian soldiers died of hostile weather conditions.[59]
In 2013, 10 Indian soldiers died due to weather conditions.[59]
2015[edit]
On 14 November 2015, an Indian captain from the Third Ladakh scouts died in an avalanche in the Southern Glacier while 15 others were rescued.[67]
2016[edit]
On 4 January 2016, four Indian soldiers of the Ladakh Scouts, were killed in an avalanche on the Southern Glacier while on patrol duty in Nobra Valley.[68]
On the morning of 3 February 2016, ten Indian soldiers including one Junior commissioned officer of the 6th Madras battalion were buried under the snow when a massive avalanche struck their post in the Northern Glacier at a height of 19,600 feet, on the Actual Ground Position Line.[69] Pakistani officials offered their help in search and rescue operations 30 hours after the incident, although it was declined by Indian military authorities.[70] During the rescue operations, the Indian army found Lance Naik Hanumanthappa alive, though in a critical condition, after being buried under 25 feet snow for 6 days. He was taken to Army Research and Referral Hospital in Delhi. His condition became critical later on due to multiple organ failure and lack of oxygen to brain and he died 11 February 2016.[71]
On 27 February, a civilian porter working with the Indian army in the Northern Glacier, fell to his death in a 130-foot crevasse.[72]
On 17 March, two Indian soldiers from the Chennai-21 regiment were killed, and bodies recovered in 12-feet deep ice.[73]
On 25 March, two Indian jawans died after they were buried in an avalanche in the Turtuk sector while on patrol.[74]
On 1 April, Indian General Dalbir Singh and General D. S. Hooda of the Northern Command visited the Siachen glacier in order to boost morale after 17 of its soldiers died in 2016.[75]
See also[edit]
Operation Meghdoot (1984)
Saltoro Mountains
Actual Ground Position Line
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "CFL marked on U.N. Map superimposed on satellite image". Pakistan Defence. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Facts vs bluff on Siachen, Kayani's suggestion worth pursuing, B.G. Verghese, Saturday, April 21, 2012, Chandigarh, India
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Jump up ^ "Confrontation at Siachen, 26 June 1987". Bharat-rakshak.com. Retrieved 9 September 2016. Detailed description of Indian forces taking control of Bilafond La in 1987
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Jump up ^ Hakeem, Asad; Gurmeet Kanwal; Michael Vannoni; Gaurav Rajen (2007-09-01). "Demilitarization of the Siachen Conflict Zone" (PDF). Sandia Report. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
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Jump up ^ India opens Siachen to trekkers Times of India 13 Sep 2007
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Jump up ^ "Another tragedy at Siachen as army porter falls to death | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". dna. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
Jump up ^ "TN Army Village Loses Another Jawan in Siachen". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2016-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Siachen avalanche: Lance Havildar Bhawan Tamang killed, another soldier missing". The Indian Express. 2016-03-25. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Army Chief Visits Siachen Glacier After 17 Casualties in 3 Months Due to Avalanches". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
Further reading[edit]
Nitin A.Gokhale,Beyond Nj9842: The Siachen Saga, Bloomsbury, New Delhi, ISBN 9789384052058
Siachen: Conflict Without End by V.R. Raghavan
Myra MacDonald (2008) Heights of Madness: One Woman's Journey in Pursuit of a Secret War, Rupa, New Delhi ISBN 81-291-1292-2. The first full account of the Siachen war to be told from the Indian and Pakistani sides.
Baghel, Ravi; Nusser, Marcus (2015-06-17). "Securing the heights; The vertical dimension of the Siachen conflict between India and Pakistan in the Eastern Karakoram". Political Geography. Elsevier. 48: 31–32. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2015.05.001. Retrieved 2016-09-23.
Wirsing, Robert. Pakistan's security under Zia, 1977–1988: the policy imperatives of a peripheral Asian state. Palgrave Macmillan, 1991. ISBN 978-0-312-06067-1.
External links[edit]
The Coldest War
Time report
Siachen: The stalemate continues
Siachen Glacier – Highest Battlefield Of The World
"The vertical dimension of the Siachen conflict". Political Geography. 48: 24–36. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2015.05.001.
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French onion dip
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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French onion dip
Homemade French onion dip topped with caramelized onion
Alternative names
California dip
Type
Dip
Place of origin
United States
Invented
1954
Main ingredients
Sour cream, minced onion
Cookbook: French onion dip Media: French onion dip
French onion dip or California dip[1][2][3] is an American dip typically made with a base of sour cream and flavored with minced onion, and usually served with potato chips as chips and dip.[4][5]
Contents
1 History
2 Preparation
3 Serving
4 Variants
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
History[edit]
French onion dip, made of sour cream and instant onion soup, was created by an unknown French cook in Los Angeles in 1954. The recipe spread quickly and was printed in a local newspaper.[6][5] The Lipton company promoted this mixture on the television show Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts in 1955, and early on, it was known as "Lipton California Dip", but soon simply as "California Dip".[1] A Lipton advertising campaign promoted it on television and in supermarkets.[7][8] The recipe was added to the Lipton instant onion soup package in 1958.[9]
About the same time, a similar recipe, but made with reduced cream, was created in New Zealand and became very popular.[10][11]
The name "French onion dip" began to be used in the 1960s, and became more popular than "California dip" in the 1990s.[12]
Preparation[edit]
The original recipe consisted of sour cream and dehydrated onion soup mix.[6]
There are now many mass-produced, pre-mixed versions, such as Ruffles French Onion Dip and Frito-Lay French Onion Dip.[13][14] Commercially prepared products include additional ingredients to thicken, stabilize, and preserve the mixture.[15][2]
Home-made versions may use caramelized onions.[16][15]
Serving[edit]
French onion dip is often served at parties[17][18] and as a "classic holiday party offering".[19] It has also been described as "an American classic".[2]
It may also be used on other foods, such as hamburgers,[20] sandwiches[21] and tacos.[22]
Variants[edit]
Alternative bases include mayonnaise[17][23] and cream cheese.[5] Common flavorings are onion salt, salt,[18] pepper,[4] onion powder,[18][16] garlic,[17][18] garlic powder,[16] parsley,[18] chives,[16] Worcestershire sauce[17][16] and others.
See also[edit]
Food portal
Clam dip
French onion soup
List of dips
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Potato Chip Institute International, Potato Chipper, 14-15:passim "As you know, this dip is ordinarily called the Lipton California Dip."
^ Jump up to: a b c Is Homemade French Onion Dip Worth the Effort? - Bon Appétit
Jump up ^ Culinary Herbs and Spices of the World - Ben-Erik van Wyk. p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b Vegetarian Times Everything Vegan - Vegetarian Times. p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. p. 145.
^ Jump up to: a b Sherri Machlin, ed., American Food by the Decades, p. 136
Jump up ^ McWilliams, M. (2012). The Story Behind the Dish: Classic American Foods. Greenwood. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0-313-38509-4.
Jump up ^ Adamson, M.W.; Segan, F. (2008). Entertaining from Ancient Rome to the Super Bowl: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-313-08689-2.
Jump up ^ Holly Ebel, "Thinking on the back side of the box", Post-Bulletin (Rochester, Minnesota), May 12, 2015
Jump up ^ "In search of a Kiwi hero: The woman behind Kiwi Onion Dip". 21 February 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
Jump up ^ CheekyKiwi (9 December 2013). "Classic Kiwi Onion Soup Dip". Allrecipes.com (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Google Ngram Viewer comparing "California Dip" vs. "French Onion Dip" in books over the years". google.com. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Hold That Hidden Salt!: Recipes for Delicious Alternatives to Processed, Salt-heavy Supermarket Favourites - Maureen Tilley. p. 54.
Jump up ^ "Snacks". fritolay.com. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b How to Make French Onion Dip From Scratch - Huffington Post
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Classic Negroni and French Onion Dip with Chips - Herald-Standard
^ Jump up to: a b c d Classic Snacks Made from Scratch: 70 Homemade Versions of Your Favorite Brand-name Treats - Casey Barber. p. 176.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Susan M. Otsuki, Kitchenless Cooking: Unique Techniques for Cooking Large and Thrifty in a Small Space, p.31.
Jump up ^ "Homemade onion dip easily outshines store-bought". azcentral.com. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Jump up ^ French Onion Dip Burgers. EveryDay magazine.
Jump up ^ ABC News. "Roast Beef Sandwiches with French Onion Dip and Crispy Shallots Recipe - Emeril Lagasse - Recipe - ABC News". ABC News. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Hot Taco Dip". myfoxboston.com. 5 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Fix it quick comfort food cookbook - Publications International, Ltd. p. 16.
Further reading[edit]
Julian, Sheryl (May 27, 2014). "Recipe for French onion dip". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
Saretsky, Kerry (January 13, 2011). "Franglais: French Onion Dip". Huffington Post. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_onion_dip&oldid=833858746"
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