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Charon (moon)
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Not to be confused with the minor planet 2060 Chiron.
Charon
Charon in near-true color, brightness enhanced[note 1]
Discovery
Discovered by
James W. Christy
Discovery date
22 June 1978
Designations
Pronunciation
/ˈʃærən/ SHARR-ən or /ˈkɛərən/ KAIR-ən[note 2]
Named after
Charon
Alternative names
(134340) Pluto I[1]
Adjectives
Charonian
Orbital characteristics [3]
Epoch 7006245260050000000♠2452600.5
(2002 Nov 22)
Semi-major axis
7004195910000000000♠19591km[2]
Eccentricity
0.0002[2]
Orbital period
7005551856706559999♠6.3872304±0.0000011 d
(6 d, 9 h, 17 m, 36.7 ± 0.1 s)
Average orbital speed
0.21 km/s[note 3]
Inclination
6997139626340159546♠0.080° (to Pluto's equator)[2]
7000208725670575254♠119.591°±0.014° (to Pluto's orbit)
7000196843469027676♠112.783°±0.014° (to the ecliptic)
Longitude of ascending node
7000389288708340328♠223.046°±0.014° (to vernal equinox)
Satellite of
Pluto
Physical characteristics
Mean radius
7005606000000000000♠606.0±0.5 km[4][5] (0.095 Earths, 0.51 Plutos)
Flattening
<0.5% [6]
Surface area
7012400000000000000♠4.×106 km2 (0.0090 Earths)
Volume
7017932000000000000♠(9.32±0.14)×108 km3 (0.00086 Earths)
Mass
7021158600000000000♠(1.586±0.015)×1021 kg[4][5]
(6996266000000000000♠2.66×10−4 Earths)
(12.2% of Pluto)
Mean density
7003170200000000000♠1.702±0.017 g/cm3[5]
Surface gravity
6999288000000000000♠0.288 m/s2
Escape velocity
7002590000000000000♠0.59 km/s
0.37 mi/s
Rotation period
synchronous
Albedo
0.2 to 0.5 at a solar phase angle of 15°
Temperature
7001531499999999999♠−220 °C (7001530000000000000♠53 K)
Apparent magnitude
16.8[7]
Absolute magnitude (H)
1[8]
Angular diameter
55 milli-arcsec[9]
Charon, also known as (134340) Pluto I, is the largest of the five known natural satellites of the dwarf planet Pluto. It was discovered in 1978 at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., using photographic plates taken at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS).
With half the diameter and one eighth the mass of Pluto, Charon is a very large moon in comparison to its parent body. Its gravitational influence is such that the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside Pluto.
The reddish-brown cap of the north pole of Charon is composed of tholins; organic macromolecules that may be essential ingredients of life. These tholins were produced from methane, nitrogen and related gases released from the atmosphere of Pluto and transferred over 19,000 km (12,000 mi) to the orbiting moon.[10]
The New Horizons spacecraft is the only probe that has visited the Pluto system. It approached Charon to within 27,000 km (17,000 mi) in 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Name
3 Formation
4 Orbit
5 Physical characteristics
5.1 Interior
5.2 Surface
5.2.1 Mountain in a moat
6 Observation and exploration
7 Classification
8 In science fiction
9 Gallery
9.1 Videos
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Discovery[edit]
Charon's discovery at the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station as a time-varying bulge on the image of Pluto (seen near the top at left, but absent on the right). Negative image.
Mosaic of best-resolution images of Charon from different angles
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Charon was discovered by United States Naval Observatory astronomer James Christy, using the 1.55-meter (61 in) telescope at United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS),[11] On June 22, 1978, he had been examining highly magnified images of Pluto on photographic plates taken with the telescope two months prior. Christy noticed that a slight elongation appeared periodically. The bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29, 1965.[12] The International Astronomical Union formally announced to the world on July 7, 1978.[13]
Subsequent observations of Pluto determined that the bulge was due to a smaller accompanying body. The periodicity of the bulge corresponded to Pluto's rotation period, which was previously known from Pluto's light curve. This indicated a synchronous orbit, which strongly suggested that the bulge effect was real and not spurious. This resulted in reassessments of Pluto's size, mass, and other physical characteristics because the calculated mass and albedo of the Pluto–Charon system had previously been attributed to Pluto alone.
Doubts about Charon's existence were erased when it and Pluto entered a five-year period of mutual eclipses and transits between 1985 and 1990. This occurs when the Pluto–Charon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth, which only happens at two intervals in Pluto's 248-year orbital period. It was fortuitous that one of these intervals happened to occur soon after Charon's discovery.
Name[edit]
Charon is named after Charon, the ferryman of the dead in Greek mythology,[14] shown in this nineteenth-century painting by Alexander Litovchenko
Charon was originally known by the temporary designation S/1978 P 1, according to the then recently instituted convention. On June 24, 1978, Christy first suggested the name Charon as a scientific-sounding version of his wife Charlene's nickname, "Char".[14][15] Although colleagues at the Naval Observatory proposed Persephone, Christy stuck with Charon after discovering that it coincidentally refers to a Greek mythological figure:[14] Charon (/ˈkɛərɒn/ or /ˈkɛərən/; Greek Χάρων) is the ferryman of the dead, closely associated in myth with the god Hades, whom the Romans identified with their god Pluto. The IAU officially adopted the name in late 1985 and it was announced on January 3, 1986.[16]
There is minor debate over the preferred pronunciation of the name. The practice of following the classical pronunciation established for the mythological ferryman Charon (IPA [ˈkɛ:rən]) is used by major English-language dictionaries, such as the Merriam-Webster and Oxford English Dictionary.[17][18] These indicate only one pronunciation of "Charon" when referring specifically to Pluto's moon: with an initial "k" sound. Speakers of many languages other than English, and many English-speaking astronomers as well, follow this pronunciation.[19]
However, Christy himself pronounced the ch as sh (IPA [ʃ]), after his wife Charlene. Because of this, as an acknowledgement of Christy and sometimes as an in-joke or shibboleth, the initial sh pronunciation is common among astronomers when speaking English,[note 4][19][20][21] and this is the prescribed pronunciation at NASA and of the New Horizons team.[22][note 5]
Formation[edit]
Simulation work published in 2005 by Robin Canup suggested that Charon could have been formed by a collision around 4.5 billion years ago, much like Earth and the Moon. In this model, a large Kuiper belt object struck Pluto at high velocity, destroying itself and blasting off much of Pluto's outer mantle, and Charon coalesced from the debris.[23] However, such an impact should result in an icier Charon and rockier Pluto than scientists have found. It is now thought that Pluto and Charon might have been two bodies that collided before going into orbit about each other. The collision would have been violent enough to boil off volatile ices like methane (CH
4) but not violent enough to have destroyed either body. The very similar density of Pluto and Charon implies that the parent bodies were not fully differentiated when the impact occurred.[4]
Orbit[edit]
A view of the Pluto–Charon system showing that Pluto orbits a point outside itself. Also visible is the mutual tidal locking between the two bodies.
Charon and Pluto orbit each other every 6.387 days. The two objects are gravitationally locked to one another, so each keeps the same face towards the other. This is a case of mutual tidal locking, as compared to that of the Earth and the Moon, where the Moon always shows the same face to Earth, but not vice versa. The average distance between Charon and Pluto is 19,570 kilometres (12,160 mi). The discovery of Charon allowed astronomers to calculate accurately the mass of the Plutonian system, and mutual occultations revealed their sizes. However, neither indicated the two bodies' individual masses, which could only be estimated, until the discovery of Pluto's outer moons in late 2005. Details in the orbits of the outer moons revealed that Charon has approximately 12% of the mass of Pluto.[3]
Physical characteristics[edit]
Main article: Geology of Charon
See also: List of geological features on Charon
Size comparisons: Earth, the Moon, and Charon
Charon's diameter is 1,212 kilometres (753 mi), just over half that of Pluto,[4][5] and larger than the dwarf planet Ceres, and the twelfth largest natural satellite in the solar system. Charon is sufficiently massive to have collapsed into a spheroid under its own gravity. Charon's slow rotation means that there is almost no flattening. Its equatorial and polar radii differ by less than 1%.[4]
Interior[edit]
The two conflicting theories about Charon's internal structure
Charon's volume and mass allow calculation of its density, 7003170200000000000♠1.702±0.017 g/cm3,[5] from which it can be determined that Charon is slightly less dense than Pluto and suggesting a composition of 55% rock to 45% ice (± 5%), whereas Pluto is about 70% rock. The difference is considerably lower than that of most suspected collisional satellites. Before New Horizons' flyby, there were two conflicting theories about Charon's internal structure: some scientists thought Charon to be a differentiated body like Pluto, with a rocky core and an icy mantle, whereas others thought it would be uniform throughout.[24] Evidence in support of the former position was found in 2007, when observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryogeysers. The fact that the ice was still in crystalline form suggested it had been deposited recently, because solar radiation would have degraded it to an amorphous state after roughly thirty thousand years.[25]
Surface[edit]
Charon in enhanced color to bring out differences in surface composition.
Unlike Pluto's surface, which is composed of nitrogen and methane ices, Charon's surface appears to be dominated by the less volatile water ice. In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryogeysers and cryovolcanoes.[25][26]
Photometric mapping of Charon's surface shows a latitudinal trend in albedo, with a bright equatorial band and darker poles. The north polar region is dominated by a very large dark area informally dubbed "Mordor" by the New Horizons team.[27][28][29] The favored explanation for this phenomenon is that they are formed by condensation of gases that escaped from Pluto's atmosphere. In winter, the temperature is −258 °C, and these gases, which include nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane, condense into their solid forms; when these ices are subjected to solar radiation, they chemically react to form various reddish tholins. Later, when the area is again heated by the Sun as Charon's seasons change, the temperature at the pole rises to −213 °C, resulting in the volatiles sublimating and escaping Charon, leaving only the tholins behind. Over millions of years, the residual tholin builds up thick layers, obscuring the icy crust.[30] In addition to Mordor, New Horizons found evidence of extensive past geology that suggests that Charon is probably differentiated;[28] in particular, the southern hemisphere has fewer craters than the northern and is considerably less rugged, suggesting that a massive resurfacing event—perhaps prompted by the partial or complete freezing of an internal ocean—occurred at some point in the past and removed many of the earlier craters.[31]
Charon has a series of extensive grabens or canyons, such as Serenity Chasma, which extend as an equatorial belt for at least 7006100000000000000♠1000 km. Argo Chasma potentially reaches as deep as Template:VaL, with steep cliffs that may rival Verona Rupes on Miranda for the title of tallest cliff in the solar system. [32]
Organa, the youngest crater of Charon.
Mountain in a moat[edit]
Main article: Kubrick Mons
In a released photo by New Horizons, an unusual surface feature has captivated and baffled the scientist team of the mission. The image reveals a mountain rising out of a depression. It's "a large mountain sitting in a moat", said Jeff Moore, of NASA’s Ames Research Center, in a statement. "This is a feature that has geologists stunned and stumped", he added. New Horizons captured the photo from a distance of 49,000 miles (79,000 km).[33][34]
Observation and exploration[edit]
Since the first blurred images of the moon (1), images showing Pluto and Charon resolved into separate disks were taken for the first time by the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s (2). The telescope was responsible for the best, yet low quality images of the moon. In 1994, the clearest picture of the Pluto-Charon system showed two distinct and well defined circles (3). The image was taken by Hubble's Faint Object Camera (FOC) when the system was 2.6 billion miles (4.4 billion kilometers) away from Earth[35] Later, the development of adaptive optics made it possible to resolve Pluto and Charon into separate disks using ground-based telescopes.[15]
In June 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft captured consecutive images of the Pluto–Charon system as it approached it. The images were put together in an animation. It was the best image of Charon to that date (4). In July 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft made its closest approach to the Pluto system. It is the only spacecraft to date to have visited and studied Charon.
Timeline of Charon observations
(1) Discovery;
1978
(2) HST – before correction;
1990
(3) HST – after correction;
1994
(4) 1st color animated view;
2015
Classification[edit]
The center of mass (barycenter) of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside either body. Because neither object truly orbits the other, and Charon has 12.2% the mass of Pluto, it has been argued that Charon should be considered to be part of a binary system with Pluto. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that Charon is considered to be just a satellite of Pluto, but the idea that Charon might be classified a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date.[36]
In a draft proposal for the 2006 redefinition of the term, the IAU proposed that a planet be defined as a body that orbits the Sun that is large enough for gravitational forces to render the object (nearly) spherical. Under this proposal, Charon would have been classified as a planet, because the draft explicitly defined a planetary satellite as one in which the barycenter lies within the major body. In the final definition, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet, but the formal definition of a planetary satellite was not decided upon. Charon is not in the list of dwarf planets currently recognized by the IAU.[36] Had the draft proposal been accepted, even the Moon would be classified as a planet in billions of years when the tidal acceleration that is gradually moving the Moon away from Earth takes it far enough away that the center of mass of the system no longer lies within Earth.[37]
The other moons of Pluto, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx, orbit the same barycenter, but they are not large enough to be spherical, and they are simply considered to be satellites of Pluto (or of Pluto–Charon).[38]
In science fiction[edit]
Author Edmond Hamilton referred to three moons of Pluto in his 1940 novel Calling Captain Future, naming them Charon, Styx, and Cerberus.[39]
Gallery[edit]
Global map of Charon
Identically processed enhanced-color views of Pluto and Charon
High resolution enhanced-color mosaic of Charon
Pluto and Charon, to scale. Viewed by New Horizons on approach.
Pluto and Charon as viewed by New Horizons
(color; July 11, 2015).
Pluto and Charon as viewed by New Horizons
(false-color; July 13, 2015).
Charon – night-side as viewed by New Horizons
(July 17, 2015).
Videos[edit]
Play media
Charon – Flyover video animation (00:20)
(released October 1, 2015).
See also[edit]
Astronomy portal
List of natural satellites
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Photograph of Charon, taken by the Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) camera aboard New Horizons, during its flyby of the Pluto system on July 13, 2015, at a distance of 470,000 kilometers (290,000 miles). Charon's brightness has been exaggerated in this photograph in order to make features more clear, as the moon has an average albedo 0.2 to 0.5. A better representation of the moon's actual brightness can be found in this composite of New Horizons images. Based on a LORRI image.
Jump up ^ The latter per the anglicized pronunciation of the Greek: Χάρων.
Jump up ^ Calculated on the basis of other parameters.
Jump up ^ Astronomer Mike Brown can be heard pronouncing it [ˈʃɛɹɪn] in ordinary conversation on the KCET interview [ "Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown". Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-10-06. Retrieved 2008-10-01. ] at 42min 48sec. Being a long-time resident of California, he does not distinguish the /ær/ vowel of the name Sharon and the /ɛər/ vowel of the classical pronunciation of Charon.
Jump up ^ Hal Weaver, who led the team that discovered Nix and Hydra, also pronounces it [ˈʃɛɹɪn] (/ˈʃærən/ with a generic American accent) on the Discovery Science Channel documentary Passport to Pluto, premiered 2006-01-15.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jennifer Blue (2009-11-09). "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature". IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). Retrieved 2010-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Planetary Satellite Mean Orbital Parameters — Satellites of Pluto". Solar System Dynamics. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2013-08-23. Retrieved 2017-12-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Buie, Marc W.; Grundy, William M.; Young, Eliot F.; Young, Leslie A.; Stern, S. Alan (5 Jun 2006). "Orbits and Photometry of Pluto's Satellites: Charon, S/2005 P1, and S/2005 P2". The Astronomical Journal. 132 (1): 290–298. arXiv:astro-ph/0512491  . Bibcode:2006AJ....132..290B. doi:10.1086/504422.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stern, S.A.; Bagenal, F.; Ennico, K.; Gladstone, G.R.; Grundy, W.M.; McKinnon, W.B.; Moore, J.M.; Olkin, C.B.; Spencer, J.R. (16 Oct 2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons". Science. 350 (6258): aad1815. arXiv:1510.07704  . Bibcode:2015Sci...350.1815S. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815. PMID 26472913.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (15 Dec 2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Reviews of Astronomy ans Astrophysics. 2018. arXiv:1712.05669  .
Jump up ^ Nimmo, F.; Umurhan, O.; Lisse, C.M.; Bierson, C.J.; Lauer, T.R.; Buie, M.W.; Throop, H.B.; Kammer, J.A.; Roberts, J.H.; McKinnon, W.B.; Zangari, A.M.; Moore, J.M.; Stern, S.A.; Young, L.A.; Weaver, H.A.; Olkin, C.B.; Ennico, K.; and the New Horizons GGI team (1 May 2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821  . Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027.
Jump up ^ "Classic Satellites of the Solar System". Observatorio ARVAL. April 15, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ David Jewitt (June 2008). "The 1000 km Scale KBOs". Institute for Astronomy (UH). Retrieved 2008-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Measuring the Size of a Small, Frost World" (Press release). European Southern Observatory. 2006-01-04. Archived from the original on 2006-01-18. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ Bromwich, Jonah Engel; St. Fleur, Nicholas (14 September 2016). "Why Pluto's Moon Charon Wears a Red Cap". New York Times. Retrieved 2016-09-14.
Jump up ^ "Charon Discovery Image". Solar System Exploration. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 16 December 2003. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ Dick, Steven J. (2013). "The Pluto Affair". Discovery and Classification in Astronomy: Controversy and Consensus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-1-107-03361-0.
Jump up ^ "IAUC 3241: 1978 P 1; 1978 (532) 1; 1977n". Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. July 7, 1978. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shilling, Govert (June 2008). "A Bump in the Night". Sky & Telescope. pp. 26–27. Prior to this, Christy had considered naming the moon Oz.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Matt (14 Jul 2015). "Charon: Pluto's Largest Moon". Universe Today. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
Jump up ^ "IAUC 4157: CH Cyg; R Aqr; Sats OF SATURN AND PLUTO". Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. January 3, 1986. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
Jump up ^ "Charon". Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ "Charon". Oxford English Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b Pronounced "KAIR en" or "SHAHR en" per "Pluto Facts". Nine Planets. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
Jump up ^ Pronounced 'with a soft "sh" ' per "Welcome to the solar system, Nix and Hydra!". The Planetary Society Weblog. Archived from the original on 2009-02-10. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
Jump up ^ US Naval Observatory spokesman Jeff Chester, when interviewed on the NPR commentary "Letters: Radiology Dangers, AIDS, Charon". Morning Edition. 2006-01-19. Retrieved 2008-10-03. (at 2min 49sec), says Christy pronounced it [ˈʃɛɹɒn] rather than classical [ˈkɛɹɒn]. In normal conversation, the second vowel is reduced to a schwa: /ˈkɛərən/ in RP (ref: OED).
Jump up ^ Pronounced "Sharon" /ˈʃærən/ per "NASA New Horizons: The PI's Perspective—Two for the Price of One". Retrieved 2008-10-03. and per "New Horizons Team Names Science Ops Center After Charon's Discoverer". Retrieved 2008-10-03.
Jump up ^ Canup, Robin (January 28, 2005). "A Giant Impact Origin of Pluto–Charon". Science. 307 (5709): 546–50. Bibcode:2005Sci...307..546C. doi:10.1126/science.1106818. PMID 15681378.
Jump up ^ "Charon". Planetsedu.com. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "Charon: An ice machine in the ultimate deep freeze". Gemini Observatory. 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
Jump up ^ Cook; Desch, Steven J.; Roush, Ted L.; Trujillo, Chadwick A.; Geballe, T. R. (2007). "Near-Infrared Spectroscopy of Charon: Possible Evidence for Cryovolcanism on Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astrophysical Journal. 663 (2): 1406–1419. Bibcode:2007ApJ...663.1406C. doi:10.1086/518222.
Jump up ^ "The New Horizons team refers to a dark patch on Pluto's moon as 'Mordor'". The Week. Retrieved 2015-07-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "New Horizons Photos Show Pluto's Ice Mountains and Charon's Huge Crater". NBC News. Retrieved 2015-07-15.
Jump up ^ Corum, Jonathan (15 July 2015). "New Horizons Reveals Ice Mountains on Pluto". New York Times. Retrieved 2015-07-15.
Jump up ^ Howett, Carley (11 September 2015). "New Horizons probes the mystery of Charon's red pole". Retrieved 2015-09-16.
Jump up ^ Beatty, Kelly (2 October 2015). "Charon: Cracked, Cratered, and Colorful". Sky and Telescope. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
Jump up ^ Keeter, Bill (2016-06-23). "A 'Super Grand Canyon' on Pluto's Moon Charon". NASA. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Pluto's Big Moon Charon Has a Bizarre Mountain in a Moat (Photo)". Space.com. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Mysterious Mountain Revealed in First Close-up of Pluto's Moon Charon". Universe Today. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Pluto and Charon". Hubble Space Telescope. 16 May 1994. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "Pluto and the Developing Landscape of Our Solar System". IAU. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ Robert Roy Britt (2006-08-18). "Earth's moon could become a planet". CNN Science & Space. Retrieved 2009-11-25.
Jump up ^ Stern, Alan; Weaver, Hal; Mutchler, Max; Steffl, Andrew; Merline, Bill; Buie, Marc; Spencer, John; Young, Eliot; Young, Leslie (2005-05-15). "Background Information Regarding Our Two Newly Discovered Satellites of Pluto". Planetary Science Directorate. Southwest Research Institute, Boulder Office. Retrieved 2006-08-30.
Jump up ^ Codex Regius (2016). Pluto & Charon. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1534960749.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charon (moon).
Charon Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Christy, J. W; Harrington, R. S (1978). "The satellite of Pluto". Astronomical Journal. 83: 1005. Bibcode:1978AJ.....83.1005C. doi:10.1086/112284.
Hubble reveals new map of Pluto, BBC News, September 12, 2005
Person, M. J; Elliot, J. L; Gulbis, A. A. S; Pasachoff, J. M; Babcock, B. A; Souza, S. P; Gangestad, J (2006). "Charon's radius and density from the combined data sets of the 2005 July 11 occultation". The Astronomical Journal. 132 (4): 1575–1580. arXiv:astro-ph/0602082  . doi:10.1086/507330.
Cryovolcanism on Charon and other Kuiper Belt Objects
New Horizons Camera Spots Pluto’s Largest Moon – July 10, 2013
New Horizons in the PHSF clean room at KSC, Nov 4, 2005
NASA CGI video of Charon flyover (14 July 2017)
CGI video simulation of rotating Charon by Seán Doran (see album for more)
Google Charon 3D, interactive map of the moon
"2016 Lunar & Planetary Science Conference by National Institute of Aerospace".
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NOTE: Italicized moons are not close to being in hydrostatic equilibrium; [bracketed] moons may or may not be close to being in hydrostatic equilibrium.
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IAU: Ceres
No longer rounded and therefore not dwarf planets (Former candidates: Pallas
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Hygiea)

Centaurs
Possibly: Chariklo
Chiron
Centaurs (extended)
Possibly: 1995 SN55 (lost)
Ceto
2010 TY53
Plutinos
IAU: Pluto
Additional objects proposed by Brown and Tancredi: Orcus
Ixion
2003 AZ84
2004 UX10
Huya
Possibly: 2003 UZ413
2003 VS2
2002 VR128
2004 PF115
2002 XV93
2007 JH43
2001 QF298
Twotinos
Possibly: 2002 WC19
Other resonances/
unknown resonances:
IAU: Haumea
Possibly: 2002 XW93
1999 DE9
1999 KR16
2001 YH140
2011 GM27
2010 VK201
2013 FZ27
2014 UM33
1999 CD158
Cubewanos:
IAU: Makemake
Additional objects proposed by Brown and Tancredi: 2002 MS4
Salacia
Quaoar
Varuna
Varda
2004 GV9
2002 AW197
2002 TX300
2005 RR43
2003 OP32
2005 RN43
Possibly: Chaos
Altjira
Sila-Nunam
2002 UX25
2007 JJ43
2005 UQ513
2004 TY364
2003 QW90
1998 SN165
2002 KX14
Praamzius
2004 NT33
2010 FX86
2002 CY248
2010 VR11
Rhadamanthus
Scattered disc
IAU: Eris
Additional objects proposed by Brown and Tancredi: 2007 OR10
1996 TL66
2001 UR163
2005 RM43
Possibly: 2002 TC302
2004 XA192
2005 QU182
2006 QH181
2007 UK126
2010 EK139
2010 KZ39
2010 RE64
2010 RF43
2010 TJ
2013 FY27
2008 OG19
1996 GQ21
2012 HH2
1999 CC158
2010 VZ98
Area uncertain
Captured satellites that were once dwarf planets: Triton (captured by Neptune)
Phoebe (captured by Saturn, and no longer rounded)
Possibly: 2011 FW62 (lost)
2000 YW134
V774104
Detached objects
Possibly: 2004 XR190
2010 GB174
2008 ST291
1995 TL8
2005 TB190
2003 QX113
2003 FY128
2004 VN112
2000 CR105
Sednoids
Objects proposed by Brown and Tancredi: Sedna
Possibly: 2012 VP113
See also: Charon
Vanth
Dysnomia
Hiʻiaka
Mesoplanet
Planemo
List of trans-Neptunian objects
List of possible dwarf planets
List of Solar System objects
List of Solar System objects by size
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
GND: 4473110-3
LCCN: sh95007255
VIAF: 234320822
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charon_(moon)&oldid=842025904"
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text:
Right to work
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the human rights concept. For the U.S. laws of the same name, see right-to-work law.
The right to work is the concept that people have a human right to work, or engage in productive employment, and may not be prevented from doing so. The right to work is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law through its inclusion in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, where the right to work emphasizes economic, social and cultural development.
Contents
1 Definition
2 History
3 Criticism
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Definition[edit]
Article 23.1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:[1]
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
—  Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations General Assembly
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states in Part III, Article 6:[2]
(1) The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right to work, which includes the right of everyone to the opportunity to gain his living by work which he freely chooses or accepts, and will take appropriate steps to safeguard this right.

(2) The steps to be taken by a State Party to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right shall include technical and vocational guidance and training programmes, policies and techniques to achieve steady economic, social and cultural development and full and productive employment under conditions safeguarding fundamental political and economic freedoms to the individual.
—  International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, United Nations General Assembly
The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights also recognises the right, emphasising conditions and pay, i.e. labor rights. Article 15, states:[3]
Every individual shall have the right to work under equitable and satisfactory conditions, and shall receive equal pay for equal work.
—  African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, Organisation of African Unity
History[edit]
The phrase "the right to work" was coined by the French socialist leader Louis Blanc in light of the social turmoil of the early 19th century and rising unemployment in the wake of the 1846 financial crisis which led up to the French Revolution of 1848.[4] The right to property was a crucial demand in early quests for political freedom and equality, and against feudal control of property. Property can serve as the basis for the entitlements that ensure the realisation of the right to an adequate standard of living and it was only property owners which were initially granted civil and political rights, such as the right to vote. Because not everybody is a property owner, the right to work was enshrined to allow everybody to attain an adequate standard of living.[5] Today discrimination on the basis of property ownership is recognised as a serious threat to the equal enjoyment of human rights by all and non-discrimination clauses in international human rights instruments frequently include property as a ground on the basis of which discrimination is prohibited (see the right to equality before the law).[6]
In the United States, "right to work" laws as passed by states have sometimes been attempts to curtail union organizing. In other cases, they have been directed against regulation of qualifications for certain positions, including professional fields governed by professional organizations. Numerous U.S. states have passed laws requiring licensing, testing, or educational requirements, often in response to voter complaints about ill-prepared persons, such as people claiming medical expertise. The Friedmans reported in 1980 that
Today you are not free to offer your services as a lawyer, a physician, a dentist, a plumber, a barber, a mortician or engage in a host of other occupations, without first getting a permit or license from a government official.[7]
Many laws were supported by existing professionals and their organizations in an effort to ensure a level of competence. Other observers believe their efforts were directed at simply restraining competition to increase prices for fees. In response, entrepreneurs and activists have won numerous court cases securing constitutional protection for the right to earn a living.[8] Such cases have won the right to work for Louisiana monks who sell caskets, Philadelphia independent tour guides, Colorado taxi drivers, and Connecticut interior designers.[9]
Criticism[edit]
Paul Lafargue, in The Right to be Lazy (1883), wrote: "And to think that the sons of the heroes of the Terror have allowed themselves to be degraded by the religion of work, to the point of accepting, since 1848, as a revolutionary conquest, the law limiting factory labor to twelve hours. They proclaim as a revolutionary principle the Right to Work. Shame to the French proletariat! Only slaves would have been capable of such baseness."[10]
In the 1980 book Free to Choose, economists Milton and Rose Friedman said, "[An] essential part of economic freedom is freedom to use the resources we possess in accordance with our own values – freedom to enter any occupation, engage in any business enterprise, buy from and sell to anyone else, so long as we do so on a strictly voluntary basis and do not resort to force in order to coerce others."[7]
See also[edit]
Decent work
Equal pay for equal work
Full employment
International labor standards
Involuntary unemployment
Labor rights
Job guarantee
Protestant Work Ethic
Refusal of work
Right-to-work law
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
Youth
Youth suffrage
Youth rights
Age of candidacy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights : English". Ohchr.org. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1966.
Jump up ^ "African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights". www.achpr.org. Retrieved 2018-04-09.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Priscilla Smith (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History. Princeton University Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780691007564.
Jump up ^ Alfredsson, Gudmundur; Eide, Asbjorn (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: a common standard of achievement. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 533. ISBN 978-90-411-1168-5.
Jump up ^ Alfredsson, Gudmundur; Eide, Asbjorn (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: a common standard of achievement. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 372. ISBN 978-90-411-1168-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman (1980). Free to Choose. ISBN 978-0-15-633460-0.
Jump up ^ The Institute for Justice. "Economic Liberty". Retrieved May 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ Laurel Petriello (2009-07-06). "Judge Rules Interior Design Title Act Unconstitutional in Connecticut". Interior Design magazine. Archived from the original on 2011-11-20.
Jump up ^ Paul Lafargue The Right To Be Lazy, Chapter II, 2nd paragraph
External links[edit]
Find more aboutRight to workat Wikipedia's sister projects
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