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World Trade Organization
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"WTO" redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).
World Trade Organization
Organisation mondiale du commerce (in French)
Organización Mundial del Comercio (in Spanish)
Members
Members, dually represented by the EU
Observers
Non-participant states
Formation
1 January 1995; 23 years ago (1995-01-01)
Type
International trade organization
Purpose
Regulate international trade
Headquarters
Centre William Rappard, Geneva, Switzerland
Coordinates
46°13′27″N 06°08′58″E / 46.22417°N 6.14944°E / 46.22417; 6.14944Coordinates: 46°13′27″N 06°08′58″E / 46.22417°N 6.14944°E / 46.22417; 6.14944
Region served
Worldwide
Membership
164 member states[1]
Official language
English, French, Spanish[2]
Director-General
Roberto Azevêdo
Budget
197.2 million Swiss francs (approx. 209 million US$) in 2017.[3]
Staff
640[4]
Website
www.wto.org
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 124 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. It is the largest international economic organization in the world.[5][6] The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments[7]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[8] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1993).
The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo,[9][10] who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.[11] A trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of decisions, was agreed by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the organization's history.[12][13]. On 23 January 2017, the amendment to the WTO Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement marks the first time since the organization opened in 1995 that WTO accords have been amended, and this change should secure for developing countries a legal pathway to access affordable remedies under WTO rules.[14]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 GATT Negotiations before Uruguay
1.2 Uruguay Round
1.3 Ministerial conferences
1.4 Doha Round (Doha Agenda)
2 Functions
3 Principles of the trading system
4 Organizational structure
5 Decision-making
6 Dispute settlement
7 Accession and membership
7.1 Accession process
7.2 Members and observers
8 Agreements
9 Office of director-general
9.1 List of directors-general
10 Impact
11 Criticism of the organization
12 See also
13 Notes and references
14 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the World Trade Organization
The economists Harry White (left) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference.[15]
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation – such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization never started as the treaty was not approved by the U.S. and other signatories,[16][17][18] and so GATT slowly became a de facto international organization.[19]
GATT Negotiations before Uruguay[edit]
See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[20] Despite attempts in the mid-1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.[21]
Uruguay Round[edit]
Main article: Uruguay Round
During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible and the EU for impeding agricultural imports.[22][23]
Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[24][25] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round – known as the Uruguay Round – was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[24]
It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.[25] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed 15 April 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[26]
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[24] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into six main parts, the Agreement Establishing the WTO, the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods,[27] the General Agreement on Trade in Services, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Dispute settlement[28] and reviews of governments' trade policies[29]
In terms of the WTO's principle relating to tariff "ceiling-binding" (No. 3), the Uruguay Round has been successful in increasing binding commitments by both developed and developing countries, as may be seen in the percentages of tariffs bound before and after the 1986–1994 talks.[30]
Ministerial conferences[edit]
The World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1998, in the Palace of Nations (Geneva, Switzerland).
The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years.[31] It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. Some of these such as the inaugural ministerial conference in Singapore and the Cancun conference in 2003[32] involved arguments between developed and developing economies referred to as the "Singapore issues" such as agricultural subsidies while others such as the Seattle conference in 1999 created large demonstrations. The fourth ministerial conference in Doha in 2001 approved China's entry to the WTO and launched the Doha Development Round which was supplemented by the sixth WTO ministerial conference (in Hong Kong) when agricultural export subsidies were agreed to be phased out and adoption of the European Union's Everything but Arms initiative to phase out tariffs for goods from the Least Developed Countries.
Doha Round (Doha Agenda)[edit]
Main article: Doha Development Round
The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[33] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[34]
Progress stalled after over differences between developed nations and the major developing countries on issues such as industrial tariffs and non tariff barriers to trade[35] particularly against and between the EU and the US over their maintenance of agricultural subsidies—seen to operate effectively as trade barriers. Repeated attempts to revive the talks were unsuccessful[36] though the adoption of the Bali Ministerial Declaration in 2013[37] addressed bureaucratic barriers to commerce[38]
As of June 2012[update], the future of the Doha Round remained uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, and the round is still incomplete.[39] The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector (requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of fair trade on agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. This impasse has made it impossible to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result, there have been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements between governments.[40] As of July 2012, there were various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate.[41]
Functions[edit]
Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:
It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.[42][43]
It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.[44][45]
Additionally, it is WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[43][45] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[46]
The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation and further the objectives of this Agreement and of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, and shall also provide the framework for the implementation, administration and operation of the multilateral Trade Agreements.
The WTO shall provide the forum for negotiations among its members concerning their multilateral trade relations in matters dealt with under the Agreement in the Annexes to this Agreement.
The WTO shall administer the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes.
The WTO shall administer Trade Policy Review Mechanism.
With a view to achieving greater coherence in global economic policy making, the WTO shall cooperate, as appropriate, with the international Monetary Fund (IMF) and with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and its affiliated agencies.[47]
The above five listings are the additional functions of the World Trade Organization. As globalization proceeds in today's society, the necessity of an International Organization to manage the trading systems has been of vital importance. As the trade volume increases, issues such as protectionism, trade barriers, subsidies, violation of intellectual property arise due to the differences in the trading rules of every nation. The World Trade Organization serves as the mediator between the nations when such problems arise. WTO could be referred to as the product of globalization and also as one of the most important organizations in today's globalized society.
The WTO is also a centre of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[48] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[44]
Principles of the trading system[edit]
The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.[49] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:
Non-discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favourable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.[49] "Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members."[30] National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favourably than domestically produced goods (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).[49]
Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.[50]
Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish "ceiling bindings": a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.[30][50]
Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).[51] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.[30]
Safety values. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. The WTO's agreements permit members to take measures to protect not only the environment but also public health, animal health and plant health.[52]
There are three types of provision in this direction:
articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain non-economic objectives;
articles aimed at ensuring "fair competition"; members must not use environmental protection measures as a means of disguising protectionist policies.[52][53]
provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.[51]
Exceptions to the MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.[7]:fol.93
Organizational structure[edit]
The General Council has the following subsidiary bodies which oversee committees in different areas:
Council for Trade in Goods
There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles.[54]
Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO's work with other international organizations in the field.[55]
Council for Trade in Services
The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.[56]
Trade Negotiations Committee
The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO's director-general. As of June 2012[update] the committee was tasked with the Doha Development Round.[57]
The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments.[54] The council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.[58] There are committees on the following: Trade and Environment; Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries); Regional Trade Agreements; Balance of Payments Restrictions; and Budget, Finance and Administration. There are working parties on the following: Accession. There are working groups on the following: Trade, debt and finance; and Trade and technology transfer.
Decision-making[edit]
The WTO describes itself as "a rules-based, member-driven organization—all decisions are made by the member governments, and the rules are the outcome of negotiations among members".[59] The WTO Agreement foresees votes where consensus cannot be reached, but the practice of consensus dominates the process of decision-making.[60]
Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouring Europe and the U.S., and may not lead to Pareto improvement.[61]
Dispute settlement[edit]
Main article: Dispute settlement in the WTO
The WTO's dispute-settlement system "is the result of the evolution of rules, procedures and practices developed over almost half a century under the GATT 1947".[62] In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the "Final Act" signed in Marrakesh in 1994.[63] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a "unique contribution to the stability of the global economy".[64] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.[65]
The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves case-specific panels[66] appointed by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB),[67] the Appellate Body,[68] The Director-General and the WTO Secretariat,[69] arbitrators,[70] and advisory experts.[71]
The priority is to settle disputes, preferably through a mutually agreed solution, and provision has been made for the process to be conducted in an efficient and timely manner so that "If a case is adjudicated, it should normally take no more than one year for a panel ruling and no more than 16 months if the case is appealed... If the complainant deems the case urgent, consideration of the case should take even less time.[72] WTO member nations are obliged to accept the process as exclusive and compulsory.[73]
According to a 2018 study in the Journal of Politics, states are less likely and slower to enforce WTO violations when the violations affect states in a diffuse manner.[74] This is because states face collective action problems with pursuing litigation: they all expect other states to carry the costs of litigation.[74] A 2016 study in International Studies Quarterly challenges that the WTO dispute settlement system leads to greater increases in trade.[75]
Accession and membership[edit]
Main article: World Trade Organization accession and membership
The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[76] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last longer if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of Russia, which, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011 and became a WTO member on 22 August 2012.[77] Kazakhstan also had a long accession negotiation process. The Working Party on the Accession of Kazakhstan was established in 1996 and was approved for membership in 2015.[78] The second longest was that of Vanuatu, whose Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was established on 11 July 1995. After a final meeting of the Working Party in October 2001, Vanuatu requested more time to consider its accession terms. In 2008, it indicated its interest to resume and conclude its WTO accession. The Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was reconvened informally on 4 April 2011 to discuss Vanuatu's future WTO membership. The re-convened Working Party completed its mandate on 2 May 2011. The General Council formally approved the Accession Package of Vanuatu on 26 October 2011. On 24 August 2012, the WTO welcomed Vanuatu as its 157th member.[79] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[80]
A 2017 study argues that "political ties rather than issue-area functional gains determine who joins" and shows "how geopolitical alignment shapes the demand and supply sides of membership".[81] The "findings challenge the view that states first liberalize trade to join the GATT/WTO. Instead, democracy and foreign policy similarity encourage states to join."[81]
Accession process[edit]
WTO accession progress:[82]
Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted
Goods or Services offers submitted
Working party meetings
Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime submitted
Working party established
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[83] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[84]
After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[76]
The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[83]
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[85] Some countries may have faced tougher and a much longer accession process due to challenges during negotiations with other WTO members, such as Vietnam, whose negotiations took more than 11 years before it became official member in January 2007.[86]
Members and observers[edit]
The WTO has 164 members and 23 observer governments.[87] Liberia became the 163rd member on 14 July 2016, and Afghanistan became the 164th member on 29 July 2016.[88][89] In addition to states, the European Union, and each EU Country in its own right,[90] is a member. WTO members do not have to be fully independent states; they need only be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong has been a member since 1995 (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) predating the People's Republic of China, which joined in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. The Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of China: Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[91] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counsellor, First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[92]
As of 2007, WTO member states represented 96.4% of global trade and 96.7% of global GDP.[93] Iran, followed by Algeria, are the economies with the largest GDP and trade outside the WTO, using 2005 data.[94][95] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[96] 12 UN member states have no official affiliation with the WTO.
Agreements[edit]
Further information: Uruguay Round
The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[97] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows.
The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995.
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.[98]
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members' policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases).
The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[99]
The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach.
In December 2013, the biggest agreement within the WTO was signed and known as the Bali Package.[100]
Office of director-general[edit]
The headquarters of the World Trade Organization in Geneva, Switzerland.
The procedures for the appointment of the WTO director-general were published in January 2003.[101] Additionally, there are four deputy directors-general. As of 1 October 2017[update], under director-general Roberto Azevêdo, the four deputy directors-general are Yi Xiaozhun of China, Karl-Ernst Brauner of Germany, Yonov Frederick Agah of Nigeria and Alan W. Wolff of the United States.[102]
List of directors-general[edit]
Source: Official website[103]
Roberto Azevêdo, 2013–present
Pascal Lamy, 2005–2013
Supachai Panitchpakdi, 2002–2005
Mike Moore, 1999–2002
Renato Ruggiero, 1995–1999
Peter Sutherland, 1995
(Heads of the precursor organization, GATT):
Peter Sutherland, 1993–1995
Arthur Dunkel, 1980–1993
Olivier Long, 1968–1980
Eric Wyndham White, 1948–1968
Impact[edit]
Studies show that the WTO boosted trade.[104][105] Research shows that in the absence of the WTO, the average country would face an increase in tariffs on their exports by 32 percentage points.[106][107]
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of International Economic Law, "nearly all recent [preferential trade agreements (PTAs)] reference the WTO explicitly, often dozens of times across multiple chapters. Likewise, in many of these same PTAs we find that substantial portions of treaty language—sometime the majority of a chapter—is copied verbatim from a WTO agreement... the presence of the WTO in PTAs has increased over time."[108]
Criticism of the organization[edit]
Main article: Criticism of the World Trade Organization
See also[edit]
Agreement on Trade Related Investment Measures
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Aide-mémoire
Anti-globalization movement
Foreign Affiliate Trade Statistics
Global administrative law
Globality
Information Technology Agreement
International Trade Centre
Labour Standards in the World Trade Organisation
List of member states of the World Trade Organization
North American Free Trade Agreement
Subsidy
Swiss Formula
Trade bloc
Washington Consensus
World Trade Report
World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity
China and the World Trade Organization
Geographical indication
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
List of Geographical Indications in India
List of trade organisations
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Members and Observers at WTO official website
Jump up ^ Languages, Documentation and Information Management Division at WTO official site
Jump up ^ "WTO Secretariat budget for 2017". WTO official site. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Understanding the WTO: What We Stand For_ Fact File
Jump up ^ http://www.nber.org/reporter/winter00/krueger.html
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization – UNDERSTANDING THE WTO: BASICS
^ Jump up to: a b Understanding the WTO Handbook at WTO official website. (Note that the document's printed folio numbers do not match the pdf page numbers.)
Jump up ^ Malanczuk, P. (1999). "International Organisations and Space Law: World Trade Organization". Encyclopædia Britannica. 442. p. 305. Bibcode:1999ESASP.442..305M.
Jump up ^ Bourcier, Nicolas (21 May 2013). "Roberto Azevedo's WTO appointment gives Brazil a seat at the top table". Guardian Weekly. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Roberto Azevêdo takes over". WTO official website. 1 September 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Overview of the WTO Secretariat". WTO official website. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Ninth WTO Ministerial Conference | WTO – MC9 Archived 1 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ BBC News – WTO agrees global trade deal worth $1tn
Jump up ^ https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news17_e/trip_23jan17_e.htm
Jump up ^ A.E. Eckes Jr., US Trade History, 73
* A. Smithies, Reflections on the Work of Keynes, 578–601
* N. Warren, Internet and Globalization, 193
Jump up ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
Jump up ^ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
Jump up ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
Jump up ^ It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters with economist Nicholas Halford overseeing the implementation of GATT in members policies. (P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81; J.H. Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134).
Jump up ^ The GATT Years: from Havana to Marrakesh, WTO official site
Jump up ^ Footer, M. E. Analysis of the World Trade Organization, 17
Jump up ^ B.S. Klapper, With a "Short Window"
Jump up ^ Lula, Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies
^ Jump up to: a b c P. Gallagher, The First Ten Years of the WTO, 4
^ Jump up to: a b The Uruguay Round, WTO official site
Jump up ^ "Legal texts – Marrakesh agreement". WTO. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
Jump up ^ including the GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
Jump up ^ ""Resolving Trade Disputes, the Mechanisms of GATT/WTO Dispute Resolution" by Daniel H. Erskine". digitalcommons.law.scu.edu. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Overview: a Navigational Guide, WTO official site. For the complete list of "The Uruguay Round Agreements", see WTO legal texts, WTO official site, and Uruguay Round Agreements, Understandings, Decisions and Declarations Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine., WorldTradeLaw.net
^ Jump up to: a b c d Principles of the Trading System, WTO official site
Jump up ^ https://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/minist_e/min11_e/min11_e.htm
Jump up ^ "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Papers.ssrn.com. SSRN 916768  . Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "In the twilight of Doha". The Economist. The Economist: 65. 27 July 2006.
Jump up ^ European Commission The Doha Round
Jump up ^ Fergusson ps, Ian F. (18 January 2008). "World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Documents from the negotiating chairs, 21 April 2011 at WTO official website
Jump up ^ Bali Ministerial Declaration and decisions Archived 18 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. at WTO official website. Accessed 31 December 2013
Jump up ^ Walker, Andrew (7 December 2013). "WTO agrees global trade deal worth $1tn". BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Understanding the WTO: The Doha Agenda
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I Wanna Be Your Man
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see I Wanna Be Your Man (disambiguation).
"I Wanna Be Your Man" is a Lennon–McCartney-penned song recorded and released as a single by the Rolling Stones, and then recorded by the Beatles. The song was primarily written by Paul McCartney, and finished by Lennon and McCartney in the corner of a room while Mick Jagger and Keith Richards were talking.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 The Rolling Stones' version
1.1 Personnel
2 The Beatles' version
2.1 Personnel
3 Live versions
3.1 Ringo Starr and the All-Starr Band version
3.2 X-Pensive Winos version
3.3 The Rolling Stones 2012 live version
4 Other recordings
5 Notes
6 References
The Rolling Stones' version[edit]
"I Wanna Be Your Man"
One of 1963 Danish single covers
Single by the Rolling Stones
A-side
"Not Fade Away" (US 2nd release)
B-side
"Stoned" (UK) & (US 1st release)
Released
1 November 1963 (1963-11-01) (UK)
March 1964 (US)
Format
7-inch single
Recorded
7 October 1963
Studio
Kingsway Sound, London
Genre
Rock and roll
British R&B
Length
1:43
Label
Decca (UK)
London (US)
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
Andrew Loog Oldham
Eric Easton
Rolling Stones UK singles chronology
"Come On"
(1963) "I Wanna Be Your Man"
(1963) "Not Fade Away"
(1964)
Rolling Stones US singles chronology
"I Wanna Be Your Man"
(1964) "Tell Me"
(1964)
Released as their second single on 1 November 1963, the Stones' version was an early hit,[2] peaking at number 12 on the British chart. Their rendition features Brian Jones' distinctive slide guitar and Bill Wyman's driving bass playing. It is one of the few Rolling Stones songs to feature only Brian Jones on backing vocals. In the US, the song was initially released as London 45-LON 9641 (with "Stoned" on the B side) without any success and was soon after re-released on 6 March 1964 as the B-side to "Not Fade Away".
According to various accounts, either the Rolling Stones' manager/producer Andrew Loog Oldham or the Rolling Stones themselves ran into Lennon and McCartney on the street as the two were returning from an awards luncheon. Hearing that the band were in need of material for a single, Lennon and McCartney went to their session at De Lane Lea Studio and finished off the song – whose verse they had already been working on – in the corner of the room while the impressed Rolling Stones watched.
Mick Jagger recalled the song in 1968:[3]
We knew [the Beatles] by then and we were rehearsing and Andrew brought Paul and John down to the rehearsal. They said they had this tune, they were really hustlers then. I mean the way they used to hustle tunes was great: 'Hey Mick, we've got this great song.' So they played it and we thought it sounded pretty commercial, which is what we were looking for, so we did it like Elmore James or something. I haven't heard it for ages but it must be pretty freaky 'cause nobody really produced it. It was completely crackers, but it was a hit and sounded great onstage.
McCartney stated in 2016:[4]
We were friends with them, and I just thought "I Wanna Be Your Man" would be good for them. I knew they did Bo Diddley stuff. And they made a good job of it.
Bill Wyman noted how the Rolling Stones adapted the song to their style:
We kind of learned it pretty quickly 'cause there wasn't that much to learn. Then Brian got his slide out, his steel (guitar) out and dadaw ... dadaw ... and we said, 'Yeah, that's better, dirty it up a bit and bash it out', and we kind of completely turned the song around and made it much more tough, Stones- and Elmore James-like.
Released only as a single, the Rolling Stones' rendition did not appear on a studio album. The song was released in the UK on the 1972 Decca compilation album Milestones and on the UK compilation album Rolled Gold: The Very Best of the Rolling Stones in 1975. In 1989, it was issued on the US compilation album Singles Collection: The London Years. It is included on the four CD version of the 2012 GRRR! compilation.
The B-side of the second single was "Stoned", a "Green Onions" influenced instrumental composed by Nanker/Phelge, the early collective pseudonym for the group. Additionally, it included the 'Sixth Stone' pianist Ian Stewart, making it the first released self-penned composition, with added spoken asides by Mick Jagger. Some original 1963 copies were issued with the misprinted title as "Stones", making it doubly collectable as a rarity.
A promotional video featuring the song was the first song ever performed on the Top of the Pops TV program in the UK. A performance of the song on The Arthur Haynes Show recorded on 7 February 1964 appears as part of the bonus material on the 2012 documentary film Crossfire Hurricane.
Personnel[edit]
Mick Jagger – lead vocals
Brian Jones – lead guitar, backing vocals
Keith Richards – rhythm guitar
Bill Wyman – bass
Charlie Watts – drums
The Beatles' version[edit]
"I Wanna Be Your Man"
Song by the Beatles
from the album With the Beatles
Released
22 November 1963 (1963-11-22) (UK)
20 January 1964 (US)
Recorded
11–12, 30 September
3, 23 October 1963
Genre
Merseybeat, rock and roll[5]
Length
1:58
Label
Parlophone (UK)
Capitol (US)
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
George Martin
Wikiquote has quotations related to: With the Beatles
The Beatles' version was sung by Ringo Starr and appeared on the group's second UK album, With the Beatles, released 22 November 1963 and on the US release Meet the Beatles!, released on 20 January 1964.[6] It was driven by a heavily tremoloed, open E-chord on a guitar played through a Vox AC30 amplifier. John Lennon was dismissive of the song in 1980, saying:[7]
It was a throwaway. The only two versions of the song were Ringo and the Rolling Stones. That shows how much importance we put on it: We weren't going to give them anything great, right?
The Beatles also recorded two versions of the song for the BBC.[8] One version was for the Saturday Club, recorded on 7 January 1964 and first broadcast on 15 February. The second version was released on the Live at the BBC collection from the From Us to You show. It was recorded on 28 February and broadcast on 30 March. The Beatles also recorded a version for the Around The Beatles TV show, recorded on 19 April 1964. This version was released on the Anthology 1 collection in 1995.
Bob Dylan recorded a song for Blonde on Blonde (1966) called "I Wanna Be Your Lover" as a "tip of the hat" to the Lennon/McCartney song. It was left off the final album, but was eventually released on the compilation boxed set Biograph (1985).[9]
The song features a heavy Bo Diddley beat. Bo Diddley himself acknowledged this in the song "London Stomp" (album "Hey Good Lookin'"). He sings "Hey, Liverpool, we got the London Stomp" over a "I Wanna Be Your Man" background.
Personnel[edit]
Ringo Starr – double-tracked lead vocals, drums, maracas, tambourine, handclaps
John Lennon – backing vocal, tremolo electric rhythm guitar, screaming, handclaps
Paul McCartney – backing vocal, bass, screaming, handclaps
George Harrison – electric lead guitar, handclaps
George Martin – Hammond organ
Personnel per Ian MacDonald[10]
Live versions[edit]
Ringo Starr and the All-Starr Band version[edit]
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band have performed the song as a concert staple during their 1989 through 2012–2013 All-Starr Band concerts. The song was on the setlist for the first line-up in 1989. The 1992 line-up did not perform the song. Every All-Starr Band line-up from 1995 to 2012–2013 has included the song on their setlist. The song has appeared on the following compilation albums: Ringo Starr and His Third All-Starr Band-Volume 1, King Biscuit Flower Hour Presents Ringo & His New All-Starr Band, The Anthology... So Far, Ringo Starr and Friends, Ringo Starr: Live at Soundstage, Ringo Starr & His All Starr Band Live 2006, and Live at the Greek Theatre 2008.
X-Pensive Winos version[edit]
Keith Richards performed the song live with his group the X-Pensive Winos during their 1988 Talk is Cheap tour of the US. They performed the song at the Orpheum Theatre in Boston, at the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles, the Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey, and at the Hollywood Palladium.[11]
The Rolling Stones 2012 live version[edit]
The Rolling Stones performed the song live during their 2012 50th anniversary concerts, the 50 & Counting Tour. The song opened their 25 November 2012 concert at the O2 Arena in London. The song was also featured in their 29 November 2012 performance at the O2 Arena. They also performed the song live during their concert at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York on 8 December 2012.
Other recordings[edit]
The song was also recorded by Adam Faith in 1965, Count Basie and his Orchestra in 1966, the Day Brothers, Terry Manning in 1970, Suzi Quatro in 1973, The Rezillos in 1977, Roger Webb and his Trio, the Sparrows, the Merseyboys, Bob Leaper, the Flamin' Groovies in 1993, Sam Phillips in 2003, Les Baronets in French as "Oh! Je Veux Être À Toi", the Rockin' Ramrods, the Smithereens in 2007, and the Stooges on their 2007 album The Weirdness featuring Iggy Pop.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ I Wanna Be Your Man | The Beatles Bible
Jump up ^ Gilliland 1969, show 30, track 2.
Jump up ^ Songfacts: I Wanna Be Your Man by The Rolling Stones.
Jump up ^ "Paul McCartney Looks Back: The Rolling Stone Interview". Rolling Stone. USA. 10 August 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "With the Beatles" at Allmusic
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 200.
Jump up ^ Sheff 2000, p. 171.
Jump up ^ The Beatles Bible.
Jump up ^ Biograph liner notes
Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Keith Richards and The X-Pensive Winos Talk Is Cheap Tour 1988.
References[edit]
Eder, Bruce (2009). "Review of "I Wanna Be Your Man/Stoned"". Allmusic. Retrieved 9 January 2009.
Gilliland, John (1969). "The British Are Coming! The British Are Coming!: The U.S.A. is invaded by a wave of long-haired English rockers." Pop Chronicles. Digital.library.unt.edu.
Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 0-517-57066-1.
MacDonald, Ian (2005). Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (Second Revised ed.). London: Pimlico (Rand). ISBN 1-84413-828-3.
Miles, Barry (1997). Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-5249-6.
Sheff, David (2000). All We Are Saying. St Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-25464-4.
[show]
v
t
e
With the Beatles
Songs
Side one
"It Won't Be Long"
"All I've Got to Do"
"All My Loving"
"Don't Bother Me"
"Little Child"
"Till There Was You"
"Please Mister Postman"
Side two
"Roll Over Beethoven"
"Hold Me Tight"
"You Really Got a Hold on Me"
"I Wanna Be Your Man"
"Devil in Her Heart"
"Not a Second Time"
"Money"
Non-album tracks
"She Loves You"
"I'll Get You"
"I Want to Hold Your Hand"
"This Boy"
Related articles
The Beatles discography
Please Please Me
With the Beatles
A Hard Day's Night
Beatles for Sale
Help!
Rubber Soul
Revolver
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Magical Mystery Tour
The Beatles (White Album)
Yellow Submarine
Abbey Road
Let It Be
Past Masters
[show]
v
t
e
The Rolling Stones singles discography
Decca (UK) and
London (US)
singles
"Come On"
"I Wanna Be Your Man" / "Stoned"
"Not Fade Away" / "Little by Little"
"It's All Over Now"
"Tell Me" / "I Just Want to Make Love to You"
"Time Is on My Side"
"Little Red Rooster"
"Heart of Stone"
"The Last Time" / "Play with Fire"
"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" / "The Spider and the Fly"
"Get Off of My Cloud" / "I'm Free"
"As Tears Go By"
"19th Nervous Breakdown" / "As Tears Go By"
"Paint It Black" / "Stupid Girl"
"Mother's Little Helper" / "Lady Jane"
"Have You Seen Your Mother, Baby, Standing in the Shadow?"
"Let's Spend the Night Together" / "Ruby Tuesday"
"We Love You" / "Dandelion"
"In Another Land"
"She's a Rainbow" / "2000 Light Years from Home"
"Jumpin' Jack Flash"
"Street Fighting Man" / "No Expectations"
"Honky Tonk Women" / "You Can't Always Get What You Want"
Rolling Stones/
Atlantic singles
"Brown Sugar" / "Bitch" / "Let It Rock"
"Wild Horses" / "Sway"
"Tumbling Dice" / "Sweet Black Angel"
"Happy" / "All Down the Line"
"Angie" / "Silver Train"
"Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo (Heartbreaker)" / "Dancing with Mr. D"
"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)"
"Ain't Too Proud to Beg" / "Dance Little Sister"
"Fool to Cry"
"Hot Stuff"
Rolling Stones
"Miss You" / "Far Away Eyes"
"Beast of Burden" / "When the Whip Comes Down"
"Respectable" / "When the Whip Comes Down"
"Shattered"
"Emotional Rescue"
"She's So Cold" / "Send It to Me"
"Start Me Up"
"Waiting on a Friend" / "Little T&A"
"Hang Fire" / "Neighbours"
"Going to a Go-Go" (live) / "Beast of Burden" (live)
"Time Is on My Side" (live) / "Twenty Flight Rock" (live)
"Undercover of the Night"
"She Was Hot"
"Too Much Blood"
"Harlem Shuffle"
"One Hit (To the Body)"
"Mixed Emotions"
"Rock and a Hard Place"
"Almost Hear You Sigh"
"Highwire" / "2000 Light Years from Home" (live)
"Ruby Tuesday" (live) / "Play with Fire" (live)
"Jumpin' Jack Flash" (live) / "Tumbling Dice" (live)
Virgin singles
"Love Is Strong"
"You Got Me Rocking"
"Out of Tears"
"I Go Wild"
"Like a Rolling Stone" (live) / "Black Limousine" / "All Down the Line"
"Wild Horses" (live) / "Live with Me" (live) / "Tumbling Dice" (live)
"Anybody Seen My Baby?"
"Saint of Me" / "Gimme Shelter" (live)
"Out of Control"
"Don't Stop" / "Miss You" (remix)
"Streets of Love" / "Rough Justice"
"Rain Fall Down"
"Biggest Mistake" / "Before They Make Me Run" (live)
Universal singles
"Plundered My Soul" / "All Down the Line"
"No Spare Parts" / "Before They Make Me Run"
"Doom and Gloom"
"One More Shot"
Other countries
"Let It Bleed" / "You Got the Silver" (London Japan)
"Rocks Off" / "Sweet Virginia" (Japan)
"Star Star" / "Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo (Heartbreaker)" (France, Germany)
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