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Verb
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This article is about the part of speech. For the physical activity program, see VERB (program). For English usage of verbs, see English verbs.
Examples
I washed the car yesterday.
The dog ate my homework.
John studies English and French.
Lucy enjoys listening to music.
Todd Young became a Senator last year. (occurrence)
Mike Trout is a center fielder. (state of being)
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that an action is being carried out; past, to indicate that an action has been done; future, to indicate that an action will be done.
Contents
1 Agreement
2 Verb types
2.1 Intransitive verbs
2.2 Transitive verbs
2.3 Ditransitive verbs
2.4 Double transitive verbs
2.5 Copular verbs
3 Valency
4 Tense, aspect, and modality
5 Voice
6 See also
6.1 Verbs in various languages
6.2 Grammar
6.3 Other
7 References
8 External links
Agreement
Main article: Grammatical conjugation
In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (the subject) in person, number or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreements only in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs, which are marked by adding "-s" ( walks) or "-es" (fishes). The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb (I walk, you walk, they walk, etc.).
Latin and the Romance languages inflect verbs for tense–aspect–mood (abbreviated 'TAM'), and they agree in person and number (but not in gender, as for example in Polish) with the subject. Japanese, like many languages with SOV word order, inflects verbs for tense-aspect-mood, as well as other categories such as negation, but shows absolutely no agreement with the subject - it is a strictly dependent-marking language. On the other hand, Basque, Georgian, and some other languages, have polypersonal agreement: the verb agrees with the subject, the direct object, and even the secondary object if present, a greater degree of head-marking than is found in most European languages.
Verb types
Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself. Classified by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are distinguished: intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs. Some verbs have special grammatical uses and hence complements, such as copular verbs (i.e., be); the verb "do" used for do-support in questioning and negation, and tense or aspect auxiliaries, e.g., "be", "have" or "can". In addition, verbs can be nonfinite, namely, not inflected for tense, and have various special forms such as infinitives, participles or gerunds.[1]
Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb (a word that addresses how, where, when, and how often) or end a sentence. For example: "The woman spoke softly." "The athlete ran faster than the official." "The boy wept."
Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun phrases are not called predicate nouns, but are instead called direct objects because they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example: "My friend read the newspaper." "The teenager earned a speeding ticket."
A way to identify a transitive verb is to invert the sentence, making it passive. For example: "The newspaper was read by my friend." "A speeding ticket was earned by the teenager."
Ditransitive verbs
Ditransitive verbs (sometimes called Vg verbs after the verb give) precede either two noun phrases or a noun phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example: "The players gave their teammates high fives." "The players gave high fives to their teammates."
When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an indirect object, that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object, that being acted upon. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases.[2]
Double transitive verbs
Double transitive verbs (sometimes called Vc verbs after the verb consider) are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase. The second element (noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive) is called a complement, which completes a clause that would not otherwise have the same meaning. For example: "The young couple considers the neighbors wealthy people." "Some students perceive adults quite inaccurately." "Sarah deemed her project to be the hardest she has ever completed."
Copular verbs
Copular verbs (a.k.a. linking verbs) can't be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, but instead must be followed by a noun or adjective, whether in a single word or phrase. Common copulae include be, seem, become, appear, look, and remain. For example: "His mother looked worried." "Josh remained a reliable friend." Copulae are thought to 'link' the adjective or noun to the subject.
The verb be is manifested in eight forms: be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being. These verbs precede nouns or adjectives in a sentence, which become predicate nouns and predicate adjectives similar to those that function with a linking verb. They can also be followed by an adverb of place, which is sometimes referred to as a predicate adverb. For example: "Her daughter was a writing tutor." "The singers were very nervous." "My house is down the street."
Adjectives that come after copular verbs are predicate adjectives, and nouns that come after linking verbs are predicate nouns.[3]
Valency
Main article: Valency (linguistics)
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be classified according to their valency:
Avalent (valency = 0): the verb has neither a subject nor an object. Zero valency does not occur in English; in some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, weather verbs like snow(s) take no subject or object.
Intransitive (valency = 1, monovalent): the verb only has a subject. For example: "he runs", "it falls".
Transitive (valency = 2, divalent): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example: "she eats fish", "we hunt nothing".
Ditransitive (valency = 3, trivalent): the verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. For example: "He gives her a flower" or "She gave John the watch."
A few English verbs, particularly those concerned with financial transactions, take four arguments, as in "Pat1 sold Chris2 a lawnmower3 for $204" or "Chris1 paid Pat2 $203 for a lawnmower4".[4]
Weather verbs often appear to be impersonal (subjectless, or avalent) in null-subject languages like Spanish, where the verb llueve means "It rains". In English, French and German, they require a dummy pronoun, and therefore formally have a valency of 1. However, as verbs in Spanish incorporate the subject as a TAM suffix, Spanish is not actually a null-subject language, unlike Mandarin (see above). Such verbs in Spanish also have a valency of 1.
Intransitive and transitive verbs are the most common, but the impersonal and objective verbs are somewhat different from the norm. In the objective the verb takes an object but no subject; the nonreferent subject in some uses may be marked in the verb by an incorporated dummy pronoun similar to that used with the English weather verbs. Impersonal verbs in null subject languages take neither subject nor object, as is true of other verbs, but again the verb may show incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.
Verbs are often flexible with regard to valency. In non-valency marking languages such as English, a transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can take an object and become transitive. For example, in English the verb move has no grammatical object in he moves (though in this case, the subject itself may be an implied object, also expressible explicitly as in he moves himself); but in he moves the car, the subject and object are distinct and the verb has a different valency. Some verbs in English, however, have historically derived forms that show change of valency in some causative verbs, such as fall-fell-fallen:fell-felled-felled; rise-rose-risen:raise-raised-raised; cost-cost-cost:cost-costed-costed.
In valency marking languages, valency change is shown by inflecting the verb in order to change the valency. In Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia, for example, verbs distinguish valency by argument agreement suffixes and TAM endings:
Nui mangema "He arrived earlier today" (mangema today past singular subject active intransitive perfective)
Palai mangemanu "They [dual] arrived earlier today"
Thana mangemainu "They [plural] arrived earlier today"
Verb structure: manga-i-[number]-TAM "arrive+active+singular/dual/plural+TAM"
Nuidh wapi manganu "He took the fish [to that place] earlier today" (manganu today past singular object attainative transitive perfective)
Nuidh wapi mangamanu "He took the two fish [to that place] earlier today"
Nuidh wapil mangamainu "He took the [three or more] fish [to that place] earlier today"
Verb structure: manga-Ø-[number]-TAM "arrive+attainative+singular/dual/plural+TAM"
The verb stem manga- 'to take/come/arrive' at the destination takes the active suffix -i (> mangai-) in the intransitive form, and as a transitive verb the stem is not suffixed. The TAM ending -nu is the general today past attainative perfective, found with all numbers in the perfective except the singular active, where -ma is found.
Tense, aspect, and modality
A single-word verb in Spanish contains information about time (past, present, future), person and number. The process of grammatically modifying a verb to express this information is called conjugation.
Main articles: Grammatical tense, Aspect (linguistics), Linguistic modality, and Tense–aspect–mood
Depending on the language, verbs may express grammatical tense, aspect, or modality. Grammatical tense[5][6][7] is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point. The reference point could be the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past, present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb expresses relative tense.
Aspect[6][8] expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:
perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion (as in "I saw the car")
imperfective aspect, in which the action is viewed as ongoing; in some languages a verb could express imperfective aspect more narrowly as:
habitual aspect, in which the action occurs repeatedly (as in "I used to go there every day"), or
continuous aspect, in which the action occurs without pause; continuous aspect can be further subdivided into
stative aspect, in which the situation is a fixed, unevolving state (as in "I know French"), and
progressive aspect, in which the situation continuously evolves (as in "I am running")
perfect, which combines elements of both aspect and tense and in which both a prior event and the state resulting from it are expressed (as in "he has gone there", i.e. "he went there and he is still there")
discontinuous past, which combines elements of a past event and the implication that the state resulting from it was later reversed (as in "he did go there" or "he has been there", i.e. "he went there but has now come back")[9]
Aspect can either be lexical, in which case the aspect is embedded in the verb's meaning (as in "the sun shines," where "shines" is lexically stative), or it can be grammatically expressed, as in "I am running."
Modality[10] expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state given by the verb, especially with regard to degree of necessity, obligation, or permission ("You must go", "You should go", "You may go"), determination or willingness ("I will do this no matter what"), degree of probability ("It must be raining by now", "It may be raining", "It might be raining"), or ability ("I can speak French"). All languages can express modality with adverbs, but some also use verbal forms as in the given examples. If the verbal expression of modality involves the use of an auxiliary verb, that auxiliary is called a modal verb. If the verbal expression of modality involves inflection, we have the special case of mood; moods include the indicative (as in "I am there"), the subjunctive (as in "I wish I were there"), and the imperative ("Be there!").
Voice
The voice[11] of a verb expresses whether the subject of the verb is performing the action of the verb or whether the action is being performed on the subject. The two most common voices are the active voice (as in "I saw the car") and the passive voice (as in "The car was seen by me" or simply "The car was seen").
Main article: Non-finite verb
Most languages have a number of verbal nouns that describe the action of the verb.
In the Indo-European languages, verbal adjectives are generally called participles. English has an active participle, also called a present participle; and a passive participle, also called a past participle. The active participle of break is breaking, and the passive participle is broken. Other languages have attributive verb forms with tense and aspect. This is especially common among verb-final languages, where attributive verb phrases act as relative clauses.
See also
Linguistics
Verbs in various languages
Adyghe verbs
Arabic verbs
Ancient Greek verbs
Basque verbs
Bulgarian verbs
Chinese verbs
English verbs
Finnish verb conjugation
French verbs
German verbs
Germanic verbs
Hebrew verb conjugation
Hungarian verbs
Ilokano verbs
Irish verbs
Italian verbs
Japanese consonant and vowel verbs
Japanese verb conjugations
Korean verbs
Latin verbs
Persian verbs
Portuguese verb conjugation
Proto-Indo-European verb
Romance verbs
Romanian verbs
Sanskrit verbs
Sesotho verbs
Slovene verbs
Spanish verbs
Tigrinya verbs
Grammar
Auxiliary verb
Grammar
Grammatical aspect
Grammatical mood
Grammatical tense
Grammatical voice
Performative utterance
Phrasal verb
Phrase structure rules
Sentence (linguistics)
Syntax
Tense–aspect–mood
Transitivity (grammatical category)
Verb argument
Verb framing
Verbification
Verb phrase
Other
Le Train de Nulle Part: A 233-page book without a single verb.
Oh, with the verbing!
show
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Lexical categories and their features
Noun
Abstract / Concrete
Adjectival
Agent
Animate / Inanimate
Attributive
Common / Proper
Countable / Mass / Collective
Initial-stress-derived
Relational
Strong / Weak
Verbal / Deverbal
Verb
Forms
Finite / Non-finite
Attributive
Converb
Gerund
Gerundive
Infinitive
Participle (adjectival · adverbial)
Supine
Verbal noun
Types
Accusative
Ambitransitive
Andative/Venitive
Anticausative
Autocausative
Auxiliary
Captative
Catenative
Compound
Copular
Defective
Denominal
Deponent
Ditransitive
Dynamic
ECM
Ergative
Frequentative
Impersonal
Inchoative
Intransitive
Irregular
Lexical
Light
Modal
Monotransitive
Negative
Performative
Phrasal
Predicative
Preterite-present
Reflexive
Regular
Separable
Stative
Stretched
Strong
Transitive
Unaccusative
Unergative
Weak
Adjective
Collateral
Demonstrative
Nominalized
Possessive
Postpositive
Adverb
Genitive
Conjunctive
Flat
Locative
Interrogative
Prepositional
Pronominal
Relative
Pronoun
Demonstrative
Disjunctive
Distributive
Donkey
Dummy
Formal/Informal
Gender-neutral
Gender-specific
Inclusive/Exclusive
Indefinite
Intensive
Interrogative
Objective
Personal
Possessive
Prepositional
Reciprocal
Reflexive
Relative
Resumptive
Subjective
Weak
Preposition/postposition
Inflected
Casally modulated
Stranded
Conjunction
Determiner
Article
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Possessive
Quantifier
Classifier
Measure word
Particle
Discourse
Interrogative
Modal
Noun
Possessive
Complementizer
Other
Yes and no
Copula
Coverb
Expletive
Interjection (verbal)
Preverb
Pro-form
Pro-sentence
Pro-verb
Procedure word
Prop-word
References
Jump up ^ Morenberg 2010, pp. 6-14
Jump up ^ Morenberg 2010, pp. 9-10
Jump up ^ Morenberg 2010, p. 7
Jump up ^ Jackendoff 2002, p. 135.
Jump up ^ Comrie, Bernard, Tense, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985.
^ Jump up to: a b Östen Dahl, Tense and Aspect Systems, Blackwell, 1985.
Jump up ^ Fleischman, Suzanne, The Future in Thought and Action, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982.
Jump up ^ Comrie, Bernard, Aspect, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976.
Jump up ^ Plungian, Vladimir A. & Johan van der Auwera (2006), "Towards a typology of discontinuous past marking". Sprachtypol. Univ. Forsch. (STUF), Berlin 59, 4, 317–349.
Jump up ^ Palmer, F. R., Mood and Modality, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001.
Jump up ^ Klaiman, M. H., Grammatical Voice (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics), Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991.
Morenberg, Max (2010). Doing Grammar (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1997-3288-3.
Gideon Goldenberg, "On Verbal Structure and the Hebrew Verb", in: idem, Studies in Semitic Linguistics, Jerusalem: Magnes Press 1998, pp. 148–196 [English translation; originally published in Hebrew in 1985].
Jackendoff, R. (2002). Foundations of Language. Oxford University Press.
External links
Look up verb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
www.verbix.com Verbs and verb conjugation in many languages.
conjugation.com English Verb Conjugation.
Italian Verbs Coniugator and Analyzer Conjugation and Analysis of Regular and Irregular Verbs, and also of Neologisms, like googlare for to google.
El verbo en español Downloadable handbook to learn the Spanish verb paradigm in an easy ruled-based method. It also supplies the guidelines to know whenever a Spanish verb is regular or irregular
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text:
Dred Scott
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Dred Scott (disambiguation).
Dred Scott
Dred Scott
Born
Sampossibly[1] Scott
around 1799
Southampton County, Virginia
Died
September 17, 1858 (aged c. 59)
St. Louis, Missouri
Nationality
American
Known for
The Dred Scott case
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v
t
e
Dred Scott (c. 1799 – September 17, 1858) was an enslaved African American man in the United States who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom and that of his wife and their two daughters in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857, popularly known as the "Dred Scott Decision". Scott claimed that he and his wife should be granted their freedom because they had lived in Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory for four years, where slavery was illegal. The United States Supreme Court decided 7–2 against Scott, finding that neither he nor any other person of African ancestry could claim citizenship in the United States, and therefore Scott could not bring suit in federal court under diversity of citizenship rules. Moreover, Scott's temporary residence outside Missouri did not bring about his emancipation under the Missouri Compromise, which the court ruled unconstitutional as it would "improperly deprive Scott's owner of his legal property".
While Chief Justice Roger B. Taney had hoped to settle issues related to slavery and Congressional authority by this decision, it aroused public outrage, deepened sectional tensions between the northern and southern U.S. states, and hastened the eventual explosion of their differences into the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and the post-Civil War Reconstruction Amendments—the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments—nullified the decision.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Dred Scott case
3 Abolitionist aid to Scott's case
4 Post-case freedom
5 Prelude to Emancipation Proclamation
6 Legacy
7 In popular culture
8 See also
9 Bibliography
10 References
11 External links
Life[edit]
Dred and Harriet Scott's restored quarters at Fort Snelling
Circa 1799, Dred Scott was born into slavery in Southampton County, Virginia. It is not clear whether Dred was his given name or a shortened form of Etheldred.[2] In 1818, Peter Blow and his family took their six slaves to Alabama, where the family ran an unsuccessful farm in a location near Huntsville that is now occupied by Oakwood University.[3][4][5] The Blows gave up farming in 1830 and moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where they ran a boarding house.[6] Dred Scott was sold to Dr. John Emerson, a surgeon serving in the United States Army. After Scott learned he would be sold to Dr. Emerson and relocated to Rock Island, Illinois, he attempted to run away. His decision to do so was spurred by a distaste he had previously developed for Dr. Emerson. Scott was temporarily successful in his escape as he, much like many other runaway slaves during this time period, "never tried to distance his pursuers, but dodged around among his fellow slaves as long as possible." Eventually, he was captured in the "Lucas Swamps" of Missouri and taken back.[7] Blow died in 1832, and historians debate whether Scott was sold to Emerson before or after Blow's death. Some believe that Scott was sold in 1831, while others point to a number of slaves in Blow's estate who were sold to Emerson after Blow's death, including one with a name given as Sam, who may be the same person as Scott.[1]
As an army officer, Dr. Emerson moved frequently, taking Scott with him to each new army posting. In 1836, Emerson and Scott went to Fort Armstrong, in the free state of Illinois. In 1837, Emerson took Scott to Fort Snelling, in what is now the state of Minnesota and was then in the free territory of Wisconsin. There, Scott met and married Harriet Robinson, a slave owned by Lawrence Taliaferro. The marriage was formalized in a civil ceremony presided over by Taliaferro, who was a justice of the peace. Since slave marriages had no legal sanction, supporters of Scott would later point to this ceremony as evidence that Scott was being treated as a free man. Nevertheless, Taliaferro transferred Harriet to Emerson, who treated the Scotts as his slaves.[6]
Emerson moved to Jefferson Barracks in 1837, leaving the Scott family behind and leasing them out to other officers. In February 1838, Emerson met and married Eliza Irene Sanford at Fort Jesup in Louisiana, whereupon he sent for the Scotts to join him. While on a steamboat on the Mississippi River, between the free state of Illinois and the Iowa district of Wisconsin Territory, Harriet Scott gave birth to their first child, whom they named Eliza after their mistress. They later had a daughter, Lizzie. Eventually, they would also have two sons, but neither survived past infancy.[6][8][self-published source]
The Emersons and Scotts returned to Missouri in 1840. In 1842, Emerson left the Army. After he died in the Iowa Territory in 1843, his widow Irene inherited his estate, including the Scotts. For three years after Emerson's death, she continued to lease out the Scotts as hired slaves. In 1846, Scott attempted to purchase his and his family's freedom, offering $300, about $8,000 in current value.[9] However, Irene Emerson refused, prompting Scott to resort to legal recourse.[10]
Dred Scott case[edit]
Main article: Dred Scott v. Sandford
Having failed to purchase his freedom, in 1846 Scott filed legal suit in St. Louis Circuit Court. Scott stood on solid legal ground, as Missouri precedent dating back to 1824 had held that slaves freed through prolonged residence in a free state would remain free when taken back to Missouri. The doctrine was known as "Once free, always free". Scott and his wife had resided for two years in free states and free territories, and his eldest daughter had been born on the Mississippi River, between a free state and a free territory.
Dred Scott was listed as the only plaintiff in the case, but his wife, Harriet, played a critical role, pushing him to pursue freedom on behalf of their family. She was a frequent churchgoer, and the pastor at her church in St. Louis (a well-known abolitionist) connected the Scotts to their first lawyer. The Scott children were around the age of ten at the time the case was originally filed, which was the age when younger slaves became more valuable assets for slave owners to sell. To avoid the family from breaking up, Harriet urged Dred to take action.[11]
The Scott v. Emerson case was tried in 1847 in the federal-state courthouse in St. Louis. Dred Scott's lawyer was originally Francis B. Murdoch and later Charles D. Drake. Because more than a year elapsed from the time of the initial petition filing until the trial, Drake moved away from St. Louis during that time. Samuel M. Bay tried the case in court.[12] The verdict went against Scott, as testimony that established his ownership by Mrs. Emerson was ruled to be hearsay. However, the judge called for a retrial, which was finally held in January 1850. This time, direct evidence was introduced that Emerson owned Scott, and the jury ruled in favor of Scott's freedom.
Irene Emerson appealed. In 1852, the Missouri Supreme Court struck down the lower court ruling, arguing that growing antislavery sentiment in the free states made it no longer necessary for Missouri to defer to the laws of free states.[13] In doing so, the court overturned 28 years of precedent in Missouri. Justice Hamilton R. Gamble, who was later appointed governor of the state, sharply disagreed with the majority decision and wrote a dissenting opinion.
In 1853, Scott again sued, this time under federal law. Irene Emerson had moved to Massachusetts, and Scott had been transferred to Irene Emerson's brother, John F. A. Sanford. Because Sanford was a citizen of New York, while Scott would be a citizen of Missouri if he were free, the Federal courts had diversity jurisdiction over the case.[14] After losing again in federal district court, they appealed to the United States Supreme Court in Dred Scott v. Sandford. (The name is spelled "Sandford" in the court decision due to a clerical error.)
On March 6, 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney delivered the majority opinion. Taney ruled that:
Any person descended from Africans, whether slave or free, is not a citizen of the United States, according to the Constitution.
The Ordinance of 1787 could not confer either freedom or citizenship within the Northwest Territory to non-white individuals.
The provisions of the Act of 1820, known as the Missouri Compromise, were voided as a legislative act, since the act exceeded the powers of Congress, insofar as it attempted to exclude slavery and impart freedom and citizenship to non-white persons in the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase.[15]
The Court had ruled that African Americans had no claim to freedom or citizenship. Since they were not citizens, they did not possess the legal standing to bring suit in a federal court. As slaves were private property, Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories and could not revoke a slave owner's rights based on where he lived. This decision nullified the essence of the Missouri Compromise, which divided territories into jurisdictions either free or slave. Speaking for the majority, Taney ruled that because Scott was simply considered the private property of his owners, he was subject to the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the taking of property from its owner "without due process".
The Scott decision increased tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in both North and South, further pushing the country towards the brink of civil war. Ultimately, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution settled the issue of Black citizenship via Section 1 of that Amendment: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside ..."
Dred Scott's grave in Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis
Abolitionist aid to Scott's case[edit]
Scott's freedom suit before the state courts was backed financially by Peter Blow's children, who had turned against slavery in the decade since they sold Dred Scott. Henry Taylor Blow became a Republican Congressman after the Civil War, Charlotte Taylor Blow married the son of an abolitionist newspaper editor, and Martha Ella Blow married Charles D. Drake, one of Scott's lawyers who became a Republican Senator. Members of the Blow family signed as security for Scott's legal fees and secured the services of local lawyers. While the case was pending, Scott was leased out by the St. Louis County sheriff, who held the payments in escrow. In 1851, Scott was leased by Charles Edmund LaBeaume, whose sister had married into the Blow family.[6] Scott worked as a janitor at LaBeaume's law office, which was shared with Roswell Field.[16]
After the Missouri Supreme Court decision, the Blow family concluded that the case was hopeless and decided that they could no longer pay Scott's legal fees. Roswell Field agreed to represent Scott pro bono before the federal courts. Scott was represented before the U.S. Supreme Court by Montgomery Blair, an abolitionist who later joined Abraham Lincoln's cabinet as Postmaster General, and George Curtis, whose brother Benjamin sat on the Supreme Court and wrote one of the two dissents in Dred Scott v. Sandford.[6]
In 1850, Irene Emerson remarried and moved to Springfield, Massachusetts. Her new husband, Calvin C. Chaffee, was an abolitionist who was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1854. Chaffee was fiercely attacked by pro-slavery newspapers for his apparent hypocrisy in owning slaves. In response, Chaffee claimed that neither he nor Mrs. Chaffee even knew about the case until it was "noticed for trial" and wrote to Montgomery Blair, "my wife ... desires to know whether she has the legal power and right to emancipate the Dred Scott family."
The strange circumstances of the Dred Scott case raised suspicions at the time of collusion to create a test case. Abolitionist newspapers charged that slaveholders colluded to name a New Yorker as defendant, while pro-slavery newspapers charged collusion on the abolitionist side.[17] It was shown a century later that John Sanford never owned Dred Scott, nor did he serve as executor of Dr. Emerson's will.[16] It was unnecessary to find a New Yorker to secure diversity jurisdiction of the federal courts, as Irene Emerson Chaffee had become a resident of Massachusetts. After the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Roswell Field advised Dr. Chaffee that Mrs. Chaffee had full powers over Scott.[17] However, Sanford had been involved in the case since the beginning, as he'd secured a lawyer to defend Mrs. Emerson in the original state lawsuit, before she married Chaffee.[10]
Post-case freedom[edit]
Following the ruling, the Chaffees deeded the Scott family to Taylor Blow, who manumitted them on May 26, 1857. Scott worked as a porter in a St. Louis hotel, but his freedom was short-lived; he died from tuberculosis in September 1858.[18] He was survived by his wife and his two daughters.
Scott was originally interred in Wesleyan Cemetery in St. Louis. When this cemetery was closed nine years later, Taylor Blow transferred Scott's coffin to an unmarked plot in the nearby Catholic Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis, which permitted burial of non-Catholic slaves by Catholic owners.[19] A local tradition later developed of placing Lincoln pennies on top of Scott's gravestone for good luck.[19]
Harriet Scott was buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Hillsdale, Missouri. She outlived her husband by 18 years, dying on June 17, 1876.[6]
Prelude to Emancipation Proclamation[edit]
The newspaper coverage of the court ruling and the 10-year legal battle raised awareness of slavery in non-slave states. The arguments for freedom were later used by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. The harsh words of the decision built popular opinion and voter sentiment for his Emancipation Proclamation and the three constitutional amendments ratified shortly after the Civil War: the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments, abolishing slavery, granting former slaves citizenship, and conferring citizenship to anyone born in the United States and "subject to the jurisdiction thereof" (excluding those subject to a foreign power such as children of foreign ambassadors).[20]
Legacy[edit]
One daughter, Eliza, married and had two sons. Her sister Lizzie never married but, following her sister's early death, helped raise her nephews. One of Eliza's sons died young, but the other married and has descendants, some of whom still live in St. Louis as of 2010.[21]
1957, Scott's gravesite was rediscovered and flowers were put on it in a ceremony to mark the centennial of the case.[22]
1977, the Scotts' great-grandson, John A. Madison, Jr., an attorney, gave the invocation at the ceremony at the Old Courthouse (St. Louis, Missouri) for the dedication of a National Historic Marker commemorating the Scotts' case.[22]
In 1997, Dred and Harriet Scott were inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.[23]
1999, a cenotaph was installed for Harriet Scott at her husband's grave to commemorate her role in seeking freedom for them and their children.[22]
2001, Harriet and Dred Scott's petition papers were displayed at the main branch of the St. Louis Public Library, following discovery of more than 300 freedom suits in the archives of the circuit court.[22]
2006, Harriet Scott's gravesite was proven to be in Hillsdale, Missouri and a biography of her was published in 2009.[22]
2006, a new historic plaque was erected at the Old Courthouse to honor the roles of both Dred and Harriet Scott in their freedom suit and its significance in U.S. history.[22]
May 9, 2012, Scott was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians; a bronze bust is displayed in the Missouri State Capitol Building.[24]
June 8, 2012, a bronze statue of Dred and Harriet Scott was erected outside of the Old Courthouse in downtown St. Louis, MO, the site where their case was originally heard.[25]
In 1971 the city of Bloomington, Minnesota dedicated the 48 acre Dred Scott Playfield at 10820 Bloomington Ferry Rd 55438. In July 2013, with the help of human rights activist, Frank White, the city of Bloomington installed four plaques teaching who Dred Scott was and the impact the Dred Scott Decision had on the abolishment of slavery.
March 6, 2017 — the 160th Anniversary of the Dred Scott Decision — on the steps of the Maryland State House next to a statue of Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney, his great-great grand nephew Charlie Taney apologized on his behalf to Scott's great-great granddaughter Lynne Jackson and all African-Americans "for the terrible injustice of the Dred Scott decision."[26] During the ceremony, lines from the play A Man of His Time by Charlie Taney's daughter Kate Taney Billingsley regarding the decision were read.[27]
In popular culture[edit]
Shelia P. Moses and Bonnie Christensen, I, Dred Scott: A Fictional Slave Narrative Based on the Life and Legal Precedent of Dred Scott (2005)[22]
Mary E. Neighbour, Speak Right On: Dred Scott: A Novel (2006)[22]
Gregory J. Wallance, Two Men Before the Storm: Arba Crane's Recollection of Dred Scott and the Supreme Court Case That Started the Civil War (2006), novel[22]
In their 1997 album Chapter 2: World Domination, American hip hop group Three 6 Mafia allude to Dred Scott in the song "Spill My Blood" in the lyric "yes the consequences, are your choice, my dred."[28]
Dred Scott is mentioned in the song "Voice of the Voiceless" by American band Rage Against the Machine in their 1999 album The Battle of Los Angeles. The song is about Mumia Abu-Jamal who was convicted of killing a police officer. His supporters argue he received an unfair trial and Scott is referred to in the lyric "watch the decision of Dred Scott as it reverses."[29]
American hip hop group Little Brother relates their daily lives to Dred Scott in the song "Speed" with the lyric "take a rest stop cause my job got me slaving like I'm Dred Scott." The song is from their 2003 album The Listening.[30]
See also[edit]
Polly Berry
Charlotte Dupuy
Freedom suits
Slavery in the United States
List of slaves
Bibliography[edit]
Allen, Austin (2006). Origins of the Dred Scott Case: Jacksonian Jurisprudence and the Supreme Court, 1837-1857. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-820326-53-5.
Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1978). The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195024-03-6.
Shurtleff, Mark (2009). Am I Not a Man? The Dred Scott Story. Orem, UT: Valor Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-935546-00-9.
Swain, Gwenyth (2004). Dred and Harriet Scott: A Family's Struggle for Freedom. Saint Paul, MN: Borealis Books. ISBN 978-0-873514-83-5.
Tsesis, Alexander (2008). We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300118-37-7.
Ehrlich, Walter. They have no rights: Dred Scott's struggle for freedom. No. 9. Praeger Pub Text, 1979.
Swain, Gwenyth. Dred and Harriet Scott: A Family's Struggle for Freedom. Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2004.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b For a longer discussion, see Ehrlich, 1979. chapter 1, or more recently see, Swain, 2004. p91
Jump up ^ VanderVelde, Lea (2009-01-20). Mrs. Dred Scott: A Life on Slavery's Frontier. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 9780199710645.
Jump up ^ http://www.deepfriedkudzu.com/2011/02/dred-scott-and-oakwood-university.html[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ http://blog.al.com/breaking/2011/04/a_catalyst_for_civil_war_after.html[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 19, 2015. Retrieved January 19, 2015. [full citation needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Dred Scott Case, 1846-1857". Missouri Digital Heritage. Retrieved 2015-07-16.
Jump up ^ "U-M Weblogin". search.proquest.com. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Jump up ^ Johnson, George D. (17 January 2011). "Life". Profiles In Hue. Xlibris Corporation. pp. 34–6. ISBN 978-1-4568-5120-0.
Jump up ^ "Dred Scott's fight for freedom: 1846–1857". Africans in America: People & Events. PBS. Retrieved March 26, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Fehrenbacher, Don Edward (2001). The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514588-5. [page needed]
Jump up ^ "Multimedia | The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Jump up ^ Ehrlich, Walter (2007). They Have No Rights: Dred Scott's Struggle for Freedom. Applewood Books.
Jump up ^ Scott v. Emerson, 15 Mo. 576, 586 (Mo. 1852) Retrieved August 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Randall, J. G., and David Donald. A House Divided. The Civil War and Reconstruction. 2nd ed. Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1961, pp. 107–114.
Jump up ^ "Decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott Case". The New York Daily Times. New York. March 7, 1857. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Ehrlich, Walter (September 1968). "Was the Dred Scott Case Valid?". The Journal of American History: 256–265. JSTOR 1899556.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardy, David T. (2012). "Dred Scott, John San(d)ford, and the Case for Collusion" (PDF). Northern Kentucky Law Review. 41 (1).
Jump up ^ Axelrod, Alan (2008). Profiles in Folly: History's Worst Decisions and why They Went Wrong. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-4027-4768-7.
^ Jump up to: a b O'Neil, Time (March 6, 2007). "Dred Scott: Heirs to History" (PDF). St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 28, 2011. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ Paul Finkleman, Dred Scott v. Sandford: A Brief History with Documents, Palgrave Macmillan, 1997, pp. 7–9, Retrieved February 26, 2011
Jump up ^ Dred and Harriet Scott: Their Family Story, St. Louis Today, KWMU-FM, Interview with author Ruth Ann Hager, Feb 4, 2010, accessed Feb 4, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Arenson, Adam (2014). "Dred Scott versus the Dred Scott Case: The History and Memory of a Signal Moment in American Slavery, 1857–2007". In Konig, David Thomas; Finkelman, Paul; Bracey, Christopher Alan. The Dred Scott Case: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Race and Law. Ohio University Press. pp. 25–46. ISBN 978-0-8214-4328-6.
Jump up ^ St. Louis Walk of Fame. "St. Louis Walk of Fame Inductees". stlouiswalkoffame.org. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Griffin, Marshall. "Dred Scott inducted to Hall of Famous Missourians". Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Jump up ^ 314-340-8349, Madeline O'Leary • moleary@post-dispatch.com >. "Dred and Harriet Scott statue ready for debut". stltoday.com. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Jump up ^ "From a descendant of Roger Taney to a descendant of Dred Scott: I'm sorry". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
Jump up ^ Billingsley, Kate T. (2017-03-02). "Historic Healing & Reconciliation 160th Annversary Of Dred Scott Decision Monday March 6, 2017". Kate Taney Billingsley. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
Jump up ^ Three 6 Mafia – Spill My Blood, retrieved 2017-03-16
Jump up ^ Rage Against the Machine – Voice of the Voiceless, retrieved 2017-03-16
Jump up ^ Little Brother – Speed, retrieved 2017-03-16
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dred Scott.
Dred and Harriet Scott in Minnesota in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
"St. Louis Circuit Court Records", A collection of images and transcripts of 19th century Circuit Court Cases in St. Louis, particularly freedom suits, including suits brought by Dred and Harriet Scott. A partnership of Washington University and Missouri History Museum, funded by an IMLS grant
"Freedom Suits", African-American Life in St. Louis, 1804–1865, from the Records of the St. Louis Courts, Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, National Park Service
Revised Dred Scott Case Collection
Christyn Elley, "Biography of Dred Scott", Missouri State Archives
Full text of the Dred Scott v. Sandford, Supreme Court decision Findlaw
Dred Scott v. Sandford and related resources, Library of Congress
"Dred Scott Chronology", Washington University in St. Louis
Dred Scott Heritage Foundation
Mark Shurtleff, "Am I Not A Man? The Dred Scott Story"
"Scott, Dred". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.
Works by Dred Scott at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Dred Scott at Internet Archive
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
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