text:
Mining industry of South Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Premier Diamond Mine, Cullinan, Gauteng, South Africa
An aerial view of the Two Rivers mine in Steelpoort, Limpopo, owned by both African Rainbow Minerals and Impala Platinum holdings limited.
Mining in South Africa was once the main driving force[1] behind the history and development of Africa's most advanced and richest economy.[2] Large-scale and profitable mining started with the discovery of a diamond on the banks of the Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. Gold rushes to Pilgrim's Rest and Barberton were precursors to the biggest discovery of all, the Main Reef/Main Reef Leader on Gerhardus Oosthuizen's farm Langlaagte, Portion C, in 1886, the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the subsequent rapid development of the gold field there, the biggest of them all.
Diamond and gold production are now well down from their peaks, though South Africa is still number 5 in gold[3] but South Africa remains a cornucopia of mineral riches. It is the world's largest producer[4] of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite. It is the second largest producer[4] of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium. It is also the world's third largest coal exporter.[5] South Africa is also a huge producer of iron ore; in 2012, it overtook India to become the world's third-biggest iron ore supplier to China, who are the world's largest consumers of iron ore.[6]
Due to a history of corruption and maladministration in the South African mining sector, ANC secretary-general Gwede Mantashe announced at the beginning of 2013 that mining companies misrepresenting their intentions could have their licences revoked.[7]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Coal
1.2 Gold
1.3 Diamonds
1.4 Platinum and palladium
1.5 Chromium
1.6 Uranium
1.7 Working conditions
1.8 Rand Rebellion
1.9 2007 strike
1.10 2012 Lonmin strike
2 Politics
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
See also: History of South Africa and Economy of South Africa
Diamond and gold discoveries played an important part in the growth of the early South African economy. A site northeast of Cape Town was discovered to have rich deposits of diamonds, and thousands rushed to the area of Kimberley in an attempt to profit from the discovery. The British later annexed the region of Griqualand West, an area which included the diamond fields. In 1868, the republic attempted to annex areas near newly discovered diamond fields, drawing protests from the nearby British colonial government. These annexations later led to the First Boer War of 1880-1881.[8]
Gold was discovered in the area known as Witwatersrand, triggering what would become the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886. Like the diamond discoveries before, the gold rush caused thousands of foreign expatriates to flock to the region. This heightened political tensions in the area ultimately contributing to the Second Boer War in 1899.[citation needed] Ownership of the diamond and gold mines became concentrated in the hands of a few entrepreneurs, largely of European origin, known as the Randlords. South Africa's and the world's biggest diamond miner, De Beers, was funded by baron Nathaniel Mayer Rothschild in 1887, and Cecil Rhodes became the Founding Chairman of the board of directors in 1888. Cecil Rhodes' place was later taken by sir Ernest Oppenheimer, co-founder of the Anglo-American Corporation with J.P. Morgan.
The gold mining industry continued to grow throughout much of the early 20th century, significantly contributing to the tripling of the economic value of what was then known as the Union of South Africa. In particular, revenue from gold exports provided sufficient capital to purchase much-needed machinery and petroleum products to support an expanding manufacturing base.
As of 2007, the South African mining industry employs 493,000 workers. The industry represents 18% of South Africa's $588 billion USD Gross Domestic Product.[9][10]
Coal[edit]
South Africa Coal production (red) and exports (black)
Main article: Coal in South Africa § Mining
South Africa is the world's third largest coal exporter, and much of the country's coal is used for power production. (about 40%)[5] 77% of South Africa's energy needs are provided by coal.
Gold[edit]
South Africa mined gold production, 1940-2011
South Africa accounted for 15% of the world's gold production in 2002[11] and 12% in 2005, though the nation had produced as much as 30% of world output as recently as 1993. Despite declining production, South Africa's gold exports were valued at $3.8 billion USD in 2005.[12] The US Geological Survey estimated in that as of 2002, South Africa held about 50% of the world's gold resources, and 38% of reserves.[11] In July 2018, Mineral Council of South Africa announced, 75% of mines in South Africa are now unprofitable due to decline in gold reserves. [13][14]
Among the nation's gold mines are two of the deepest mines in the world. The East Rand Mine, in Boksburg, extends to a depth of 3,585 metres (11,762 ft). A 4-metre (13 ft) shallower mine is located at TauTona in Carletonville, though plans are in place to begin work on an extension to the TauTona mine, bringing the total depth to over 3,900 metres (12,800 ft) and breaking the current record by 127 feet (39 m).[15] At these depths the temperature of the rocks is 140 °F (60 °C).[16]
The gold in the Witwatersrand Basin area was deposited in ancient river deltas, having been washed down from surrounding gold-rich greenstone belts to the north and west. Rhenium-osmium isotope studies indicates that the gold in those mineral deposits came from unusual three billion year old mantle sourced intrusions known as komatiites present in the greenstone belts.[17] The Vredefort Dome impact which lies within the basin and the nearby Bushveld Igneous Complex are both about a billion years younger than the interpreted age of the gold.[17]
Diamonds[edit]
Ever since the Kimberley diamond strike of 1868, South Africa has been a world leader in diamond production.[citation needed] The primary South African sources of diamonds, including seven large diamond mines around the country, are controlled by the De Beers Consolidated Mines Company. In 2003, De Beers operations accounted for 94% of the nation's total diamond output of 11,900,000 carats (2.38 t) and the 6% diamond operations by JK Minerals Africa . This figure includes both gem stones and industrial diamonds.[18] Diamond production rose in 2005 to over 15,800,000 carats (3.16 t).[12]
Platinum and palladium[edit]
South Africa produces more platinum and similar metals than any other nation.[10] In 2005, 78% of the world's platinum was produced in South Africa, along with 39% of the world's palladium. Over 163,000 kilograms (5,200,000 ozt) of platinum was produced in 2010, generating export revenues of $3.82 billion USD.[12] Palladium is produced in two ways: recovery and mining production.[19] Currently Russia and South Africa are the biggest palladium producers in the world.[20]
Chromium[edit]
Chromium is another leading product of South Africa's mining industry. The metal, used in stainless steel and for a variety of industrial applications, is mined at 10 sites around the country. South Africa's production of chromium accounted for 100% of the world's total production in 2005, and consisted of 7,490,000 metric tons (7,370,000 long tons; 8,260,000 short tons) of material.[12]
Uranium[edit]
South Africa has the second-largest reserves of uranium in the world.[21] The Nuclear Fuels Corporation of South Africa (NUFCOR) started processing uranium as a by-product of gold mining[22] in 1967.[23] Most of the uranium produced as a by-product of gold mining is concentrated in the golf fields of the Witwatersrand area. Uranium is more easily and readily available than gold in South Africa.[24]
There are a number of mining companies that process uranium from mines that they own. Anglo Gold Ashanti,[25] Sibayane Gold Ltd,[26] Harmony Gold Mining Co.,[27] First Uranium, and Peninsula Energy own or control most of the uranium-from-gold mining processing plants in South Africa.
Though uranium production in South Africa showed a decrease from 711t in 2000 to 579t in 2010, in 2011 930t were produced with a forecast of 2,000t by 2020.[28] In 2016, Tasman Pacific Minerals, owned by Peninsula Energy started plans to open the first uranium ore mine, Tasman RSA.[29]
Working conditions[edit]
Conditions on most South African mines are very similar to those elsewhere[30] except for the gold mines where the low geothermal gradient, i.e. the rate at which the temperature goes up with depth, is often as low as 9 °C per kilometre depth (compared with a world average of about 25 °C/km[31]), and this, combined with narrow and very continuous orebodies in hard and competent rocks, makes it possible to mine to depths unattainable elsewhere in the world.
Silica dust is an ever-present potential hazard so that all drilling dust and loose rock has to be wetted down at all times to prevent silicosis, a lethal disease that attacks the lungs. Unfortunately the narrowness of the inclined reefs/orebodies prevents mechanisation except in a very few cases and most work is very labour-intensive. Ventilation requirements to keep working conditions tolerable are huge and a survey of the South African gold mines indicated that the average quantity of ventilating air circulated was some 6 cubic metres per second (210 cu ft/s) per 1000 ton of rock mined per month.[32]
Another serious problem is that of heat. In the deeper mines refrigeration of the intake air is often necessary to keep conditions tolerable and this is now becoming necessary on some platinum mines which, although shallower, have a higher geothermal gradient.[33] Refrigeration is very energy hungry and it is currently a moot point whether ESKOM, the state power company, can supply the necessary power after its recent[when?] problems, which will cut power supplies to 90% of previous levels until at least 2012, when a new powerstation is ready.[34][35]
The South African mining industry is frequently criticized for its poor safety record and high number of fatalities but conditions are improving. Total fatalities were 533 in 1995 and had fallen to 199 in 2006.[36] The overall fatality rate in 2006 was 0.43 per 1,000 per annum but this hides some important differences. The gold mining rate was 0.71, platinum mining was 0.24 and other mining was 0.35. (For comparison, the rate in the Sixties was around 1.5—see any Chamber of Mines Annual of the period). The reason for the difference is quite clear; the gold mines are much deeper and conditions are both more difficult and dangerous than on the shallower platinum mines.
Falls of ground dominated the causes at 72, machinery, transportation and mining accidents caused 70 and the remainder were classed as general.[37] Of the falls of ground, approximately two thirds were on the deep gold mines, a reflection of the extreme pressure at depth and continual movement of the country rock. Amongst the machinery, mining and transportation fatalities were working on grizzlies[clarification needed] without safety belts, working below loose rock in ore passes, getting crushed by that deadly combination of a loco and a ventilation door frame (the clearance between the two is only a few inches) and working on running conveyors, all direct contraventions of safety instructions. Drilling into misfires was also mentioned, a clear example of sloppy and unsafe mining.
It is difficult to see how falls of ground can be eliminated given their frequent unpredictability, which is increasing with depth, and the difficulties in providing continuous roof support as on longwall coal mines due to the violence of a face blast in the hard rock of the gold mines but clearly much can be done to improve training and to instill a sense of safe working practice in the miners, many of whom are relatively inexperienced.
Mine safety received considerable publicity in 2007, particularly after 3,200 workers were temporarily trapped underground at the Elandskraal mine after a compressed air pipe ruptured due to internal corrosion, broke lose and fell into the man-hoisting shaft. The workers were eventually rescued through the rock hoisting shaft after the blasting smoke had cleared. The incident caused South African President Thabo Mbeki to mandate full safety audits for all operating mines. This audit has caused additional facilities to shut down temporarily, including the nation's largest gold mine located at Driefontein.[38]
Rand Rebellion[edit]
The Rand Rebellion was a widespread strike amongst miners in the Witwatersrand area of the Transvaal Province in the former Union of South Africa.
2007 strike[edit]
In 2007 the South African National Union of Mineworkers, which represents the nation's mineworkers, engaged in a series of talks with the Chamber of Mines, an industry group. The meetings also saw the participation of the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration, a body with mediation authority over the dispute. On 27 November 2007, the National Union of Mineworkers announced that South African mineworkers would go on strike to protest at unsafe working conditions.[39] The strike took place on 4 December, and impacted over 240,000 workers at 60 sites across the country, including mines devoted to the production of gold, platinum, and coal.[40][41]
2012 Lonmin strike[edit]
The Lonmin strike was a strike in August 2012 in the Marikana area, close to Rustenburg, South Africa at a mine owned by Lonmin one of the world's largest primary producers of platinum group metals (PGMs). A series of violent confrontations occurred between platinum mine workers on strike and the South African Police Service on Thursday, 16 August 2012, and resulted in the deaths of 34 individuals (30 were miners and 4 protesters), as well as the injury of an additional 78 miners. Occurring in the post-apartheid era, it was the deadliest incident of violence between police and the civilian population in South Africa since the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre which prompted South African President Jacob Zuma to set up an investigation. Gordon Farlam was appointed as the chairperson of a committee. Under the probe, Cyril Ramaphosa testified for lobbying with the Lonmin and SAPS. Ramaphosa also accepted to the commission that massacre could have been avoided if proper precautionary actions had been taken.[42][43]
Jacob Zuma declared a 66-day-long week of mourning.[44]
In 2014, platinum industry workers went on a strike that lasted five months. It was the longest strike in the history of South African mining.[45]
Politics[edit]
There were few parties that advocate to nationalizing the industry, the most major one is Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) that was founded on 2013, and by 2014 elections became the third-largest party in South Africa. The others are:
Black First Land First
Workers and Socialist Party
See also[edit]
African Exploration Mining and Finance Corporation
Asbestos and the law
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "South African mining is in crisis". The Economist. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Africa's new Number One". The Economist. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2013" (PDF). USGS.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "USGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries". minerals.USGS.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "South Africa's coal future looks bright". Platts.com. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ SA replaces India as China's No 3 iron-ore supplier, International: Mining Weekly, 2013
Jump up ^ Mining licences can be revoked – Mantashe, International: Mining Weekly, 2013
Jump up ^ Duxbury, Geo. (1981). David and Goliath: The First War of Independence, 1880-1881. South African National Museum of Military History. ISBN 0-620-05012-8.
Jump up ^ Charlotte Mathews (2007-11-07). "South Africa: Mining Investment Shows Recovery". Business Day (Johannesburg).
^ Jump up to: a b "CIA World Factbook, South Africa". United States Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "United States Geological Survey, 2002 Mineral Industry Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "United States Geological Survey, 2005 Minerals Yearbook: South Africa" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "75% of South African gold mines unprofitable – mineral council". RT International. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
Jump up ^ "World running out of gold & there's no substitute, experts warn". RT International. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
Jump up ^ Naidoo, Brindaveni (15 December 2006). "TauTona to take 'deepest mine' accolade". Creamer Media's Mining Weekly Online. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Two miles underground". Princeton Weekly Bulletin. 13 December 1999. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Kirk, Jason; Joakin Ruiz; John Chesley; Spencer Titley (December 2003). "The Origin of Gold in South Africa" (PDF). American Scientist. 91: 534–531.
Jump up ^ "United States Geological Survey, 2003 Mineral Study, South Africa" (PDF). (211 KiB)
Jump up ^ "NAP - Palladium - Market Overview". Napalladium.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Palladium mine production worldwide by country 2010-2015". Statista.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Power in South Africa". World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ Ackroyd, Bianca. "Uranium mining in the Karoo South Africa's new gold?". Enca.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "AngloGold still on top of uranium deposits". Financial Mail. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Sibanye hoards uranium for deals". Business Day Live. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "New Uranium Mining Projects - South Africa". Wise-uranium.org. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ Kotze, Chantelle. "Uranium-rich South Africa good environment for nuclear plants". Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ CrowleyKev, Kevin Crowley. "Uranium in South Africa's Karoo May Be 10 Times Estimate". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2016-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Mining Conditions in South Africa - Mining in Africa". Mining Africa. 2017-01-08. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Geothermal Gradient vs. Tectonic Setting (not a very satisfactory reference but the best I could find) ". UBC.ca. Archived from the original on 16 November 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Economics Dept The platinum supply equation - refrigeration key to ongoing supply levels Archived 3 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [3][dead link]
Jump up ^ [4][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Limited power for mines to 2012". News24.com. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ [5][permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Department of Minerals and Energy, Accident Statistics ". DME.gov.za. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Gold Fields Says Africa's Biggest Gold Mine Halted". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
Jump up ^ "First-ever industrywide strike to hit South Africa mines". CNN. Retrieved 2007-11-28. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Officials meet to decide planned S.Africa mine strike". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "South African miners to strike on Dec. 4". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-11-28. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Cyril Ramaphosa: The true betrayal". Dailymaverick.co.za. Retrieved 2017-06-17.
Jump up ^ "MARIKANA COMMISSION INQUIRY REPORT" (PDF). The Marikana Commission of Inquiry. October 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-12.
Jump up ^ "President declares week of mourning after Lonmin bloodbath". SowetanLive.co.za. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Leander (24 October 2014). "2014 South African platinum strike: longest wage strike in South Africa". SAHistory.org.za. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
show
v
t
e
Economy of South Africa
By province
Western Cape
Gauteng
Natural resources
Mining industry
Coal
Agriculture
Whaling
Industry
Automotive industry
Services
Banks
Gambling
Tourism
Ecotourism
LGBT tourism
Telecommunications
Nuclear power
Power stations
Economic history
Mineral Revolution
Witwatersrand Gold Rush
Great Depression
Disinvestment
Affirmative action
Black Economic Empowerment
Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment
Qualifying Small Enterprises
Scorecard
Exempted Micro Enterprises
Macroeconomics
National Treasury
Taxation
South African rand
Reserve Bank
Consumer price index
Provinces by HDI
Misc.
Trade unions
Corruption
Companies
JSE Limited
Traded companies
Krugerrand
show
v
t
e
Mining in Africa
Sovereign states
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
States with limited
recognition
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Somaliland
Dependencies and
other territories
Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla (Spain)
Madeira (Portugal)
Mayotte / Réunion (France)
Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mining_industry_of_South_Africa&oldid=854330245"
Categories:
Mining in South Africa
Industry in South Africa
Mining industry by country
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from August 2018
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with dead external links from February 2018
Articles with permanently dead external links
Articles with dead external links from September 2010
Use dmy dates from October 2012
Use South African English from October 2012
All Wikipedia articles written in South African English
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016
All articles with vague or ambiguous time
Vague or ambiguous time from January 2018
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Українська
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 August 2018, at 14:53 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/South_African
mw-redirect
South African

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Anglo-American_Corporation
mw-redirect
Anglo-American Corporation

values:
/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product
mw-redirect
Gross Domestic Product

values:
/wiki/Vredefort_Dome
mw-redirect
Vredefort Dome

values: The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2018)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values: is this what is intended? somebody needs to check if this link I added is appropriate, or something similar, and clarify what is meant here (February 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Transvaal_Province
mw-redirect
Transvaal Province

values:
/wiki/South_African_Chamber_of_Mines
mw-redirect
South African Chamber of Mines

values: National Union of Mineworkers (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/Lonmin_strike
mw-redirect
Lonmin strike

values:
/wiki/Sharpeville_Massacre
mw-redirect
Sharpeville Massacre

values: African Exploration Mining and Finance Corporation

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.wise-uranium.org/upza.html

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg
image
Flag of South Africa

values:
navbox-image
8
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: South African Nuclear Energy Corporation

values: List of South African provinces by Human Development Index

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Africa
mw-redirect
Mining in Africa

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Algeria
mw-redirect
Mining in Algeria

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Angola
mw-redirect
Mining in Angola

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Benin
mw-redirect
Mining in Benin

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Botswana
mw-redirect
Mining in Botswana

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Burkina_Faso
mw-redirect
Mining in Burkina Faso

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Burundi
mw-redirect
Mining in Burundi

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Cameroon
mw-redirect
Mining in Cameroon

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Cape_Verde
mw-redirect
Mining in Cape Verde

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Chad
mw-redirect
Mining in Chad

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_the_Comoros
mw-redirect
Mining in the Comoros

values: Mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Egypt
mw-redirect
Mining in Egypt

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Equatorial_Guinea
mw-redirect
Mining in Equatorial Guinea

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Eritrea
mw-redirect
Mining in Eritrea

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_the_Gambia
mw-redirect
Mining in the Gambia

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Ghana
mw-redirect
Mining in Ghana

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Guinea
mw-redirect
Mining in Guinea

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Guinea-Bissau
mw-redirect
Mining in Guinea-Bissau

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Ivory_Coast
mw-redirect
Mining in Ivory Coast

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Kenya
mw-redirect
Mining in Kenya

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Lesotho
mw-redirect
Mining in Lesotho

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Liberia
mw-redirect
Mining in Liberia

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Libya
mw-redirect
Mining in Libya

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Madagascar
mw-redirect
Mining in Madagascar

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Malawi
mw-redirect
Mining in Malawi

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Mali
mw-redirect
Mining in Mali

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Mauritius
mw-redirect
Mining in Mauritius

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Morocco
mw-redirect
Mining in Morocco

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Mozambique
mw-redirect
Mining in Mozambique

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Niger
mw-redirect
Mining in Niger

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Nigeria
mw-redirect
Mining in Nigeria

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Senegal
mw-redirect
Mining in Senegal

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Seychelles
mw-redirect
Mining in Seychelles

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Somalia
mw-redirect
Mining in Somalia

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_South_Africa
mw-redirect
Mining in South Africa

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_South_Sudan
mw-redirect
Mining in South Sudan

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Sudan
mw-redirect
Mining in Sudan

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Swaziland
mw-redirect
Mining in Swaziland

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Tanzania
mw-redirect
Mining in Tanzania

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Togo
mw-redirect
Mining in Togo

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Tunisia
mw-redirect
Mining in Tunisia

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Uganda
mw-redirect
Mining in Uganda

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Zimbabwe
mw-redirect
Mining in Zimbabwe

values: Mining in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_Somaliland
mw-redirect
Mining in Somaliland

values: Mining in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Mining_in_R%C3%A9union
mw-redirect
Mining in Réunion

values: Mining in Saint Helena (page does not exist)

values: Mining in Ascension Island (page does not exist)

values: Mining in Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2018

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2018

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2010

values: Category:Use dmy dates from October 2012

values: Category:Use South African English from October 2012

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in South African English

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016

values: Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous time from January 2018

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Mining_industry_of_South_Africa
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: Гірнича промисловість Південно-Африканської Республіки – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mining_industry_of_South_Africa rootpage-Mining_industry_of_South_Africa skin-vector action-view


text:
Nucleotide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This nucleotide contains the five-carbon sugar deoxyribose (at center), a nitrogenous base called adenine (upper right), and one phosphate group (left). The deoxyribose sugar joined only to the nitrogenous base forms a Deoxyribonucleoside called deoxyadenosine, whereas the whole structure along with the phosphate group is a nucleotide, a constituent of DNA with the name deoxyadenosine monophosphate.
Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids; they are composed of three subunit molecules: a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group.
A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base and a 5-carbon sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a phosphate group yields a nucleotide.
Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They carry packets of chemical energy—in the form of the nucleoside triphosphates Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and Uridine triphosphate (UTP)—throughout the cell to the many cellular functions that demand energy, which include: synthesizing amino acids, proteins and cell membranes and parts, moving the cell and moving cell parts (both internally and intercellularly), dividing the cell, etc.[1] In addition, nucleotides participate in cell signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate or cGMP and cyclic adenosine monophosphate or cAMP), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (e.g. coenzyme A, FAD, FMN, NAD, and NADP+).
In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be radiolabeled with radionuclides to yield radionucleotides.
Contents
1 Structure
2 Synthesis
2.1 Pyrimidine ribonucleotide synthesis
2.2 Purine ribonucleotide synthesis
2.3 Pyrimidine and purine degradation
3 Unnatural base pair (UBP)
4 Length unit
5 Nucleotide supplements
6 Abbreviation codes for degenerate bases
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Structure[edit]
Showing the arrangement of nucleotides within the structure of nucleic acids: At lower left, a monophosphate nucleotide; its nitrogenous base represents one side of a base-pair. At upper right, four nucleotides form two base-pairs: thymine and adenine (connected by double hydrogen bonds) and guanine and cytosine (connected by triple hydrogen bonds). The individual nucleotide monomers are chain-joined at their sugar and phosphate molecules, forming two 'backbones' (a double helix) of a nucleic acid, shown at upper left.
A nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units: a five-carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base—which two together are called a nucleoside—and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a "nucleoside monophosphate". The chemistry sources ACS Style Guide[2] and IUPAC Gold Book[3] prescribe that a nucleotide should contain only one phosphate group, but common usage in molecular biology textbooks often extends the definition to include molecules with two, or with three, phosphates.[1][4][5][6] Thus, the terms "nucleoside diphosphate" or "nucleoside triphosphate" may also indicate nucleotides.
Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base—i.e., the nitrogenous base molecule, also known as a nucleobase—and are termed ribonucleotides if the sugar is ribose, or deoxyribonucleotides if the sugar is deoxyribose. Individual phosphate molecules repetitively connect the sugar-ring molecules in two adjacent nucleotide monomers, thereby connecting the nucleotide monomers of a nucleic acid end-to-end into a long chain. These chain-joins of sugar and phosphate molecules create a 'backbone' strand for a single- or double helix. In any one strand, the chemical orientation (directionality) of the chain-joins runs from the 5'-end to the 3'-end (read: 5 prime-end to 3 prime-end)—referring to the five carbon sites on sugar molecules in adjacent nucleotides. In a double helix, the two strands are oriented in opposite directions, which permits base pairing and complementarity between the base-pairs, all which is essential for replicating or transcribing the encoded information found in DNA.
Unlike in nucleic acid nucleotides, singular cyclic nucleotides are formed when the phosphate group is bound twice to the same sugar molecule, i.e., at the corners of the sugar hydroxyl groups.[1] These individual nucleotides function in cell metabolism rather than the nucleic acid structures of long-chain molecules.
Nucleic acids then are polymeric macromolecules assembled from nucleotides, the monomer-units of nucleic acids. The purine bases adenine and guanine and pyrimidine base cytosine occur in both DNA and RNA, while the pyrimidine bases thymine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA) in just one. Adenine forms a base pair with thymine with two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine with three hydrogen bonds.
Structural elements of three nucleotides—where one-, two- or three-phosphates are attached to the nucleoside (in yellow, blue, green) at center: 1st, the nucleotide termed as a nucleoside monophosphate is formed by adding a phosphate group (in red); 2nd, adding a second phosphate group forms a nucleoside diphosphate; 3rd, adding a third phosphate group results in a nucleoside triphosphate. + The nitrogenous base (nucleobase) is indicated by "Base" and "glycosidic bond" (sugar bond). All five primary, or canonical, bases—the purines and pyrimidines—are sketched at right (in blue).
Synthesis[edit]
Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of means both in vitro and in vivo.
In vitro, protecting groups may be used during laboratory production of nucleotides. A purified nucleoside is protected to create a phosphoramidite, which can then be used to obtain analogues not found in nature and/or to synthesize an oligonucleotide.
In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or recycled through salvage pathways.[7] The components used in de novo nucleotide synthesis are derived from biosynthetic precursors of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, and from ammonia and carbon dioxide. The liver is the major organ of de novo synthesis of all four nucleotides. De novo synthesis of pyrimidines and purines follows two different pathways. Pyrimidines are synthesized first from aspartate and carbamoyl-phosphate in the cytoplasm to the common precursor ring structure orotic acid, onto which a phosphorylated ribosyl unit is covalently linked. Purines, however, are first synthesized from the sugar template onto which the ring synthesis occurs. For reference, the syntheses of the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are carried out by several enzymes in the cytoplasm of the cell, not within a specific organelle. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides.
Pyrimidine ribonucleotide synthesis[edit]
The synthesis of UMP.
The color scheme is as follows: enzymes, coenzymes, substrate names, inorganic molecules
Main article: Pyrimidine metabolism
The synthesis of the pyrimidines CTP and UTP occurs in the cytoplasm and starts with the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from glutamine and CO2. Next, aspartate carbamoyltransferase catalyzes a condensation reaction between aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate to form carbamoyl aspartic acid, which is cyclized into 4,5-dihydroorotic acid by dihydroorotase. The latter is converted to orotate by dihydroorotate oxidase. The net reaction is:
(S)-Dihydroorotate + O2 → Orotate + H2O2
Orotate is covalently linked with a phosphorylated ribosyl unit. The covalent linkage between the ribose and pyrimidine occurs at position C1[8] of the ribose unit, which contains a pyrophosphate, and N1 of the pyrimidine ring. Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (PRPP transferase) catalyzes the net reaction yielding orotidine monophosphate (OMP):
Orotate + 5-Phospho-α-D-ribose 1-diphosphate (PRPP) → Orotidine 5'-phosphate + Pyrophosphate
Orotidine 5'-monophosphate is decarboxylated by orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase to form uridine monophosphate (UMP). PRPP transferase catalyzes both the ribosylation and decarboxylation reactions, forming UMP from orotic acid in the presence of PRPP. It is from UMP that other pyrimidine nucleotides are derived. UMP is phosphorylated by two kinases to uridine triphosphate (UTP) via two sequential reactions with ATP. First the diphosphate form UDP is produced, which in turn is phosphorylated to UTP. Both steps are fueled by ATP hydrolysis:
ATP + UMP → ADP + UDP
UDP + ATP → UTP + ADP
CTP is subsequently formed by amination of UTP by the catalytic activity of CTP synthetase. Glutamine is the NH3 donor and the reaction is fueled by ATP hydrolysis, too:
UTP + Glutamine + ATP + H2O → CTP + ADP + Pi
Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) is derived from cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with subsequent loss of two phosphates.[9] [10]
Purine ribonucleotide synthesis[edit]
Main article: Purine metabolism
The atoms that are used to build the purine nucleotides come from a variety of sources:
The synthesis of IMP. The color scheme is as follows: enzymes, coenzymes, substrate names, metal ions, inorganic molecules
The biosynthetic origins of purine ring atoms

N1 arises from the amine group of Asp
C2 and C8 originate from formate
N3 and N9 are contributed by the amide group of Gln
C4, C5 and N7 are derived from Gly
C6 comes from HCO3− (CO2)
The de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides by which these precursors are incorporated into the purine ring proceeds by a 10-step pathway to the branch-point intermediate IMP, the nucleotide of the base hypoxanthine. AMP and GMP are subsequently synthesized from this intermediate via separate, two-step pathways. Thus, purine moieties are initially formed as part of the ribonucleotides rather than as free bases.
Six enzymes take part in IMP synthesis. Three of them are multifunctional:
GART (reactions 2, 3, and 5)
PAICS (reactions 6, and 7)
ATIC (reactions 9, and 10)
The pathway starts with the formation of PRPP. PRPS1 is the enzyme that activates R5P, which is formed primarily by the pentose phosphate pathway, to PRPP by reacting it with ATP. The reaction is unusual in that a pyrophosphoryl group is directly transferred from ATP to C1 of R5P and that the product has the α configuration about C1. This reaction is also shared with the pathways for the synthesis of Trp, His, and the pyrimidine nucleotides. Being on a major metabolic crossroad and requiring much energy, this reaction is highly regulated.
In the first reaction unique to purine nucleotide biosynthesis, PPAT catalyzes the displacement of PRPP's pyrophosphate group (PPi) by an amide nitrogen donated from either glutamine (N), glycine (N&C), aspartate (N), folic acid (C1), or CO2. This is the committed step in purine synthesis. The reaction occurs with the inversion of configuration about ribose C1, thereby forming β-5-phosphorybosylamine (5-PRA) and establishing the anomeric form of the future nucleotide.
Next, a glycine is incorporated fueled by ATP hydrolysis and the carboxyl group forms an amine bond to the NH2 previously introduced. A one-carbon unit from folic acid coenzyme N10-formyl-THF is then added to the amino group of the substituted glycine followed by the closure of the imidazole ring. Next, a second NH2 group is transferred from a glutamine to the first carbon of the glycine unit. A carboxylation of the second carbon of the glycin unit is concomittantly added. This new carbon is modified by the additional of a third NH2 unit, this time transferred from an aspartate residue. Finally, a second one-carbon unit from formyl-THF is added to the nitrogen group and the ring covalently closed to form the common purine precursor inosine monophosphate (IMP).
Inosine monophosphate is converted to adenosine monophosphate in two steps. First, GTP hydrolysis fuels the addition of aspartate to IMP by adenylosuccinate synthase, substituting the carbonyl oxygen for a nitrogen and forming the intermediate adenylosuccinate. Fumarate is then cleaved off forming adenosine monophosphate. This step is catalyzed by adenylosuccinate lyase.
Inosine monophosphate is converted to guanosine monophosphate by the oxidation of IMP forming xanthylate, followed by the insertion of an amino group at C2. NAD+ is the electron acceptor in the oxidation reaction. The amide group transfer from glutamine is fueled by ATP hydrolysis.
Pyrimidine and purine degradation[edit]
In humans, pyrimidine rings (C, T, U) can be degraded completely to CO2 and NH3 (urea excretion). That having been said, purine rings (G, A) cannot. Instead they are degraded to the metabolically inert uric acid which is then excreted from the body. Uric acid is formed when GMP is split into the base guanine and ribose. Guanine is deaminated to xanthine which in turn is oxidized to uric acid. This last reaction is irreversible. Similarly, uric acid can be formed when AMP is deaminated to IMP from which the ribose unit is removed to form hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is oxidized to xanthine and finally to uric acid. Instead of uric acid secretion, guanine and IMP can be used for recycling purposes and nucleic acid synthesis in the presence of PRPP and aspartate (NH3 donor).
Unnatural base pair (UBP)[edit]
Main article: Base pair § Unnatural base pair (UBP)
An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or nucleobase) of DNA which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. In 2012, a group of American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP).[11] The two new artificial nucleotides or Unnatural Base Pair (UBP) were named d5SICS and dNaM. More technically, these artificial nucleotides bearing hydrophobic nucleobases, feature two fused aromatic rings that form a (d5SICS–dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA.[12][13] In 2014 the same team from the Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a plasmid containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best-performing UBP Romesberg's laboratory had designed, and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium E. coli that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations.[14] This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations.[12][15] This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive algal gene that expresses a nucleotide triphosphate transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into E. coli bacteria.[12] Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate the plasmid containing d5SICS–dNaM.
The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of amino acids which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 21 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel proteins.[14] The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses.[16]
Length unit[edit]
Nucleotide (abbreviated "nt") is a common unit of length for single-stranded nucleic acids, similar to how base pair is a unit of length for double-stranded nucleic acids.
Nucleotide supplements[edit]
A study done by the Department of Sports Science at the University of Hull in Hull, UK has shown that nucleotides have significant impact on cortisol levels in saliva. Post exercise, the experimental nucleotide group had lower cortisol levels in their blood than the control or the placebo. Additionally, post supplement values of Immunoglobulin A were significantly higher than either the placebo or the control. The study concluded, "nucleotide supplementation blunts the response of the hormones associated with physiological stress."[17]
Another study conducted in 2013 looked at the impact nucleotide supplementation had on the immune system in athletes. In the study, all athletes were male and were highly skilled in taekwondo. Out of the twenty athletes tested, half received a placebo and half received 480 mg per day of nucleotide supplement. After thirty days, the study concluded that nucleotide supplementation may counteract the impairment of the body's immune function after heavy exercise.[18]
Abbreviation codes for degenerate bases[edit]
Main article: Nucleic acid notation
The IUPAC has designated the symbols for nucleotides.[19] Apart from the five (A, G, C, T/U) bases, often degenerate bases are used especially for designing PCR primers. These nucleotide codes are listed here. Some primer sequences may also include the character "I", which codes for the non-standard nucleotide inosine. Inosine occurs in tRNAs, and will pair with adenine, cytosine, or thymine. This character does not appear in the following table however, because it does not represent a degeneracy. While inosine can serve a similar function as the degeneracy "D", it is an actual nucleotide, rather than a representation of a mix of nucleotides that covers each possible pairing needed.
Symbol[19]
Description
Bases represented
A adenine A 1
C cytosine C
G guanine G
T thymine T
U uracil U
W weak A T 2
S strong C G
M amino A C
K keto G T
R purine A G
Y pyrimidine C T
B not A (B comes after A) C G T 3
D not C (D comes after C) A G T
H not G (H comes after G) A C T
V not T (V comes after T and U) A C G
N any base (not a gap) A C G T 4
See also[edit]
Molecular and cellular biology portal
Biology
Chromosome
Gene
Genetics
Nucleic acid analogues
Nucleic acid sequence
Nucleobase
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K & Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. pp. 120–121.
Jump up ^ Coghill, Anne M.; Garson, Lorrin R., eds. (2006). The ACS style guide: effective communication of scientific information (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-8412-3999-9.
Jump up ^ "Nucleotides". IUPAC Gold Book. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists. doi:10.1351/goldbook.N04255. Retrieved 30 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert L. (1975). Biochemistry: the molecular basis of cell structure and function. New York: Worth Publishers Inc. doi:10.1002/jobm.19770170116.
Jump up ^ Stryer, Lubert (1988). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716719205.
Jump up ^ Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. (2007). Biochemistry (4th ed.). Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
Jump up ^ Zaharevitz, DW; Anerson, LW; Manlinowski, NM; Hyman, R; Strong, JM; Cysyk, RL. "Contribution of de-novo and salvage synthesis to the uracil nucleotide pool in mouse tissues and tumors in vivo".
Jump up ^ See IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry for details on carbon residue numbering
Jump up ^ Jones, M. E. (1980). "Pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis in animals: Genes, enzymes, and regulation of UMP biosynthesis". Annu. Rev. Biochem. 49 (1): 253–79. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.001345. PMID 6105839.
Jump up ^ McMurry, JE; Begley, TP (2005). The organic chemistry of biological pathways. Roberts & Company. ISBN 978-0-9747077-1-6.
Jump up ^ Malyshev, Denis A.; Dhami, Kirandeep; Quach, Henry T.; Lavergne, Thomas; Ordoukhanian, Phillip (24 July 2012). "Efficient and sequence-independent replication of DNA containing a third base pair establishes a functional six-letter genetic alphabet". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (30): 12005–12010. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10912005M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1205176109. PMC 3409741. PMID 22773812. Retrieved 2014-05-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c Malyshev, Denis A.; Dhami, Kirandeep; Lavergne, Thomas; Chen, Tingjian; Dai, Nan; Foster, Jeremy M.; Corrêa, Ivan R.; Romesberg, Floyd E. (May 7, 2014). "A semi-synthetic organism with an expanded genetic alphabet". Nature. 509: 385–8. Bibcode:2014Natur.509..385M. doi:10.1038/nature13314. PMC 4058825. PMID 24805238. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Callaway, Ewan (May 7, 2014). "Scientists Create First Living Organism With 'Artificial' DNA". Nature News. Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Fikes, Bradley J. (May 8, 2014). "Life engineered with expanded genetic code". San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Sample, Ian (May 7, 2014). "First life forms to pass on artificial DNA engineered by US scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Pollack, Andrew (May 7, 2014). "Scientists Add Letters to DNA's Alphabet, Raising Hope and Fear". New York Times. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Mc Naughton, L.; Bentley, D.; Koeppel, P. (2007-03-01). "The effects of a nucleotide supplement on the immune and metabolic response to short term, high intensity exercise performance in trained male subjects". The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 47 (1): 112–118. ISSN 0022-4707. PMID 17369807.
Jump up ^ Riera, Joan; Pons, Victoria; Martinez-Puig, Daniel; Chetrit, Carlos; Tur, Josep A.; Pons, Antoni; Drobnic, Franchek (2013-04-08). "Dietary nucleotide improves markers of immune response to strenuous exercise under a cold environment". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 10 (1): 20. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-10-20. PMC 3626726. PMID 23566489.
^ Jump up to: a b Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1984). "Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences". Retrieved 2008-02-04.
Further reading[edit]
Sigel, Astrid; Operschall, Bert P.; Sigel, Helmut (2017). "Chapter 11. Complex Formation of Lead(II) with Nucleotides and Their Constituents". In Astrid, S.; Helmut, S.; Sigel, R. K. O. Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 17. de Gruyter. pp. 319–402. doi:10.1515/9783110434330-011.
External links[edit]
Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents (IUPAC)
Provisional Recommendations 2004 (IUPAC)
Chemistry explanation of nucleotide structure
hide
v
t
e
Genetics
Introduction
Outline
History
Index
Key components
Chromosome
DNA
RNA
Nucleotide
Genome
Fields
Classical
Conservation
Ecological
Immunogenetics
Molecular
Population
Quantitative
Archaeogenetics of
the Americas
the British Isles
Europe
Italy
the Near East
South Asia
Related topics
Behavioural genetics
Epigenetics
Geneticist
Genomics
Genetic code
Medical genetics
Molecular evolution
Reverse genetics
Genetic engineering
Genetic diversity
Heredity
Genetic monitoring
Genetic genealogy
List of genetics research organizations
Category
Portal
show
v
t
e
Nucleic acid constituents
Nucleobase
Purine
Adenine
Guanine
Hypoxanthine
Xanthine
Purine analogue
Pyrimidine
Uracil
Thymine
Cytosine
Pyrimidine analogue
Unnatural base pair (UBP)
Nucleoside
Ribonucleoside
Adenosine
Guanosine
5-Methyluridine
Uridine
5-Methylcytidine
Cytidine
Pseudouridine
Inosine
N6-Methyladenosine
Xanthosine
Wybutosine
Deoxyribonucleoside
Deoxyadenosine
Deoxyguanosine
Thymidine
Deoxyuridine
Deoxycytidine
Deoxyinosine
Deoxyxanthosine
Nucleotide
(Nucleoside monophosphate)
Ribonucleotide
AMP
GMP
m5UMP
UMP
CMP
IMP
XMP
Deoxyribonucleotide
dAMP
dGMP
dTMP
dUMP
dCMP
dIMP
dXMP
Cyclic nucleotide
cAMP
cGMP
c-di-GMP
c-di-AMP
cADPR
Nucleoside diphosphate
ADP
GDP
m5UDP
UDP
CDP
dADP
dGDP
dTDP
dUDP
dCDP
Nucleoside triphosphate
ATP
GTP
m5UTP
UTP
CTP
ITP
XTP
dATP
dGTP
dTTP
dUTP
dCTP
dITP
dXTP
show
v
t
e
Purine receptor modulators
Receptor
(ligands)
P0 (adenine)
Agonists: 8-Aminoadenine
Adenine
P1
(adenosine)
Agonists: 2-(1-Hexynyl)-N-methyladenosine
2-Cl-IB-MECA
2'-MeCCPA
4'-O-β-D-Glucosyl-9-O-(6''-deoxysaccharosyl)olivil
5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine
Adenosine
ADP
AMP
Apadenoson
ATL-146e
ATP
BAY 60–6583
Binodenoson
Capadenoson
CCPA
CGS-21680
CP-532,903
Evodenoson
GR 79236
LUF-5835
LUF-5845
N6-Cyclopentyladenosine
Namodenoson
Neladenoson dalanate
Piclidenoson
Regadenoson
SDZ WAG 994
Selodenoson
Sonedenoson
Tecadenoson
UK-432,097
Antagonists: 8-Chlorotheophylline
8-Phenyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine
8-Phenyltheophylline
Acefylline
Aminophylline
ATL-444
Bamifylline
Cafedrine
Caffeine
Caffeine citrate
Cartazolate
CGH-2466
CGS-15943
Choline theophyllinate
Ciforadenant
CPX
CVT-6883
Dimethazan
DMPX
DPCPX
Dyphylline
Enprofylline
Etazolate
Fenethylline
IBMX
Isovaleric acid
Istradefylline
KF-26777
MRE3008F20
MRS-1220
MRS-1334
MRS-1706
MRS-1754
MRS-3777
Paraxanthine
Pentoxifylline
Preladenant
Propentofylline
Proxyphylline
PSB-10
PSB-11
PSB-36
PSB-603
PSB-788
PSB-1115
Reversine
Rolofylline
SCH-442,416
SCH-58261
Theacrine
Theobromine
Theodrenaline
Theophylline
Tozadenant
Tracazolate
VUF-5574
ZM-241,385
P2
(nucleotide)
P2X
(ATP)
Agonists: 2-Me-SATP
α,β-Me-ATP
Adenosine
ADP
AMP
Ap4A
Ap5A
ATP
ATPγS
BzATP
Cibacron blue
CTP
D-β,γ-Me-ATP
GTP
HT-AMP
Ivermectin
L-β,γ-Me-ATP
MRS-2219
PAPET-ATP
UTP
Zinc
Antagonists: 5-BDBD
A-317491
A-438079
A-740003
A-804598
A-839977
AF-353
AZ-10606120
AZ-11645373
BBG
Calcium
Calmidazolium
Chelerythrine
Copper
Emodin (Rheum officinale)
Evans Blue
Gefapixant
GW-791343
HMA
Ip5I
isoPPADS
JNJ-47965567
KN-04
KN-62
Magnesium
MRS-2159
NF-023
NF-110
NF-157
NF-279
NF-449
Opiranserin (VVZ-149)
Oxidized-ATP
Phenol Red
Phenolphthalein
PPADS
PPNDS
PSB-12062
Puerarin (Radix puerariae)
Purotoxin 1
RB-2
Ro 0437626
Ro 51
RO-3
Sodium ferulate (Angelica sinensis, Ligusticum wallichii)
Suramin
TC-P 262
Tetramethylpyrazine (ligustrazine) (Ligusticum wallichii)
TNP-ATP
Zinc
P2Y
Agonists: 2-Me-SADP
2-Me-SATP
2-Thio-UTP
5-Br-UDP
5-OMe-UDP
α,β-Me-ATP
Adenosine
ADP
ADPβS
Ap3A
AR-C 67085MX
ATP
ATPγS
CTP
dATP
Denufosol
Diquafosol
IDP
ITP
INS-365
INS-37217
MRS-2365
MRS-2690
MRS-2693
MRS-2768
MRS-2957
MRS-4062
NF-546
PAPET-ATP
PSB-0474
PSB-1114
UDP
UDPβS
UDP-galactose
UDP-glucose
UDP-N-acetylglucosamine
Up3U
UTP
UTPγS
Antagonists: 2-Me-SAMP
A3P5PS
AMPαS
Ap4A
AR-C 66096
AR-C 67085MX
AR-C 69931MX
AR-C 118925XX
ATP
BzATP
C1330-7
Cangrelor
Clopidogrel
Elinogrel
Ip5I
MRS-2179
MRS-2211
MRS-2279
MRS-2395
MRS-2500
MRS-2578
NF-157
NF-340
PIT
PPADS
Prasugrel
PSB-0739
RB-2
Regrelor
Suramin
Ticagrelor
Ticlopidine
UDP
Transporter
(blockers)
CNTs
6-Hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone
Adenosine
dMeThPmR
Estradiol
KGO-2142
KGO-2173
MeThPmR
Phloridzin
Progesterone
ENTs
Barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
Cilostazol
Dilazep
Dipyridamole
Estradiol
Ethanol
Hexobendine
NBMPR
Pentoxifylline
Progesterone
Propentofylline
PMAT
Decynium-22
Enzyme
(inhibitors)
XO
Allopurinol
Amflutizole
Benzbromarone
Caffeic acid
Cinnamaldehyde
Cinnamomum osmophloeum
Febuxostat
Myo-inositol
Kaempferol
Myricetin
Niraxostat
Oxipurinol
Phytic acid
Pistacia integerrima
Propolis
Quercetin
Tisopurine
Topiroxostat
Others
Aminopterin
Azathioprine
Methotrexate
Mycophenolic acid
Pemetrexed
Pralatrexate
Many others
Others
Precursors: Adenine
Adenosine
AMP
ADP
ATP
Cytosine
Cytidine
CMP
CDP
CTP
Guanine
Guanosine
GMP
GDP
GTP
Hypoxanthine
Inosine
IMP
IDP
ITP
Ribose
Uracil
Uridine
UMP
UDP
UTP
Others: Chrysophanol (rhubarb)
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators
Authority control
NDL: 00568741
NKC: ph123363
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nucleotide&oldid=866041234"
Categories:
Nucleotides
Genetics
DNA
Molecular biology
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Русиньскый
Русский
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
吴语
粵語
中文
66 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 October 2018, at 21:52 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

values:
/wiki/Phosphate_group
mw-redirect
Phosphate group

value: u

values:
/wiki/Organic_molecule
mw-redirect
Organic molecule

values:
/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid
mw-redirect
Deoxyribonucleic acid

values:
/wiki/Ribonucleic_acid
mw-redirect
Ribonucleic acid

values:
/wiki/Amino_acids
mw-redirect
Amino acids

values:
/wiki/Cell_membranes
mw-redirect
Cell membranes

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Double_helix
mw-redirect
Double helix

values:
/wiki/ACS_Style_Guide
mw-redirect
ACS Style Guide

values:
/wiki/IUPAC_Gold_Book
mw-redirect
IUPAC Gold Book

values:
/wiki/Base_pairing
mw-redirect
Base pairing

values:
/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)
mw-redirect
Transcription (genetics)

values:
/wiki/Cyclic_nucleotides
mw-redirect
Cyclic nucleotides

values:
/wiki/Hydroxyl_group
mw-redirect
Hydroxyl group

values: Edit section: Pyrimidine ribonucleotide synthesis

values: border-width: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: left;

values:
/wiki/4,5-dihydroorotic_acid
mw-redirect
4,5-dihydroorotic acid

values:
/wiki/Dihydroorotate_oxidase
mw-redirect
Dihydroorotate oxidase

values: Edit section: Purine ribonucleotide synthesis

values:
/wiki/Purine_nucleotides
mw-redirect
Purine nucleotides

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Inosine_monophosphate
mw-redirect
Inosine monophosphate

values:
/wiki/Freebase_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Freebase (chemistry)

values:
/wiki/Pyrimidine_nucleotides
mw-redirect
Pyrimidine nucleotides

values: Edit section: Pyrimidine and purine degradation

values: Edit section: Abbreviation codes for degenerate bases

values: vertical-align:top; margin-left:25px; margin-top:10px; margin-right:25px; margin-bottom:25px; text-align:center;

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogues
mw-redirect
Nucleic acid analogues

values:
nofollow
external text
http://goldbook.iupac.org/N04255.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.N04255

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjobm.19770170116

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6105839

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1205176109

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22773812

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13314

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24805238

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4707

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17369807

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23566489

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
*_Introduction
*_Outline
*_History
*_Index

values: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Template:Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides

values: Template talk:Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides

values: 5-Methyluridine monophosphate (page does not exist)

values: Deoxyxanthosine monophosphate (page does not exist)

values: 5-Methyluridine diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Deoxyuridine diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Deoxyuridine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Deoxyinosine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Deoxyxanthosine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: Template talk:Purine receptor modulators

values:
/wiki/Purine_receptor
mw-redirect
Purine receptor

values:
/wiki/P0_receptor
mw-redirect
P0 receptor

values: 2-(1-Hexynyl)-N-methyladenosine (page does not exist)

values: 4'-O-β-D-Glucosyl-9-O-(6'-deoxysaccharosyl)olivil (page does not exist)

values: 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (page does not exist)

values: Neladenoson dalanate (page does not exist)

values: 8-Phenyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Isovaleric_acid
mw-redirect
Isovaleric acid

values:
/wiki/Diadenosine_tetraphosphate
mw-redirect
Diadenosine tetraphosphate

values: Diadenosine pentaphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Adenosine-5'-(γ-thio)-triphosphate (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Brilliant_Blue_G
mw-redirect
Brilliant Blue G

values: 5-(N,N-Hexamethylene)amiloride (page does not exist)

values: Diinosine pentaphosphate (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Radix_puerariae
mw-redirect
Radix puerariae

values:
/wiki/Ligusticum_wallichii
mw-redirect
Ligusticum wallichii

values: 2-Methylthioladenosine diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: 2-Methylthioadenosine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: 5-Bromouridine 5′-diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Adenosine-5'-(β-thio)-diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Diadenosine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Inosine diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Uridine 5´-(β-thio)-diphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Diuridine triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Uridine-5'-(γ-thio)-triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: 2-Methylthioladenosine monophosphate (page does not exist)

values: 2,2'-Pyridylisatogen tosylate (page does not exist)

values: 6-Hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone (page does not exist)

values: 6-S-((4-Nitrophenyl)methyl)-6-thioinosine (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Nucleotide
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: نوكليوتيد – Arabic

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: নিউক্লিওটাইড – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Нуклеотидтар – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Нуклеатыды – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Нуклеотид – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Νουκλεοτίδιο – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: نوکلئوتید – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 뉴클레오타이드 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Նուկլեոտիդ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: न्यूक्लियोटाइड – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirni
Kirni – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: נוקלאוטיד – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ನ್ಯೂಕ್ಲಿಯೊಟೈಡ್ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: ნუკლეოტიდი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Нуклеотидтер – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Нуклеотиддер – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Нуклеотид – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotid
Nucleotid – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Нуклеотид – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Нуклеотиды – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-stq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Нуклеотид – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleotid
Nukleotid – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: கருக்காடிக்கூறு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: นิวคลีโอไทด์ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Нуклеотиди – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: مرثالثہ – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Nucleotide rootpage-Nucleotide skin-vector action-view