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Neolithic
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The Neolithic
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Neolithic religion
↓ Chalcolithic
The Neolithic (/ˌniːəˈlɪθɪk/ ( listen)[1]) was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC, according to the ASPRO chronology, in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world[2] and ending between 4500 and 2000 BC.
Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age or The New Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated animals.[a]
The beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 10,200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period lasted between 12,500 and 9,500 BC, and the so-called "proto-Neolithic" is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA) between 10,200 and 8800 BC. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming.
By 10,200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC.
Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.[b]
Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independently of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture.[3][4]
The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, "new" and λίθος líthos, "stone", literally meaning "New Stone Age". The term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system.
Contents
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1 Periods by pottery phase
1.1 Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
1.2 Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
1.3 Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN)
2 Periods by region
2.1 Fertile Crescent
2.2 Southern Mesopotamia
2.3 North Africa
2.4 Europe
2.5 South and East Asia
2.6 America
3 Social organization
4 Shelter
5 Farming
6 Technology
7 Clothing
8 Early settlements
9 List of cultures and sites
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
12.1 Citations
12.2 Sources
13 External links
Periods by pottery phase[edit]
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Modern humans

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Axis scale: million years
Also see: Life timeline and Nature timeline
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
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In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC.[2] Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC.[citation needed]
The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 6000–5000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards (1,000 m2; 0.10 ha), and the collection of neolithic findings at the site encompasses two phases.[5]
Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)[edit]
Main article: Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began roughly around 10,000 BC in the Levant.[2] A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity and may be the oldest known human-made place of worship.[6] At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (10 ha), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, West Bank (notably Ain Mallaha, Nahal Oren, and Kfar HaHoresh), Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, and Byblos, Lebanon. The start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree.[citation needed]
The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and selective breeding).[citation needed]
In 2006, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains.[7]
Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. Some of the enclosures also suggest grain and meat storage.[citation needed]
Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)[edit]
Main article: Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8800 BC according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine).[2] As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin.[citation needed] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7250 BC to approximately 5000 BC.[8]
Settlements have rectangular mud-brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse could have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.[citation needed]
Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN)[edit]
The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6,400 BC in the Fertile Crescent.[2] By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). This period has been further divided into PNA (Pottery Neolithic A) and PNB (Pottery Neolithic B) at some sites.[9]
The Chalcolithic (Stone-Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.[citation needed]
Periods by region[edit]
Fertile Crescent[edit]
'Ain Ghazal Statues found at 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, are considered to be one of the earliest large-scale representations of the human form dating back to around 7250 BC.
Around 10,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the Fertile Crescent.[2] Around 10,700–9400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles (16 km) north of Aleppo. The settlement included two temples dating to 9650 BC.[10] Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2,000–3,000 people and a massive stone tower.[11] Around 6400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.
In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics.[12] In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods.
Natufian between 12,000 and 10,200 BC,
Khiamian between 10,200 and 8800 BC, PPNA: Sultanian (Jericho), Mureybetian,
Early PPNB (PPNB ancien) between 8800 and 7600 BC, middle PPNB (PPNB moyen) between 7600 and 6900 BC,
Late PPNB (PPNB récent) between 7500 and 7000 BC,
A PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (PPNB final) in which Halaf and dark faced burnished ware begin to emerge between 6900 and 6400 BC.[13]
They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.[14]
Southern Mesopotamia[edit]
Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 6,900 BC.[citation needed]
North Africa[edit]
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC.[15][16][17] Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium BC in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.[18] Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.[19][20][21]
Europe[edit]
Main article: Neolithic Europe
Female figure from Tumba Madžari, Republic of Macedonia
Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in Neolithic Europe, c. 3500 BC
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6500 BC.[22][23] In Northwest Europe it is much later, typically lasting just under 3,000 years from c. 4500 BC–1700 BC.
Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC,[24] and in Central Europe by around 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing.[25]
The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to around 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated around 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta.[26] In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.[27]
South and East Asia[edit]
The earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia are Bhirrana in Haryana dated to 7570-6200 BC,[28] and Mehrgarh, dated to between 6500 and 5500 BC, in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan; the site has evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats).
In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.[citation needed]
In East Asia, the earliest sites include Nanzhuangtou culture around 9500–9000 BC,[29] Pengtoushan culture around 7500–6100 BC, and Peiligang culture around 7000–5000 BC.
The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (as of 2008[update]) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.
In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia.[30] "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula".[31] The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 BC. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware, jade earrings, among other items in the area". The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.
America[edit]
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period.[32] The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 AD when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.[33]
Social organization[edit]
Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine
Anthropomorphic Female Neolithic ceramic figurine
During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages.[34] There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age.[35] Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian.[34] Beyond Eurasia, however, states were formed during the local Neolithic in three areas, namely in the Preceramic Andes with the Norte Chico Civilization,[36][37] Formative Mesoamerica and Ancient Hawaiʻi.[38] However, most Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Upper Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter-gatherer cultures in general.[39][40]
Clay human figurine (Fertility goddess) Tappeh Sarab, Kermanshah ca. 7000-6100 BC, Neolithic period, National Museum of Iran
The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception.[41] Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced.[42] However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catal Huyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others.
Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life.[43][44] However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain possibilities.
There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch.[45][46] Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at the Talheim Death Pit demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups" and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period.[40] This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle".[47]
Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man' or a proto-chief, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age.[48] Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.
Shelter[edit]
Reconstruction of Neolithic house in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina
The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic era. In the Paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the Neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster.[49] The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses.[49] The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept.[50] Stilt-houses settlements were common in the Alpine and Pianura Padana (Terramare) region.[51] Remains have been found at the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia and at the Mondsee and Attersee lakes in Upper Austria, for example.
Farming[edit]
Main article: Neolithic Revolution
A Cucuteni-Trypillian culture deer antler plough
Food and cooking items retrieved at a European Neolithic site: millstones, charred bread, grains and small apples, a clay cooking pot, and containers made of antlers and wood
A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to permanently settled farming towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was the possibility of producing surplus crop yields, in other words, food supplies in excess of the immediate needs of the community. Surpluses could be stored for later use, or possibly traded for other necessities or luxuries. Agricultural life afforded securities that pastoral life could not, and sedentary farming populations grew faster than nomadic.
However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities.[42] Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.
In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease.
Technology[edit]
Main article: Stone tool § Neolithic industries
The identifying characteristic of Neolithic technology is the use of polished or ground stone tools, in contrast to the flaked stone tools used during the Paleolithic era.
Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland.
Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include copper hatchets and spearheads in the Great Lakes region.
Clothing[edit]
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins that are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic,[52][53] as suggested by finds of perforated stones that (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights.[54][55][56] The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).
Early settlements[edit]
Reconstruction of a Cucuteni-Trypillian hut, in the Tripillian Museum, Ukraine.
This list (which may have dates, numbers, etc.) may be better in a sortable table format. Please help improve this list or discuss it on the talk page. (February 2016)
Neolithic human settlements include:
Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, c. 11,000–9000 BC
Guilá Naquitz Cave in Oaxaca, Mexico, c. 11,000 BC
Tell Qaramel in Syria, 10,700–9400 BC
Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (c. 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500 and 6000 BC
Nanzhuangtou in Hebei, China, 9500–9000 BC
Byblos in Lebanon believed to have been occupied first between 8800 and 7000 BC,[57]
Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
Aşıklı Höyük in Central Anatolia, Turkey, an Aceramic Neolithic period settlement, 8200–7400 BC, correlating with the E/MPPNB in the Levant.
Nevali Cori in Turkey, c. 8000 BC
The Archaeological Site of Çatalhöyük in the Konya Plain in Turkey
Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500–6100 BC, rice residues were carbon-14 dated to 8200–7800 BC in type site
Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC
'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 7250–5000 BC
Chogha Bonut in Iran, 7200 BC
Jhusi in India, 7100 BC
Ganj Dareh in Iran, c. 7000 BC
Lahuradewa in India, 7000 BC[58]
Jiahu in China, 7000–5800 BC
Knossus in Crete, c. 7000 BC
Khirokitia in Cyprus, c. 7000–4000 BC
Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a 660-year margin of error)
Mehrgarh in Pakistan, sometime between 6500 and 5500 BC
Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC[59]
Padah-Lin Caves in Burma, c. 6000 BC
Petnica in Serbia, 6000 BC
Stara Zagora in Bulgaria, 5500 BC
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, 5500–2750 BC, in Ukraine, Moldova and Romania first salt works
Tell Zeidan in northern Syria, from about 5500 to 4000 BC.
around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400–2800 BC
Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5000–2000 BC[60][61]
Hemudu culture in China, 5000–4500 BC, large-scale rice plantation
The Megalithic Temples of Malta, 3600 BC
Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively
Brú na Bóinne in Ireland, c. 3500 BC
Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC
Norte Chico civilization, from 3000 to 1700 BC, 30 aceramic Neolithic period settlements in northern coastal Peru
Tichit Neolithic village on the Tagant Plateau in central southern Mauritania, 2000–500 BC
Oaxaca, state in Southwestern Mexico, by 2000 BC Neolithic sedentary villages had been established in the Central Valleys region of this state.
Lajia in China, 2000 BC
Mumun pottery period, Neolithic revolution spreads down the Korean Peninsula and permanent settlements are established 1800–1500 BC, Neolithic revolution reaches Japan around 500–300 BC
The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BC and the world's oldest freestanding structure is the neolithic temple of Ġgantija in Gozo, Malta.
List of cultures and sites[edit]
Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae (Orkney, Scotland), Europe's most complete Neolithic village
Note: Dates are very approximate, and are only given for a rough estimate; consult each culture for specific time periods.
Early Neolithic
Periodization: The Levant: 10,000–8500 BC; Europe: 5000–4000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Beixin culture
Cishan culture
Dudeşti culture
Franchthi Cave people
Earliest European Neolithic site: 20th to 3rd millennium BC
Sesclo village culture
Starcevo-Criş culture
(also known as the Starčevo-Körös-Criş culture)
Nanzhuangtou
Middle Neolithic
Periodization: The Levant: 8500–6500 BC; Europe: 4000–3500 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Baodun culture
Jinsha settlement and Sanxingdui mound.
Catalhoyuk
Cardium Pottery culture
Comb Ceramic culture
Corded Ware culture
Cortaillod culture
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
Dadiwan culture
Dawenkou culture
Daxi culture
Chengtoushan settlement
Grooved ware people
Skara Brae, et al.
Erlitou culture
Xia Dynasty
Ertebølle culture
Hembury culture
Hemudu culture
Hongshan culture
Houli culture
Horgen culture
Liangzhu culture
Linear Pottery culture
Goseck circle, et al.
Longshan culture
Majiabang culture
Majiayao culture
Peiligang culture
Pengtoushan culture
Pfyn culture
Precucuteni culture
Qujialing culture
Shijiahe culture
Trypillian culture
Vinča culture
Windmill Hill culture
Stonehenge
Xinglongwa culture
Beifudi site
Xinle culture
Yangshao culture
Banpo and Xishuipo settlements.
Zhaobaogou culture
Later Neolithic
Periodization: 6500–4500 BC; Europe: 3500–3000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Eneolithic
Main article: Eneolithic
Periodization: Middle East: 4500–3300 BC; Europe: 3000–1700 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region. In the Americas, the Eneolithic ended as late as the 19th century AD for some peoples.
Beaker culture
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
Funnelbeaker culture
Gaudo Culture
Lengyel culture
Varna culture
See also[edit]
Céide Fields
Megalith
Neolithic Europe
Neolithic Revolution
Neolithic religion
Neolithic tomb
Ötzi
Paleolithic
Rock art of the Djelfa region
Two layer hypothesis
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", but this has not gained wide acceptance.
Jump up ^ The potter's wheel was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Neolithic: definition of Neolithic in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Bellwood, Peter (November 30, 2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 384. ISBN 0-631-20566-7.
Jump up ^ Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7.
Jump up ^ Xiaohong Wu. "Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China". Sciencemag.org. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS". Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. April 28, 2005. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
Jump up ^ Scham, Sandra (November 2008). "The World's First Temple". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 61 (6): 23.
Jump up ^ Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (June 2, 2006). "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 312 (5778): 1372–1374. doi:10.1126/science.1125910. PMID 16741119.
Jump up ^ Feldman, Keffie. "Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures". Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World. Brown University. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet; Goring-Morris, A. Nigel; Belfer-Cohen, Anna (2013-11-01). The Southern Levant (Cisjordan) During the Neolithic Period. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199212972.013.011.
Jump up ^ Yet another sensational discovery by polish archaeologists in Syria. eduskrypt.pl. 21 June 2006
Jump up ^ "Jericho", Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Haïdar Boustani, M., The Neolithic of Lebanon in the context of the Near East: State of knowledge (in French), Annales d'Histoire et d'Archaeologie, Universite Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth, Vol. 12–13, 2001–2002. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ Stordeur, Danielle., Abbès Frédéric., Du PPNA au PPNB : mise en lumière d'une phase de transition à Jerf el Ahmar (Syrie), Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, Volume 99, Issue 3, pp. 563–595, 2002
Jump up ^ PPND – the Platform for Neolithic Radiocarbon Dates – Summary. exoriente. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ Linseele, V.; et al. (July 2010). "Sites with Holocene dung deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: Visited by herders?" (PDF). Journal of Arid Environments. 74 (7): 818–828. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.04.014.
Jump up ^ Hays, Jeffrey (March 2011). "EARLY DOMESTICATED ANIMALS". Facts and Details. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Blench, Roger; MacDonald, Kevin C (1999). The Origins and Development of African Livestock. Routledge. ISBN 1-84142-018-2.
Jump up ^ Barker, Graeme (25 March 2009). The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why Did Foragers Become Farmers?. Oxford University Press. pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-0-19-955995-4. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Alexandra Y. Aĭkhenvalʹd; Robert Malcolm Ward Dixon (2006). Areal Diffussion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-928308-8.
Jump up ^ Fekri A. Hassan (2002). Droughts, food and culture: ecological change and food security in Africa's later prehistory. Springer. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-0-306-46755-4. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history: A-G. CRC Press. pp. 521–. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Dawn Fuller (April 16, 2012). "UC research reveals one of the earliest farming sites in Europe". Phys.org. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ "One of Earliest Farming Sites in Europe Discovered". ScienceDaily. April 16, 2012. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Female figurine, c. 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece. Macedonian-heritage.gr. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ Winn, Shan (1981). Pre-writing in Southeastern Europe: The Sign System of the Vinča Culture ca. 4000 BC. Calgary: Western Publishers.
Jump up ^ Daniel Cilia, "Malta Before Common Era", in The Megalithic Temples of Malta. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
Jump up ^ Piccolo, Salvatore (2013) Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily, Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Brazen Head Publishing, pp. 33-34 ISBN 978-0-9565106-2-4
Jump up ^ Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015). The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE. Cambridge University Press Cambridge World Archeology. p. 111. ISBN 9781316418987.
Jump up ^ Xiaoyan Yang (2012). "Early millet use in northern China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (10): 3726. doi:10.1073/pnas.1115430109. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
Jump up ^ The Archaeology News Network. 2012. "Neolithic farm field found in South Korea".
Jump up ^ The Korea Times (2012). "East Asia's oldest remains of agricultural field found in Korea".
Jump up ^ Willey, Gordon R.; Phillips, Philip (1957). Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-89888-1.
Jump up ^ Kohler TA, M Glaude, JP Bocquet-Appel and Brian M Kemp (2008). "The Neolithic Demographic Transition in the North American Southwest". American Antiquity. 73 (4): 645–669. doi:10.1017/s000273160004734x. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Leonard D. Katz Rigby; S. Stephen Henry Rigby (2000). Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. United kingdom: Imprint Academic. p. 158. ISBN 0-7190-5612- 8.
Jump up ^ Langer, Jonas; Killen, Melanie (1998). Piaget, evolution, and development. Psychology Press. pp. 258–. ISBN 978-0-8058-2210-6. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Oldest Civilization in the Americas Revealed" (PDF). CharlesMann. Science. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "First Andes Civilization Explored". BBC News. 22 December 2004. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Hommon, Robert J. (2013). The ancient Hawaiian state : origins of a political society (First ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991612-2.
Jump up ^ "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Archived 2009-11-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Russell Dale Guthrie (2005). The nature of Paleolithic art. University of Chicago Press. pp. 420–. ISBN 978-0-226-31126-5. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Farming Pioneered in Ancient New Guinea". New Scientist. New Scientist. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc
Jump up ^ "Prehistoric Cultures". Museum of Ancient and Modern Art. 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "Çatalhöyük: Urban Life in Neolithic Anatolia". About.com Archaeology. About.com. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Idyllic Theory of Goddess Creates Storm Archived 2008-02-19 at the Wayback Machine.. Holysmoke.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ Krause (1998) under External links, places.
Jump up ^ Gimbutas (1991) page 143.
Jump up ^ Kuijt, Ian (30 June 2000). Life in Neolithic farming communities: social organization, identity, and differentiation. Springer. pp. 317–. ISBN 978-0-306-46122-4. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Küçuk. "The World's First City." Archived 2008-03-15 at the Wayback Machine. Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43–47.
Jump up ^ Barber, E. J. W. (1991). Prehistoric Textiles:The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00224-X.
Jump up ^ Alan W. Ertl (15 August 2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration. Universal-Publishers. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-59942-983-0. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Harris, Susanna (2009). "Smooth and Cool, or Warm and Soft: Investigatingthe Properties of Cloth in Prehistory". North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles X. Academia.edu. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Aspects of Life During the Neolithic Period" (PDF). Teachers' Curriculum Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Gibbs, Kevin T. (2006). "Pierced clay disks and Late Neolithic textile production". Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Academia.org. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Green, Jean M (1993). "Unraveling the Enigma of the Bi: The Spindle Whorl as the Model of the Ritual Disk". Asian Perspectives. University of Hawai'i Press. 32 (1): 105–24. Archived from the original on 2015-02-11.
Jump up ^ Cook, M (2007). "The clay loom weight, in: Early Neolithic ritual activity, Bronze Age occupation and medieval activity at Pitlethie Road, Leuchars, Fife". Tayside and Fife Archaeological Journal. 13: 1–23.
Jump up ^ E. J. Peltenburg; Alexander Wasse; Council for British Research in the Levant (2004). Garfinkel, Yosef., "Néolithique" and "Énéolithique" Byblos in Southern Levantine Context* in Neolithic revolution: new perspectives on southwest Asia in light of recent discoveries on Cyprus. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-84217-132-5. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Davis K. Thanjan (12 January 2011). Pebbles. Bookstand Publishing. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-1-58909-817-6. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Developed Neolithic period, 5500 BC. Eliznik.org.uk. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Manunggul Burial Jar". Virtual Collection of Asian Masterpieces. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Tabon Cave Complex". National Museum of the Philippines. 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
Sources[edit]
Pedersen, Hilthart (2008). Die Jüngere Steinzeit Auf Bornholm. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-638-94559-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neolithic and Neolithic artefacts.
Romeo, Nick (Feb. 2015). Embracing Stone Age Couple Found in Greek Cave. "Rare double burials discovered at one of the largest Neolithic burial sites in Europe." National Geographic Society
McNamara, John (2005). "Neolithic Period". World Museum of Man. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
M.T.C. Affonso and E. Pernicka 2000 'Pre-Pottery Neolithic Clay Figurines from Nevali Çori, Turkey' Internet Archaeology
Rincon, Paul (11 May 2006). "Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
Current Directions in West African Prehistory – McIntosh & McIntosh (1983)
"Neolithic". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Comb Ceramic culture

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text:
Justice delayed is justice denied
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Justice delayed is justice denied" is a legal maxim meaning that if legal redress is available for a party that has suffered some injury, but is not forthcoming in a timely fashion, it is effectively the same as having no redress at all. This principle is the basis for the right to a speedy trial and similar rights which are meant to expedite the legal system, because it is unfair for the injured party to have to sustain the injury with little hope for resolution. The phrase has become a rallying cry for legal reformers who view courts or governments as acting too slowly in resolving legal issues either because the existing system is too complex or overburdened, or because the issue or party in question lacks political favour.
Origin[edit]
There are conflicting accounts of who first noted the phrase. According to Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations, it is attributable to William Ewart Gladstone, but such attribution was not verifiable.[1] Alternatively, it may be attributed to William Penn in the form "to delay Justice is Injustice".[2]
Mentions of justice delayed and denied are found in the Pirkei Avot 5:7, a section of the Mishnah (1st century BCE – 2nd century CE): "Our Rabbis taught: ...The sword comes into the world, because of justice delayed and justice denied...",[3] and the Magna Carta of 1215, clause 40 of which reads, "To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice."
Martin Luther King, Jr., used the phrase in the form "justice too long delayed is justice denied" in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail", smuggled out of jail in 1963, ascribing it to a "distinguished jurist of yesterday".
As Chief Justice of the United States Warren E. Burger noted in an address to the American Bar Association in 1970: "A sense of confidence in the courts is essential to maintain the fabric of ordered liberty for a free people and three things could destroy that confidence and do incalculable damage to society: that people come to believe that inefficiency and delay will drain even a just judgment of its value; that people who have long been exploited in the smaller transactions of daily life come to believe that courts cannot vindicate their legal rights from fraud and over-reaching; that people come to believe the law – in the larger sense – cannot fulfill its primary function to protect them and their families in their homes, at their work, and on the public streets."[4]
See also[edit]
FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.#Proposed text of WRTL ad
Cloture
Filibuster
Gaming the system
Moratorium (law)
"Out of sight, out of mind", i.e., purposely delaying justice by hoping all parties forget the matter
Red tape, inefficiency which can delay legal resolutions
Statute of limitations, which forces injured parties to bring timely claims
Wikipedia:Gaming the system#Gaming the consensus-building process
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Suzy Platt (ed.). Entry 954. William Ewart Gladstone (1809–98). Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations Requested from the Congressional Research Service. Library of Congress, 1989. (Attributed to William E. Gladstone. — Laurence J. Peter, Peter’s Quotations, p. 276 (1977). Unverified.)
Jump up ^ Penn, William (1693), Some Fruits of Solitude, Headley, 1905, p. 86.
Jump up ^ 10 Minutes of Torah. Ethical Teachings Selections from Pirkei Avot. http://tmt.urj.net/archives/4jewishethics/052605.htm Retrieved 26 March 2013
Jump up ^ Burger, "What's Wrong With the Courts: The Chief Justice Speaks Out", U.S. News & World Report (vol. 69, No. 8, Aug. 24, 1970) 68, 71 (address to ABA meeting, Aug. 10, 1970).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Justice_delayed_is_justice_denied&oldid=805165880"
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text:
Australian two-dollar note
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Two Dollars
(Australia)
Value
2 Australian dollars
Width
145 mm
Height
72.5 mm
Security features
metallic security thread, Watermark
Paper type
Cotton fibre
Years of printing
1966–1988
Obverse
Design
John Macarthur and Merino sheep
Designer
Gordon Andrews
Design date
1965
Reverse
Design
William Farrer and Wheat
Designer
Gordon Andrews
Design date
1965
The Australian two dollar note was introduced in 1966 due to decimalisation, to replace the £1 note which had similar green colouration. The note was issued from its introduction in 1966 until its replacement by the two dollar coin in 1988.
Security features[edit]
The paper design included a watermark in the white field of Captain James Cook, the watermark was also used in the last issue of pound banknotes. A metallic strip, first near the centre of the note, then from 1976 moved to the left side on the obverse of the note.
Removal from circulation[edit]
The two dollar note was replaced by a gold-coloured coin in 1988, due to the longer service life and cost effectiveness of coins. These notes can still be redeemed at face value by the Reserve Bank of Australia and most commercial banks,[1] but numismatics and note collectors may pay a higher price for these notes depending on age and condition.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Redemption of old Australian Banknotes — Reserve Bank of Australia
Ian W. Pitt, ed. (2000). Renniks Australian Coin and Banknote Values (19th ed.). Chippendale, N.S.W.: Renniks Publications. ISBN 0-9585574-4-6.
Preceded by
One pound note (Australian) Two Dollars (Australian)
1966–1988 Succeeded by
Two dollar coin (Australian)
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Australian currency
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Banknotes of the $
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Pre-£ coins
Coins of the £
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5s
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Mints
Sydney Mint (1855–1926)
Melbourne Mint (1872–1967)
Perth Mint (1899–)
Royal Australian Mint (1965–)
Topics
Australian dollar
Australian pound (obsolete)
Banknotes of the Australian pound (obsolete)
Note Printing Australia
Pound sterling (obsolete)
Reserve Bank of Australia

This money or currency-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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