text:
International System of Units
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"SI" redirects here. For other uses, see SI (disambiguation).
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of the metric system.
The SI base units
The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI, from the French Système international (d'unités)) is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units and a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units. The system also specifies lowercase names for 22 derived units.
The system was published in 1960 as a result of an initiative that began in 1948. It is based on the metre–kilogram–second system of units (MKS) rather than any variant of the centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS). SI is intended to be an evolving system, so prefixes and units are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves. The 24th and 25th General Conferences on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 2011 and 2014, for example, discussed a proposal to change the definition of the kilogram, linking it to an invariant of nature rather than to the mass of a material artefact, thereby ensuring long-term stability.[1]
The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems and the lack of coordination between the various disciplines that used them. The CGPM, which was established by the Metre Convention of 1875, brought together many international organisations to not only agree on the definitions and standards of the new system but also agree on the rules for writing and presenting measurements in a standardised manner around the world.
The International System of Units has been adopted by all developed countries except the United States.[2]

Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early development
1.2 Metre Convention
1.3 Towards the SI
1.4 International System of Quantities
2 SI Brochure and conversion factors
3 Units and prefixes
3.1 Base units
3.2 Derived units
3.3 Prefixes
3.4 Non-SI units accepted for use with SI
4 Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities
4.1 Unit names
4.2 Unit names as adjectives
4.3 Chinese and Japanese
4.4 Unit symbols and the values of quantities
4.4.1 General rules
4.4.2 Printing SI symbols
5 Realisation of units
6 Post-1960 changes
6.1 Changes to the SI
6.2 Retention of non-SI units
7 Global adoption
7.1 United Kingdom and the former British Empire
7.2 European Union
7.3 India
7.4 United States
8 Redefinition of units
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History[edit]
Stone marking the Austro-Hungarian/Italian border at Pontebba displaying myriametres, a unit of 10 km used in Central Europe in the 19th century (but since deprecated).[3][4]
Main article: History of the metric system
The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution (1790s) with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length and mass[Note 1] respectively. In the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length, mass, and time. In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. The inclusion of electrical units into the system was hampered by the customary use of more than one set of units, until 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi identified the need to define one single electrical quantity as a fourth base quantity alongside the original three base quantities.
Meanwhile, in 1875, the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram and metre against agreed prototypes from French to international control. In 1921, the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893.
In 1948, an overhaul of the metric system was set in motion which resulted in the development of the "Practical system of units" which, on its publication in 1960, was given the name "The International System of Units". In 1954, the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) identified electric current as the fourth base quantity in the practical system of units and added two more base quantities—temperature and luminous intensity—making six base quantities in all. The units associated with these quantities were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin and candela. In 1971, a seventh base quantity, amount of substance represented by the mole, was added to the definition of SI.
Early development[edit]
The metric system was developed from 1791 onwards by a committee of the French Academy of Sciences, commissioned by the National Assembly and Louis XVI to create a unified and rational system of measures.[5] The group, which included Antoine Lavoisier (the "father of modern chemistry") and the mathematicians Pierre-Simon Laplace and Adrien-Marie Legendre,[6]:89 used the same principles for relating length, volume, and mass that had been proposed by the English clergyman John Wilkins in 1668[7][8] and the concept of using the Earth's meridian as the basis of the definition of length, originally proposed in 1670 by the French abbot Mouton.[9][10]
Carl Friedrich Gauss
On 30 March 1791, the Assembly adopted the committee's proposed principles for the new decimal system of measure and authorised a survey between Dunkirk and Barcelona to establish the length of the meridian. On 11 July 1792, the committee proposed the names metre, are, litre and grave for the units of length, area, capacity, and mass, respectively. The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal-based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth and kilo for a thousand.[11]:82
Thomson
Maxwell
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and James Clerk Maxwell played a prominent role in the development of the principle of coherence and in the naming of many units of measure.[12][13][14][15][16]
The law of 7 April 1795 (loi du 18 germinal) defined the terms gramme and kilogramme, which replaced the former terms gravet (correctly milligrave) and grave, and on 22 June 1799 (after Pierre Méchain and Jean-Baptiste Delambre had completed the meridian survey) the definitive standard mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives were deposited in the French National Archives. On 10 December 1799 (a month after Napoleon's coup d'état), the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France (loi du 19 frimaire[17]) was passed.[18]
During the first half of the nineteenth century there was little consistency in the choice of preferred multiples of the base units – typically the myriametre (7004100000000000000♠10000 metres) was in widespread use in both France and parts of Germany, while the kilogram (7003100000000000000♠1000 grams) rather than the myriagram was used for mass.[3]
In 1832, the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, assisted by Wilhelm Weber, implicitly defined the second as a base unit when he quoted the earth's magnetic field in terms of millimetres, grams, and seconds.[12] Prior to this, the strength of the earth's magnetic field had only been described in relative terms. The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a suspended magnet of known mass by the earth's magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity. The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass, length and time to the magnetic field.[19]
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and others working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, built on Gauss' work and formalised the concept of a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. The principle of coherence was successfully used to define a number of units of measure based on the centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS), including the erg for energy, the dyne for force, the barye for pressure, the poise for dynamic viscosity and the stokes for kinematic viscosity.[15]
Metre Convention[edit]
CGPM vocabulary
French
English
Pages[20]
étalons [Technical] standard 5, 95
prototype prototype [kilogram/metre] 5,95
noms spéciaux [Some derived units have]
special names 16,106
mise en pratique mise en pratique
[Practical realisation][Note 2] 82, 171
Main article: Metre Convention
A French-inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention.[6]:353–354 Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram. A set of 30 prototypes of the metre and 40 prototypes of the kilogram,[Note 3] in each case made of a 90% platinum-10% iridium alloy, were manufactured by the British firm Johnson, Matthey & Co and accepted by the CGPM in 1889. One of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively. Each member state was entitled to one of each of the remaining prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country.[21]
Closeup of the National Prototype Metre, serial number 27, allocated to the United States
The treaty established three international organisations to oversee the keeping of international standards of measurement:[22]
General Conference on Weights and Measures (Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM) – a meeting every four to six years of delegates from all member states that receives and discusses a report from the CIPM and that endorses new developments in the SI on the advice of the CIPM.
International Committee for Weights and Measures (Comité international des poids et mesures or CIPM) – a committee that meets annually at the BIPM and is made up of eighteen individuals of high scientific standing, nominated by the CGPM to advise the CGPM on administrative and technical matters
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures or BIPM) – an international metrology centre at Sèvres in France that has custody of the International prototype kilogram, provides metrology services for the CGPM and CIPM, houses the secretariat for these organisations and hosts their formal meetings. Initially its prime metrological purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres and kilograms against the international prototype.
In 1921, the Metre Convention was extended to include all physical units, including the ampere and others defined by the Fourth International Conference of Electricians in Chicago in 1893, thereby enabling the CGPM to address inconsistencies in the way that the metric system had been used.[13][20]:96
The official language of the Metre Convention is French[23] and the definitive version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French-language version.[20]:94
Towards the SI[edit]
Main article: Metrication
World map showing metrication, colour-coded by year of conversion: from ca. 1800 (green) to 1980 (red). Black indicates the nations that have not adopted the SI-system: Burma, Liberia, and the United States. Canada and the United Kingdom both have fairly common use of previously used units, e.g., speed limits in the UK and human height reporting in Canada.
At the close of the 19th century three different systems of units of measure existed for electrical measurements: a CGS-based system for electrostatic units, also known as the Gaussian or ESU system, a CGS-based system for electromechanical units (EMU) and an MKS-based system ("international system")[24] for electrical distribution systems. Attempts to resolve the electrical units in terms of length, mass, and time using dimensional analysis was beset with difficulties—the dimensions depended on whether one used the ESU or EMU systems.[16] This anomaly was resolved in 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi published a paper in which he advocated using a fourth base unit alongside the existing three base units. The fourth unit could be chosen to be electric current, voltage, or electrical resistance.[25]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of non-coherent units of measure based on the gram/kilogram, the centimetre/metre, and the second, such as the Pferdestärke (metric horsepower) for power,[26][Note 4] the darcy for permeability[27] and the use of "millimetres of mercury" for the measurement of both barometric and blood pressure were developed or propagated, some of which incorporated standard gravity in their definitions.
At the end of the Second World War, a number of different systems of measurement were in use throughout the world. Some of these systems were metric system variations, whereas others were based on customary systems of measure. In 1948, after representations by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and by the French Government, the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) asked the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) to conduct an international study of the measurement needs of the scientific, technical, and educational communities and "to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention".[28]
On the basis of the findings of this study, the 10th CGPM in 1954 decided that an international system should be derived from six base units to provide for the measurement of temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic quantities. Six base units were recommended: the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin (later renamed kelvin), and candela. In 1960, the 11th CGPM named the system the International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the French name, Le Système International d'Unités.[20]:110[29] The BIPM has also described SI as "the modern metric system".[20]:95 The seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM.[30]
International System of Quantities[edit]
The International System of Quantities (ISQ) is a system based on seven base quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity. Other quantities such as area, pressure, and electrical resistance are derived from these base quantities by clear non-contradictory equations. The ISQ defines the quantities that are measured with the SI units.[31] The ISQ is defined in the international standard ISO/IEC 80000, and was finalised in 2009 with the publication of ISO 80000-1.[32]
SI Brochure and conversion factors[edit]
Cover of brochure The International System of Units
The CGPM publishes a brochure which defines and presents SI.[20] Its official version is in French, in line with the Metre Convention.[20]:102 It leaves some scope for local interpretation, particularly regarding names and terms in different languages, so for example the United States' National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has produced a version of the CGPM document (NIST SP 330) which clarifies local interpretation for English-language publications that use American English[33] and another document (NIST SP 811) that gives general guidance for the use of SI in the United States and conversion factors between SI and customary units.[34]
The writing and maintenance of the CGPM brochure is carried out by one of the committees of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM), the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU). The CIPM nominates the chairman of this committee, but the committee includes representatives of various other international bodies rather than CIPM or CGPM nominees.[35][Note 5] This committee thus provides a forum for the bodies concerned to provide input to the CIPM in respect of ongoing enhancements to SI.
The definitions of the terms "quantity", "unit", "dimension" etc. that are used in the SI Brochure are those given in the International vocabulary of metrology, a publication produced by the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM), a working group consisting of eight international standards organisations under the chairmanship of the director of the BIPM.[36] The quantities and equations that define the SI units are now referred to as the International System of Quantities (ISQ), and are set out in the International Standard ISO/IEC 80000 Quantities and Units.
Units and prefixes[edit]
The International System of Units consists of a set of base units, a set of derived units with special names, and a set of decimal-based multipliers that are used as prefixes. The term SI Units covers all three categories, but the term coherent SI units includes only base units and coherent derived units.[20]:103–106
Base units[edit]
Main article: SI base units
The SI base units are the building blocks of the system and all other units are derived from them. When Maxwell first introduced the concept of a coherent system, he identified three quantities that could be used as base units: mass, length and time. Giorgi later identified the need for an electrical base unit. Theoretically any one of electric current, potential difference, electrical resistance, electrical charge or a number of other quantities could have provided the base unit, with the remaining units then being defined by the laws of physics. In the event, the unit of electric current was chosen for SI. Another three base units (for temperature, substance and luminous intensity) were added later.
SI base units[33]:23[37][38]
Unit
name
Unit
symbol
Quantity
name
Definition (incomplete)[n 1]
Dimension
symbol
metre
m length
Original (1793): 1/7007100000000000000♠10000000 of the meridian through Paris between the North Pole and the Equator.FG
Interim (1960): 7006165076373000000♠1650763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom.
Current (1983): The distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/7008299792458000000♠299792458 second.
L
kilogram[n 2]
kg mass
Original (1793): The grave was defined as being the weight [mass] of one cubic decimetre of pure water at its freezing point.FG
Current (1889): The mass of the International Prototype Kilogram (Le Grand K).[39]
M
second
s time
Original (Medieval): 1/7004864000000000000♠86400 of a day.
Interim (1956): 1/7007315569259747000♠31556925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
Current (1967): The duration of 7009919263177000000♠9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
T
ampere
A electric current
Original (1881): A tenth of the electromagnetic CGS unit of current. The [CGS] electromagnetic unit of current is that current, flowing in an arc 1 cm long of a circle 1 cm in radius, that creates a field of one oersted at the centre.[40] IEC
Current (1946): The constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 6993200000000000000♠2×10−7 newtons per metre of length.
I
kelvin
K thermodynamic temperature
Original (1743): The centigrade scale is obtained by assigning 0 °C to the freezing point of water and 100 °C to the boiling point of water.
Interim (1954): The triple point of water (0.01 °C) defined to be exactly 273.16 K.[n 3]
Current (1967): 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water
Θ
mole
mol amount of substance
Original (1900): The molecular weight of a substance in mass grams.ICAW
Current (1967): The amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.[n 4]
N
candela
cd luminous intensity
Original (1946): The value of the new candle is such that the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre.
Current (1979): The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 7014540000000000000♠5.4×1014 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
J
Note
Jump up ^ Interim definitions are given here only when there has been a significant difference in the definition.
Jump up ^ Despite the prefix "kilo-", the kilogram is the base unit of mass. The kilogram, not the gram, is used in the definitions of derived units. Nonetheless, units of mass are named as if the gram were the base unit.
Jump up ^ In 1954 the unit of thermodynamic temperature was known as the "degree Kelvin" (symbol °K; "Kelvin" spelt with an upper-case "K"). It was renamed the "kelvin" (symbol "K"; "kelvin" spelt with a lower case "k") in 1967.
Jump up ^ When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.
The original definitions of the various base units in the above table were made by the following authorities:
FG = French Government
IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission
ICAW = International Committee on Atomic Weights
All other definitions result from resolutions by either CGPM or the CIPM and are catalogued in the SI Brochure.
Derived units[edit]
Main article: Derived units
The derived units in the SI are formed by powers, products or quotients of the base units and are unlimited in number.[20]:103[33]:3 Derived units are associated with derived quantities, for example velocity is a quantity that is derived from the base quantities of time and length, so in SI the derived unit is metres per second (symbol m/s). The dimensions of derived units can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the base units.
Coherent units are derived units that contain no numerical factor other than 1—quantities such as standard gravity and density of water are absent from their definitions. In the example above, one newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram by one metre per second squared. Since the SI units of mass and acceleration are kg and m·s−2 respectively and F ∝ m × a, the units of force (and hence of newtons) is formed by multiplication to give kg·m·s−2. Since the newton is part of a coherent set of units, the constant of proportionality is 1.
For the sake of convenience, some derived units have special names and symbols.[14] Such units may themselves be used in combination with the names and symbols for base units and for other derived units to express the units of other derived quantities. For example, the SI unit of force is the newton (N), the SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa)—and the pascal can be defined as one newton per square metre (N/m2).[41]
Named units derived from SI base units[33]:3
Name
Symbol
Quantity
Expressed in
terms of
other SI units
Expressed in
terms of
SI base units
radian rad angle m·m−1
steradian sr solid angle m2·m−2
hertz Hz frequency s−1
newton N force, weight kg·m·s−2
pascal Pa pressure, stress N/m2 kg·m−1·s−2
joule J energy, work, heat N·m kg·m2·s−2
watt W power, radiant flux J/s kg·m2·s−3
coulomb C electric charge or quantity of electricity s·A
volt V voltage (electrical potential difference), electromotive force W/A kg·m2·s−3·A−1
farad F capacitance C/V kg−1·m−2·s4·A2
ohm Ω electrical resistance, impedance, reactance V/A kg·m2·s−3·A−2
siemens S electrical conductance A/V kg−1·m−2·s3·A2
weber Wb magnetic flux V·s kg·m2·s−2·A−1
tesla T magnetic flux density Wb/m2 kg·s−2·A−1
henry H inductance Wb/A kg·m2·s−2·A−2
degree Celsius °C temperature relative to 273.15 K K
lumen lm luminous flux cd·sr cd
lux lx illuminance lm/m2 m−2·cd
becquerel Bq radioactivity (decays per unit time) s−1
gray Gy absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) J/kg m2·s−2
sievert Sv equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) J/kg m2·s−2
katal kat catalytic activity mol·s−1
Notes
1. The radian and steradian, once given special status, are now considered dimensionless derived units.[33]:3
2. The ordering of this table is such that any derived unit is based only on base units or derived units that precede it in the table.
Prefixes[edit]
Main article: Metric prefix
Prefixes are added to unit names to produce multiple and sub-multiples of the original unit. All multiples are integer powers of ten, and above a hundred or below a hundredth all are integer powers of a thousand. For example, kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli- denotes a multiple of a thousandth, so there are one thousand millimetres to the metre and one thousand metres to the kilometre. The prefixes are never combined, so for example a millionth of a metre is a micrometre, not a millimillimetre. Multiples of the kilogram are named as if the gram were the base unit, so a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram, not a microkilogram.[20]:122[34]:14
v
t
e
Standard prefixes for the SI units of measure
Multiples
Prefix name
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
peta
exa
zetta
yotta
Prefix symbol
da h k M G T P E Z Y
Factor
100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024
Fractions
Prefix name
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
zepto
yocto
Prefix symbol
d c m μ n p f a z y
Factor
100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−6 10−9 10−12 10−15 10−18 10−21 10−24
Non-SI units accepted for use with SI[edit]
Main article: non-SI units accepted for use with SI
The SI is capable of measurement of any physical quantity, but many non-SI units still appear in the scientific, technical, and commercial literature, and will continue to be used for many years. Some units are so deeply embedded in history and many cultures that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future. The CIPM recognized and acknowledged such traditions by compiling a list of non-SI units accepted for use with SI, which are grouped as follows:[20]:123–129[34]:7–11[Note 6]
The litre is classed as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI.
Being one thousandth of a cubic metre, the litre is not a coherent unit of measure with respect to SI.
Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI (Table 6):
Certain units of time, angle, and legacy non-SI metric units have a long history of consistent use. Most societies have used the solar day and its non-decimal subdivisions as a basis of time and, unlike the foot or the pound, these were the same regardless of where they were being measured. The radian, being 1/2π of a revolution, has mathematical advantages but it is cumbersome for navigation, and, as with time, the units used in navigation have a large degree of consistency around the world. The tonne, litre, and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units, having been given unique symbols. The catalogued units are
minute, hour, day, degree of arc, minute of arc, second of arc, hectare, litre, tonne, astronomical unit and [deci]bel
Non-SI units whose values in SI units must be obtained experimentally (Table 7).
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena, particularly when the quantities associated with these phenomena are many orders of magnitude greater than or less than the equivalent SI unit. The most common ones have been catalogued in the SI Brochure together with consistent symbols and accepted values, but with the caveat that their values in SI units need to be measured.[Note 7]
electronvolt (symbol eV), and dalton/unified atomic mass unit (Da or u)
Other non-SI units (Table 8):
A number of non-SI units that had never been formally sanctioned by the CGPM have continued to be used across the globe in many spheres including health care and navigation. As with the units of measure in Tables 6 and 7, these have been catalogued by the CIPM in the SI Brochure to ensure consistent usage, but with the recommendation that authors who use them should define them wherever they are used.
bar, millimetre of mercury, ångström, nautical mile, barn, knot and neper
Non-SI units associated with the CGS and the CGS-Gaussian system of units (Table 9)
The SI manual also catalogues a number of legacy units of measure that are used in specific fields such as geodesy and geophysics or are found in the literature, particularly in classical and relativistic electrodynamics where they have certain advantages: The units that are catalogued are:
erg, dyne, poise, stokes, stilb, phot, gal, maxwell, gauss, and oersted.
Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities [edit]
Before 1948, the use and representation of metric quantities was inconsistent and ambiguous.[citation needed] In 1879, the CIPM published recommendations for writing the symbols for length, area, volume and mass, but it was outside its domain to publish recommendations for other quantities. Beginning in about 1900, physicists who had been using the symbol "μ" for "micrometre" (or "micron"), "λ" for "microlitre", and "γ" for "microgram" started to use the symbols "μm", "μL" and "μg", but it was only in 1935, a decade after the revision of the Metre Convention that the CIPM formally adopted this proposal and recommended that the symbol "μ" be used universally as a prefix for 6994100000000000000♠10−6.[42]
In 1948, the ninth CGPM approved the first formal recommendation for the writing of symbols in the metric system when the basis of the rules as they are now known was laid down.[43] These rules were subsequently extended by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and now cover unit symbols and names, prefix symbols and names, how quantity symbols should be written and used and how the values of quantities should be expressed.[20]:104,130 Both ISO and the IEC have published rules for the presentation of SI units that are generally compatible with those published in the SI Brochure.[44] As of August 2013[update] ISO and IEC were in the process of merging their standards for quantities and units into a single set of compatible documents identified as the ISO/IEC 80000 Standard. The rules covering printing of quantities and units are part of ISO 80000-1:2009.[45]
Unit names[edit]
Names of units follow the grammatical rules associated with common nouns: in English and in French they start with a lowercase letter (e.g., newton, hertz, pascal), even when the symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter. This also applies to "degrees Celsius", since "degree" is the unit.[46][47] In German, however, the names of units, as with all German nouns, start with capital letters.[48] The spelling of unit names is a matter for the guardians[Note 8] of the language concerned – the official British and American spellings for certain SI units differ – British English, as well as Australian, Canadian and New Zealand English, uses the spelling deca-, metre, and litre whereas American English uses the spelling deka-, meter, and liter, respectively.[33]:3
Likewise, the plural forms of units follow the grammar of the language concerned: in English, the normal rules of English grammar are used, e.g. "henries" is the plural of "henry".[49][34]:31 However, the units lux, hertz, and siemens have irregular plurals in that they remain the same in both their singular and plural form. Plural forms can be even more complicated in other languages. For example, in Polish the plural form depends on the actual quantity: 0 metrów, 1 metr, 2 metry, 3 metry, 4 metry, 5 metrów, 6 metrów, 7 metrów, 8 metrów, etc. For fractions it is metrów, e.g., 0,67 metrów, 2,45 metrów.
In English, when unit names are combined to denote multiplication of the units concerned, they are separated with a hyphen or a space (e.g. newton-metre or newton metre). The plural is formed by converting the last unit name to the plural form (e.g. ten newton-metres).
Unit names as adjectives[edit]
A space between the number and the unit symbol (i.e., no hyphen) is specified when the combination is used as an adjective, e.g. "a 25 kg sphere".[20]:133 However, in English a hyphen would be used as normal in this context if the unit name is spelt out, e.g. "a 25-kilogram sphere".[20]:133[50]
Chinese and Japanese[edit]
Chinese expressway distances road sign in eastern Beijing. Although the primary text is in Chinese, the distances use the internationally recognised numerals and symbols.
Chinese uses traditional logograms for writing the unit names, while in Japanese unit names are written in the phonetic katakana script; in both cases, symbols are also written using the internationally recognised Latin and Greek characters.
Chinese
The basic Chinese units are metre (米 mǐ), litre (升 shēng), gram (克 kè), and second (秒 miǎo), while others include watt (瓦 wǎ). Prefixes include deci- (分 fēn), centi- (厘 lí), milli- (毫 háo), micro- (微 wēi), kilo- (千 qiān), and mega- (兆 zhào). These are combined to form disyllabic characters, such as 厘米 límǐ "centimetre" or 千瓦 qiānwǎ "kilowatt".[51] In the 19th century, various compound characters were also used, similar to Japanese, either imported or formed on the same principles, such as 瓩 for 千瓦 qiānwǎ (kilowatt) or 糎 for 厘米. These are generally not used today, but are occasionally found in older or technical writing.[52]
Some units have different names in Taiwan. Meter (公尺), centimeter (公分), liter (公升), kilogram (公斤), gram (公克) and hectare (公頃) have the prefix "公", which means "universal". The prefixes "兆", "分" and "厘" are not commonly used, and the use of "千" is limited to kilowatt (千瓦).
Japanese
A set of characters representing various metric units was created in Japan in the late 19th century. Characters, which are the same in Chinese, exist for three base units: the metre (米), litre (升) and gram (瓦). These were combined with a set of six prefix characters – kilo- (千), hecto- (百), deca- (十), deci- (分), centi- (厘) and milli- (毛) – to form an additional 18 single-character units. The seven length units (kilometre to millimetre), for example, are 粁, 粨, 籵, 米, 粉, 糎 and 粍. These characters, however, are not in common use today; instead, units are written in katakana, the Japanese syllabary used for foreign borrowings, such as キロメートル (kiromētoru) for kilometre, but are also written in standard prefixes such as "km" for kilometre. A few Sino-Japanese words for these units remain in use in Japanese, most significantly "平米" (heibei) for "square metre", but otherwise borrowed pronunciations are used.
These characters are examples of the rare phenomenon of single-character loan words – a foreign word represented by a single Japanese character – and form the plurality of such words. Similar characters were also coined for other units, such as British units, though these also have fallen out of use; see Single character gairaigo: Metric units and Single character gairaigo: Other units for a full list.
Unit symbols and the values of quantities [edit]
Although the writing of unit names is language-specific, the writing of unit symbols and the values of quantities is consistent across all languages and therefore the SI Brochure has specific rules in respect of writing them.[20]:130–135 The guideline produced by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)[53] clarifies language-specific areas in respect of American English that were left open by the SI Brochure, but is otherwise identical to the SI Brochure.[49]
General rules[edit]
General rules[Note 9] for writing SI units and quantities apply to text that is either handwritten or produced using an automated process:
The value of a quantity is written as a number followed by a space (representing a multiplication sign) and a unit symbol; e.g., 2.21 kg, 7002730000000000000♠7.3×102 m2, 22 K. This rule explicitly includes the percent sign (%)[20]:134 and the symbol for degrees of temperature (°C).[20]: 133 Exceptions are the symbols for plane angular degrees, minutes, and seconds (°, ′, and ″), which are placed immediately after the number with no intervening space.
Symbols are mathematical entities, not abbreviations, and as such do not have an appended period/full stop (.), unless the rules of grammar demand one for another reason, such as denoting the end of a sentence.
A prefix is part of the unit, and its symbol is prepended to the unit symbol without a separator (e.g., k in km, M in MPa, G in GHz). Compound prefixes are not allowed.
Symbols for derived units formed by multiplication are joined with a centre dot (·) or a non-breaking space; e.g., N·m or N m.
Symbols for derived units formed by division are joined with a solidus (/), or given as a negative exponent. E.g., the "metre per second" can be written m/s, m s−1, m·s−1, or m/s. Only one solidus should be used; e.g., kg/(m·s2) and kg·m−1·s−2 are acceptable, but kg/m/s2 is ambiguous and unacceptable.
Acceleration due to gravity.
The lowercase letters (neither "metres" nor "seconds" were named after people), the space between the value and the units, and the superscript "2" to denote "squared".
The first letter of symbols for units derived from the name of a person is written in upper case; otherwise, they are written in lower case. E.g., the unit of pressure is named after Blaise Pascal, so its symbol is written "Pa", but the symbol for mole is written "mol". Thus, "T" is the symbol for tesla, a measure of magnetic field strength, and "t" the symbol for tonne, a measure of mass. Since 1979, the litre may exceptionally be written using either an uppercase "L" or a lowercase "l", a decision prompted by the similarity of the lowercase letter "l" to the numeral "1", especially with certain typefaces or English-style handwriting. The American NIST recommends that within the United States "L" be used rather than "l".
Symbols of units do not have a plural form; e.g., 25 kg, not 25 kgs.
Uppercase and lowercase prefixes are not interchangeable. E.g., the quantities 1 mW and 1 MW represent two different quantities; the former is the typical power requirement of a hearing aid (1 milliwatt or 0.001 watts), and the latter the typical power requirement of a suburban train (1 megawatt or 7006100000000000000♠1000000 watts).
The 10th resolution of CGPM in 2003 declared that "the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line." In practice, the decimal point is used in English-speaking countries and most of Asia, and the comma in most of Latin America and in continental European countries.[54]
Spaces should be used as a thousands separator (7006100000000000000♠1000000) in contrast to commas or periods (1,000,000 or 1.000.000) to reduce confusion resulting from the variation between these forms in different countries.
Any line-break inside a number, inside a compound unit, or between number and unit should be avoided. Where this is not possible, line breaks should coincide with thousands separators.
Since the value of "billion" and "trillion" can vary from language to language, the dimensionless terms "ppb" (parts per billion) and "ppt" (parts per trillion) should be avoided. No alternative is suggested in the SI Brochure.
Printing SI symbols[edit]
Further rules[Note 9] are specified in respect of production of text using printing presses, word processors, typewriters and the like.
Symbols are written in upright (Roman) type (m for metres, s for seconds), so as to differentiate from the italic type used for quantities (m for mass, s for displacement). By consensus of international standards bodies, this rule is applied independent of the font used for surrounding text.
In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean language computing (CJK), some of the commonly used units, prefix–unit combinations, or unit–exponent combinations have been allocated predefined single characters taking up a full square. Unicode includes these in its CJK Compatibility[55] and letter-like symbols[56] sub-ranges for back compatibility, without necessarily recommending future usage. These are summarised in Unicode symbols. The cursive ℓ, a letter-like symbol, has been used in a number of countries in addition to China and Japan as a symbol for the litre, but this is not currently recommended by any standards body.
In print, the space used as a thousands separator (commonly called a thin space) is typically narrower than that used between words.
Realisation of units[edit]
Silicon sphere for the Avogadro project used for measuring the Avogadro constant to a relative standard uncertainty of 6992200000000000000♠2×10−8 or less, held by Achim Leistner.[57]
Metrologists carefully distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realisation. The definition of each base unit of the SI is drawn up so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis on which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be made. The realisation of the definition of a unit is the procedure by which the definition may be used to establish the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as the unit. A description of the mise en pratique[Note 10] of the base units is given in an electronic appendix to the SI Brochure.[58][20]:168–169
The published mise en pratique is not the only way in which a base unit can be determined: the SI Brochure states that "any method consistent with the laws of physics could be used to realise any SI unit."[20]:111 In the current (2016) exercise to overhaul the definitions of the base units, various consultative committees of the CIPM have required that more than one mise en pratique shall be developed for determining the value of each unit.[citation needed] In particular:
At least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values having a relative standard uncertainty in the determination of the kilogram of no more than 6992500000000000000♠5×10−8 and at least one of these values should be better than 6992200000000000000♠2×10−8. Both the Watt balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled.[59][60]
When the kelvin is being determined, the relative uncertainty of the Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 6994100000000000000♠10−6 and that these values be corroborated by other measurements.[61]
Post-1960 changes[edit]
The preamble to the Metre Convention read "Desiring the international uniformity and precision in standards of weight and measure, have resolved to conclude a convention ...".[23] Changing technology has led to an evolution of the definitions and standards that has followed two principal strands – changes to SI itself and clarification of how to use units of measure that are not part of SI, but are still nevertheless used on a worldwide basis.
Changes to the SI[edit]
Since 1960 the CGPM has made a number of changes to SI. These include:
The 13th CGPM (1967) renamed the "degree Kelvin" (symbol °K) to the "kelvin" (symbol K)[20]:156
The 14th CGPM (1971) added the mole (symbol mol) to the list of base units.[62]
The 14th GCPM (1971) added the pascal (symbol Pa) for pressure and the siemens (symbol S) for electrical conductance to the list of named derived units.[20]:156
The 15th CGPM (1975) added the becquerel (symbol Bq) for "activity referred to a radionuclide" and the gray (symbol Gy) for ionizing radiation to the list of named derived units[20]:156
In order to distinguish between "absorbed dose" and "dose equivalent", the 16th CGPM (1979) added the sievert (symbol Sv) to the list of named derived units as the unit of dose equivalent.[20]:158
The 16th CGPM (1979) clarified that in a break with convention either the letter "L" or the letter "l" may be used as a symbol for the litre, in order to avoid the risk of confusion between the lower-case letter and the number 1.[20]:159
Sphygmomanometer – the traditional device that measures blood pressure using mercury in a manometer. Pressures are recorded in "millimetres of mercury" – a non-SI unit
The 21st CGPM (1999) added the katal (symbol kat) for catalytic activity to the list of named derived units.[20]:165
In its original form (1960), the SI defined prefixes for values ranging from pico- (symbol p) having a value of 10−12 to tera- (symbol T) having a value of 1012. The list was extended at the 12th CGPM (1964),[20]:152 at the 15th CGPM (1975)[20]:158 and at the 19th CGPM (1991)[20]:164 to give the current range of prefixes.
In addition, advantage was taken of developments in technology to redefine many of the base units enabling the use of higher precision techniques.
Retention of non-SI units[edit]
Although, in theory, SI can be used for any physical measurement, it is recognised that some non-SI units still appear in the scientific, technical and commercial literature, and will continue to be used for many years to come. In addition, certain other units are so deeply embedded in the history and culture of the human race that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future.[63] The CIPM has catalogued such units and included them in the SI Brochure so that they can be used consistently.
The first such group comprises the units of time and of angles and certain legacy non-SI metric units. Most of mankind has used the day and its subdivisions as a basis of time with the result that the second, minute, hour and day, unlike the foot or the pound, were the same regardless of where it was being measured. The second has been catalogued as an SI unit, its multiples as units of measure that may be used alongside the SI. The measurement of angles has likewise had a long history of consistent use – the radian, being 1/2π of a revolution, has mathematical niceties, but it is cumbersome for navigation, hence the retention of the degree, minute and second of arc. The tonne, litre and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units, having been given unique symbols.
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena such as the speed of light, the mass of a proton (approximately one dalton), the charge of an electron and the like. These too have been catalogued in the SI Brochure with consistent symbols, but with the caveat that their physical values need to be measured.[Note 11]
In the interests of standardising health-related units of measure used in the nuclear industry, the 12th CGPM (1964) accepted the continued use of the curie (symbol Ci) as a non-SI unit of activity for radionuclides;[20]: 152 the becquerel, sievert and gray were adopted in later years. Similarly, the millimetre of mercury (symbol mmHg) was retained for measuring blood pressure.[20]:127
Global adoption[edit]
Top view of the 2 kg weight (with a credit card to show the weight's size)
Bottom view of the 2 kg showing the lead plug and assayer's stamp.
A commercial-quality hexagonal 2 kg weight with a lead plug and assayer's mark and year of manufacture ("79" representing "1979") that is similar to, but which predates OIML recommendation R52.[64]
SI has become the world's most widely used system of measurement, used in both everyday commerce and science.[65][66] The change to SI had little effect on everyday life in countries that used the metric system – the metre, kilogram, litre and second remained unchanged as did the way in which they were used – most of the changes only affected measurements in the workplace.[67] The CGPM has a role of recommending changes, but no formal role in the enforcement of such changes—another inter-governmental organisation, the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) provides a forum for harmonisation of national standards and legislation in respect of metrology.
Both the degree and rate of adoption of SI varied from country to country—countries that had not adopted the metric system by 1960 and subsequently adopted SI did so directly as part of their metrication programs while others migrated from the CGS system of units to SI. In 1960, the world's largest economy was that of the United States, followed by the Soviet Union (although an accurate estimate of 1960 GDP for this country is not available), West Germany, France, Japan, China and India.[68] The United States and the United Kingdom were non-metric, Soviet Union was metric, France and Germany had been using the metric system for about a century, and China had been using the metric system for 35 years, while India and Japan had adopted the metric system within the preceding five years. Other non-metric countries were those where the United Kingdom or the United States had considerable influence.[Note 12][69] These differences are brought out in the examples below:
United Kingdom and the former British Empire[edit]
See also: Metrication in the United Kingdom, Metrication in Australia, Metrication in New Zealand, and Metrication in Canada
Even though the use of metric units was legalised for trade in the UK in 1864, the UK had signed the Metre Convention in 1884 and the UK Parliament had defined the yard and the pound in terms of the metre and the kilogram in 1897, the UK continued to use the imperial system of measure[70] and to export the imperial system of units to the Empire. In 1932, the system of Imperial Preference was set up at the Ottawa Conference. Although Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1948 and South Africa in 1961,[71] both continued their close economic ties with the Commonwealth.[72]
Metrication logo of the Board of Trade
When the SI standard was published in 1960, the only major Commonwealth country to have adopted the metric system was India. In 1863, the first reading of a bill that would have made the metric system compulsory passed its first reading in the House of Commons by 110 votes to 75. The bill, however, failed to make the statute book because of lack of parliamentary time.[11]:136 In 1965, after this and similar false starts the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system. The rationale behind the request was that 80% of British exports were to countries that used the metric system or that were considering changing to the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten-year metrication programme. The government agreed to a voluntary policy requiring minimal legislation and costs to be borne where they fell. SI would be used from the outset.[73] The rest of the Commonwealth, South Africa and Ireland followed within a few years; in some countries such as South Africa and Australia metrication was mandatory rather than voluntary.[74][75]
By 1980 all apart from the United Kingdom, Canada and Ireland had effectively completed their programs. In the United Kingdom the breakdown of voluntary metrication in the mid-1970s[76]:§1.8 coincided with the United Kingdom's obligations as part of the EEC to adopt the metric system, resulting in legislation to force metrication in certain areas and the Eurosceptic movement adopting an anti-metrication stance and the United Kingdom seeking a number of derogations from the relevant EEC directives. Once the metrication of most consumer goods was completed in 2000, aspects of British life, especially in government, commerce and industry used SI.[76]:§1.6 & §1.10 Although imperial units are widely encountered in unregulated areas such as the press and everyday speech, SI or units approved for use alongside SI are used in most areas where units of measure are regulated. High-profile exceptions include the sale of draught beer, the sale of milk in returnable containers, and United Kingdom road signs. Irish road signs (road distances and speeds) were converted to metric units during the first decade of the 21st century;[77] otherwise, the situation in Ireland is similar to that in the United Kingdom.[78]
Canada has adopted it for most purposes, but imperial units are still legally permitted and remain in common use throughout a few sectors of Canadian society, particularly in the buildings, trades and railways sectors.[79][80]
European Union[edit]
Main article: European units of measurement directives
In 1960, all the largest industrialised nations that had an established history of using the metric system were members of the European Economic Community (EEC).
In 1972, in order to harmonise units of measure as part of a programme to facilitate trade between member states, the EEC issued directive 71/354/EEC.[81] This directive catalogued units of measure that could be used for "economic, public health, public safety and administrative purposes" and also provided instructions for a transition from the existing units of measure that were in use. The directive replicated the CGPM SI recommendations and in addition pre-empted some of the additions whose use had been recommended by the CIPM in 1969, but had not been ratified by the CGPM.[Note 13] The directive also catalogued units of measure whose status would be reviewed by the end of 1977 (mainly coherent CGS units of measure) and also catalogued units of measure that were to be phased out by the end of 1977, including the use of obsolete names for the sale of timber such as the stere, the use of units of force and pressure that made use of the acceleration due to gravity,[Note 14] the use of non-coherent units of power such as the Pferdestärke (PS), the use of the calorie as a measure of energy and the stilb as a measure of luminance. The directive was silent in respect of units that were specific to one or two countries including the pond, pfund, livre (Dutch, German and French synonyms for 500 g), thereby effectively prohibiting their use as well.
When the directive was revisited during 1977, some of the older units that were being reviewed (such as millimetre of mercury for blood pressure)[Note 15] were retained but others were phased out, thereby broadly aligning the allowable units with SI. The directive was however overhauled to accommodate British and Irish interests in retaining the imperial system in certain circumstances.[82] It was reissued as directive 80/181/EEC. During subsequent revisions, the directive has reflected changes in the definition of SI. The directive also formalised the use of supplementary units, which in 1979 were permitted for a period of ten years. The cut-off date for the use of supplementary units was extended a number of times and in 2009 was extended indefinitely.[83]
India[edit]
Main article: Metrication in India
Banana market stall in Kerala, India – the trader is using hexagonal weights – a shape that is consistent with metric weights, both in India[84] and internationally[64]
India was one of the last countries to start a metrication programme before the advent of SI. When it became independent in 1947, both imperial and native units of measure were in use. Its metrication programme started in 1956 with the passing of the Standards of Weights and Measures Act. Part of the act fixed the value of the seer (a legacy unit of mass) to 0.9331 kg exactly; elsewhere the Act declared that from 1960 all non-metric units of measure were to be illegal.[85]
Four years after the Indian Government announced its metrication programme, SI was published. The result was that the initial metrication programme was a conversion to the CGS system of units and the subsequent adoption of SI has been haphazard. Originally the Indian Government had planned to replace all units of measure with metric units by 1960. In 1976 a new Weights and Measures Act replaced the 1956 Act which, amongst other things, required that all weighing devices be approved before being released onto the market place. However, in 2012, it was reported that traditional units were still encountered in small manufacturing establishments and in the marketplace alongside CGS, SI and imperial measures, particularly in the poorer areas.[86]
The use of the Indian numbering system of crores (7007100000000000000♠10000000) and lakhs (7005100000000000000♠100000), which do not map onto the SI system of prefixes, is widespread and is often found alongside or in place of the western numbering system.[87]
United States[edit]
Main article: Metrication in the United States
Logo of the American National Metrication Council, an organisation set up by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) to coordinate the country's transition to the metric system.
Even though Congress set up a framework for the use of the metric system in the nineteenth century,[88][Note 16] the United States continues to use US customary units, based on English measure passed by parliament under the reign of Queen Anne in 1706, for most purposes apart from science and medicine.[89] In Puerto Rico, metric units are widely used due to its Spanish colonial history.[90]
On 10 February 1964, the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) issued a statement that it was to use SI except where this would have an obvious detrimental effect. In 1968 Congress authorised the U.S. Metric Study, the emphasis of which was to examine the feasibility of adopting SI.[91] The first volume was delivered in 1970.[92] The study recommended that the United States adopt the International System of units,[93] and in 1975 Congress passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, which established a national policy of coordinating and planning for the increased use of the metric measurement system in the United States.[94] Metrication was voluntary and to be coordinated by the United States Metric Board (USMB).[95]
Efforts during the Ford and Carter administrations to force metrication were seized on by many newspaper editorialists as being dictatorial.[6]:365 Public response included resistance, apathy, and sometimes ridicule.[96] The underlying reasons for this response include a relative uniformity of weights and measures (though, notably, US liquid measure differed by about 20% from British Imperial measure, which was adopted throughout the British Empire in 1824) inherited from the United Kingdom in 1776, a homogeneous economy and the influence of business groups and populists in Congress caused the country to look at the short-term costs associated with the change-over, particularly those that would be borne by the consumer rather than long-term benefits of efficiency and international trade. The Metrication Board was disbanded under President Ronald Reagan's direction in 1982.[6]:362–365
The 1988 Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act removed international trade barriers and amended the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, designating the metric system as "the Preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce". The legislation stated that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry, especially small business, as it voluntarily converts to the metric system of measurement.[97] Exceptions were made for the highway and construction industries; the Department of Transportation planned to require metric units by 2000, but this plan was cancelled by the 1998 highway bill TEA21.[98] However, the US military uses the metric system widely, partly because of the need to work with armed services from other nations.[99] Although overall responsibility for labelling requirements of consumer goods lies with Congress and is therefore covered by federal law, details of labelling requirements for certain commodities are controlled by state law or by other authorities such as the Food and Drug Administration, Environmental Protection Agency and Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau.[100] The federal Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), originally passed in 1964, was amended in 1992 to require consumer goods directly under its jurisdiction to be labelled in both customary and metric units. Some industries are engaged in efforts to amend this law to allow manufacturers to use only metric labelling.[101] The National Conference on Weights and Measures has developed the Uniform Packaging and Labeling Regulations (UPLR) which provides a standard approach to those sections of packaging law that are under state control. Acceptance of the UPLR varies from state to state – fourteen states accept it by merely citing it in their legislation.[102]
During the first decade of the 21st century, the EU directive 80/181/EEC had required that dual unit labelling of goods sold within the EU cease by the end of 2009. This was backed up by requests from other nations including Japan and New Zealand to permit metric-only labelling as an aid to trade with those countries.[100] Opinion in the United States was split – a bill to permit metric-only labelling at the federal level was to have been introduced in 2005 but significant opposition from the Food Marketing Institute, representing US grocers, has delayed the introduction of the bill. During a routine decennial review of the directive in 2008, the EU postponed the sunset clause for dual units indefinitely.
Meanwhile, in 1999 the UPLR was amended to permit metric-only labelling and automatically became law in those states that accept UPLR "as is". By 1 January 2009, 48 out of 50 states permit metric-only labelling, either through UPLR or through their own legislation.[100] As of February 2013[update] the use of metric (and therefore SI) units in the United States does not follow any pattern. Dual-unit labelling on consumer goods is mandatory. Some consumer goods such as soft drinks are sold in metric quantities, but milk is sold in customary units. The engineering industry is equally split. The automotive industry is largely metric,[103] but aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner were designed using customary units.[104]
Redefinition of units[edit]
Dependencies of proposed SI unit definitions (in colour) and seven physical constants (in grey) with fixed numerical values. Unlike the current (2014) definition, the base units are derived from one or more constants of nature.
Main article: Proposed redefinition of SI base units
After the metre was redefined in 1960, the kilogram remained the only SI base unit that relied on a specific physical artefact, the international prototype of the kilogram (IPK), for its definition and thus the only unit that was still subject to periodic comparisons of national standard kilograms with the IPK.[105] After the 1996–1998 recalibration, a clear divergence between the various prototype kilograms was observed.[citation needed]
At its 23rd meeting, held in 2007, the CGPM recommended that the CIPM should continue to investigate methods to provide exact fixed values for physical constants of nature that could then be used in the definitions of units of measure in place of the IPK, thus enabling the transition from explicit unit definitions to explicit constant definitions.[106][107]
At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading, United Kingdom, in September 2010, a resolution and draft changes to the SI Brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle.[108][109] The proposals that the CCU put forward were:
In addition to the speed of light, four constants of nature – the Planck constant, an elementary charge, the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro number – be defined to have exact values.
The International prototype kilogram be retired
The current definitions of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin and mole be revised.
The wording of the definitions of all the base units be both tightened up and changed to reflect the change in emphasis from explicit unit to explicit constant definitions.
The CIPM meeting of October 2010 reviewed progress towards establishing fixed values for the constants but found that "the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met. For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time".[110]
At the 24th CGPM meeting, held in October 2011, the CIPM sponsored a resolution in which the requisite definition changes were agreed to in principle and in which the conditions required to be met before the redefinitions could be implemented were restated.[111]
By November 2014 the conditions set out at the 23rd meeting of the CGPM for the unit redefinitions had still not been met, and the 25th meeting of the CGPM, held in November 2014, adopted a similar resolution encouraging further work towards establishing fixed values for the fundamental constants.[112]
The redefinitions are expected to be adopted at the 26th CGPM in the fall of 2018.[113] The CODATA task group on fundamental constants has announced special submission deadlines for data to compute the values that will be announced at this event.[114]
See also[edit]
History of measurement
List of international common standards
List of scientific units named after people
Metre–tonne–second system of units
Names of large numbers
Names of small numbers
Order of magnitude
Organisations
Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements
Standards and conventions
Conventional electrical unit
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Unified Code for Units of Measure
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The differences between "weight" and "mass" were only formally qualified in 1901.
Jump up ^ The 8th edition of the SI Brochure (2008) notes that [at that time of publication] the term "mise en pratique" had not been fully defined.
Jump up ^ The text "Des comparaisons périodiques des étalons nationaux avec les prototypes internationaux" (English: the periodic comparisons of national standards with the international prototypes) in article 6.3 of the Metre Convention distinguishes between the words "standard" (OED: "The legal magnitude of a unit of measure or weight") and "prototype" (OED: "an original on which something is modelled").
Jump up ^ Pferd is German for "horse" and Stärke is German for "strength" or "power". The Pferdestärke is the power needed to raise 75 kg against gravity at the rate of one metre per second. (1 PS = 0.985 HP).
Jump up ^ These bodies include:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (United States)
National Physical Laboratory (NPL) (British)
International Astronomical Union (IAU)
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP)
International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (French: Commission internationale de l'éclairage)
Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) – an interdisciplinary committee of the International Council for Science.
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU)
International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC)
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) (French: Organisation Internationale de Métrologie Légale)
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) (Japan)
National Institute for Natural and Engineering Sciences (PTB) (Germany) (German: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt)
Federal Agency on Technical Regulating and Metrology
Jump up ^ This grouping and the reference to Tables 6, 7, 8, and 9 reflects the 2014 revision of the 8th Edition of the SI Brochure (2006).
Jump up ^ The CGPM have defined the metre in terms of the speed of light, so the speed of light has an exact value.
Jump up ^ For example, the Académie française in the case of French or Council for German Orthography (German: Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung) in the case of German
^ Jump up to: a b Except where specifically noted, these rules are common to both the SI Brochure and the NIST brochure.
Jump up ^ This term is a translation of the official [French] text of the SI Brochure.
Jump up ^ The CGPM has defined the metre in terms of the speed of light, so the speed of light has an exact value.
Jump up ^ These countries included the Commonwealth countries (excluding India), Ireland, Burma, Liberia, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Nepal and Ethiopia.
Jump up ^ Angular units: degree, minute and second, Units of time:day, minute.
Jump up ^ The units that made use of the acceleration due to gravity in their definitions included the kilogram-force/kilopond, torr, technical atmosphere, manometric units of pressure such as metres of water and millimetres of mercury.
Jump up ^ The millimetre of mercury for blood pressure is one catalogued in Table 8 of SI Brochure.
Jump up ^ Use of the metric system was legalised in 1866, the Metre Convention was signed in 1875 and in 1893 the Mendenhall Order defined the pound and the yard in terms of the kilogram and metre respectively.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Convocation of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (25th meeting)" (PDF). International Bureau of Weights and Measures. p. 32. Retrieved 2014-05-27.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook Appendix G". CIA. Retrieved 2017-10-26. The US is the only industrialized nation that does not mainly use the metric system in its commercial and standards activities
^ Jump up to: a b "Amtliche Maßeinheiten in Europa 1842" [Official units of measure in Europe 1842] (in German). Retrieved 2011-03-26Text version of Malaisé's book
Jump up ^ Malaisé, Ferdinand (1842). Theoretisch-practischer Unterricht im Rechnen [Theoretical and practical instruction in arithmetic] (in German). München. pp. 307–322. Retrieved 2013-01-07.
Jump up ^ "The name "kilogram"". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Alder, Ken (2002). The Measure of all Things—The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World. London: Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11507-9.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Terry (2012). From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. Oxford University Press. p. xxvii. ISBN 978-0-19-530786-3. he [Wilkins] proposed essentially what became ... the French decimal metric system
Jump up ^ Wilkins, John (1668). "VII". An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language. The Royal Society. pp. 190–194.
"Reproduction (33 MB)" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-06. ; "Transcription" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Mouton, Gabriel". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. encyclopedia.com. 2008. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (January 2004), "Gabriel Mouton", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews .
^ Jump up to: a b Tavernor, Robert (2007). Smoot's Ear: The Measure of Humanity. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12492-7.
^ Jump up to: a b "Brief history of the SI". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 2012-11-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Tunbridge, Paul (1992). Lord Kelvin, His Influence on Electrical Measurements and Units. Peter Pereginus Ltd. pp. 42–46. ISBN 0-86341-237-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Everett, ed. (1874). "First Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units". Report on the Forty-third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Bradford in September 1873. British Association for the Advancement of Science: 222–225. Retrieved 2013-08-28. Special names, if short and suitable, would ... be better than the provisional designation 'C.G.S. unit of ...'.
^ Jump up to: a b Page, Chester H.; Vigoureux, Paul, eds. (1975-05-20). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures 1875–1975: NBS Special Publication 420. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards. p. 12.
^ Jump up to: a b Maxwell, J. C. (1873). A treatise on electricity and magnetism. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 242–245. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
Jump up ^ Bigourdan, Guillaume (2012) [1901]. Le Système Métrique Des Poids Et Mesures: Son Établissement Et Sa Propagation Graduelle, Avec L'histoire Des Opérations Qui Ont Servi À Déterminer Le Mètre Et Le Kilogramme (facsimile edition) [The Metric System of Weights and Measures: Its Establishment and its Successive Introduction, with the History of the Operations Used to Determine the Metre and the Kilogram] (in French). Ulan Press. p. 176. ASIN B009JT8UZU.
Jump up ^ Smeaton, William A. (2000). "The Foundation of the Metric System in France in the 1790s: The importance of Etienne Lenoir's platinum measuring instruments". Platinum Metals Rev. Ely. 44 (3): 125–134. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
Jump up ^ "The intensity of the Earth's magnetic force reduced to absolute measurement" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14
Jump up ^ Nelson, Robert A. (1981). "Foundations of the international system of units (SI)" (PDF). Physics Teacher: 597.
Jump up ^ "The Metre Convention". Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Convention du mètre / The Metre Convention" (PDF) (in French and English). CGPM. 1921. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
Jump up ^ Fenna, Donald (2002). Weights, Measures and Units. Oxford University Press. International unit. ISBN 0-19-860522-6.
Jump up ^ "In the beginning... Giovanni Giorgi". International Electrotechnical Commission. 2011. Retrieved 2011-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Die gesetzlichen Einheiten in Deutschland" [List of units of measure in Germany] (PDF) (in German). Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB). p. 6. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Porous materials: Permeability" (PDF). Module Descriptor, Material Science, Materials 3. Materials Science and Engineering, Division of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. 2001. p. 3. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
Jump up ^ "BIPM - Resolution 6 of the 9th CGPM". Bipm.org. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "BIPM - Resolution 12 of the 11th CGPM". Bipm.org. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "BIPM - Resolution 3 of the 14th CGPM". Bipm.org. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "1.16". International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM) (PDF) (3rd ed.). International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. 2012. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ S. V. Gupta, Units of Measurement: Past, Present and Future. International System of Units, p. 16, Springer, 2009. ISBN 3642007384.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Taylor, Barry N.; Thompson, Ambler (2008). The International System of Units (SI) (Special publication 330) (PDF). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thompson, Ambler; Taylor, Barry N. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (Special publication 811) (PDF). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Jump up ^ "Criteria for membership of the CCU". Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. Archived from the original on 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2012-09-25.
Jump up ^ "The International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM)".
Jump up ^ Quantities Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, IUPAC
Jump up ^ Page, Chester H.; Vigoureux, Paul, eds. (1975-05-20). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures 1875–1975: NBS Special Publication 420. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards. pp. 238–244.
Jump up ^ Secula, Erik M. (7 October 2014). "Redefining the Kilogram, The Past". Nist.gov. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ McKenzie, A. E. E. (1961). Magnetism and Electricity. Cambridge University Press. p. 322.
Jump up ^ "Units & Symbols for Electrical & Electronic Engineers". Institution of Engineering and Technology. 1996. pp. 8–11. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ McGreevy, Thomas (1997). Cunningham, Peter, ed. The Basis of Measurement: Volume 2 – Metrication and Current Practice. Pitcon Publishing (Chippenham) Ltd. pp. 222–224. ISBN 0-948251-84-0.
Jump up ^ "Resolution 7 of the 9th meeting of the CGPM (1948): Writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
Jump up ^ Thompson, A.; Taylor, B. N. (2010-10-05). "The NIST Guide for the use of the International System of Units". Appendix C. Comments on the References of Appendix D – Bibliography. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
Jump up ^ "ISO 80000-1:2009(en) Quantities and Units—Past 1:General". International Organization for Standardization. 2009. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
Jump up ^ Rowlett, Russ (2004-07-14). "Using Abbreviations or Symbols". University of North Carolina. Retrieved 2013-12-11.
Jump up ^ "SI Conventions". National Physical Laboratory. Retrieved 2013-12-11.
Jump up ^ Wörterbuch Englisch Dictionary German. Limassol: Eurobuch/Eurobooks. 1988.
^ Jump up to: a b "Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States" (PDF). Federal Register. National Archives and Records Administration. 73 (96): 28432–28433. 2008-05-09. FR Doc number E8-11058. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Metric Association FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions about the metric system". Retrieved 2016-05-04.
Jump up ^ Frysinger, James R.; Yin, Pin; Jih, Justin; Jih, Yeeming (2010). "SI Unit and Prefix Names in Chinese". Metric Methods. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
Jump up ^ Victor Mair, "Polysyllabic characters in Chinese writing", Language Log, 2011-08-02
Jump up ^ Thompson, A.; Taylor, B. N. (July 2008). "NIST Guide to SI Units – Rules and Style Conventions". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
Jump up ^ Williamson, Amelia A. (March–April 2008). "Period or Comma? Decimal Styles over Time and Place" (PDF). Science Editor. Council of Science Editors. 31 (2): 42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-28. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
Jump up ^ "3300 CJK Compatibility 33FF" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
Jump up ^ "2100 Letterlike Symbols 214F" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 2017-08-22. <
Jump up ^ "Avogadro Project". National Physical Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-08-19.
Jump up ^ "What is a mise en pratique?". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 2012-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Recommendations of the Consultative Committee for Mass and Related Quantities to the International Committee for Weights and Measures" (PDF). 12th Meeting of the CCM. Sèvres: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 2010-03-26. Retrieved 2012-06-27.
Jump up ^ "Recommendations of the Consultative Committee for Amount of Substance – Metrology in Chemistry to the International Committee for Weights and Measures" (PDF). 16th Meeting of the CCQM. Sèvres: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 15–16 April 2010. Retrieved 2012-06-27.
Jump up ^ "Recommendations of the Consultative Committee for Thermometry to the International Committee for Weights and Measures" (PDF). 25th Meeting of the CCT. Sèvres: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 6–7 May 2010. Retrieved 2012-06-27.
Jump up ^ pg. 221 – McGreevy
Jump up ^ For instance, tyre sizes on motor vehicles and bicycles tend to have the wheel diameter in inches, and the remaining dimensions in metric.
^ Jump up to: a b "International Recommendation R 52 – Hexagonal weights – Metrological and technical requirements" (PDF). International Organization of Legal Metrology. 2004. Retrieved 2012-12-28.
Jump up ^ "Official BIPM definitions". Retrieved 2012-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Essentials of the SI: Introduction". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2012-11-26.
Jump up ^ "White Paper on Metrication (1972) – Summary and Conclusions" (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate. para 22–23.
Jump up ^ Dutta, M. (2008). "Chapter 3: Optimum Currency Areas: U.S. Dollar, Euro and Asian Money" (PDF). Rutgers University. Table 3.1. Retrieved 2012-12-02.
Jump up ^ Page, Chester H.; Vigoureux, Paul, eds. (1975-05-20). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures 1875–1975: NBS Special Publication 420. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards. p. 244.
Jump up ^ "White Paper on Metrication (1972) – Summary and Conclusions" (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate. para 19.
Jump up ^ Cinchon, Deborah (1996). "APPENDIX B – Guyana and Belize: The Commonwealth of Nations". Country studies. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
Jump up ^ Fram, Nicholas (2006-05-17). Decolonization, the Commonwealth, and British Trade, 1945–2004 (PDF) (BA (Hons) thesis). Stanford University.
Jump up ^ "White Paper on Metrication (1972) – Summary and Conclusions" (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate. para 42–45.
Jump up ^ "South Africa Metrication". South African Government. 1977-09-15. Archived from the original on 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Final Annual Report (1980–1981) of the (Australian) Metric Conversion Board (MCB)". Retrieved 2012-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Final Report of the Metrication Board (1980)" (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate.
Jump up ^ "Roads go metric across country today". RTÉ News. 2005-01-20. p. 9. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
Jump up ^ "National Plan to Improve Literacy and Numeracy in Schools: Submission to the Department of Education and Skills" (PDF). Irish Business and Employers Confederation. February 2011. p. 9. Retrieved 2013-02-16. Other specific numeracy requirements include ... awareness of the different measures and the ability to convert them. Despite all the moves towards metrication, imperial and metric measures remain in use.
Jump up ^ "Weights and Measures Act". Retrieved 2012-11-26.
Jump up ^ Weights and Measures Act, Retrieved 2012-09-18, Act current to 2012-09-18. "Canadian units (5) The Canadian units of measurement are as set out and defined in Schedule II, and the symbols and abbreviations therefor are as added pursuant to subparagraph 6(1)(b)(ii)."
Jump up ^ "Council Directive 71/354/EEC: On the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to units of measurement". The Council of the European Communities. 1971-10-18. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ The Council of the European Communities (1979-12-21). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC". Retrieved 2009-02-07.
Jump up ^ The Council of the European Communities (2009-05-27). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC". Retrieved 2009-09-14.
Jump up ^ Gupta, S.V. (2004). "Verification of commercial weights" (PDF). Paris: International Organisation of Legal Metrology: 6. Expert Report – OIML E 3 (2004). Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ Mandavilli, Sujay Rao. "Metrication in India". Metric usage and metrication in other countries. US Metric Association. Archived from the original on 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
Jump up ^ Subramaniam, K.; Bose, Arindam (2012-07-14). Measurement Units and Modes: The Indian Context (PDF). 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education (PDF). pp. 1973–1983. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Style Sheet". Mumbai: Economic and Political Weekly. Retrieved 2013-01-31.
Jump up ^ Barbrow, Louis E.; Judson, Lewis V. (March 1976) [First published October 1963]. "Weights and Measures Standards of the United States – A brief history, Special Publication 447". National Bureau of Standards. pp. 10–20. LCCN 76-600055. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Appendix G : Weights and Measures". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
Jump up ^ Loidi, Juan Navarro; Saenz, Pilar Merino (6–9 September 2006). "The units of length in the Spanish treatises of military engineering" (PDF). The Global and the Local: The History of Science and the Cultural Integration of Europe. Proceedings of the 2nd ICESHS. Cracow, Poland: The Press of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 2011-03-17.
Jump up ^ "The United States and the Metric System" (PDF). Office of Weights and Measures/Metric Program. October 1997. NIST LC1136. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
Jump up ^ Simone, Daniel V. (December 1970). U.S. Metric Study Report – International Standards. National Bureau of Standards. Special Publication 345-1.
Jump up ^ Rowlett, Russ (2000-08-08). "The Metric System in the United States". How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. Retrieved 2013-01-21. Henceforth it shall be the policy of the National Bureau of Standards to use the units of the International System (SI), as adopted by the 11th General Conference of Weights and Measures (October 1960), except when the use of these units would obviously impair communication or reduce the usefulness of a report.
Jump up ^ Ford, Gerald R. (1975-12-23). Wooley, John; Peters, Gerhard, eds. "Statement on Signing the Metric Conversion Act of 1975". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
Jump up ^ "The Metric System in the U.S.". Event-Based Science Project. 2003. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
Jump up ^ Brockenbrough, Martha. "Whatever Happened to the Metric System?". MSN Encarta column. Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2013-01-21.
Jump up ^ Cass, Ronald A. (Winter 1991). "Velvet Fist in an Iron Glove: The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988" (PDF). Regulation. Washington DC: Cato Institute: 50–56. Retrieved 2013-01-21.
Jump up ^ "DYKT: Did You Know That". Lamar.colostate.edu. 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2013-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Guide for Identification and Development of Metric Standards" (PDF). Office of the Under Secretary of Defense Acquisition, Technology & Logistics. December 2003: 3. SD-10. Retrieved 2013-01-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gentry, Elizabeth J. "Voluntary Metric Labeling" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 3–6. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
Jump up ^ "Forum on Permissible Metric-Only Labeling". NIST. 2006-10-04. Archived from the original on 2006-10-10. Retrieved 2013-01-22.
Jump up ^ Frysinger, James R. (2010). "The Uniform Packaging and Labeling Regulation (UPLR)". Metric Methods. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
Jump up ^ Greenslade, Joe (August 2012). "Why Specify ISO Standards For Metric Fasteners?". American Fastener Journal. Scotsdale, Arizona: 48–55. ISSN 1064-3834. Retrieved 2013-08-16. The decision by General Motors, FORD, and Chrysler to adopt the metric system of measurement in design impacted all industrialized countries in the world. The car manufacturers wanted to be able to source products anywhere in the world and have the components be compatible regardless of where the parts were made, purchased or assembled.
Jump up ^ Reisman, Lisa (2011-08-16). "Not So Fast, Comac: C919 is DOA, But Boeing and Airbus Duopoly Dead Anyway". MetalMiner. Azul Partners. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Redefining the kilogram". UK National Physical Laboratory. Retrieved 2014-11-30.
Jump up ^ Newell, David B. "A more fundamental International System of Units" (PDF). Physics Today. Retrieved 2014-11-30.
Jump up ^ Mills, Ian (September–October 2011). "Part II—Explicit-Constant Definitions for the Kilogram and for the Mole". Chemistry International. 33 (5): 12–15. ISSN 0193-6484.
Jump up ^ Mills, Ian (2010-09-29). "On the possible future revision of the International System of Units, the SI" (PDF). CCU. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
Jump up ^ Mills, Ian (2010-09-29). "Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units" (PDF). CCU. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
Jump up ^ "Towards the "new SI"". International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Retrieved 2011-02-20.
Jump up ^ Resolution 1 – On the possible future revision of the International System of Units, the SI (PDF). 24th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures. Sèvres, France. 17–21 October 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-25.
Jump up ^ Resolution 1 of the 25th CGPM (2014). 25th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures. Sèvres, France. 18–20 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Wood, B. (3–4 November 2014). "Report on the Meeting of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants" (PDF). BIPM. p. 7. [BIPM director Martin] Milton responded to a question about what would happen if ... the CIPM or the CGPM voted not to move forward with the redefinition of the SI. He responded that he felt that by that time the decision to move forward should be seen as a foregone conclusion.
Jump up ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Newell, David B.; Taylor, Barry N. (2015). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2014 – Summary". Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.22827 (inactive 2017-06-08). Because of the good progress made in both experiment and theory since the 31 December 2010 closing date of the 2010 CODATA adjustment, the uncertainties of the 2014 recommended values of h, e, k and NA are already at the level required for the adoption of the revised SI by the 26th CGPM in the fall of 2018. The formal road map to redefinition includes a special CODATA adjustment of the fundamental constants with a closing date for new data of 1 July 2017 in order to determine the exact numerical values of h, e, k and NA that will be used to define the New SI. A second CODATA adjustment with a closing date of 1 July 2018 will be carried out so that a complete set of recommended values consistent with the New SI will be available when it is formally adopted by the 26th CGPM.
Further reading[edit]
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. Electronic version.
Unit Systems in Electromagnetism
MW Keller et al. Metrology Triangle Using a Watt Balance, a Calculable Capacitor, and a Single-Electron Tunneling Device
"The Current SI Seen From the Perspective of the Proposed New SI". Barry N. Taylor. Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Vol. 116, No. 6, Pgs. 797–807, Nov–Dec 2011.
B. N. Taylor, Ambler Thompson, International System of Units (SI), National Institute of Standards and Technology 2008 edition, ISBN 1437915582.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to International System of Units.
Official
BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (SI maintenance agency) (home page)
BIPM brochure (SI reference)
ISO 80000-1:2009 Quantities and units – Part 1: General
NIST Official Publications
NIST Special Publication 330, 2008 Edition: The International System of Units (SI)
NIST Special Publication 811, 2008 Edition: Guide for the Use of the International System of Units
NIST Special Pub 814: Interpretation of the SI for the United States and Federal Government Metric Conversion Policy
Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units
International System of Units at DMOZ
EngNet Metric Conversion Chart Online Categorised Metric Conversion Calculator
U.S. Metric Association. 2008. A Practical Guide to the International System of Units
History
LaTeX SIunits package manual gives a historical background to the SI system.
Research
The metrological triangle
Recommendation of ICWM 1 (CI-2005)
Pro-metric advocacy groups
The UK Metric Association
The US Metric Association
Pro-customary measures pressure groups
Pro-customary measures groups at DMOZ
[show]
v
t
e
SI units
Authority: International System of Units (BIPM)
Base units
ampere
candela
kelvin
kilogram
metre
mole
second
Derived units with special names
becquerel
coulomb
degree Celsius
farad
gray
henry
hertz
joule
katal
lumen
lux
newton
ohm
pascal
radian
siemens
sievert
steradian
tesla
volt
watt
weber
Other accepted units
astronomical unit
bar
dalton
day
decibel
degree of arc
electronvolt
hectare
hour
litre
minute
minute of arc
neper
second of arc
tonne
atomic units
natural units
See also
Conversion of units
Metric prefixes
Proposed redefinitions
Systems of measurement
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Systems of measurement
Current
General
International System of Units (SI)
UK imperial system
US customary units
Myanmar
Indian
Specific
Apothecaries'
Avoirdupois
Troy
Astronomical
Electrical
Temperature
Natural
atomic
geometrised
Gaussian
Lorentz–Heaviside
Planck
quantum chromodynamical
Stoney
Background
Metric
Overview
Introduction
Outline
History
Metrication
UK/US
Overview
Comparison
Foot–pound–second (FPS)
Historic
Metric
metre–kilogram–second (MKS)
metre–tonne–second (MTS)
centimetre–gram–second (CGS)
gravitational
quadrant–eleventh-gram–second (QES) (hebdometre–undecimogramme–second (HUS))
Europe
Byzantine
Cornish
Cypriot
Czech
Danish
Dutch
English
Estonian
Finnish
French (Trad. • Mesures usuelles)
German
Greek
Hungary
Icelandic
Irish
Scottish
Italian
Latvia
Luxembourgian
Maltese
Norwegian
Ottoman
Polish
Portuguese
Romanian
Russian
Serbian
Slovak
Spanish
Swedish
Switzerland
Welsh
Winchester measure
Asia
Afghan
Cambodian
Chinese
Hindu
Hong Kong
India
Indonesian
Japanese
Korean
Mongolian
Omani
Philippine
Pegu
Singaporean
Sri Lankan
Syrian
Taiwanese
Tatar
Thai
Vietnamese
Africa
Algerian
Ethiopian
Egyptian
Eritrean
Guinean
Libyan
Malagasy
Mauritian
Moroccan
Seychellois
Somalian
South African
Tunisian
Tanzanian
North America
Costa Rican
Cuban
Haitian
Honduran
Mexico
Nicaraguan
Puerto Rican
South America
Argentine
Brazilian
Chilean
Colombian
Paraguayan
Peruvian
Uruguayan
Venezuelan
Ancient
Arabic
Biblical and Talmudic
Egyptian
Greek
Hindu
Indian
Mesopotamian
Persian
Roman
List articles
Humorous (FFF system)
Obsolete
Unusual
Other
N-body
Modulor
Authority control
GND: 4077436-3
NDL: 00566445
Physics portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_System_of_Units&oldid=807177022"
Categories:
International System of Units
Systems of units
International standards
Hidden categories:
Articles containing French-language text
Articles containing German-language text
CS1 German-language sources (de)
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Articles with inconsistent citation formats
Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017
Use dmy dates from May 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017
Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2013
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles containing Chinese-language text
Articles containing Japanese-language text
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016
Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2013
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014
Articles with DMOZ links
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Good articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
Аҧсшәа
العربية
Aragonés
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
贛語
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
La .lojban.
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Patois
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Ripoarisch
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Scots
Sesotho sa Leboa
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Tarandíne
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
文言
West-Vlams
Winaray
吴语
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 October 2017, at 11:32.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: img

values: This is a good article. Click here for more information.

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/SI_(disambiguation)
mw-redirect mw-disambig
SI (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: href class

attrs: class style

values: General Conference on Weights and Measures

values:
/wiki/Developed_countries
mw-redirect
Developed countries

values: British Association for the Advancement of Science

values:
/wiki/Derived_unit
mw-redirect
Derived unit

values:
/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Metre
mw-redirect
Treaty of the Metre

values:
/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Delambre
mw-redirect
Jean-Baptiste Delambre

values:
/wiki/M%C3%A8tre_des_Archives
mw-redirect
Mètre des Archives

values:
/wiki/Kilogramme_des_Archives
mw-redirect
Kilogramme des Archives

values:
/wiki/Archives_nationales_(France)
mw-redirect
Archives nationales (France)

values:
/wiki/Dynamic_viscosity
mw-redirect
Dynamic viscosity

values:
/wiki/Stokes_(unit)
mw-redirect
Stokes (unit)

values:
/wiki/Kinematic_viscosity
mw-redirect
Kinematic viscosity

values: font-size: 85%; float:right; margin-left: 1em;

values:
/wiki/International_prototype_metre
mw-redirect
International prototype metre

values:
/wiki/International_prototype_kilogram
mw-redirect
International prototype kilogram

values: International Committee for Weights and Measures

values: International Bureau of Weights and Measures

values: CGS-based system for electrostatic units

values: CGS-based system for electromechanical units

values:
/wiki/MKS-based_system
mw-redirect
MKS-based system

values:
/wiki/Electrical_resistance
mw-redirect
Electrical resistance

values:
/wiki/Second_World_War
mw-redirect
Second World War

values:
/wiki/Systems_of_measurement
mw-redirect
Systems of measurement

values: International Union of Pure and Applied Physics

values: Edit section: International System of Quantities

values:
/wiki/Length_dimension
mw-redirect
Length dimension

values: Edit section: SI Brochure and conversion factors

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values: National Institute of Standards and Technology

values:
/wiki/SI_base_units
mw-redirect
SI base units

values:
/wiki/Potential_difference
mw-redirect
Potential difference

values:
/wiki/Electrical_charge
mw-redirect
Electrical charge

values:
/wiki/Laws_of_physics
mw-redirect
Laws of physics

values: display:block; line-height:1em; margin:0 0.1em;

values: display:block; line-height:1em; margin:0 0.1em; border-top:1px solid;

values: display:inline-block; vertical-align:-0.5em; font-size:85%; text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Triple_point_of_water
mw-redirect
Triple point of water

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: International Committee on Atomic Weights

values:
/wiki/Derived_units
mw-redirect
Derived units

values:
/wiki/Density_of_water
mw-redirect
Density of water

values:
/wiki/Stress_(physics)
mw-redirect
Stress (physics)

values:
/wiki/Mechanical_work
mw-redirect
Mechanical work

values:
/wiki/Quantity_of_electricity
mw-redirect
Quantity of electricity

values:
/wiki/Electrical_potential_difference
mw-redirect
Electrical potential difference

values:
/wiki/Reactance_(electronics)
mw-redirect
Reactance (electronics)

values:
/wiki/Electrical_conductance
mw-redirect
Electrical conductance

values:
/wiki/Magnetic_flux_density
mw-redirect
Magnetic flux density

values:
/wiki/Degree_Celsius
mw-redirect
Degree Celsius

values:
/wiki/Catalytic_activity
mw-redirect
Catalytic activity

values: margin:1em auto 1em auto;line-height:1.4

values: Template talk:SI prefixes (inline table)

values: Edit section: Non-SI units accepted for use with SI

values:
/wiki/Minute_of_arc
mw-redirect
Minute of arc

values:
/wiki/Second_of_arc
mw-redirect
Second of arc

values:
/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit
mw-redirect
Atomic mass unit

values:
/wiki/Millimetre_of_mercury
mw-redirect
Millimetre of mercury

values: Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field

values: Edit section: Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: International Organization for Standardization

values:
plainlinks noprint asof-tag update
display:none;

values:
/wiki/Common_noun
mw-redirect
Common noun

values:
/wiki/English_plural
mw-redirect
English plural

values:
/wiki/Latin_characters
mw-redirect
Latin characters

values: Edit section: Unit symbols and the values of quantities

values:
/wiki/Dot_operator
mw-redirect
Dot operator

values:
/wiki/Solidus_(punctuation)
mw-redirect
Solidus (punctuation)

values:
/wiki/Magnetic_field_strength
mw-redirect
Magnetic field strength

values:
/wiki/Decimal_marker
mw-redirect
Decimal marker

values: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe

values:
/wiki/Thousands_separator
mw-redirect
Thousands separator

values:
/wiki/Billion_(word)
mw-redirect
Billion (word)

values:
/wiki/Avogadro_project
mw-redirect
Avogadro project

values:
/wiki/New_SI_definitions
mw-redirect
New SI definitions

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)

values:
/wiki/Watt_balance
mw-redirect
Watt balance

values:
/wiki/Dose_equivalent
mw-redirect
Dose equivalent

values:
/wiki/Dalton_(unit)
mw-redirect
Dalton (unit)

values: A hexagonal 2kg weight – top view showing inscription

values: A hexagonal 2kg weight – bottom view showing lead plug and assayer's stamp

values: International Organization of Legal Metrology

values:
/wiki/CGS_system_of_units
mw-redirect
CGS system of units

values: Edit section: United Kingdom and the former British Empire

values:
/wiki/UK_Parliament
mw-redirect
UK Parliament

values:
/wiki/Federation_of_British_Industry
mw-redirect
Federation of British Industry

values:
/wiki/Board_of_Trade
mw-redirect
Board of Trade

values:
/wiki/Imperial_unit
mw-redirect
Imperial unit

values: European units of measurement directives

values:
/wiki/US_customary_units
mw-redirect
US customary units

values:
/wiki/U.S._Metric_Study
mw-redirect
U.S. Metric Study

values: United States Declaration of Independence

values: Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act

values: Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century

values:
/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency
mw-redirect
Environmental Protection Agency

values: Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau

values:
/wiki/Consumer_good
mw-redirect
Consumer good

values: National Conference on Weights and Measures

values: Uniform Packaging and Labeling Regulations (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/European_Community
mw-redirect
European Community

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)

values:
/wiki/Avogadro_number
mw-redirect
Avogadro number

values: Committee on Data for Science and Technology

values: List of scientific units named after people

values: Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)

values: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

values: International Commission on Illumination

values: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

values: Federal Agency on Technical Regulating and Metrology

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/si/history-si/
external text

values:
/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards
mw-redirect
National Bureau of Standards

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B009JT8UZU

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/6/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/14/3/
external text

values: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/7/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.nist.gov/pml/pubs/sp811/
external text

values: International Organisation of Legal Metrology

values:
nofollow
external text
//lccn.loc.gov/76-600055

values: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.metricmethods.com/UPLR.php

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1064-3834

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0193-6484

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/si/new_si/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/25/1/
external text

values: Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry

values: commons:Category:International System of Units

values:
nofollow
http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.ukma.org.uk/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.metric.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/File:SI_base_units.svg
image
SI base unit

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Indian_weights_and_measures
mw-redirect
Indian weights and measures

values: Imperial and US customary measurement systems

values: Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems

values: Quadrant–eleventh-gram–second system (page does not exist)

values: Hebdometre–undecimogramme–second system (page does not exist)

values: Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution

values:
/wiki/Serbian_units_of_measurement
mw-redirect
Serbian units of measurement

values:
/wiki/Korean_units
mw-redirect
Korean units

values:
/wiki/Libyan_units_of_measurements
mw-redirect
Libyan units of measurements

values: Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement

values: Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077436-3

values: Stylised atom with three Bohr model orbits and stylised nucleus.svg

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: Category:Articles containing French-language text

values: Category:Articles containing German-language text

values: Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats

values: Category:Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2013

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2013

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/International_System_of_Units
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: نظام الوحدات الدولي – Arabic

values: Sistema Internacional d'Unidatz – Aragonese

values: আন্তৰ্জাতিক একক পদ্ধতি – Assamese

values: Sistema Internacional d'Unidaes – Asturian

values: Beynəlxalq vahidlər sistemi – Azerbaijani

values: আন্তর্জাতিক একক পদ্ধতি – Bangla

values: Kok-chè Tan-ūi Hē-thóng – Chinese (Min Nan)

values: Халыҡ-ара берәмектәр системаһы – Bashkir

values: СІ (міжнародная сістэма адзінак вымярэння) – Belarusian

values: Міжнародная сыстэма СІ – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Международна система единици – Bulgarian

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_sistem
SI sistem – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values: Sistema Internacional d'Unitats – Catalan

values: Internationales Einheitensystem – German

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Διεθνές σύστημα μονάδων – Greek

values: Sistema Internacional de Unidades – Spanish

values: دستگاه بین‌المللی یکاها – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ynternasjonaal Systeem fan Ienheden – Western Frisian

values: Sisteme internazionâl di unitâts – Friulian

values: Siostam Eadar-nàiseanta nan Aonadan – Scottish Gaelic

values: Sistema Internacional de Unidades – Galician

values: 국제단위계 – Korean

values: Միավորների միջազգային համակարգ – Armenian

values: अन्तरराष्ट्रीय मात्रक प्रणाली – Hindi

values: Međunarodni sustav mjernih jedinica – Croatian

values: Internasional a Sistema dagiti Yunit – Iloko

values: Sistem Satuan Internasional – Indonesian

values: Systema International de Unitates – Interlingua

values: Sistema internazionale di unità di misura – Italian

values: מערכת היחידות הבינלאומית – Hebrew

values: Sistem Pétungan Internasional – Javanese

values: ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಏಕಮಾನ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ – Kannada

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-krc badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: ერთეულთა საერთაშორისო სისტემა – Georgian

values: Өлшем бірліктерінің халықаралық жүйесі – Kazakh

values: Sîstema Navneteweyî ya Yekeyan – Kurdish

values: СИ өлчөө системи – Kyrgyz

values: Starptautiskā mērvienību sistēma – Latvian

values: Internationaalt Eenheetesystem – Luxembourgish

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values: Sistema internazional de unitaa de misura – Lombard

values: Меѓународен систем на мерни единици – Macedonian

values: അന്താരാഷ്ട്ര ഏകകവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam

values: आंतरराष्ट्रीय गणना पद्धती – Marathi

values: النظام الدولى للوحدات – Egyptian Arabic

values: Олон улсын нэгжийн систем – Mongolian

values: အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ ယူနစ် စနစ် – Burmese

values: एस् आइ – Newari

values: Sistèma Internacionau d'Unitats – Occitan

values: ਕੌਮਾਂਤਰੀ ਇਕਾਈ ਢਾਂਚਾ – Punjabi

values: ناپاں دا انٹرنیشنل پربندھ – Western Punjabi

values: Intanashinal Sistim a Yuunit – Jamaican Creole English

values: ប្រព័ន្ធខ្នាតអន្តរជាតិ – Khmer

values: Internatschonal Eenheitensystem – Low German

values: Sistema Internacional de Unidades – Portuguese

values: Sistemul internațional de unități – Romanian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_tupuy
SI tupuy – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Международная система единиц – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Northern Sotho
nso
nso
interlanguage-link-target

values: International System of Units – Simple English

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values: Мєждоународьнъ мѣръ сѷстима – Church Slavic

values: سیستەمی نێونەتەوەییی یەکەکان – Central Kurdish

values: Међународни систем јединица – Serbian

values: Međunarodni sistem јedinica – Serbo-Croatian

values: Kansainvälinen yksikköjärjestelmä – Finnish

values: Internationella måttenhetssystemet – Swedish

values: Pandaigdigang Sistema ng mga Yunit – Tagalog

values: அனைத்துலக முறை அலகுகள் – Tamil

values: Sisteme 'Ndernazionale de aunità de mesure – Tarantino

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: అంతర్జాతీయ ప్రమాణాల పద్ధతి – Telugu

values: ระบบหน่วยวัดระหว่างประเทศ – Thai

values: Міжнародна система одиниць (СІ) – Ukrainian

values: بین الاقوامی نظام اکائیات – Urdu

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values: Kanasodnon Sistema han mga Yunit – Waray

values: אינטערנאציאנאלע סיסטעם פון איינסן – Yiddish

values:
https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI
SI – Samogitian
bat-smg
bat-smg
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-International_System_of_Units rootpage-International_System_of_Units vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view