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Small intestine
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Small Intestine
Diagram showing the small intestine and surrounding structures
Details
System
Digestive system
Artery
Superior mesenteric artery
Vein
Hepatic portal vein
Nerve
Celiac ganglia, vagus[1]
Lymph
Intestinal lymph trunk
Identifiers
Latin
Intestinum tenue
MeSH
D007421
TA
A05.6.01.001
FMA
7200
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger-like protrusions called villi.[2]
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Size
1.2 Parts
1.3 Blood supply
1.4 Histology
1.5 Development
2 Function
2.1 Digestion
2.2 Absorption
2.3 Immunological
3 Gene and protein expression
4 Clinical significance
5 Other animals
6 Society and culture
7 Additional images
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Structure[edit]
Size[edit]
The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft).[3] The typical length in a living person is 3m-5m.[4][5] The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured.[3] Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.[3]
It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age,[6] and 2.5–3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm.[7][8] On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated.[7][9] The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.[10]
Parts[edit]
The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.
The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm (7.9 inches) to 25 cm (9.8 inches) in length, and shaped like a "C".[11] It surrounds the head of the pancreas. It receives gastric chyme from the stomach, together with digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the liver (bile). The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme.
The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the plicae circulares, and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum.
The ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction.
The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.[12]
Blood supply[edit]
The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery.[13] Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.[13]
Histology[edit]
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn.
The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
Layer
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Serosa 1st part serosa, 2nd–4th adventitia Normal Normal
Muscularis externa Longitudinal and circular layers, with Auerbach's (myenteric) plexus in between Same as duodenum Same as duodenum
Submucosa Brunner's glands and Meissner's (submucosal) plexus No BG No BG
Mucosa: muscularis mucosae Normal Normal Normal
Mucosa: lamina propria No PP No PP Peyer's patches
Mucosa: intestinal epithelium Simple columnar. Contains goblet cells, Paneth cells Similar to duodenum ?
Development[edit]
See also: Development of the digestive system
The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube.[14] By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.[14]
Function[edit]
Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
Digestion[edit]
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:
Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption.[15] Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products.
Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them, which aids access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water-soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption.
Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria. Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase, which further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase and lactase. Lactase is absent in some adult humans and, for them, lactose (a disaccharide), as well as most polysaccharides, is not digested in the small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all, despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose, making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine.
Absorption[edit]
Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.
Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
Immunological[edit]
The small intestine supports the body's immune system.[16] The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system. Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.[17]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[18][19] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6. Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.[20]
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Gastrointestinal disease
The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10% of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.
Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders
Meconium ileus
Paralytic ileus
Volvulus
Hernia
Intussusception
Adhesions
Obstruction from external pressure
Obstruction by masses in the lumen (foreign bodies, bezoar, gallstones)
Infectious diseases
Giardiasis
Ascariasis
Tropical sprue
Tape worm (Diphyllobothrium latum, Taenia solium, Hymenolepsis nana)
Hookworm (e.g. Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale)
Nematodes (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides)
Other Protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, Entamoeba histolytica)
Bacterial infections
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Salmonella enterica
Campylobacter
Shigella
Yersinia
Clostridium difficile (antibiotic-associated colitis, Pseudomembranous colitis)
Mycobacterium (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Whipple's disease
Vibrio (cholera)
Enteric (typhoid) fever (Salmonella enterica var. typhii) and paratyphoid fever
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene)
Viral infections
Rotavirus
Norovirus
Astrovirus
Adenovirus
Calicivirus
Neoplasms (cancers)
Adenocarcinoma
Carcinoid
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)
Lymphoma
Sarcoma
Leiomyoma
Metastatic tumors, especially SCLC or melanoma
Developmental, congenital or genetic conditions
Duodenal (intestinal) atresia
Hirschsprung's disease
Meckel's diverticulum
Pyloric stenosis
Pancreas divisum
Ectopic pancreas
Enteric duplication cyst
Situs inversus
Cystic fibrosis
Malrotation
Persistent urachus
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Disaccharidase (lactase) deficiencies
Primary bile acid malabsorption
Gardner syndrome
Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome (FAP)
Other conditions
Crohn's disease, and the more general inflammatory bowel disease
Typhlitis (neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed
Coeliac disease (sprue or non-tropical sprue)
Mesenteric ischemia
Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein
Arteriovenous malformation
Gastric dumping syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome
Duodenal (peptic) ulcers
Gastrointestinal perforation
Hyperthyroidism
Diverticulitis
Radiation enterocolitis
Mesenteric cysts
Peritoneal Infection
Sclerosing retroperitonitis
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
Endometriosis
Other animals[edit]
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu [21]
In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.[21]
The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.[21]
There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.[21]
In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.[21]
Society and culture[edit]
In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.[22]
Additional images[edit]
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Small intestine.
Large intestine
Stomach
References[edit]
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Bibliography[edit]
Sherwood, Lauralee (2006). Fundamentals of physiology: a human perspective (Third ed.). Florence, KY: Cengage Learning. p. 768. ISBN 0-534-46697-4.
Solomon et al. (2002) Biology Sixth Edition, Brooks-Cole/Thomson Learning ISBN 0-03-033503-5
Townsend et al. (2004) Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, Elsevier ISBN 0-7216-0409-9
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Thomson A, Drozdowski L, Iordache C, Thomson B, Vermeire S, Clandinin M, Wild G (2003). "Small bowel review: Normal physiology, part 2". Dig Dis Sci. 48 (8): 1565–81. doi:10.1023/A:1024724109128. PMID 12924652.
External links[edit]
Small intestine at the Human Protein Atlas
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Corporation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Corporation (disambiguation).
"Corporate" redirects here. For other uses, see Corporate (disambiguation).
This article is part of a series on
Corporate law
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McDonald's Corporation is one of the most recognizable corporations in the world.
A corporation is a company or group of people or an organisation authorized to act as a single entity (legally a person) and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter (i.e. by an ad hoc act granted by a monarch or passed by a parliament or legislature). Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations enjoy limited liability for their investors, which can lead to losses being externalized from investors to the government or general public.[1]
Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered into two kinds: by whether they can issue stock or not, or by whether they are formed to make a profit or not.[2]
Where local law distinguishes corporations by the ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as "stock corporations", ownership of the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as "stockholders" or "shareholders". Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as "non-stock" corporations; those who are considered the owners of a non-stock corporation are persons (or other entities) who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a "member" of the corporation.
Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as "for profit" and "not-for-profit" corporations, respectively.
There is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for-profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for-profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, but some for-profit corporations may choose to be non-stock. To simplify the explanation, whenever "Stockholder" or "shareholder" is used in the rest of this article to refer to a stock corporation, it is presumed to mean the same as "member" for a non-profit corporation or for a profit, non-stock corporation.
Registered corporations have legal personality and their shares are owned by shareholders[3][4] whose liability is generally limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation.
In American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations.[5] In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the term company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the word company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity.
Late in the 19th century, a new form of company having the limited liability protections of a corporation, and the more favorable tax treatment of either a sole proprietorship or partnership was developed. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock. In Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of non-corporate organization became available in the United States and other countries, and was known as the limited liability company or LLC. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations (even though they have many of the same features), they will not be discussed in this article.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Mercantilism
1.2 Modern company law
1.2.1 Deregulation
1.2.2 Limited liability
1.2.3 Further developments
2 Why corporations arise
3 Ownership and control
3.1 Formation
3.2 Naming
4 Personhood
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
See also: List of oldest companies
1/8 share of the Stora Kopparberg mine, dated June 16, 1288.
The word "corporation" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a "body of people". By the time of Justinian (reigned 527–565), Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas, corpus or collegium. These included the state itself (the Populus Romanus), municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives. Private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor.[6]
Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights were found in ancient Rome, and the Maurya Empire in ancient India.[7] In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope and the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347.
In medieval times, traders would do business through common law constructs, such as partnerships. Whenever people acted together with a view to profit, the law deemed that a partnership arose. Early guilds and livery companies were also often involved in the regulation of competition between traders.
Mercantilism[edit]
See also: Mercantilism
Replica of an East Indiaman of the Dutch East India Company/United East Indies Company. The Dutch East India Company (VOC)[8] is often considered by many to be the first historical model of the modern corporation.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] The VOC was also the first permanently organized limited-liability joint-stock corporation, with a permanent capital base.[17][18][19][20][21]
A bond issued by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), dating from 1623, for the amount of 2,400 florins
The progenitors of the modern corporation were the chartered companies, such as the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Hudson's Bay Company, which were created to lead the colonial ventures of European nations in the 17th century. Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch government, the Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the European demand for spices. Investors in the VOC had issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Shareholders were also explicitly granted limited liability in the company's royal charter.[22]
In England, the government created corporations under a royal charter or an Act of Parliament with the grant of a monopoly over a specified territory. The best-known example, established in 1600, was the East India Company of London. Queen Elizabeth I granted it the exclusive right to trade with all countries to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. Some corporations at this time would act on the government's behalf, bringing in revenue from its exploits abroad. Subsequently, the Company became increasingly integrated with English and later British military and colonial policy, just as most corporations were essentially dependent on the Royal Navy's ability to control trade routes.
Labeled by both contemporaries and historians as "the grandest society of merchants in the universe", the English East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitative.[23] On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a 15-year monopoly on trade to and from the East Indies and Africa.[24] By 1711, shareholders in the East India Company were earning a return on their investment of almost 150 per cent. Subsequent stock offerings demonstrated just how lucrative the Company had become. Its first stock offering in 1713–1716 raised £418,000, its second in 1717–1722 raised £1.6 million.[25]
Chart of the South Sea Company's stock prices. The rapid inflation of the stock value in the 1710s led to the Bubble Act 1720, which restricted the establishment of companies without a royal charter.
A similar chartered company, the South Sea Company, was established in 1711 to trade in the Spanish South American colonies, but met with less success. The South Sea Company's monopoly rights were supposedly backed by the Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713 as a settlement following the War of the Spanish Succession, which gave Great Britain an asiento to trade in the region for thirty years. In fact the Spanish remained hostile and let only one ship a year enter. Unaware of the problems, investors in Britain, enticed by extravagant promises of profit from company promoters bought thousands of shares. By 1717, the South Sea Company was so wealthy (still having done no real business) that it assumed the public debt of the British government. This accelerated the inflation of the share price further, as did the Bubble Act 1720, which (possibly with the motive of protecting the South Sea Company from competition) prohibited the establishment of any companies without a Royal Charter. The share price rose so rapidly that people began buying shares merely in order to sell them at a higher price, which in turn led to higher share prices. This was the first speculative bubble the country had seen, but by the end of 1720, the bubble had "burst", and the share price sank from £1000 to under £100. As bankruptcies and recriminations ricocheted through government and high society, the mood against corporations, and errant directors was bitter.
In the late 18th century, Stewart Kyd, the author of the first treatise on corporate law in English, defined a corporation as:
a collection of many individuals united into one body, under a special denomination, having perpetual succession under an artificial form, and vested, by policy of the law, with the capacity of acting, in several respects, as an individual, particularly of taking and granting property, of contracting obligations, and of suing and being sued, of enjoying privileges and immunities in common, and of exercising a variety of political rights, more or less extensive, according to the design of its institution, or the powers conferred upon it, either at the time of its creation, or at any subsequent period of its existence.
—  A Treatise on the Law of Corporations, Stewart Kyd (1793–1794)
Modern company law[edit]
Due to the late 18th century abandonment of mercantilist economic theory and the rise of classical liberalism and laissez-faire economic theory due to a revolution in economics led by Adam Smith and other economists, corporations transitioned from being government or guild affiliated entities to being public and private economic entities free of governmental directions.[26]
Adam Smith wrote in his 1776 work The Wealth of Nations that mass corporate activity could not match private entrepreneurship, because people in charge of others' money would not exercise as much care as they would with their own.[27]
Deregulation[edit]
"Jack and the Giant Joint-Stock", a cartoon in Town Talk (1858) satirizing the 'monster' joint-stock economy that came into being after the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844.
The British Bubble Act 1720's prohibition on establishing companies remained in force until its repeal in 1825. By this point, the Industrial Revolution had gathered pace, pressing for legal change to facilitate business activity.[28] The repeal was the beginning of a gradual lifting on restrictions, though business ventures (such as those chronicled by Charles Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit) under primitive companies legislation were often scams. Without cohesive regulation, proverbial operations like the "Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company" were undercapitalised ventures promising no hope of success except for richly paid promoters.[29]
The process of incorporation was possible only through a royal charter or a private act and was limited, owing to Parliament's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted. As a result, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations with possibly thousands of members. Any consequent litigation had to be carried out in the joint names of all the members and was almost impossibly cumbersome. Though Parliament would sometimes grant a private act to allow an individual to represent the whole in legal proceedings, this was a narrow and necessarily costly expedient, allowed only to established companies.
Then, in 1843, William Gladstone became the chairman of a Parliamentary Committee on Joint Stock Companies, which led to the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844, regarded as the first modern piece of company law.[30] The Act created the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, empowered to register companies by a two-stage process. The first, provisional, stage cost £5 and did not confer corporate status, which arose after completing the second stage for another £5. For the first time in history, it was possible for ordinary people through a simple registration procedure to incorporate.[31] The advantage of establishing a company as a separate legal person was mainly administrative, as a unified entity under which the rights and duties of all investors and managers could be channeled.
Limited liability[edit]
However, there was still no limited liability and company members could still be held responsible for unlimited losses by the company.[32] The next, crucial development, then, was the Limited Liability Act 1855, passed at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Mr. Robert Lowe. This allowed investors to limit their liability in the event of business failure to the amount they invested in the company – shareholders were still liable directly to creditors, but just for the unpaid portion of their shares. (The principle that shareholders are liable to the corporation had been introduced in the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844).
The 1855 Act allowed limited liability to companies of more than 25 members (shareholders). Insurance companies were excluded from the act, though it was standard practice for insurance contracts to exclude action against individual members. Limited liability for insurance companies was allowed by the Companies Act 1862.
This prompted the English periodical The Economist to write in 1855 that "never, perhaps, was a change so vehemently and generally demanded, of which the importance was so much overrated. "[33] The major error of this judgment was recognised by the same magazine more than 70 years later, when it claimed that, "[t]he economic historian of the future. . . may be inclined to assign to the nameless inventor of the principle of limited liability, as applied to trading corporations, a place of honour with Watt and Stephenson, and other pioneers of the Industrial Revolution. "[34]
These two features – a simple registration procedure and limited liability – were subsequently codified into the landmark 1856 Joint Stock Companies Act. This was subsequently consolidated with a number of other statutes in the Companies Act 1862, which remained in force for the rest of the century, up to and including the time of the decision in Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd.[35]
The legislation shortly gave way to a railway boom, and from then, the numbers of companies formed soared. In the later nineteenth century, depression took hold, and just as company numbers had boomed, many began to implode and fall into insolvency. Much strong academic, legislative and judicial opinion was opposed to the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses.
Further developments[edit]
Lindley LJ was the leading expert on partnerships and company law in the Salomon v. Salomon & Co. case. The landmark case confirmed the distinct corporate identity of the company.
In 1892, Germany introduced the Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung with a separate legal personality and limited liability even if all the shares of the company were held by only one person. This inspired other countries to introduce corporations of this kind.
The last significant development in the history of companies was the 1897 decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners.
In the United States, forming a corporation usually required an act of legislation until the late 19th century. Many private firms, such as Carnegie's steel company and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, avoided the corporate model for this reason (as a trust). State governments began to adopt more permissive corporate laws from the early 19th century, although these were all restrictive in design, often with the intention of preventing corporations for gaining too much wealth and power.[36]
New Jersey was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state,[37] in 1896. In 1899, Delaware followed New Jersey's lead with the enactment of an enabling corporate statute, but Delaware only became the leading corporate state after the enabling provisions of the 1896 New Jersey corporate law were repealed in 1913.[36]
The end of the 19th century saw the emergence of holding companies and corporate mergers creating larger corporations with dispersed shareholders. Countries began enacting anti-trust laws to prevent anti-competitive practices and corporations were granted more legal rights and protections. The 20th century saw a proliferation of laws allowing for the creation of corporations by registration across the world, which helped to drive economic booms in many countries before and after World War I. Another major post World War I shift was toward the development of conglomerates, in which large corporations purchased smaller corporations to expand their industrial base.
Starting in the 1980s, many countries with large state-owned corporations moved toward privatization, the selling of publicly owned (or 'nationalised') services and enterprises to corporations. Deregulation (reducing the regulation of corporate activity) often accompanied privatization as part of a laissez-faire policy.
Why corporations arise[edit]
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See also: The Nature of the Firm
Under perfect competition, there would be no corporations; individuals would trade among themselves. Since the conditions for perfect competition cannot be met, however, market failures arise. Some of these can be overcome by contracts, but in many cases the transactions costs will simply be so high that it is not worth doing business or the necessary agreements would be unenforcable, leading to missing markets. Corporations allow individuals to overcome certain market failures and create markets that would otherwise be missing.
According to Coase[who?] in The nature of the firm "the distinguishing mark of the firm is the supersession of the price mechanism... Outside the firm, price movements direct production, which is coordinated through a series of exchange transactions on the market. Within a firm, these market transactions are eliminated and in place of the complicated market structure with exchange transactions is substituted the entrepreneur-coordinator, who directs production."
One of the conditions of perfect competition is no returns to scale. In the real world, however, such returns exist, and corporations are one way to allow the economy to capture the efficiences of scaling up.
Ownership and control[edit]
A corporation is, at least in theory, owned and controlled by its members. In a joint-stock company the members are known as shareholders and each of their shares in the ownership, control, and profits of the corporation is determined by the portion of shares in the company that they own. Thus a person who owns a quarter of the shares of a joint-stock company owns a quarter of the company, is entitled to a quarter of the profit (or at least a quarter of the profit given to shareholders as dividends) and has a quarter of the votes capable of being cast at general meetings.
In another kind of corporation, the legal document which established the corporation or which contains its current rules will determine who the corporation's members are. Who a member is depends on what kind of corporation is involved. In a worker cooperative, the members are people who work for the cooperative. In a credit union, the members are people who have accounts with the credit union.[38]
The day-to-day activities of a corporation are typically controlled by individuals appointed by the members. In some cases, this will be a single individual but more commonly corporations are controlled by a committee or by committees. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of committee structure.
A single committee known as a board of directors is the method favored in most common law countries. Under this model, the board of directors is composed of both executive and non-executive directors, the latter being meant to supervise the former's management of the company.
A two-tiered committee structure with a supervisory board and a managing board is common in civil law countries.[39]
Formation[edit]
Historically, corporations were created by a charter granted by government. Today, corporations are usually registered with the state, province, or national government and regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. The law sometimes requires the corporation to designate its principal address, as well as a registered agent (a person or company designated to receive legal service of process). It may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representative of the corporation.[citation needed]
Generally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create bylaws that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions.[citation needed]
The law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation operates will regulate most of its internal activities, as well as its finances. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is often required to register with other governments as a foreign corporation, and is almost always subject to laws of its host state pertaining to employment, crimes, contracts, civil actions, and the like.[citation needed]
Naming[edit]
Corporations generally have a distinct name. Historically, some corporations were named after their membership: for instance, "The President and Fellows of Harvard College". Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to their membership. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers based on a registration number (for example, "12345678 Ontario Limited"), which is assigned by the provincial or territorial government where the corporation incorporates.
In most countries, corporate names include a term or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity (for example, "Incorporated" or "Inc." in the United States) or the limited liability of its members (for example, "Limited" or "Ltd."). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions, they are mandatory, and in others they are not.[40] Their use puts everybody on constructive notice that they are dealing with an entity whose liability is limited: one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls when one obtains a judgment against it.
Some jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word "company" alone to denote corporate status, since the word "company" may refer to a partnership or some other form of collective ownership (in the United States it can be used by a sole proprietorship but this is not generally the case elsewhere).[citation needed]
Personhood[edit]
Despite not being individual human beings, corporations, as far as US law is concerned, are legal persons, and have many of the same rights and responsibilities as natural persons do. For example, a corporation can own property, and can sue or be sued. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state,[41][42] and they can themselves be responsible for human rights violations.[43] Corporations can be "dissolved" either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Insolvency may result in a form of corporate failure, when creditors force the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation under court order,[44] but it most often results in a restructuring of corporate holdings. Corporations can even be convicted of criminal offenses, such as fraud and manslaughter. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way that humans are.[45]
See also[edit]
Law
Commercial law
United States corporate law
European corporate law
German company law
History of company law in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom company law
Other
Anti-corporate activism
Business attire
Blocker corporation
Community interest company
Cooperative
Corporate crime
Corporate governance
Corporate haven
Corporate welfare
Corporation sole
Corporatism
Corporatization
Decentralized autonomous organization
Evil corporation
Fascism
Good standing
Government-owned corporation
History of competition law
Incorporation (business)
Limited liability company
Living wage
Megacorporation
Multinational corporation
Nationalization
Nonprofit corporation
Organizational culture
Preferred stock
Privatization
Professional corporation (PC or P.C.)
Public limited company (PLC)
Shelf corporation
Small business
South Sea Company
Tulip mania
United States antitrust law
Unlimited company
Unlimited liability corporation
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Limited Liability and the Known Unknown". Social Science Research Network. 2018.
Jump up ^ "Types Of Corporations | Incorporate A Business". www.corpnet.com. Retrieved 2017-06-10.
Jump up ^ Pettet, B. G. (2005). Company Law. Pearson Education. p. 151. Reading the above, makes it possible to forget that the shareholders are the owners of the company.
Jump up ^ Courtney, Thomas B. (2002). The Law of Private Companies (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Professional. 4.001.
Jump up ^ corporation. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved December 07, 2012.
Jump up ^ Harold Joseph Berman, Law and Revolution (vol. 1): The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983, pp. 215–16. ISBN 0674517768
Jump up ^ Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan.
Jump up ^ Gepken-Jager, Ella; van Solinge, Gerard; Timmermann, Levinus (eds.): VOC 1602–2002: 400 Years of Company Law (Series Law of Business and Finance, Vol. 6). (Deventer: Kluwer Legal Publishers, 2005, ISBN 9013019153)
Jump up ^ Sayle, Murray (5 April 2001). "Japan goes Dutch". London Review of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Brook, Timothy: Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World. (Profile Books, 2008, ISBN 1-84668-120-0).
Jump up ^ Wilson, Eric Michael: The Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and Dutch Hegemony within the Early Modern World-System (c.1600–1619). (Martinus Nijhoff, 2008, ISBN 978-9004167889), p. 215–217.
Jump up ^ Jonker, Joost; Gelderblom, Oscar; de Jong, Abe (2013). The Formative Years of the Modern Corporation: The Dutch East India Company VOC, 1602–1623. (The Journal of Economic History / Volume 73 / Issue 04 / December 2013, pp. 1050–1076)
Jump up ^ Tarrant, Nicholas (29 Apr 2014). "The VOC: The Birth of the Modern Corporation". The Economics Student Society of Australia. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Phelan, Ben (7 January 2013). "Dutch East India Company: The World's First Multinational". PBS.org (PBS Online). Retrieved 13 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Bryan (6 November 2013). "The Rise and Fall of the Largest Corporation in History". BusinessInsider.com. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Picard, Caroline (2 August 2016). "In The Late Afternoon of Modernism: An Interview with Graham Harman". Badatsports.com. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Steensgaard, Niels (1982). “The Dutch East India Company as an Institutional Innovation”, in Maurice Aymard (ed.), Dutch Capitalism and World Capitalism / Capitalisme hollandais et capitalisme mondial (Studies in Modern Capitalism / Etudes sur le capitalisme moderne), pp. 235–257
Jump up ^ Ferguson, Niall (2002). Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Smith, B. Mark (2003). A History of the Global Stock Market: From Ancient Rome to Silicon Valley. (University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780226764047), p. 17.
Jump up ^ Von Nordenflycht, Andrew: The Great Expropriation: Interpreting the Innovation of “Permanent Capital” at the Dutch East India Company, in Origins of Shareholder Advocacy, edited by Jonathan GS Koppell (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 89–98
Jump up ^ Clarke, Thomas; Branson, Douglas (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Corporate Governance (Sage Handbooks). (SAGE Publications Ltd., ISBN 9781412929806, p. 431). "The EIC first issued permanent shares in 1657 (Harris, 2005: 45)."
Jump up ^ Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998).
Jump up ^ John Keay, The Honorable Company: A History of the English East India Company (MacMillan, New York 1991).
Jump up ^ Haynes, Gerard Cohen-Vrignaud, Stephanie Metz, Jody Dunville, Shannon Heath, Julia P. McLeod, Kat Powell, Brent Robida, John Stromski, Brandon. "British East India Company". Retrieved 19 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Ibid. at p. 113
Jump up ^ "Adam Smith Laissez-Faire". political-economy.com. Retrieved 2017-06-10.
Jump up ^ A Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Book V, ch 1, para 107
Jump up ^ See Bubble Companies, etc. Act 1825, 6 Geo 4, c 91
Jump up ^ See C Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit (1843) ch 27
Jump up ^ Report of the Parliamentary Committee on Joint Stock Companies (1844) in British Parliamentary Papers, vol. VII
Jump up ^ Paul Lyndon Davies (2010). Introduction to Company Law. Oxford University Press. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Re Sea Fire and Life Assurance Co., Greenwood's Case (1854) 3 De GM&G 459
Jump up ^ Graeme G. Acheson & John D. Turner, The Impact of Limited Liability on Ownership and Control: Irish Banking, 1877–1914, School of Management and Economics, Queen's University of Belfast, available at "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-11-16. and "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2011-11-16. .
Jump up ^ Economist, December 18, 1926, at 1053, as quoted in Mahoney, supra, at 875.
Jump up ^ Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22
^ Jump up to: a b Smiddy, Linda O.; Cunningham, Lawrence A. (2010), Corporations and Other Business Organizations: Cases, Materials, Problems (Seventh ed.), LexisNexis, pp. 228–31, 241, ISBN 978-1-4224-7659-8
Jump up ^ The Law of Business Organizations, Cengage Learning
Jump up ^ Besley, Scott; Brigham, Eugene (2008). Principles of Finance (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN 9780324655889.
Jump up ^ "Company & Commercial – Netherlands: In a nutshell – one-tier boards". International Law Office. 10 April 2012.
Jump up ^ The U.S. state of California is an example of a jurisdiction that does not require corporations to indicate corporate status in their names, except for close corporations. The drafters of the 1977 revision of the California General Corporation Law considered the possibility of forcing all California corporations to have a name indicating corporate status, but decided against it because of the huge number of corporations that would have had to change their names, and the lack of any evidence that anyone had been harmed in California by entities whose corporate status was not immediately apparent from their names. However, the 1977 drafters were able to impose the current disclosure requirement for close corporations. See Harold Marsh, Jr., R. Roy Finkle, Larry W. Sonsini, and Ann Yvonne Walker, Marsh's California Corporation Law, 4th ed., vol. 1 (New York: Aspen Publishers, 2004), 5–15 — 5–16.
Jump up ^ Emberland, Marius (2006). The Human Rights of Companies: Exploring the Structure of ECHR Protection (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-928983-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
Jump up ^ e.g. South African Constitution Sect.8, especially Art.(4)
Jump up ^ Phillip I. Blumberg, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) discusses the controversial nature of additional rights being granted to corporations.
Jump up ^ See, for example, the Business Corporations Act (B.C.) [SBC 2002] CHAPTER 57, Part 10
Jump up ^ e.g. Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007
Further reading[edit]
A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law
Blumberg, Phillip I., The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993)
Bromberg, Alan R. Crane and Bromberg on Partnership. 1968.
Brown, Bruce. The History of the Corporation (2003)
Cadman, John William. The Corporation in New Jersey: Business and Politics, , (1949)
Conard, Alfred F. Corporations in Perspective. 1976.
Cooke, C. A., Corporation, Trust and Company: A Legal History, (1950)
Davis, John P. Corporations (1904)
Davis, Joseph S. Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations (1917)
Dignam, A and Lowry, J (2006) Company Law, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-928936-3
Dodd, Edwin Merrick. American Business Corporations until 1860, With Special Reference to Massachusetts, (1954)
DuBois, A.B. The English Business Company after the Bubble Act, , (1938)\
Freedman, Charles. Joint-stock Enterprise in France, : From Privileged Company to Modern Corporation (1979)
Freund, Ernst. MCMaster.ca, The Legal Nature of the Corporation (1897)
Hallis, Frederick. Corporate Personality: A Study in Jurisprudence (1930)
Hessen, Robert. In Defense of the Corporation. Hoover Institute. 1979.
Hunt, Bishop. The Development of the Business Corporation in England (1936)
Klein and Coffee. Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles. Foundation. 2002.
Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Corporate Life in Ancient India, (1920)
Means, Robert Charles. Underdevelopment and the Development of Law: Corporations and Corporation Law in Nineteenth-century Colombia, (1980)
Micklethwait, John and Wooldridge, Adrian. The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. New York: Modern Library. 2003.
Owen, Thomas. The Corporation under Russian Law, : A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy (1991)
Rungta, Radhe Shyam. The Rise of the Business Corporation in India, 1851–1900, (1970)
Scott, W. R. Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720 (1912)
Sobel, Robert. The Age of Giant Corporations: a Microeconomic History of American Business. (1984)
Barnet, Richard; Muller, Ronald E. (1974). Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporation. New York: Simon & Schuster.
PG Mahoney, 'Contract or Concession? An Essay on the History of Corporate Law' (2000) 34 Ga. Law Review 873
PI Blumberg, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law (1993)
PL Davies and LCB Gower, Principles of Modern Company Law (6th edn Sweet and Maxwell 1997) chapters 2-4
RR Formoy, The Historical Foundations of Company Law (Sweet and Maxwell 1923) 21
P Frentrop, A History of Corporate Governance 1602–2002 (Brussels et al., 2003)
S Kyd, A Treatise on the Law of Corporations (1793–1794)
J Micklethwait and A Wooldridge, The company: A short history of a revolutionary idea (Modern Library 2003)
W Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765) 455–73
External links[edit]
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/wiki/Corporation_(disambiguation)
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Corporation (disambiguation)

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/wiki/Corporate_(disambiguation)
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Corporate (disambiguation)

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/wiki/Types_of_business_entity
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Types of business entity

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values: De facto corporation and corporation by estoppel

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/wiki/Legal_personality
mw-redirect
Legal personality

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/wiki/Commonwealth_countries
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Commonwealth countries

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/wiki/Separate_legal_entity
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Separate legal entity

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/wiki/United_East_Indies_Company
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United East Indies Company

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/wiki/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie
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Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie

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/wiki/Joint-stock_corporation
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Joint-stock corporation

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/wiki/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchange
mw-redirect
Amsterdam Stock Exchange

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/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht
mw-redirect
Treaty of Utrecht

values: Local and personal Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom

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/wiki/Market_failures
mw-redirect
Market failures

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/wiki/The_nature_of_the_firm
mw-redirect
The nature of the firm

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Business attire

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external text
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3121519

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/wiki/British_East_India_Company
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British East India Company

values: Bubble Companies, etc. Act 1825 (page does not exist)

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/wiki/South_African_Constitution
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South African Constitution

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external text
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1103644

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external text
http://www.brh.org.uk/dwtf2008/kcc.html

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/wiki/Corporate_abuse
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Corporate abuse

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/wiki/Corporate_citizenship
mw-redirect
Corporate citizenship

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/wiki/Corporate_Machiavellianism
mw-redirect
Corporate Machiavellianism

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/wiki/Corporate_narcissism
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Corporate narcissism

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/wiki/Corporate_power
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Corporate power

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/wiki/List_of_corporate_scandals
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List of corporate scandals

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/wiki/Corporate_trainer
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Corporate trainer

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/wiki/Coworker_backstabbing
mw-redirect
Coworker backstabbing

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/wiki/Cyber-aggression_in_the_workplace
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Cyber-aggression in the workplace

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/wiki/Workplace_friendship
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Workplace friendship

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/wiki/Workplace_intervention
mw-redirect
Workplace intervention

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/wiki/Workplace_romance
mw-redirect
Workplace romance

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navigation
Portals
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external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4128521-9

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/wiki/Corporation
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
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Visit the main page

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interlanguage-link interwiki-af
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values: مؤسسة تجارية – Arabic

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
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values: Корпорация – Bulgarian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
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https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korporace
Korporace – Czech
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cs
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
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interlanguage-link interwiki-de
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interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
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interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
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values: ابرشرکت – Persian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
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interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
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values: કોર્પોરેશન – Gujarati

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interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values: 코퍼레이션 – Korean

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Կորպորացիա – Armenian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
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values: निगम – Hindi

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
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interlanguage-link interwiki-io
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values: תאגיד – Hebrew

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interlanguage-link interwiki-he
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values: Корпорация – Kazakh

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interlanguage-link interwiki-la
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interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
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interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
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interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
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values: Корпорација – Macedonian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korporat
Korporat – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-new
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values: コーポレーション – Japanese

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interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
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interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
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interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
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values: Корпорация – Russian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

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https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korporata
Korporata – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values: නීතිගත සංස්ථා – Sinhala

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interlanguage-link interwiki-si
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interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
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values: Корпорација – Serbian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
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interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
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interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
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values: கூட்டு நிறுவனம் – Tamil

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
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values: บรรษัท – Thai

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interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Корпорація – Ukrainian

values: קארפאראציע – Yiddish

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https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpora
Corpora – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

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