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Dice
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For other uses, see Dice (disambiguation).
Four traditional dice showing all six different sides
Dice (singular die or dice;[1] from Old French dé; from Latin datum "something which is given or played"[2]) are small throwable objects with multiple resting positions, used for generating random numbers. Dice are suitable as gambling devices for games like craps and are also used in non-gambling tabletop games.
A traditional die is a cube, with each of its six faces showing a different number of dots (pips) from 1 to 6. When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing on its upper surface a random integer from one to six, each value being equally likely. A variety of similar devices are also described as dice; such specialized dice may have polyhedral or irregular shapes and may have faces marked with symbols instead of numbers. They may be used to produce results other than one through six. Loaded and crooked dice are designed to favor some results over others for purposes of cheating or amusement.
A dice tray, a tray used to contain thrown dice, is sometimes used for gambling or board games, in particular to allow dice throws which do not interfere with other game pieces.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Usage
3 Construction
3.1 Arrangement
3.2 Manufacturing
3.3 Terms
3.4 Unicode representation
4 Loaded dice
5 Variants
5.1 Polyhedral dice
5.1.1 Standard variations
5.1.2 Rarer variations
5.2 Non-numeric
5.3 Spherical dice
6 Applications
6.1 Notation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Composite image of all sides of a 12mm Roman die, found in Leicestershire, England
Bone die found at Cantonment Clinch (1823–1834), a fort used in the American Civil War
A collection of historical dice from various regions of Asia
Dice have been used since before recorded history, and it is uncertain where they originated. The oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800–2500 BC.[3] Other excavations from ancient tombs in the Indus Valley civilization indicate a South Asian origin.[4]
The Egyptian game of Senet was played with dice. Senet was played before 3000 BC and up to the 2nd century AD. It was likely a racing game, but there is no scholarly consensus on the rules of Senet.[5] Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda and the early Buddhist games list.[6] There are several biblical references to "casting lots", as in Psalm 22, indicating that dicing (or a related activity) was commonplace when the psalm was composed. It is theorized that dice developed from the practice of fortunetelling with the talus of hoofed animals, colloquially known as "knucklebones", but knucklebones is not the oldest divination technique that incorporates randomness.[7] Knucklebones was a game of skill played by women and children; a derivative form had the four sides of the bone receive different values and count as modern dice.[8]
Knucklebones die, made of steatite
Although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere ("to play at dice"). Dicing was even a popular pastime of emperors. Letters by Augustus to Tacitus and his daughter recount his hobby of dicing. There were two sizes of Roman dice. Tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six.[9] Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century AD[10] and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BC.[11]
Dominoes and playing cards originated in China as developments from dice. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty, and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books.[12] In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku. There are two types of sugoroku. Ban-sugoroku is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period, while e-sugoroku is a racing game.[13]
Usage[edit]
Dice are thrown onto a flat surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a dice cup). The face of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. One typical dice game today is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice. Dice are frequently used to randomize moves in board games, usually by deciding the distance through which a piece will move along the board; examples of this are backgammon and Monopoly.
The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics. A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; they are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator. Perhaps to mitigate against concerns that the pips on the faces of certain styles of dice cause a small bias,[citation needed] casinos use precision dice with flush markings.
Construction[edit]
Arrangement[edit]
Chirality of dice. Faces may be placed counterclockwise (top) or clockwise.
Common dice are small cubes most commonly 1.6 cm (0.63 in) across,[14] whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips. (While the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.)
Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, implying that the 1, 2 and 3 faces share a vertex.[15] The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex. If the 1, 2 and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called "right-handed", and if those faces run clockwise, the die is called "left-handed". Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed.[16]
Typical facets showing the more compact pip arrangement of an Asian-style die (top) vs. a Western-style die (bottom)
The pips on dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown. Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides. One possible explanation is that red fours are of Indian origin.[16][17] In some older sets, the "one" pip is a colorless depression.
Manufacturing[edit]
Western, Asian and casino dice
Non-precision dice are manufactured via the plastic injection molding process. The pips or numbers on the die are a part of the mold. The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry. The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing. The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering. A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die. This process also creates the smoother, rounded edges on the dice.[18]
Precision casino dice may have a polished or sand finish, making them transparent or translucent respectively. Casino dice have their pips drilled, then filled flush with a paint of the same density as the material used for the dice, such that the center of gravity of the dice is as close to the geometric center as possible. All such dice are stamped with a serial number to prevent potential cheaters from substituting a die. Precision backgammon dice are made the same way; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface.
Terms[edit]
While the terms ace, deuce, trey, cater, cinque and sice are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice. Ace is from the Latin as, meaning "a unit";[19] the others are 2 to 6 in Old French.[20]
Unicode representation[edit]
Using Unicode characters, the faces ⚀ ⚁ ⚂ ⚃ ⚄ ⚅, can be shown in text using the range U+2680 to U+2685 or using decimal ⚀ to ⚅.[21]
Loaded dice[edit]
A loaded, weighted, or crooked die is one that has been tampered with so that it will land with a specific side facing upwards more or less often than a fair die would. There are several methods for creating loaded dice, including rounded faces, off-square faces and weights. Transparent cellulose acetate dice are used by casinos as tampering is more apparent than with opaque dice.
Variants[edit]
Polyhedral dice[edit]
A typical set of roleplaying dice in various colors. They consist of the five Platonic solids, along with a ten-sided die that is also used for generating percentages.
Around the end of the 1960s, non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames,[22] and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games. The numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, are distinguished with a dot or underline.
Standard variations[edit]
Further information: isohedron
Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes. Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons. Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated. The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices. Such sets frequently include a second 10-sided die either of contrasting color or numbered by tens, allowing for a pair of 10-sided dice to generate numbers between 1 and 100.
Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate the real probability distributions of the events they simulate. For instance, 10-sided dice can be rolled in pairs to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions.[23]
Unlike other common dice, a four-sided die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it has to be read in a different way. Many such dice have the numbers printed around the points, so that when it settles, the numbers at the vertex pointing up are the same and are read. Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middles of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are read.
Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces (this is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd-number of faces). Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces.
Faces/
Sides
Shape
Notes
4 Tetrahedron Each face has three numbers, arranged such that the upright number, placed either near the vertex or near the opposite edge, is the same on all three visible faces. The upright numbers represent the value of the roll. This die does not roll well and thus it is usually thrown into the air instead.
6 Cube A common die. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is seven.
8 Octahedron Each face is triangular and the die resembles two square pyramids attached base-to-base. Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.
10 Pentagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite. The die has two sharp corners, where five kites meet, and ten blunter corners, where three kites meet. The ten faces usually bear numbers from zero to nine, rather than one to ten (zero being read as "ten" in many applications). Often all odd numbered faces converge at one sharp corner, and the even ones at the other. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 9 (if numbered 0–9) or 11 (if numbered 1–10).
12 Dodecahedron Each face is a regular pentagon. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 13.
20 Icosahedron Faces are equilateral triangles. Icosahedrons have been found dating to Roman/Ptolemaic times, but it is not known if they were used as gaming dice. Modern dice with 20 sides are sometimes numbered 0–9 twice as an alternative to 10-sided dice. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 21 if numbered 1–20.
Rarer variations[edit]
"Uniform fair dice" are dice where all faces have equal probability of outcome, which follows from the symmetry of the die (as it is face-transitive), and include:
Platonic solids, the five regular polyhedra: 4, 6, 8, 12, 20 sides
Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides
Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any multiple of 4 (so that a face will face up) above 8
Trapezohedrons, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number not divisible by 4 (so that a face will face up) above 6
Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides
A variation on the standard die is known as the "average" die.[24][25] These are six-sided dice with sides numbered 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, which have the same arithmetic mean as a standard die (3.5 for a single die, 7 for a pair of dice), but have a narrower range of possible values (2 through 5 for one, 4 through 10 for a pair). They are used in some table-top wargames, where a narrower range of numbers is required.[25]
Dice with an odd number of flat faces can be made as "long dice".[26] They are based on an infinite set of prisms. All the (rectangular) faces they may actually land on are congruent, so they are equally fair. (The other 2 sides of the prism are rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die never actually rests on those faces.)
Faces/
sides
Shape
Image
Notes
1 Möbius strip or sphere Most commonly a joke die, this is either a sphere with a 1 marked on it or shaped like a Möbius strip.
2 Cylinder A coin flip. Some coins with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other are available, but most simply use a common coin.
3 Rounded-off
triangular prism This is a rounded-off triangular prism, intended to be rolled like a rolling-pin style die. The die is rounded-off at the edges to make it impossible for it to somehow land on the triangular sides, which makes it look a bit like a jewel. When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards. On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3). The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll.
5 Triangular prism This is a prism that is thin enough to land either on its "edge" or "face". When landing on an edge, the result is displayed by digits (2–4) close to the prism's top edge. The triangular faces are labeled with the digits 1 and 5.
7 Pentagonal prism Similar in constitution to the 5-sided die. Seven-sided dice are used in a seven-player variant of backgammon. Seven-sided dice are described in the 13th century Libro de los juegos as having been invented by Alfonso X in order to speed up play in chess variants.[27][28]
12 Rhombic dodecahedron Each face is a rhombus.
14 Heptagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite.
16 Octagonal bipyramid Each face is an isosceles triangle.
18 Rounded rhombicuboctahedron 18 faces are squares; the 8 triangular faces are rounded and cannot be landed on.
24 Triakis octahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Tetrakis hexahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Deltoidal icositetrahedron Each face is a kite.
Pentagonal icositetrahedron Each face is an irregular pentagon.
30 Rhombic triacontahedron Each face is a rhombus. Although not included in most dice sets, it can be found in most hobby and game stores.
34 Heptadecagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite.
48 Disdyakis dodecahedron Each face is a scalene triangle.
50 Icosakaipentagonal trapezohedron The faces of the 50-sided die are kites, although very narrow.
60 Deltoidal hexecontahedron Each face is a kite.
Pentakis dodecahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
Pentagonal hexecontahedron Each face is an irregular pentagon.
Triakis icosahedron Each face is an isosceles triangle.
100 Zocchihedron 100-sided dice can be found in hobby and game stores. They are made by flattening 100 facets on a sphere, but are not truly "uniform fair dice".
120 Disdyakis triacontahedron Each face is a scalene triangle.
Non-numeric[edit]
A set of Fudge dice
The faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits. However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers. Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for Warhammer Fantasy Battle, Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice.
Spherical dice[edit]
A spherical die
A die can be constructed in the shape of a sphere, with the addition of an internal cavity in the shape of the dual polyhedron of the desired die shape and an internal weight. The weight will settle in one of the points of the internal cavity, causing it to settle with one of the numbers uppermost. For instance, a sphere with an octahedral cavity and a small internal weight will settle with one of the 6 points of the cavity held downwards by the weight.
Applications[edit]
Typical role-playing dice, showing a variety of colors and styles. Note the older hand-inked green 12-sided die (showing an 11), manufactured before pre-inked dice were common. Many players collect or acquire a large number of mixed and unmatching dice.
Polyhedral dice are commonly used in role-playing games. The fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) is largely credited with popularizing dice in such games. Some games use only one type, like Exalted which uses only ten-sided dice. Others use numerous types for different game purposes, such as D&D, which makes use of all common polyhedral dice. Dice are usually used to determine the outcome of events. Games typically determine results either as a total on one or more dice above or below a fixed number, or a certain number of rolls above a certain number on one or more dice. Due to circumstances or character skill, the initial roll may have a number added to or subtracted from the final result, or have the player roll extra or fewer dice. To keep track of rolls easily, dice notation is frequently used.
Many board games use dice to randomize how far pieces move or to settle conflicts. Typically, this has meant that rolling higher numbers is better. Some games, such as Axis & Allies, have inverted this system by making the lower values more potent. In the modern age, a few games and game designers have approached dice in a different way by making each side of the die similarly valuable. In Castles of Burgundy, players spend their dice to take actions based on the die's value. In this game, a six is not better than a one, or vice versa. In Quarriors (and its descendent, Dicemasters), different sides of the dice can offer completely different abilities. Several sides often give resources while others grant the player useful actions.[29]
Dice can be used for divination and using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy. A pair of common dice is usual, though other forms of polyhedra can be used. Tibetan Buddhists sometimes use this method of divination. It is highly likely that the Pythagoreans used the Platonic solids as dice. They referred to such dice as "the dice of the gods" and they sought to understand the universe through an understanding of geometry in polyhedra.[30]
Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination; the first die represents planets, the Sun, the Moon, and the nodes of the Moon, the second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. A specialized icosahedron die provides the answers of the Magic 8-Ball, conventionally used to provide answers to yes-or-no questions.
Notation[edit]
Main article: Dice notation
In many gaming contexts, especially tabletop role-playing games, shorthand notations representing different dice rolls are used. A "d" or "D" is used to indicate a die with a specific number of sides; for example, d4 denotes a four-sided die. If several dice of the same type are to be rolled, this is indicated by a leading number specifying the number of dice. Hence, 6d8 means the player should roll six eight-sided dice and add the results. Modifiers to a die roll can also be indicated as desired. For example, 3d6+4 instructs the player to roll three six-sided dice, calculate the total, and add four to it.
See also[edit]
Medieval People at Play, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
Crown and Anchor
d20 System
Dreidel
Fuzzy dice
Musikalisches Würfelspiel
Nontransitive dice
Quincunx
Sicherman dice
Teetotum
Urim and Thummim
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Definition of dice in English, Oxford Dictionaries
Jump up ^ "die". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
Jump up ^ "presstv.ir". presstv.ir. April 11, 2007. Archived from the original on June 20, 2007. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ Possehl, Gregory. "Meluhha". In: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996a, 133–208
Jump up ^ Finkel, Irving (2008). "Board Games". Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58839-295-4.
Jump up ^ 2.3, 4.38, 6.118, 7.52, 7.109
Jump up ^ Laird, Jay (2009). Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society. SAGE Publications. pp. 171–173. ISBN 978-1-4522-6610-7.
Jump up ^ Good, Alexandra. "Knucklebones". Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum. Retrieved 2015-04-16.
Jump up ^ Matz, David (2002). Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-313-30326-5.
Jump up ^ "christies.com". christies.com. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) with faces inscribed with Greek letters". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Ronan, Colin; Needham, Joseph (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9.
Jump up ^ Salter, Rebecca (2006). "Board Games". Japanese Popular Prints: From Votive Slips to Playing Cards. University of Hawaii Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-8248-3083-0.
Jump up ^ "Dice Sizes Explained". Dice Game Depot. 2018.
Jump up ^ Cf. Greek Anthology Book 14, §8: "The Opposite Pairs of Numbers on a Die. The numbers on a die run so: six one, five two, three four."
^ Jump up to: a b "Standard Dice". Archived from the original on July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Chinese Dice". Elliott Avedon Museum & Archive of Games. Archived from the original on 2008-05-01.
Jump up ^ How Dice Are Made from Awesome Dice
Jump up ^ "ace". AskOxford. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ Conant, Levi Leonard (1896). The Number Concept: Its Origin and Development. Macmillan. p. 124.
Jump up ^ "Dice faces in block Miscellaneous Symbols" (PDF). The Unicode standard.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Jon (July 2012). Playing at the World: A History of Simulating Wars, People and Fantastic Adventures, from Chess to Role-Playing Games. Unreason Press. pp. 315–318. ISBN 978-0-615-64204-8.
Jump up ^ Paret, Michelle; Martz, Eston (2009). "Tumbling Dice & Birthdays: Understanding the Central Limit Theorem" (PDF). Minitab. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Specialist D6". em4miniatures. Retrieved 2017-08-18.
^ Jump up to: a b "[TMP] 'What are Average Dice' Topic". The Miniatures Page. 2009-11-20. Retrieved 2017-08-18.
Jump up ^ Kybos, Alea. "Properties of Dice" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2012-10-07.
Jump up ^ "games.rengeekcentral.com". games.rengeekcentral.com. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "wwmat.mat.fc.ul.pt" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Making better use of dice in games". 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Guthrie, Kenneth (1988). The Pythagorean sourcebook and library: an anthology of ancient writings which relate to Pythagoras and Pythagorean philosophy. Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press. ISBN 978-0-933999-50-3. OCLC 255212063.
Diaconis, Persi; and Keller, Joseph B.; "Fair Dice", The American Mathematical Monthly, 96(4):337–339, 1989 (Discussion of dice that are fair "by symmetry" and "by continuity".)
Iverson, G. R.; Longcour, W. H.; et al.; Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws, Psychometrika, vol. 36, no. 1, March 1971
Knizia, Reiner, Dice Games Properly Explained, Elliot Right Way Books, 1999, ISBN 0-7160-2112-9
External links[edit]
Look up dice in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dice.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Dice". MathWorld. – analysis of dice probabilities, also featuring Uspenski's work on rolling multiple dice
"Fair Dice" – an illustrated Math Games column about all the possible fair dice (and the mathematical reasons why other shapes are not fair.)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dice". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 176–177.
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text:
Harold J. Greene
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Harold J. Greene
Greene in 2012
Nickname(s)
"Harry"[1]
Born
(1959-02-11)February 11, 1959[2]
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.[3]
Died
August 5, 2014(2014-08-05) (aged 55)
Camp Qargha, Kabul, Afghanistan
Buried
Arlington National Cemetery
Allegiance
United States of America
Service/branch
United States Army
Years of service
1980–2014[4][5]
Rank
Major general[6][7][8][9]
Commands held
Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan (Deputy commander)[6]
Natick Soldier Systems Center
Battles/wars
War in Afghanistan †
Awards
Army Distinguished Service Medal[10]
Legion of Merit (4)[11]
Purple Heart Medal[11][N 1]
Meritorious Service Medal (6)
Army Commendation Medal (4)
Army Achievement Medal
Spouse(s)
Sue Myers (wife)[3]
Relations
Harold F. Greene (father)[3]
Eva S. Greene (mother)[3]
Matthew Greene (son)[1]
Amelia Greene (daughter)[1]
Harold Joseph "Harry" Greene (February 11, 1959 – August 5, 2014) was a United States Army general who was killed during the War in Afghanistan. During his time with the U.S. Army, he held various commands associated with engineering and logistical support for U.S. and coalition troops. At the time of his death, he was deputy commanding general of Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan.
At the rank of major general, Greene was the highest-ranking American service member killed by hostile action since Lieutenant General Timothy J. Maude was killed in the September 11 attacks, and the highest-ranking service member killed on foreign soil during a war since Rear Admiral Rembrandt Cecil Robinson was killed during the Vietnam War in May 1972.[12][13] To date, Greene is also the highest ranking American officer to be killed in combat in the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.[14]
Greene was killed at Camp Qargha, Afghanistan when a member of the Afghan National Army opened fire on a delegation of general officers and other dignitaries who were conducting an inspection tour. Fourteen NATO and Afghan service members were wounded in the attack. The attacker was killed at the scene when NATO service members returned fire; a subsequent investigation indicated that the Afghan soldier, a 22 year old Pashtun, was motivated by unhappiness over being denied leave to travel home during the Eid al-Fitr holiday.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Career
3 Death
4 Personal life
5 Awards and decorations
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Greene was born in Boston, Massachusetts on February 11, 1959, to Eva May (Shediack) and Harold F. Greene.[3][15] He grew up in Schenectady, New York[16] graduated from Guilderland High School in 1977,[17] and from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) with a bachelor's degree in materials engineering in 1980.[18] Greene's father lived in Guilderland, New York at the time of his death. His mother died in February 2013.[3] Greene received a master's degree in industrial engineering from RPI and a master's in materials engineering from the University of Southern California (USC). In addition, he received a master's degree in mechanical engineering from USC,[1] and a Ph.D. (1992) in materials science, also from USC.[1][6]
Greene's military education included the Engineer Officer Basic and Advanced Courses, and the United States Army Command and General Staff College. He completed the Defense Systems Management College's Advanced Program Management Course at the Defense Acquisition University, and also held a Master of Strategic Studies degree from the United States Army War College.[19][20]
Career[edit]
Greene speaking at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in May 2010
Greene being promoted to major general in August 2012
U.S. Army soldiers remove Greene's casket from a plane after it arrives in Delaware.
Greene received his commission as an engineer officer in 1980, after completing Reserve Officer Training Corps at RPI.[1]
As he worked his way through the ranks, Greene's assignments included platoon leader, company executive officer, and battalion staff officer, Fort Polk; resident engineer in Athens; project engineer in Istanbul; brigade engineer and company commander, V Corps, West Germany; staff officer and materials engineer, Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis; product manager, Aerial Common Sensor, Fort Monmouth; and assistant director, Combat Developments Directorate, U.S. Army Maneuver Support Center, Fort Leonard Wood.[14][21] At the time of the September 11 attacks in 2001, he was stationed at Fort Leonard Wood.[14]
Greene was promoted to brigadier general in late 2009, and served as deputy commanding general of United States Army Research, Development and Engineering Command at Aberdeen Proving Ground.[22] and the commanding general of Natick Soldier Systems Center.[23] While at Natick, Greene urged the military to incorporate smartphones, video games and virtual worlds into military training.[24] Later, he became Program Executive Officer for Intelligence, Electronic Warfare and Sensors in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Acquisition, Logistics and Technology). Promoted to major general in 2012, he was Deputy for Acquisition and Systems Management in the same office.[6] In January 2014 he was named deputy commander of Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan.
Death[edit]
On August 5, 2014, Greene was killed after being shot in the back of the head by an Afghan soldier with an M16 rifle at Camp Qargha's Marshal Fahim National Defense University in Kabul, Afghanistan.[25][26] He had been making a routine visit to a training facility at the time.[27] Fourteen NATO and Afghan service members were wounded in the attack,[28] including Brigadier General Michael Bartscher of the German Bundeswehr, two Afghan generals and another Afghan officer, eight Americans, and two British soldiers.[28][29]
On the morning of August 7, 2014, Greene's body arrived at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware.[30][31][32] Greene was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on August 14, 2014.[33]
On the September 25, 2015, nine British servicemen acting as the Close Protection Team for the entire group were each awarded the US Army Commendation Medal for their quick actions in killing the assailant as well as heroic and meritorious service in saving the lives of many others.[34]
On July 10, 2015, the Town of Natick, MA renamed Kansas Street in honor of the general. The street was dedicated General Greene Avenue.
Personal life[edit]
Greene was married to Sue Myers, a doctor[35] and retired colonel who worked as a professor at the U.S. Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.[3][1][32] At the time of his death, she lived in Falls Church, Virginia.[14] Greene had two children, a daughter, Amelia Greene, and a son, Matthew Greene, who is a U.S. Army lieutenant.[3][1]
Awards and decorations[edit]
1st row
Army Distinguished Service Medal
2nd row
Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters[6][11] Purple Heart Medal[11][N 1] Meritorious Service Medal with one silver oak leaf cluster[6]
3rd row
Army Commendation Medal with three oak leaf clusters[6] Army Achievement Medal[6] National Defense Service Medal with one bronze service star[6]
4th row
Global War on Terrorism Service Medal Army Service Ribbon Army Overseas Service Ribbon with award numeral 2
See also[edit]
Biography portal
United States Army portal
United States military casualties in the War in Afghanistan
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Posthumously awarded.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Pearce, Matt; Cloud, David S. (August 5, 2014). "Slain U.S. Maj. Gen. Harold Greene remembered for brilliance, humor". Los Angeles Times. Chicago, Illinois: Tribune Company. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ NSSC This Week remembers Major General Harold Greene Archived September 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine., p. 24
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Yusko, Dennis (August 6, 2014). "Father of major general killed in Afghanistan: 'Something is missing'". Albany Times-Union. Albany, New York: Hearst Newspapers. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Army Maj. Gen. Harold Greene killed in Afghanistan". CNN. August 5, 2014. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Insider attack victim identified as Maj. Gen. Harold Greene". Army Times. August 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Major General Harold J. Greene — Deputy for Acquisitions and Systems Management Headquarters, Department of the Army" (PDF). Washington, D.C. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-06.
Jump up ^ "392F – C4ISR Breakfast – Featuring MG Harold J. Greene, USA". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on August 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
Jump up ^ "Condolence Statement from the Army Chief of Staff General Ray Odierno for the Loss of Maj. Gen. Harold J. Greene". Archived from the original on August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "335". Title 10, Part 2, Section 3281. United States Code. Retrieved August 12, 2014. (1) Major general
Jump up ^ "Army General Officer Killed in Afghanistan". Army.mil. Washington, DC. August 6, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lin, C.J. (August 14, 2014). "Maj. Gen. Harold Greene receives full burial honors at Arlington". Stars and Stripes. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Matthew; Kakaraug, Haris (5 August 2014). "U.S. General Is Killed in Attack at Afghan Base, Officials Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Maj. Gen. Harold Greene Is Highest Ranking Soldier Killed Since Vietnam". ABC News. August 5, 2014. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Major General Harold Greene killed in Afghanistan attack; highest ranking officer killed in combat since 1970". WJLA.com. Associated Press. 2014-08-05. Retrieved 2014-08-08.
Jump up ^ "In Memory of Eva S. Greene 1928–2013". New Comer-Cannon Funeral Home. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
Jump up ^ Bob Fredericks. "Afghan soldier who killed US general hid in bathroom with NATO gun". New York Post.
Jump up ^ "With deepest condolences on the loss of Maj. Gen. Harold Greene". Guilderland Central School District. Retrieved 2014-08-06.
Jump up ^ Shirley Ann Jackson, Ph.D., President, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Statement on the Death of Major General Harold J. Greene '80, August 5, 2014
Jump up ^ United States Army (August 2014). "Army general killed in Afghanistan". Army.mil. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ Garamone, Jim (August 6, 2014). "Officials Identify Army Major General Killed in Afghanistan". U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Army Biography, Harold J. Greene" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Army's research, development command moves to historic facilities | Article | The United States Army". Army.mil. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
Jump up ^ "Natick Soldier Systems Center Master Plan Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ Martin, Andrew; Lin, Thomas (May 1, 2011). "Military Tests Apps and Other Digital Training Tools: Keyboards First. Then Grenades". New York Times. New York City, New York: The New York Times Company. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Two star general was shot in the back of the head after Afghan soldier hid in the bathroom preparing for sneak attack".
Jump up ^ "American army officer killed, many wounded in Afghan insider attack". Afghanistan Sun. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "U.S. general killed in Afghanistan was key figure in training effort". Washington Post. 5 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Afghan insider's killing of U.S. general marks grim renewal of tactic, Los Angeles Times
Jump up ^ Afghan soldier who killed U.S. general is identified, Los Angeles Times
Jump up ^ "Body of Major General Harold Greene arrives in Dover". Boston Globe. Associated Press. August 7, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Carroll, Chris (August 7, 2014). "Body of US general killed in Afghan insider attack arrives at Dover AFB". Stars and Stripes. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Air Force Mortuary Affairs (August 7, 2014). "Army Maj. Gen. Harold J. Greene honored in dignified transfer Aug. 7". United States Air Force. United States Department of the Air Force. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gruber, Jack (August 14, 2014). "Service Honors Gen. Harold Greene". USA Today. Tysons Corner, Virginia. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ Cross, Charlotte (24 September 2015). "US Army Honours British Soldiers Over Kabul Attack". Forces TV. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Army memorial ceremony honors Maj. Gen. Greene (Aug. 14, 2014)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harold J. Greene.
Harold J. Greene at Find a Grave
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_J._Greene&oldid=823409793"
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text:
Egyptian pyramids
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. From left to right, the three largest are: the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu. The three smaller pyramids in the foreground are subsidiary structures associated with Menkaure's pyramid.

Unicode: 𓍋𓅓𓂋𓉴
Pyramid
in hieroglyphs
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt.
As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids.[1][2] Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[3][4][5]
The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BC–2611 BC) which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry.[6]
The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built.[7] The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical development
2 Pyramid symbolism
3 Number and location of pyramids
3.1 Abu Rawash
3.2 Giza
3.3 Zawyet el-Aryan
3.4 Abu Sir
3.5 Saqqara
3.6 Dahshur
3.7 Mazghuna
3.8 Lisht
3.9 Meidum
3.10 Hawara
3.11 el-Lahun
3.12 El-Kurru
3.13 Nuri
3.14 Construction dates
4 Construction techniques
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Historical development
The Mastabat al-Fir’aun at Saqqara
By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.[8][9]
The second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a number of "steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.[10]
The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, the Giza pyramid complex, were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily constructed.
Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the kings of Napata. While Napatan rule was brief, ending in 661 BC, Egyptian culture made an indelible impression, and during the later Kingdom of Meroë (approximately in the period between 300 BCE – 300 CE), this flowered into a full-blown pyramid-building revival, which saw more than two hundred Egyptian-inspired indigenous royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities.
Al-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198) tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too huge.[11]
Pyramid symbolism
Diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line indicates the pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the original profile.
The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.
While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."[12]
The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.[12]
All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology.[13]
Number and location of pyramids
In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids – see Lepsius list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.[3]
The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands subsequent to Lepsius' survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.[14]
Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti. The discovery was announced by Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, on 11 November 2008.[4][15]
All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below.
Abu Rawash
Main article: Abu Rawash
The largely destroyed Pyramid of Djedefre
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)[5]— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.
Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying – which began in Roman times – has left little apart from about 15 courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
Giza
Main article: Giza pyramid complex
Map of Giza pyramid complex.
Aerial view of Giza pyramid complex
Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren); the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx of Giza.
Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.
The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.
Zawyet el-Aryan
See also: Zawyet el'Aryan
This site, halfway between Giza and Abu Sir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be pharaoh Nebka, while the southern structure, known as the Layer Pyramid, may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Khaba, a close successor of Sekhemkhet. If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around 17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it is likely to have exceeded 40 m (130 ft).
Abu Sir
Main article: Abusir
The Pyramid of Sahure at Abu Sir, viewed from the pyramid's causeway.
There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abu Sir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty – perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low-quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre, which is also the best preserved, Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre. Most of the major pyramids at Abu Sir were built similar construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps of mud bricks with a limestone outer casing. The largest of these 5th-Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.
Saqqara
Main article: Saqqara
The Pyramid of Djoser
Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by Khaemweset, a son of Ramesses II.[16] Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's.
South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Isesi, Merenre, Pepi II and Ibi. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.
The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf either did not share an interest in, or have the capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun.[17]
A previously unknown pyramid was discovered at north Saqqara in late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although the original height was closer to 14 m (46 ft).
Dahshur
Main article: Dahshur
Sneferu's Red Pyramid
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base, and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone.
As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success – albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look.
Several kilometeres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last – and most successful – of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Sneferu; the Red Pyramid is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure is also the third largest pyramid in Egypt – after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Also at Dahshur is the pyramid known as the Pyramid of Amenemhat III, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids.
Mazghuna
Main article: Mazghuna
Located to the south of Dahshur, several mudbrick pyramids were built in this area in the late Middle Kingdom, perhaps for Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu.
Lisht
Main article: el-Lisht
The pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht – those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.[18] The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of the Faiyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty.
Meidum
Main article: Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni. However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site.
It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid when the steps were filled in, and an outer casing added.
The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times; medieval Arab writers described it as having seven steps – although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature – it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
Hawara
Main article: Hawara
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawarra
Amenemhat III was the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawarra, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
el-Lahun
Main article: el-Lahun
The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as the yellow stratum at its base.
The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.
El-Kurru
Main article: El-Kurru
Pharaoh Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru
Piye, the first ruler of the Egyptian 25th dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Nuri
Main article: Nuri
Egyptian Pharaoh Taharqa's pyramid at Nuri
Taharqa, a legitimate ruler and Pharaoh of Egypt, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).
Construction dates
Drawing showing transportation of a colossus. The water poured in the path of the sledge, long dismissed by Egyptologists as ritual, but now confirmed as feasible, served to increase the stiffness of the sand, and likely reduced by 50% the force needed to move the statue.[19]
The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its location.
Pyramid / Pharaoh
Reign
Field
Djoser
c. 2670 BC Saqqara
Sneferu
c. 2612–2589 BC Dashur
Sneferu
c. 2612–2589 BC Meidum
Khufu
c. 2589–2566 BC Giza
Djedefre
c. 2566–2558 BC Abu Rawash
Khafre
c. 2558–2532 BC Giza
Menkaure
c. 2532–2504 BC Giza
Userkaf
c. 2494–2487 BC Saqqara
Sahure
c. 2487–2477 BC Abu Sir
Neferirkare Kakai
c. 2477–2467 BC Abu Sir
Nyuserre Ini
c. 2416–2392 BC Abu Sir
Amenemhat I
c. 1991–1962 BC Lisht
Senusret I
c. 1971–1926 BC Lisht
Senusret II
c. 1897–1878 BC el-Lahun
Amenemhat III
c. 1860–1814 BC Hawara
Khendjer
c. 1764–1759 BC Saqqara
Piye
c. 721 BC El-Kurru
Taharqa
c. 664 BC Nuri
Construction techniques
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. The quarried blocks were likely transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted to reduce friction. Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together.[20]
See also
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Pyramidion
Ziggurat
Al Ahram, Arabic for "the pyramids", name of Egyptian newspaper
List
List of Egyptian pyramids
List of megalithic sites
References
Jump up ^ Slackman, Michael (17 November 2008). "In the Shadow of a Long Past, Patiently Awaiting the Future". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Mark Lehner (2008). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. p. 34. Thames & Hudson. 2008-03-25. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3.
^ Jump up to: a b "Egypt says has found pyramid built for ancient queen". Reuters. 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2017. The pyramid, which Hawass said was the 118th found in Egypt, was uncovered near the world's oldest pyramid at Saqqara, a burial ground for the rulers of ancient Egypt.
^ Jump up to: a b Slackman, Michael (16 November 2007). "In the Shadow of a Long Past, Patiently Awaiting the Future". New York Times. Retrieved 17 November 2008. Deep below the Egyptian desert, archaeologists have found evidence of yet another pyramid, this one constructed 4,300 years ago to store the remains of a pharaoh’s mother. That makes 138 pyramids discovered here so far, and officials say they expect to find more.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Ritter (2003) "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Dating the Pyramids. Retrieved 13 April 2005
Jump up ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2.
Jump up ^ Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture (4th ed.). Laurence King Publishing. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-85669-459-9. "The Great Pyramid...is still one of the largest structures ever raised by man, its plan twice the size of St. Peter's in Rome"
Jump up ^ [1] Burial customs: mastabas. University College London (2001) Retrieved 14 April 2005
Jump up ^ "Early Dynastic burial customs". Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
Jump up ^ Quirke, Stephen (2001). The Cult of Ra: Sun Worship in Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, pp. 118–120.
Jump up ^ Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997), p.41. ISBN 0-500-05084-8
^ Jump up to: a b Toby Wilkinson (2004). "Before the Pyramids". Egypt at its Origins. Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28th August - 1st September 2002. Peeters. p. 1142. ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8. Retrieved 18 June 2015. A final echo of earlier practices is seen in the domain established by Djoser to supply his mortuary cult. He called it Hr-sb3-/mti-pt, “Horus, the foremost star in the sky”. We could not wish for a clearer statement of the belief underlying the Step Pyramid: that it was a resurrection machine designed to propel its royal owner, Horus, to the pre-eminent place among the undying stars.
Jump up ^ "Discovery Channel Nederland". Discoverychannel.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 December 2004. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20080609220846/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080606/ap_on_re_mi_ea/egypt_missing_pyramid%3B_ylt%3DAtJMeqg4khfjCZgFw4P7z5us0NUE. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "New Pyramid Found in Egypt: 4,300-Year-Old Queen's Tomb". News.nationalgeographic.com. 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated & Annotated, Translations, Volume II, Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 0-631-18435-X, 1996
Jump up ^ [2] The Mastaba of Shepseskaf
Jump up ^ Allen, James; Manuelian, Peter (2005). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Writings from the Ancient World, No. 23). Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-13777-6.
Jump up ^ Terrence McCoy (2014-05-02). "The surprisingly simple way Egyptians moved massive pyramid stones without modern technology". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ "Solved! How Ancient Egyptians Moved Massive Pyramid Stones". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
Bibliography
Edwards, I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt Penguin Books Ltd; New edition (5 Dec 1991), ISBN 978-0-14-013634-0
Lehner, Mark, The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson, 1997, ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2
Mendelssohn, Kurt, The Riddle of the Pyramids, Thames & Hudson Ltd (6 May 1974), ISBN 978-0-500-05015-6
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pyramids of Egypt.
Ancient Egyptians from BBC History
Pyramids World Heritage Site in panographies – 360 degree interactive imaging
The Pyramids of Egypt – The meaning and construction of the Egyptian pyramids by Egyptologist Professor Nabil S welim.
Ancient Authors – A site that quotes descriptions of the "Labyrinth" of Amenemhet III's pyramid at el-Lahun by various ancient authors.
Ancient Egypt – History & Chronology – A site detailing the major pyramid sites of ancient Egypt and Nubia (Sudan).
[show]
v
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Egyptian pyramids
List of Egyptian pyramids (Lepsius)
Commons
Period
Dynasty
Pyramids
Old Kingdom
(2686–2181 BC)
III
Djoser
Buried
Layer
Lepsius I (de)
Athribis
Elephantine
Edfu South
el-Kula (de)
Naqada
Saujet el-Meitin (de)
Sinki (de)
IV
Seila (de)
Meidum
Bent
Red
Khufu
Djedefre
Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan
Khafre
Menkaure
Khentkaus I (de)
Mastabet el-Fara'un
G1-a
G1-b
G1-c
G1-d
Lepsius L (de)
V
Userkaf
Neferhetepes (de)
Sahure
Neferirkare
Khentkaus II
Neferefre
Unfinished
Nyuserre
Lepsius XXIV
Double
Headless
Djedkare-Isesi
Unas
VI
Teti
Pepi I
Merenre
Pepi II
Sesheshet
1st Intermediate Period
(2181–2040 BC)
VII | VIII
Ity
Neferkare Neby
Ibi
Khui
X
Merikare
Middle Kingdom
(2040–1650 BC)
XI
Reherishefnakht
XII
Amenemhat I
Senusret I
White
Senusret II
Senusret III
Black
Hawara
Neferuptah (de)
Central Dahshur (de)
South Mazghuna
North Mazghuna
XIII
Ameny Qemau
Khendjer
Southern South Saqqara
SAK S 3
SAK S 7 (de)
South Dahshur A (de)
South Dahshur B (de)
DAS 46
DAS 49
DAS 50
DAS 51
DAS 53 (de)
S 9
S 10
Merneferre Ay
Second Intermediate
(1650–1570 BC)
XVII
Sobekemsaf I
Sobekemsaf II
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
Nubkheperre Intef
Senakhtenre Ahmose
Seqenenre Tao
Kamose

New Kingdom
(1570–1070 BC)
XVIII
Ahmose

Step pyramid
Construction techniques
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Texts
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Pyramidology
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Pyramid of Niuserre

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List of megalithic sites

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James P. Allen

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values: Pyramid of el-Kula (page does not exist)

values: Pyramid of Saujet el-Meitin (page does not exist)

values: Pyramid of Khentaus I (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Mastabet_el-Fara%27un
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Mastabet el-Fara'un

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Pyramid of Neferhetepes

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/wiki/Lepsius_XXIV_Pyramid
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Lepsius XXIV Pyramid

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Pyramid of Djedkare-Isesi

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/wiki/Pyramid_of_Sesheshet
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Pyramid of Sesheshet

values: Pyramid of Neferuptah (page does not exist)

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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAK_S_7
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de:SAK S 7

values: South Dahshur Pyramid A (page does not exist)

values: South Dahshur Pyramid B (page does not exist)

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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAS_53
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de:DAS 53

values: Pyramid of Merneferre Ay (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period
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Second Intermediate Period

values: Pyramid of Sobekemsaf I (page does not exist)

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values: Pyramid of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef (page does not exist)

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Writing in Ancient Egypt

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