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Participatory culture
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Participatory culture is an opposing concept to consumer culture — in other words a culture in which private individuals (the public) do not act as consumers only, but also as contributors or producers (prosumers). The term is most often applied to the production or creation of some type of published media. Recent advances in technologies (mostly personal computers and the Internet) have enabled private persons to create and publish such media, usually through the Internet.[1] Since the technology now enables new forms of expression and engagement in public discourse, participatory culture not only supports individual creation but also informal relationships that pair novices with experts.[2] This new culture as it relates to the Internet has been described as Web 2.0. In participatory culture "young people creatively respond to a plethora of electronic signals and cultural commodities in ways that surprise their makers, finding meanings and identities never meant to be there and defying simple nostrums that bewail the manipulation or passivity of "consumers."[1]
The increasing access to the Internet has come to play an integral part in the expansion of participatory culture because it increasingly enables people to work collaboratively; generate and disseminate news, ideas, and creative works; and connect with people who share similar goals and interests (see affinity groups). The potential of participatory culture for civic engagement and creative expression has been investigated by media scholar Henry Jenkins. In 2005, Jenkins and co-authors Ravi Purushotma, Katie Clinton, Margaret Weigel and Alice Robison authored a white paper entitled Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. This paper describes a participatory culture as one:
With relatively low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement
With strong support for creating and sharing one's creations with others
With some type of informal mentorship whereby what is known by the most experienced is passed along to novices
Where members believe that their contributions matter
Where members feel some degree of social connection with one another (at the least they care what other people think about what they have created).[2]
Contents
1 History
2 Forms of participatory communication
3 Participatory culture and technology
4 Participatory culture and social media
4.1 Relationship to Web 2.0
4.2 Relationship to the smartphone
4.3 Producers, consumers, and "produsage"
4.4 Explicit and implicit participation
5 Gendered experiences
6 Promise and potential of participatory culture
6.1 Mass media and civic engagement
6.2 Participatory culture civics
6.3 Potential in education
7 Challenges of participatory cultures
7.1 Concerns for consumers
7.2 Concerns in education
7.2.1 Participation gap
7.2.2 Transparency problem
7.2.3 Ethics challenge
7.2.4 Issues for educators and educational policy-makers
7.3 Participatory culture as a new form of literacy
8 Meta-design: a design methodology supporting participatory cultures
9 See also
10 References
History[edit]
Participatory culture has been around longer than the Internet. The emergence of the Amateur Press Association in the middle of the 19th century is an example of historical participatory culture; at that time, young people were hand typing and printing their own publications. These publications were mailed throughout a network of people and resemble what are now called social networks. The evolution from zines, radio shows, group projects, and gossips to blogs, podcasts, wikis, and social networks has impacted society greatly. With web services such as eBay, Blogger, Wikipedia, Photobucket, Facebook, and YouTube, it is no wonder that culture has become more participatory. The implications of the gradual shift from production to produsage are profound, and will affect the very core of culture, economy, society, and democracy.[3]
Forms of participatory communication[edit]
Forms of participatory culture can be manifested in affiliations, expressions, collaborative problem solving, and circulations. Affiliations include both formal and informal memberships in online communities such as discussion boards or social media. Expression refers to the types of media that could be created. Oftentimes, this may manifest as memes, fan-fiction, or other forms of mash-ups. When individuals and groups work together on a particular form of media or media product, like a wiki, then they engage in collaborative problem solving. Finally, circulation refers to the means through which the communication may be spread. This could include blogs, vlogs, podcasts, and even some forms of social media.[2] Some of the most popular apps that involve participation include: Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, Tinder, LinkedIn, and Twitter.
Participatory culture and technology[edit]
As technology continues to enable new avenues for communication, collaboration, and circulation of ideas, it has also given rise to new opportunities for consumers to create their own content. Barriers like time and money are beginning to become less significant to large groups of consumers. For example, the creation of movies once required large amounts of expensive equipment, but now movie clips can be made with equipment that is affordable to a growing number of people. The ease with which consumers create new material has also grown. Extensive knowledge of computer programming is no longer necessary to create content on the internet. Media sharing over the Internet acts as a platform to invite users to participate and create communities that share similar interests through duplicated sources, original content, and repurposed material. YouTube is similar to creating ones own material but on a much smaller scale than films and movies. YouTuber's are able to use any camera and film a video. Some YouTuber's have millions of subscribers. This has become a job for most people in today's world. People are able to make their own content and connect with people all over the world.
Participatory culture and social media[edit]
People no longer blindly absorb and consume what large media corporations distribute.[4] Today there is a great deal of people who are "Prosumers" or consumers that also produce their own media.[citation needed] The reason participatory culture is a high interest topic is due to the fact that there are just so many different social media platforms to participate and contribute to. These happen to be some of the leaders in the social media industry,[5] and are the reason people are able to have such an advantage to participate in media creation. Today, millions people across the world have the ability to post, quote, film, or create whatever they want.[6] With the aid of these platforms, the ability to reach a global audience has never been easier.[citation needed] A great example is YouTuber's become famous for their videos. They produce these videos and gain millions of followers. Some have gone on to produce their own products such as clothing lines and makeup.
Relationship to Web 2.0[edit]
Not only has hardware increased the individual's ability to submit content to the internet so that it may be reached by a wide audience, but in addition numerous internet sites have increased access. Websites like Flickr, Wikipedia, and Facebook encourage the submission of content to the Internet. They increase the ease with which a user may post content by allowing them to submit information even if they only have an Internet browser. The need for additional software is eliminated. These websites also serve to create online communities for the production of content. These communities and their web services have been labelled as part of Web 2.0.[7]
The relationship between Web 2.0 tools and participatory culture is more than just material, however. As the mindsets and skillsets of participatory practices have been increasingly taken up, people are increasingly likely to exploit new tools and technology in 2.0 ways. One example is the use of cellphone technology to engage "smart mobs" for political change worldwide. In countries where cellphone usage exceeds use of any other form of digital technology, passing information via mobile phone has helped bring about significant political and social change. Notable examples include the so-called "Orange Revolution" in Ukraine,[8] the overthrow of Philippine President Joseph Estrada,[9] and regular political protests worldwide [10]
Relationship to the smartphone[edit]
The smartphone is one example that combines the elements of interactivity, identity, and mobility. The mobility of the smartphone demonstrates that media is no longer bound by time and space can be used in any context.[11] Technology continues to progress in this direction as it becomes more user driven and less restricted to schedules and locations, for example the progression of movies from theaters to private home viewing, to now the smartphone that can be watched anytime and anywhere. The smartphone also enhances the participatory culture by increased levels of interactivity. Instead of merely watching, users are actively involved in making decisions, navigating pages, contributing their own content and choosing what links to follow. This goes beyond the "keyboard" level of interactivity, where a person presses a key and the expected letter appears, and becomes rather a dynamic activity with continually new options and changing setting, without a set formula to follow. The consumer role shifts from a passive receiver to an active contributor. The smartphone epitomizes this by the endless choices and ways to get personally involved with multiple media at the same time, in a nonlinear way.[12] The smartphone also contributes to participatory culture because of how it changes the perception of identity. A user can hide behind an avatar, false profile, or simply idealized self when interacting with others online. There is no accountability to be who one says one is. The ability to slide in and out of roles changes the effect of media on culture, and also the user himself.[13] Now not only are people active participants in media and culture, but their imagined selves are as well.
Producers, consumers, and "produsage"[edit]
In Vincent Miller's Understanding Digital Culture, he makes the argument of the idea how the lines between producer and consumers have become blurry. Producers are those that create content and cultural objects, and consumers are the audience or purchasers of those objects. By referring to Bruns' idea of "prosumer," Miller argues "With the advent of convergent new media and the plethora of choice in sources for information, as well as the increased capacity for individuals to produce content themselves, this shift away from producer hegemony to audience or consumer power would seem to have accelerated, thus eroding the producer-consumer distinction" (p. 87). "Prosumer" is the ending result of a strategy that has been increasingly used which encourages feedback between producers and consumers (prosumers), "which allows for more consumer influence over the production of goods."[14]
Bruns (2008) refers to produsage, therefore, as a community collaboration that participants can access in order to share "content, contributions, and tasks throughout the networked community" (p. 14). Much like Wikipedia allows users to write, edit, and ultimately use content, produsers are active participants who are empowered by their participation as network builders. Bruns (2008) describes the empowerment for users as different from the typical "top-down mediated spaces of the traditional mediaspheres" (p. 14). Produsage occurs when the users are the produsers and vice versa, essentially eliminating the need for these "top-down" interventions. The collaboration of each participant is based on a principle of inclusivity; each member contributes valuable information for another user to use, add to, or change. In a community of learners, collaboration through produsage can provide access to content for every participant, not just those with some kind of authority. Every participant has authority.
This leads to Bruns' (2008) idea of "equipotentiality: the assumption that while the skills and abilities of all the participants in the produsage project are not equal, they have an equal ability to make a worthy contribution to the project" (p. 25). Because there are no more distinctions between producers and consumers, every participant has an equal chance to participate meaningfully in produsage.[15]
Explicit and implicit participation[edit]
An important contribution has been made by media theorist Mirko Tobias Schäfer who distinguishes explicit and implicit participation (2011). Explicit participation describes the conscious and active engagement of users in fan communities or of developers in creative processes. Implicit participation is more subtle and unfolds often without the users knowledge. Implicit participation is achieved by implementing user activities into user interfaces and back-end design. Schäfer argues that the success of popular Web 2.0 and social media applications thrives on implicit participation. The notion of implicit participation expands theories of participatory culture as formulated by Henry Jenkins and Axel Bruns who both focus most prominently on explicit participation (p. 44). Considering implicit participation allows therefore for a more accurate analysis of the role technology in co-shaping user interactions and user generated content (pp. 51–52).[16]
Gendered experiences[edit]
Participatory culture lacks representation of the female, which has created a misrepresentation of women online. This in turn, makes it difficult for women to represent themselves with authenticity, and deters participation of females in participatory culture. The app Instagram has created an expectation of what women are supposed to be posting on the app. They are expected to wear provocative clothing and edit the picture until they do not look like their actual self. Instagram is all about the likes and pictures. If a female user does not post the expected content, they will not receive that many likes. The content that is viewed on the internet in participatory situations is biased because of the overrepresentation of male generated information, and the ideologies created by the male presence in media, thus creates a submissive role for the female user, as they unconsciously accept patriarchal ideologies as reality. With males in the dominant positions "media industries [engage]… existing technologies to break up and reformulate media texts for reasons of their own".[17]
Design intent from the male perspective is a main issue deterring accurate female representation. Females active in participatory culture are at a disadvantage because the content they are viewing is not designed with their participation in mind. Instead of producing male biased content, "feminist interaction design should seek to bring about political emancipation… it should also force designers to question their own position to assert what an "improved society" is and how to achieve it".[18] The current interactions and interfaces of participatory culture fails to "challenge the hegemonic dominance, legitimacy and appropriateness of positivist epistemologies; theorize from the margins; and problematize gender".[19] Men typically are more involved in the technology industry as "relatively fewer women work in the industry that designs technology now... only in the areas of HCI/usability is the gender balance of workforce anything like equal".[19] Since technology and design is at the crux of the creation of participatory culture "much can – and should – be said about who does what, and it is fair to raise the question of whether an industry of men can design for women".[19] "Although the members of the group are not directly teaching or perhaps even indicating the object of… representation, their activities inevitably lead to the exposure of the other individual to that object and this leads to that individual acquiring the same narrow… representations as the other group members have. Social learning of this type (another, similar process is known as local enhancement) has been shown to lead to relatively stable social transmission of behavior over time".[17] Local enhancement is the driving mechanism that influences the audience to embody and recreate the messages produced in media. Statistically, men are actively engaging in the production of these problematic representations, whereas, women are not contributing to the portrayal of women experiences because of local enhancement that takes place on the web. There is no exact number to determine the precise percentage for female users, in the year 2011 there were numerous surveys that slightly fluctuate in numbers, but none seem to surpass 15 percent.[20] This shows a large disparity of online users in regards to gender when looking at Wikipedia content. Bias arises as the content presented in Wikipedia seems to be more male oriented.[21]
Promise and potential of participatory culture[edit]
Mass media and civic engagement[edit]
Participatory culture has been hailed by some as a way to reform communication and enhance the quality of media. According to media scholar Henry Jenkins, one result of the emergence of participatory cultures is an increase in the number of media resources available, giving rise to increased competition between media outlets. Producers of media are forced to pay more attention to the needs of consumers who can turn to other sources for information.[22]
Howard Rheingold and others have argued that the emergence of participatory cultures will enable deep social change. Until as recently as the end of the 20th century, Rheingold argues, a handful of generally privileged, generally wealthy people controlled nearly all forms of mass communication—newspapers, television, magazines, books and encyclopedias. Today, however, tools for media production and dissemination are readily available and allow for what Rheingold labels "participatory media." [23]
As participation becomes easier, the diversity of voices that can be heard also increases. At one time only a few mass media giants controlled most of the information that flowed into the homes of the public, but with the advance of technology even a single person has the ability to spread information around the world. The diversification of media has benefits because in cases where the control of media becomes concentrated it gives those who have control the ability to influence the opinions and information that flows to the public domain.[24] Media concentration provides opportunity for corruption, but as information continues to become accessed from more and more places it becomes increasingly difficult to control the flow of information to the will of an agenda. Participatory Culture is also seen as a more democratic form of communication as it stimulates the audience to take an active part because they can help shape the flow of ideas across media formats.[24] The democratic tendency lent to communication by participatory culture allows new models of production that are not based on a hierarchical standard. In the face of increased participation, the traditional hierarchies will not disappear, but "Community, collaboration, and self-organization" can become the foundation of corporations as powerful alternatives.[25] Although there may be no real hierarchy evident in many collaborative websites, their ability to form large pools of collective intelligence is not compromised.
Participatory culture civics[edit]
Participatory culture civics organizations mobilize participatory cultures towards political action. They build on participatory cultures and organize such communities toward civic and political goals.[26] Examples include Harry Potter Alliance, Invisible Children, and Nerdfighters, which each leverage shared cultural interests to connect and organize members towards explicit political goals. These groups run campaigns by informing, connecting, and eventually organizing their members through new media platforms. Neta Kligler-Vilenchik identified three mechanisms used to translate cultural interests into political outcomes:[27]
Tapping shared passion around content worlds and their communities
Creative production of content
Informal discussion spaces for conversations about salient issues
Potential in education[edit]
Social and participatory media allow for—and, indeed, call for—a shift in how we approach teaching and learning in the classroom. The increased availability of the Internet in classrooms allows for greater access to information. For example, it is no longer necessary for relevant knowledge to be contained in some combination of the teacher and textbooks; today, knowledge can be more de-centralized and made available for all learners to access. The teacher, then, can help facilitate efficient and effective means of accessing, interpreting, and making use of that knowledge.[28]
Challenges of participatory cultures[edit]
Concerns for consumers[edit]
All people want to be a consumer in some and an active contributor in other situations. Being a consumer or active contributor is not an attribute of a person, but of a context.[29] The important criteria that needs to be taken into account is personally meaningful activities. Participatory cultures empower humans to be active contributors in personally meaningful activities. The drawback of such cultures is that they may force humans to cope with the burden of being an active contributor in personally irrelevant activities. This trade-off can be illustrated with the potential and drawbacks of "Do-It-Yourself Societies": starting with self-service restaurants and self-service gas stations a few decades ago, and this trend has been greatly accelerated over the last 10 years. Through modern tools (including electronic commerce supported by the Web), humans are empowered to do many tasks themselves that were done previously by skilled domain workers serving as agents and intermediaries. While this shift provides power, freedom, and control to customers (e.g., banking can be done at any time of the day with ATMs, and from any location with the Web), it has led also to some less desirable consequences. People may consider some of these tasks not very meaningful personally and therefore would be more than content with a consumer role. Aside from simple tasks that require a small or no learning effort, customers lack the experience the professionals have acquired and maintained through daily use of systems, and the broad background knowledge to do these tasks efficiently and effectively. The tools used to do these tasks — banking, travel reservations, buying airline tickets, checking out groceries at the supermarket — are core technologies for the professionals, but occasional technologies for the customers. This will put a new, substantial burden on customers rather than having skilled domain workers doing these tasks.
Significantly, too, as businesses increasingly recruit participatory practices and resources to market goods and services, consumers who are comfortable working within participatory media are at a distinct advantage over those who are less comfortable. Not only do consumers who are resistant to making use of the affordances of participatory culture have decreased access to knowledge, goods, and services, but they are less likely to take advantage of the increased leverage inherent in engaging with businesses as a prosumer.
Concerns in education[edit]
Jenkins et al. identify three significant concerns with respect to participatory culture. These are the "participation gap," the "transparency problem," and the "ethics challenge."
Participation gap[edit]
This category is linked to the issue of the digital divide, the concern with providing access to technology for all learners. The movement to break down the digital divide has included efforts to bring computers into classrooms, libraries, and other public places. These efforts have been largely successful, but as Jenkins et al. argue, the concern is now with the quality access to available technologies. They explain:
What a person can accomplish with an outdated machine in a public library with mandatory filtering software and no opportunity for storage or transmission pales in comparison to what [a] person can accomplish with a home computer with unfettered Internet access, high band-width, and continuous connectivity.(Current legislation to block access to social networking software in schools and public libraries will further widen the participation gap.) The school system's inability to close this participation gap has negative consequences for everyone involved. On the one hand,those youth who are most advanced in media literacies are often stripped of their technologies and robbed of their best techniques for learning in an effort to ensure a uniform experience for all in the classroom. On the other hand, many youth who have had no exposure to these new kinds of participatory cultures outside school find themselves struggling to keep up with their peers. (Jenkins et al. pg. 15)
Passing out the technology free of charge is not enough to ensure youth and adults learn how to use the tools effectively. Most American youths now have at least minimal access to networked computers, be it at school or in public libraries, but "children who have access to home computers demonstrate more positive attitudes towards computers, show more enthusiasm, and report more enthusiast and ease when using computer than those who do not (Page 8 Wartella, O'Keefe, and Scantlin (2000)). As the children with more access to computers gain more comfort in using them, the less tech-savvy students get pushed aside. It is important to note that it is more than a simple binary at work here, as working-class youths may still have access so some technologies (e.g. gaming consoles) while other forms remain unattainable. This inequality would allow certain skills to develop in some children, such as play, while others remain unavailable, such as the ability to produce and distribute self-created media.[2]
In a participatory culture one of the key challenges that is encountered is participatory gap. This comes into play with the integration of media and society. Some of the largest challenges we face in regards to the participation gap is in education, learning, accessibility, and privacy. All of these factors are huge setbacks when it comes to the relatively new integration of youth participating in today's popular forms of media. Education is one realm where the participatory gap is very prominent. In today's society, our education system heavily focuses on integrating media into its curriculum. More and more our classrooms are utilizing computers and technology as learning aides. While this is beneficial for students and teachers to enhance learning environments and allow them to access a plethora of information, it also presents many problems. The participation gap leaves many schools as well as its teachers and students at a disadvantage as they struggle to utilize current technology in their curriculum. Many schools do not have to funding to invest in computers or new technologies for their academic programs. They are unable to afford computers, camera, and interactive learning tools, which prevents students from accessing the tools that other, wealthier schools have. Another challenge is that as we integrate new technology into schools and academics, we need to be able to teach people how to use these instruments. Teaching both student and adults how to use new media technologies is essential so that they can actively participate as their peers do. Additionally, teaching children how to navigate the information available on new media technologies is very important as there is so much content available on the internet these days. For beginners this can be overwhelming and teaching kids as well as adults how to access what is pertinent, reliable and viable information will help them improve how they utilize media technologies. One huge aspect of the participation gap is access. Access to the Internet and computers is a luxury in some households, and in the today's society, access to a computer and the Internet is often overlooked by both the education system and many other entities. In today's society, almost everything we do is based online, from banking to shopping to homework and ordering food, we spend all of our time doing everyday tasks online. For those who are unable to access these things, they are automatically put at a severe disadvantage. They cannot participate in activities that their peers do and may suffer both academically and socially. The last feature of the participation gap is privacy concerns. We put everything on the Internet these days, from pictures to personal information. It is important to question how this content will be used. Who owns this content? Where does it go or where is it stored? For example, the controversy of Facebook and its ownership and rights of user's content has been a hot button issue over the past few years. It is disconcerting to a lot of people to find out that their content they have posted to a particular website is no longer under their control, but may be retained and used by the website in the future. All of the above-mentioned issued are key factors in the participation gap. They play a large role is the challenges we face as we incorporate new media technology into everyday life. These challenges affect how many populations interact with the changing media in society and unfortunately leave many at a disadvantage. This divide between users of new media and those who are unable to access these technologies is also referred to as the digital divide. It leaves low-income families and children at a severe disadvantage that affect them in the present as well as the future. Students for example are largely affected because without access to the Internet or a computer they are unable to do homework and projects and will moreover be unsuccessful in school. These poor grades can lead to frustration with academia and furthermore may lead to delinquent behavior, low income jobs, decreased chanced of pursuing higher educations, and poor job skills.
Transparency problem[edit]
Increased facility with technology does not necessarily lead to increased ability to interpret how technology exerts its own pressure on us. Indeed, with increased access to information, the ability to interpret the viability of that information becomes increasingly difficult.[30] It is crucial, then, to find ways to help young learners develop tactics for engaging critically with the tools and resources they use.
Ethics challenge[edit]
This is identified as a "breakdown of traditional forms of professional training and socialization that might prepare young people for their increasingly public roles as media makers and community participants" (Jenkins et al. pg. 5). For example, throughout most of the last half of the 20th century learners who wanted to become journalists would generally engage in a formal apprenticeship through journalism classes and work on a high school newspaper. This work would be guided by a teacher who was an expert in the rules and norms of journalism and who would confer that knowledge to student-apprentices. With increasing access to Web 2.0 tools, however, anybody can be a journalist of sorts, with or without an apprenticeship to the discipline. A key goal in media education, then, must be to find ways to help learners develop techniques for active reflection on the choices they make—and contributions they offer—as members of a participatory culture.
Issues for educators and educational policy-makers[edit]
As teachers, administrators, and policymakers consider the role of new media and participatory practices in the school environment, they will need to find ways to address the multiple challenges. Challenges include finding ways to work with the decentralization of knowledge inherent in online spaces; developing policies with respect to filtering software that protects learners and schools without limiting students' access to sites that enable participation; and considering the role of assessment in classrooms that embrace participatory practices.
Cultures are substantially defined by their media and their tools for thinking, working, learning, and collaborating. Unfortunately a large number of new media are designed to see humans only as consumers; and people, particularly young people in educational institutions, form mindsets based on their exposure to specific media. The current mindset about learning, teaching, and education is dominated by a view in which teaching is often fitted "into a mold in which a single, presumably omniscient teacher explicitly tells or shows presumably unknowing learners something they presumably know nothing about".[31] A critical challenge is a reformulation and reconceptualization of this impoverished and misleading conception. Learning should not take place in a separate phase and in a separate place, but should be integrated into people's lives allowing them to construct solutions to their own problems. As they experience breakdowns in doing so, they should be able to learn on demand by gaining access to directly relevant information. The direct usefulness of new knowledge for actual problem situations greatly improves the motivation to learn the new material because the time and effort invested in learning are immediately worthwhile for the task at hand — not merely for some putative long-term gain. In order to create active contributor mindsets serving as the foundation of participatory cultures, learning cannot be restricted to finding knowledge that is "out there". Rather than serving as the "reproductive organ of a consumer society" [32] educational institutions must cultivate the development of an active contributor mindset by creating habits, tools and skills that help people become empowered and willing to actively contribute to the design of their lives and communities. Beyond supporting contributions from individual designers, educational institutions need to build a culture and mindset of sharing, supported by effective technologies and sustained by personal motivation to occasionally work for the benefit of groups and communities. This includes finding ways for people to see work done for the benefits of others being "on-task", rather than as extra work for which there is no recognition and no reward.
Participatory culture as a new form of literacy[edit]
Jenkins et al. believes that conversation surrounding the Digital Divide should focus on opportunities to participate and to develop the cultural competencies and social skills required to take part rather than get stuck on the question of technological access. As institutions, schools have been slow on the uptake of participatory culture. Instead, afterschool programs currently devote more attention to the development of new media literacies, or, a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape. Participatory culture shifts this literacy from the individual level to community involvement. Networking and collaboration develop social skills that are vital to the new literacies. Although new, these skills build on an existing foundation of traditional literacy, research skills, technical skills, and critical analysis skills taught in the classroom.
Meta-design: a design methodology supporting participatory cultures[edit]
Metadesign is "design for designers" [33] It represents an emerging conceptual framework aimed at defining and creating social and technical infrastructures in which participatory cultures can come alive and new forms of collaborative design can take place. It extends the traditional notion of system design beyond the original development of a system to allow users become co-designers and co-developers. It is grounded in the basic assumption that future uses and problems cannot be completely anticipated at design time, when a system is developed. Users, at use time, will discover mismatches between their needs and the support that an existing system can provide for them. These mismatches will lead to breakdowns that serve as potential sources of new insights, new knowledge, and new understanding. Meta-design supports participatory cultures as follows:
Making changes must seem possible: Contributors should not be intimidated and should not have the impression that they are incapable of making changes; the more users become convinced that changes are not as difficult as they think they are, the more they may be willing to participate.
Changes must be technically feasible: If a system is closed, then contributors cannot make any changes; as a necessary prerequisite, there needs to be possibilities and mechanisms for extension.
Benefits must be perceived: Contributors have to believe that what they get in return justifies the investment they make. The benefits perceived may vary and can include: professional benefits (helping for one's own work), social benefits (increased status in a community, possibilities for jobs), and personal benefits (engaging in fun activities).
The environments must support tasks that people engage in: The best environments will not succeed if they are focused on activities that people do rarely or consider of marginal value.
Low barriers must exist to sharing changes: Evolutionary growth is greatly accelerated in systems in which participants can share changes and keep track of multiple versions easily. If sharing is difficult, it creates an unnecessary burden that participants are unwilling to overcome.
See also[edit]
Prosumer
The Long Tail
Remix culture
Hypersociability
Transmedia storytelling
Affinity space
Constructed World
Consumtariat
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Mirko Tobias Schaefer: Bastard Culture! How User Participation Transforms Cultural Production, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2011. ISBN 978-90-8964-256-1
^ Jump up to: a b Driscoll, Catherine (May 2007). "The Problem of Adaptive Individual Choice in Cultural Evolution". Biol Philos (23): 101–113.
Jump up ^ Bardzell, Shaowen (2010). "Feminist HCI." Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems". Chi '10: 1301–310.
^ Jump up to: a b c Light, Ann (2011). "HCI as Heterodoxy: Technologies of Identity and the Queering of Interaction with Computers". Interacting with Computers. 23: 430–38.
Jump up ^ Pappas, Stephanie. "Wikipedia's Gender Problem Gets a Closer Look". Livescience. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Wolchover, Natalie. "Mind Wikipedia's Gender Gap: Men Contribute More Than Women". Livescience. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture:Where Old and New Media Collide, New York University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8147-4281-5
Jump up ^ Rheingold, Howard. (2008) "Welcome to Participatory Media Literacy." Participatory Media Literacy. Available at http://www.socialtext.net/medialiteracy/index.cgi/ (accessed January 2009)
^ Jump up to: a b Benkler, Yochai. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. New Haven: Yale, 2006. ISBN 0-300-11056-1
Jump up ^ Tapscott, Don. Anthony D. Williams. Wikinomics:How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Penguin USA: New York, 2006. ISBN 1-59184-138-0
Jump up ^ Kligler-Vilenchik, N., & Shresthova, S. (2012). Learning Through Practice: Participatory Culture Civics Abstract.
Jump up ^ Kligler-Vilenchik, N. (2013). "Decreasing World Suck": Fan Communities, Mechanisms of Translation, and Participatory Politics.
Jump up ^ Leander, Kevin M. (2002) "'You Won't Be Needing Your Laptops Today': Wired Bodies in the Wireless Classroom." In Michele Knobel and Colin Lankshear (eds.). A New Literacies Sampler. Available at "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-04-29. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
Jump up ^ Fischer, G. (2002) Beyond 'Couch Potatoes': From Consumers to Designers and Active Contributors, in FirstMonday (Peer-Reviewed Journal on the Internet), Available at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_12/fischer/
Jump up ^ Hobbs, Renee (1999). "Deciding What to Believe in an Age of Information Abundance: Exploring Non-Fiction Television in Education". Media Literacy Online Project. Media Literacy Review. University of Oregon, Eugene, OR: Center for Advanced Technology in Education – College of Education. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2009. Determining the truth value of information has become increasingly difficult in an age of increasing diversity and ease of access to information.
Jump up ^ Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Jump up ^ Illich, I. (1971) Deschooling Society, Harper and Row, New York,
Jump up ^ Fischer, G., & Giaccardi, E. (2006) "Meta-Design: A Framework for the Future of End User Development." In H. Lieberman, F. Paternò, & V. Wulf (Eds.).End User Development: Empowering People to Flexibly Employ Advanced Information and Communication Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 427-457
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Alpha-amylase
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Alpha-amylase
Human salivary amylase: calcium ion visible in pale khaki, chloride ion in green. PDB 1SMD[1]
Identifiers
EC number
3.2.1.1
CAS number
9000-90-2
Databases
IntEnz
IntEnz view
BRENDA
BRENDA entry
ExPASy
NiceZyme view
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KEGG entry
MetaCyc
metabolic pathway
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profile
PDB structures
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[show]Search
PMC
articles
PubMed
articles
NCBI
proteins
Alpha-amylase catalytic domain
Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (e.c.2.4.1.19) (cgtase)
Identifiers
Symbol
Alpha-amylase
Pfam
PF00128
Pfam clan
CL0058
InterPro
IPR006047
SCOP
1ppi
SUPERFAMILY
1ppi
OPM superfamily
125
OPM protein
1wza
CAZy
GH13
[show]Available protein structures:
Pfam
structures
PDB
RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum
structure summary
Alpha-amylase C-terminal beta-sheet domain
Crystal structure of barley alpha-amylase isozyme 1 (amy1) inactive mutant d180a in complex with maltoheptaose
Identifiers
Symbol
Alpha-amyl_C2
Pfam
PF07821
InterPro
IPR012850
[show]Available protein structures:
Pfam
structures
PDB
RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum
structure summary
Alpha amylase, C-terminal all-beta domain
maltotriose complex of preconditioned cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase mutant
Identifiers
Symbol
Alpha-amylase_C
Pfam
PF02806
Pfam clan
CL0369
InterPro
IPR006048
SCOP
1ppi
SUPERFAMILY
1ppi
[show]Available protein structures:
Pfam
structures
PDB
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structure summary
α-Amylase is a protein enzyme EC 3.2.1.1 that hydrolyses alpha bonds of large, alpha-linked polysaccharides, such as starch and glycogen, yielding glucose and maltose.[2] It is the major form of amylase found in humans and other mammals.[3] It is also present in seeds containing starch as a food reserve, and is secreted by many fungi.
Contents
[hide]
1 In human physiology
1.1 Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
1.1.1 Optimum conditions for ptyalin
1.2 Genetic variation in human salivary amylase
1.2.1 Pancreatic amylase
1.3 In pathology
1.3.1 Interpretation
1.4 Genes
2 In grain
3 Industrial use
4 Potential for medical use
5 Buffer inhibition
6 Determination
7 Domain architecture
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
In human physiology[edit]
Although found in many tissues, amylase is most prominent in pancreatic juice and saliva, each of which has its own isoform of human α-amylase. They behave differently on isoelectric focusing, and can also be separated in testing by using specific monoclonal antibodies. In humans, all amylase isoforms link to chromosome 1p21 (see AMY1A).
Salivary amylase (ptyalin)[edit]
Amylase is found in saliva and breaks starch into maltose and dextrin. This form of amylase is also called "ptyalin" /ˈtaɪəlɪn/[4] It will break large, insoluble starch molecules into soluble starches (amylodextrin, erythrodextrin, and achrodextrin) producing successively smaller starches and ultimately maltose. Ptyalin acts on linear α(1,4) glycosidic linkages, but compound hydrolysis requires an enzyme that acts on branched products. Salivary amylase is inactivated in the stomach by gastric acid. In gastric juice adjusted to pH 3.3, ptyalin was totally inactivated in 20 minutes at 37 °C. In contrast, 50% of amylase activity remained after 150 minutes of exposure to gastric juice at pH 4.3.[5] Both starch, the substrate for ptyalin, and the product (short chains of glucose) are able to partially protect it against inactivation by gastric acid. Ptyalin added to buffer at pH 3.0 underwent complete inactivation in 120 minutes; however, addition of starch at a 0.1% level resulted in 10% of the activity remaining, and similar addition of starch to a 1.0% level resulted in about 40% of the activity remaining at 120 minutes.[6]
Optimum conditions for ptyalin[edit]
Optimum pH – 7.0[7]
Human body temperature[citation needed]
Presence of certain anions and activators:
Chloride and bromide – most effective
Iodide – less effective
Sulfate and phosphate – least effective
Genetic variation in human salivary amylase[edit]
The salivary amylase gene has undergone duplication during evolution, and DNA hybridization studies indicate many individuals have multiple tandem repeats of the gene. The number of gene copies correlates with the levels of salivary amylase, as measured by protein blot assays using antibodies to human amylase. Gene copy number is associated with apparent evolutionary exposure to high-starch diets.[8] For example, a Japanese individual had 14 copies of the amylase gene (one allele with 10 copies, and a second allele with four copies). The Japanese diet has traditionally contained large amounts of rice starch. In contrast, a Biaka individual carried six copies (three copies on each allele). The Biaka are rainforest hunter-gatherers who have traditionally consumed a low-starch diet. Perry and colleagues speculated the increased copy number of the salivary amylase gene may have enhanced survival coincident to a shift to a starchy diet during human evolution.
Pancreatic amylase[edit]
Pancreatic α-amylase randomly cleaves the α(1-4) glycosidic linkages of amylose to yield dextrin, maltose, or maltotriose. It adopts a double displacement mechanism with retention of anomeric configuration.
In pathology[edit]
The test for amylase is easier to perform than that for lipase, making it the primary test used to detect and monitor pancreatitis. Medical laboratories will usually measure either pancreatic amylase or total amylase. If only pancreatic amylase is measured, an increase will not be noted with mumps or other salivary gland trauma.
However, because of the small amount present, timing is critical when sampling blood for this measurement. Blood should be taken soon after a bout of pancreatitis pain, otherwise it is excreted rapidly by the kidneys.
Salivary α-amylase has been used as a biomarker for stress[9][10] and as a surrogate marker of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity[11] that does not require a blood draw.
Interpretation[edit]
Increased plasma levels in humans are found in:
Salivary trauma (including anaesthetic intubation)
Mumps – due to inflammation of the salivary glands
Pancreatitis – because of damage to the cells that produce amylase
Renal failure – due to reduced excretion
Total amylase readings of over 10 times the upper limit of normal (ULN) are suggestive of pancreatitis. Five to 10 times the ULN may indicate ileus or duodenal disease or renal failure, and lower elevations are commonly found in salivary gland disease.
Genes[edit]
salivary – AMY1A, AMY1B, AMY1C
pancreatic – AMY2A, AMY2B
In grain[edit]
α-Amylase activity in grain is measured by, for instance, the Hagberg-Perten Falling Number, a test to assess sprout damages,[12] or the Phadebas method.
Industrial use[edit]
α-Amylase is used in ethanol production to break starches in grains into fermentable sugars.
The first step in the production of high-fructose corn syrup is the treatment of cornstarch with α-amylase, producing shorter chains of sugars oligosaccharides.
An α-amylase called "Termamyl", sourced from Bacillus licheniformis, is also used in some detergents, especially dishwashing and starch-removing detergents.[13]
See amylase for more uses of the amylase family in general.
Potential for medical use[edit]
α-Amylase has exhibited efficacy in degrading polymicrobial bacterial biofilms by hydrolyzing the α(1-4) glycosidic linkages within the structural, matrix exopolysaccharides of the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS).[14][15]
Buffer inhibition[edit]
The tris molecule is reported to inhibit a number of bacterial α-amylases,[16][17] so they should not be used in tris buffer.
Determination[edit]
Several methods are available for determination of α-amylase activity, and different industries tend to rely on different methods. The starch iodine test, a development of the iodine test, is based on colour change, as α-amylase degrades starch and is commonly used in many applications. A similar but industrially produced test is the Phadebas amylase test, which is used as a qualitative and quantitative test within many industries, such as detergents, various flour, grain, and malt foods, and forensic biology.
Domain architecture[edit]
α-Amylases contain a number of distinct protein domains. The catalytic domain has a structure consisting of an eight-stranded alpha/beta barrel that contains the active site, interrupted by a ~70-amino acid calcium-binding domain protruding between beta strand 3 and alpha helix 3, and a carboxyl-terminal Greek key beta-barrel domain.[18] Several alpha-amylases contain a beta-sheet domain, usually at the C terminus. This domain is organised as a five-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet.[19][20] Several alpha-amylases contain an all-beta domain, usually at the C terminus.[21]
See also[edit]
Digestive enzyme
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ramasubbu, N.; Paloth, V.; Luo, Y.; Brayer, G. D.; Levine, M. J. (1996). "Structure of Human Salivary α-Amylase at 1.6 Å Resolution: Implications for its Role in the Oral Cavity". Acta Crystallographica Section D. 52 (3): 435–446. PMID 15299664. doi:10.1107/S0907444995014119.
Jump up ^ Maureen Barlow Pugh, ed. (2000). Stedman's Medical Dictionary (27th ed.). Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-683-40007-6.
Jump up ^ Voet, D., & Voet, J. G. (2005). Biochimie. (2e éd.). Bruxelles: De Boeck. 1583 p.
Jump up ^ which was named by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius. The name derives from the Greek word πτυω (I spit), because the substance was obtained from saliva. See: J. Berzelius (Ms. Esslinger, trans.), Traité de Chimie (Paris, France: Firmin Didot Frerès, 1833), vol. 7, page 156.
Jump up ^ Fried, M, Abramson, S, Meyer, JH. Passage of salivary amylase through the stomach in humans. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 32:1097-1103 (1987).
Jump up ^ Rosenblum, JL, Irwin, CI, Alpers, DH. Starch and glucose oligosaccharides protect salivary-type amylase activity at acid pH. American Journal of Physiology 254 (Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 17):G775-780 (1988).
Jump up ^ http://www.worthington-biochem.com/aa/
Jump up ^ Perry, GH, et al. Diet and evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation, Nature Genetics 39:1256-1260 (2007).
Jump up ^ Noto, Yuka; Tetsumi Sato; Mihoko Kudo; Kiyoshi Kurata; Kazuyoshi Hirota (December 2005). "The Relationship Between Salivary Biomarkers and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Score Under Mental Arithmetic Stress: A Pilot Study". Anesthesia & Analgesia. United States: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 101 (6): 1873–6. PMID 16301277. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000184196.60838.8D. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Granger, Douglas A.; Kivlighan, Katie T.; el-Sheikh, Mona; Gordis, Elana B.; Stroud, Laura R. (2007-03-01). "Salivary alpha-amylase in biobehavioral research: recent developments and applications". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1098: 122–144. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 17332070. doi:10.1196/annals.1384.008.
Jump up ^ Nater, U. M.; Rohleder, N. (2009-05-01). "Salivary alpha-amylase as a non-invasive biomarker for the sympathetic nervous system: current state of research". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 34 (4): 486–496. ISSN 0306-4530. PMID 19249160. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.014.
Jump up ^ "Falling Number – Introduction". Perten Instruments. 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "The use of enzymes in detergents". Faculty of Engineering, Science and the Built Environment, London South Bank University. 20 December 2004. Archived from the original on 20 October 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Derek; Rumbaugh, Kendra P. (2017-04-01). "Approaches to Dispersing Medical Biofilms". Microorganisms. 5 (2). PMID 28368320. doi:10.3390/microorganisms5020015.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Derek; Chahin, Laura; Rumbaugh, Kendra (February 2017). "Glycoside Hydrolases Degrade Polymicrobial Bacterial Biofilms in Wounds". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 61 (2). ISSN 1098-6596. PMC 5278739  . PMID 27872074. doi:10.1128/AAC.01998-16.
Jump up ^ Ghalanbor, Z; et al. (2008). "Binding of Tris to Bacillus licheniformis alpha-amylase can affect its starch hydrolysis activity.". Protein Peptide Lett. 15 (2): 212–214. PMID 18289113. doi:10.2174/092986608783489616.
Jump up ^ Aghajari, N; et al. (1998). "Crystal structures of the psychrophilic alpha-amylase from Alteromonas haloplanctis in its native form and complexed with an inhibitor.". Protein Sci. 7 (3): 564–572. PMC 2143949  . PMID 9541387. doi:10.1002/pro.5560070304.
Jump up ^ Abe A, Yoshida H, Tonozuka T, Sakano Y, Kamitori S (December 2005). "Complexes of Thermoactinomyces vulgaris R-47 alpha-amylase 1 and pullulan model oligossacharides provide new insight into the mechanism for recognizing substrates with alpha-(1,6) glycosidic linkages". FEBS J. 272 (23): 6145–53. PMID 16302977. doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.05013.x.
Jump up ^ Kadziola A, Søgaard M, Svensson B, Haser R (April 1998). "Molecular structure of a barley alpha-amylase-inhibitor complex: implications for starch binding and catalysis". J. Mol. Biol. 278 (1): 205–17. PMID 9571044. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1998.1683.
Jump up ^ Kadziola A, Abe J, Svensson B, Haser R (May 1994). "Crystal and molecular structure of barley alpha-amylase". J. Mol. Biol. 239 (1): 104–21. PMID 8196040. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1994.1354.
Jump up ^ Machius M, Wiegand G, Huber R (March 1995). "Crystal structure of calcium-depleted Bacillus licheniformis alpha-amylase at 2.2 A resolution". J. Mol. Biol. 246 (4): 545–59. PMID 7877175. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1994.0106.
External links[edit]
The alpha-Amylase Protein
alpha-Amylase at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
This article incorporates text from the public domain Pfam and InterPro IPR006047 This article incorporates text from the public domain Pfam and InterPro IPR012850 This article incorporates text from the public domain Pfam and InterPro IPR006048
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