text:
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887
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The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 is a United States federal law that was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices.[1] The Act required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers in Western or Southern Territory compared to the Official Eastern states.[2][3] The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations.
The Act was the first federal law to regulate private industry in the United States.[4] It was later amended to regulate other modes of transportation and commerce.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background of the act
2 Jurisdiction of the act
3 Amendments
3.1 Early twentieth century
3.2 Motor Carrier Act of 1935
3.3 Later amendments
3.4 Deregulation
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Background of the act[edit]
The act was passed in response to rising public concern with the growing power and wealth of corporations, particularly railroads, during the late nineteenth century. Railroads had become the principal form of transportation for both people and goods, and the prices they charged and the practices they adopted greatly influenced individuals and businesses. In some cases, the railroads were perceived to have abused their power as a result of too little competition. Railroads also banded together to form pools and trusts that fixed rates at higher levels than they could otherwise command.[5] Railroads often charged a higher price per mile for short hauls than for long hauls. The practice was decried as one that discriminated against smaller businesses.
Responding to a widespread public outcry, states passed numerous pieces of legislation. Through the 1870s various constituencies, notably the Grange movement representing farmers, lobbied Congress to regulate railroads. While the Senate would investigate and report its findings and recommendations in 1874, Congress declined to step in, mirroring the lack of consensus in approach. In the 1886 decision on Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois however,[6] the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that state laws regulating interstate railroads were unconstitutional because they violated the Commerce Clause of the Constitution, which gives Congress the exclusive power "to regulate Commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes."[7] With many of those questions of approach decided, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act the following year; it was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland on February 4, 1887.[8]:12
The act worked to keep rates and railroad revenue up on routes where competition existed.[9] It did this by attempting to force publicity about rates and make rebates and discrimination illegal. ('Discrimination' meant lower rates for certain customers, e.g. politicians, large customers, sharp bargainers, long haul shippers, shippers in competitive markets, low season travelers.)[9] Railroads saw that competition made it hard to pay their stockholders and bondholders the amount of money promised to them, and competition was therefore "bad." [10]
Jurisdiction of the act[edit]
The act also created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first independent regulatory agency of the US government. As part of its mission, the ICC heard complaints against the railroads and issued cease and desist orders to combat unfair practices. While the ICC was empowered to investigate and prosecute railroads and other transportation companies that were alleged to have violated the act, its jurisdiction was limited to companies that operated across state lines. Over time the courts would further narrow the agency's authority, and in 1903 congress established the Department of Commerce and Labor and its Bureau of Corporations to study and report on wider industries and their monopolistic practices. By 1906, the Supreme Court had ruled in favor of a railroad company in fifteen out of the sixteen cases over which it presided.[11]
The commission later regulated many other forms of surface transportation, including trucking and bus transportation. Congress abolished the ICC in 1995 (see Interstate Commerce Commission Termination Act) and many of its remaining functions were transferred to a new agency, the Surface Transportation Board.[12]
Amendments[edit]
Early twentieth century[edit]
Congress passed a minor amendment to the Act in 1903, the Elkins Act.[13] Major amendments were enacted in 1906 and 1910. The Hepburn Act of 1906 authorized the ICC to set maximum railroad rates, and extended the agency's authority to cover bridges, terminals, ferries, sleeping cars, express companies and oil pipelines.[14] The Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 strengthened ICC authority over railroad rates and expanded its jurisdiction to include regulation of telephone, telegraph, and cable companies.[15] The Valuation Act of 1913 required the ICC to organize a Bureau of Valuation that would assess the value of railroad property. This information would be used to set freight shipping rates.[16]
Motor Carrier Act of 1935[edit]
In 1935, Congress passed the Motor Carrier Act, which amended the Interstate Commerce Act to regulate bus lines and trucking as common carriers.[17]
Later amendments[edit]
Congress enacted simplifying and reorganizing amendments in 1978, 1983 and 1994.[18]
Deregulation[edit]
Congress passed various railroad deregulation measures in the 1970s and 1980s. The Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 (often called the "4R Act") gave railroads more flexibility in pricing and service arrangements. The 4R Act also transferred some powers from the ICC to the newly formed United States Railway Association, a government corporation, regarding the disposition of bankrupt railroads.[19] The Staggers Rail Act of 1980 further reduced ICC authority by allowing railroads to set rates more freely and become more competitive with the trucking industry.[20]
The Motor Carrier Act of 1980 deregulated the trucking industry.[21]
See also[edit]
History of rail transport in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, ch. 104, 24 Stat. 379, approved 1887-02-04.
Jump up ^ Potter, David. M. (1947). "Discriminatory Freight Rates: Implications of the Interstate Commerce Commission's Regulatory Powers" The University of Chicago Law Review, 15(1), Article 8. Accessed 2017-03-28.
Jump up ^ Editors, Law Review. (1947). "The Historical Development of Easter-Southern Freight Rate Relationships" Law and Contemporary Problems, 12(1). Accessed 2017-03-28.
Jump up ^ U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Washington, D.C. "Our Documents: Interstate Commerce Act (1887)." Accessed 2010-10-19.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Emory R.; Van Metre, Thurman W. (1918). "Chapter XVIII. Pools and Traffic Associations". Principles of Railroad Transportation. New York: D. Appleton. pp. 292–307.
Jump up ^ U.S. Supreme Court. Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois, 118 U.S. 557 (1886), 7 S. Ct. 4, 30 L. Ed. 244
Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8, Clause 3.
Jump up ^ Kohlmeier, Louis M., Jr. (1969). The Regulators: Watchdog Agencies and the Public Interest. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-043747-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Acworth, W.M. (1905-12-01). "The Recent History of Federal Control of Railroads in the United States". Railroad Gazette. XXXIX (22): 170.
Jump up ^ White, Richard; Stanford University (2008). "Kilkenny Cats: Transcontinental railroads, destructive competition, and the odd road to North American modernity." Paper presented at the Penn Economic History Forum, University of Pennsylvania, Department of History, Philadelphia, PA, October 3, 2008.
Jump up ^ Louis Hacker & Benjamin Kendrick The United States Since 1865, 236
Jump up ^ Interstate Commerce Commission Termination Act, Pub.L. 104–88, 109 Stat. 803; 1995-12-29.
Jump up ^ Elkins Act, 57th Congress, Sess. 2, ch. 708, 32 Stat. 847, approved 1903-02-19.
Jump up ^ Hepburn Act of 1906, 59th Congress, Sess. 1, ch. 3591, 34 Stat. 584, approved 1906-06-29.
Jump up ^ Mann-Elkins Act of 1910, 61st Congress, ch. 309, 36 Stat. 539, approved 1910-06-18.
Jump up ^ Valuation Act, 62nd Congress, ch. 92, 37 Stat. 701, enacted 1913-03-01.
Jump up ^ Motor Carrier Act of 1935, 49 Stat. 543, ch. 498, approved 1935-08-09.
Jump up ^ Revised Interstate Commerce Act of 1978, Pub.L. 95–473, 92 Stat. 1337, 49 U.S.C. § 10101, approved 1978-10-17. Pub.L. 97–449, 96 Stat. 2413, approved 1983-01-12. Pub.L. 103–272, approved 1994-07-05.
Jump up ^ Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act, Pub. L. 94-210, 90 Stat. 31, 45 U.S.C. § 801, approved 1976-02-05.
Jump up ^ Staggers Rail Act of 1980, Pub. L. 96-448, 94 Stat. 1895, approved 1980-10-14.
Jump up ^ Motor Carrier Act of 1980, Pub. L. No. 96-296, 94 Stat. 793, approved 1980-07-01.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Interstate Commerce Act.
"People & Events: Interstate Commerce Commission" - PBS Online
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887&oldid=812907656"
Categories:
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History of rail transportation in the United States
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Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, more commonly known as CARP, is an agrarian reform law of the Philippines whose legal basis is the Republic Act No. 6657,[1] otherwise known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL).[2] It is the redistribution of private and public agricultural lands to help the beneficiaries survive as small independent farmers, regardless of the “tenurial” arrangement. Its goals are to provide landowners equality in terms of income and opportunities, empower land owner beneficiaries to have an equitable land ownership, enhance the agricultural production and productivity, provide employment to more agricultural workers, and put an end to conflicts regarding land ownership.
Contents
1 Background
2 Key components
3 Development
3.1 Land reform under Aquino administration (1986–1992)
3.2 Land reform under Ramos administration (1992–1998)
3.3 Land reform under Estrada administration (1998–2001)
4 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER)
4.1 Beneficiaries
4.2 Significant provisions
4.3 Achievements
5 Criticism
5.1 Unsuccessful after 26 years?
6 See also
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
Background[edit]
The agrarian reform is part of the long history of attempts of land reform in the Philippines.[3] The law was outlined by former President Corazon C. Aquino through Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229 on June 22, 1987,[4] and it was enacted by the 8th Congress of the Philippines and signed by Aquino on June 10, 1988. In 1998, which was the year that it was scheduled to be completed, the Congress enacted Republic Act No. 8532 [5] to allocate additional funds for the program and extending the automatic appropriation of ill-gotten wealth recovered by the Presidential Commission on Good Governance (PCGG) for CARP until the year 2008.[6]
An amendatory law, CARPER or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms or the Republic Act. 9700 was passed. It extended the deadline of distributing agricultural lands to the farmers for an additional five years. This law also amends other provisions and regulations formerly stated in the CARP. It was signed into law on August 7, 2009 and was set to be accomplished by the year 2014.[7]
Key components[edit]
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The implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program relies heavily on the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR). As the lead implementing agency, the DAR has the responsibility in carrying out the principal aspects of the program, which are Land Tenure Improvement (LTI), Program Beneficiary Development (PBD), and the Agrarian Justice Delivery (AJD).
The Land Tenure Improvement is highly recognized as the most integral aspect of the program. This component seeks to secure the tenurial status of the farmers and farmworkers. The DAR implements this component through Land Acquisition and Distribution (LAD) or Non-land Transfer Schemes.
The Land Acquisition and Distribution involves the redistribution of private and government-owned land to landless farmers and farm workers. Under Section 6 of RA 9700 ( Section 16 of RA 6657 as amended) regarding Land Acquisition, the DAR identifies lands that are eligible for distribution under the CARP with accordance to the law, acquires the land by delivering a notice containing the offer with its corresponding value to the owner should he choose to accept the payment. Following the acquisition of lands under Section 11 of RA 9700(Section 26 of RA 6657 as amended) the DAR distributes these to the qualified beneficiaries, who then pay for the land through the Land Bank of the Philippines or directly to their former owners.[8]
Under the CARP, a total target of 10.3 million hectares of land was programmed to be distributed over a span of ten years. Out of the total land, 6.5 million hectares of public disposal lands and Integrated Social Forestry areas are to be distributed by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) while 3.8 million hectares of private agricultural lands are to be distributed by the DAR. From July 1987 to June 1992, the DAR was able to distribute 1.77 million hectares benefiting .933 million beneficiaries, while the DENR has distributed 1.88 million hectares to .760 million farmers.[9]
Leasehold Operations is the alternative non-land transfer scheme that covers all tenanted agricultural lands in retained areas and in yet to be acquired or distributed lands. Under this component, the DAR mediates between the landowners and tenants so that their share tenancy arrangement could be turned into a leasehold agreement, whereby the beneficiaries will pay a fixed fee based on their own historical production records instead of paying a large percentage share of their produce to the landowner.[10]
The Program Beneficiaries Development is a support service delivery component of CARP. It aims to aid the agrarian reform beneficiaries by providing them necessary support services to make their lands more productive, and enable them to venture in income generating livelihood projects in accordance to Section 14 of RA 9700(Section 37 of RA 6657 as amended) .[11] Under the support service delivery programs, the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council(PARC) ensures that agrarian reform beneficiaries are provided with support services such as land surveys and tilting, construction of infrastructures, marketing and production assistance, credit and training.[8]
Agrarian Justice Delivery provides agrarian legal assistance and oversees the adjudication of cases. Under Section 19 of RA 97600 (Section 50 of RA 6657 as amended), the DAR is hereby vested with the primary jurisdiction to determine and adjudicate agrarian reform matters and shall have exclusive original jurisdiction over all matters involving the implementation of agrarian reform except those falling under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).[2]
The Agrarian Legal Assistance is under the Bureau of Legal Assistance (BALA). The BALA provides legal assistance to the beneficiaries affected by agrarian cases, particularly those whose legal rights as ARB’s are challenged by landowners.
The Adjudication of Cases involves the adjudication of cases by the Department of Agrarian Reform Adjudication Board (DARAB). The adjudication of cases deals with disputes pertaining to tenancy relations; valuation of lands acquired by DAR under compulsory acquisition mode; rights and obligations of persons, whether natural or juridical, engaged in the management cultivation and use of all agricultural lands; ejectment and dispossession of tenants/leaseholders; review of leasehold rentals; and other similar disputes.[10]
Development[edit]
At the end of the 20th century, the population of the Philippines increased rapidly to 75.32 million in a country of 297,410 square kilometers, with an average family size of six, making the Philippines known for high population density. In addition to this, with a population growth of 2.02 per year, the Philippine population is expected to double in the span of 25 years. 60 percent of the Philippine population is rural, and over 12 million Filipinos make a living directly from agricultural cultivation. Around 9.5 million hectares of land across the Philippines are used to plan various crops. In terms of landlessness, the number of landless agricultural families rose up from 5 million to 11.32 million families. Out of these 11.32 families, 4.6 million make a living from lands they don’t own. 0.70 million are rented, 2 million are laborers, while 1.9 million are farming as tenants.[9]
Land reform under Aquino administration (1986–1992)[edit]
During the start of President Corazon Aquino’s term in 1986, the Constitutional Commission approved Section 21 under Article II, which states that “The State shall promote comprehensive rural development and agrarian reform.” This led to the drafting of CARP, which took the Congress a year to make. On June 10, 1988, Republic Act No. 6657, also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL), was passed to promote social justice and industrialization. Although it was still a product of adherence to democratic principles, this law was found to have many flaws. Because of much dissatisfaction with the agrarian reform law, proposals from peasant groups and non-government organizations grew in order to implement an alternative program that was more advantageous to them. However, this did not succeed.
CARP recognizes not only farmers but all landless workers as beneficiaries with the condition that they cultivate the land. The two main departments in charge of this program are Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) and Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). Aside from the land distribution, it also provides the delivery of support services and security to the farmers.
Under the Aquino administration, a total of 898,420 landless tenants and farmers became recipients of land titles and support services. Even with this, it can be considered unsuccessful because it only accomplished 22.5 percent of land distribution in 6 years. This was due to the fact that Aquino assigned 4 different DAR secretaries. The major setback for CARP was Aquino’s Hacienda Luisita’s Stock Distribution Option, which says that she was the first landlord to evade CARP on a grand scale.
Land reform under Ramos administration (1992–1998)[edit]
The policies on agrarian reform under the Ramos administration focused on accelerating the direct land transfer and non-land transfer through adopting more rational, fair and inexpensive settlements. It encouraged landowners to invest in rural-based industries that are connected to agriculture. It made an amendment to Section 63 of CARL to increase the fund of this project to 100 billion. Salaries of workers and members of DAR board were increased to motivate them for more successful results as well.
The target land to be given to farmer beneficiaries under this Administration was 3.4 million hectares, 4.7 million or 60 percent of which was successfully distributed. It achieved more than double the output of the Aquino administration. It focused on “less contentious landholdings and acquisition modes,” where they chose to work with autonomous NGOs and peasant organizations. However, controversies were unavoidable as they encountered landlords openly harassing peasants with guns and forcing them out of the lands.
Land reform under Estrada administration (1998–2001)[edit]
This administration focused on fast tracking land acquisition and distribution. It wanted to reduce uncertainties in land market in rural places to help farmers’ efficiency and private investment to grow. It encouraged joint ventures, corporative, contact farming and other marketing arrangements to protect the status of stakeholders and promotion of agri-industrialization. They also improved the databases of the implementing agencies of DAR and DENR to fully record and update the lands covered. Estrada highlighted that there was a need to conceptualize new approaches in doing things to build a new social agreement where producers, government and private sectors work with a common goal.
The program encountered some problems such as strong landowners' resistance. Tenants also complained on the limited amount of fund allocation provided by the government for the project. It aimed to complete 7.8 million hectares by 2004. Since President Estrada lasted only 2.5 years as president, the total beneficiaries of CARP was only 0.18 million or 10 percent.[12]
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER)[edit]
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms, known also as CALPER or CARPer, (Republic Act 9700)[13] is the amendatory law that extends again the deadline of distributing agricultural lands to farmers for five years. It also amends other provisions stated in CARP.
In December 2008, the budget for CARP expired and there remained 1.2 million hectares of agricultural land waiting to be acquired and distributed to farmers. CARPER was signed into law on August 7, 2009 by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and was set to expire on June 30, 2014.[14] However the program of distributing lands to farmer-beneficiaries continued even after June 2014. Section 30 of RA 9700 or CARPER law states that cases on the matter which are still pending “shall be allowed to proceed to its finality and be executed even beyond such date.” [15]
Beneficiaries[edit]
Beneficiaries of CARPER are landless farmers, including agricultural lessees, tenants, as well as regular, seasonal and other farmworkers. In a certain landholding the qualified beneficiaries who are tenants and regular farmworkers will receive 3 hectares each before distributing the remaining land to the other qualified beneficiaries like seasonal farmworks and other farmworkers (Section 22 of CARL). The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) identifies and screens potential beneficiaries and validates their qualifications. Beneficiaries must be least 15 years old, be a resident of the barangay where the land holding is located, and own no more than 3 hectares of agricultural land.[16]
The CARPER law has bias for organized farmers to be beneficiaries because the Congress believes that the success rate of organized farmers is high and can make their awarded lands productive.[citation needed]
Significant provisions[edit]
Gender-Sensitive Agrarian Reform – Section 1 of the CARPER law states that "The State shall recognize and enforce, consistent with existing laws, the rights of rural women to own and control land, taking into consideration the substantive equality between men and women as qualified beneficiaries, to receive a just share of the fruits thereof, and to be represented in advisory or appropriate decision-making bodies. These rights shall be independent of their male relatives and of their civil status." Rural women will have a representative in the highest policy making body of DAR – the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC).
Budget – Section 21 amending Section 63 for CARL state that the budget allocated for the 5-year extension is 150 Billion pesos which will be sourced from three funds: Agrarian Reform Fund, General Appropriations Acts (GAA) and other sources of funding like privatization of government asset, foreign donors, etc. This budget is the largest per year in the history of CARP.
Creation of a Congressional Oversight Committee – Section 26 of the CARPER law created a joint Congressional Oversight Committee to oversee and monitor the implementation of the act, which will be composed of the Chairpersons of the Committee on Agrarian Reform of both Houses of Congress, three Members of the House of Representatives, and three Members of the Senate of the Philippines, to be designated respectively by the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President of the Senate of the Philippines. The chairpersons of the COCAR are the Chairpersons of the Committees on Agrarian Reform of the House of Representatives and of the Senate of the Philippines. The term of the COCAR will end six months after the expiration of the extended period of five years. The COCAR is provided with twenty-five million pesos (P25,000,000.00) every year.
CARPER as a Continuing Program – Section 30 of the CARPER law mandates that “any case and/or proceeding involving the implementation of the provisions of Republic Act No. 6657, as amended, which may remain pending on June 30, 2014 shall be allowed to proceed to its finality and be executed even beyond such date". Section 30 of CARPER law provides a way to legally continue the implementation of pending CARP cases after the 5-year extension by filling the initiatory process of CARP.
Policies in Converting Agricultural Lands – Section 73 of the CARPER law: "Any conversion by any landowner of his/her agricultural land into any non-agricultural use with intent to avoid the application of this Act to his/her landholdings and to dispossess his/her bonafide tenant farmers." Failure to comply will result in an imprisonment of 6 to 12 years and/or a penalty of 200,000 pesos to 1 million pesos. The CARPER law prohibits any conversion of irrigated and irrigable lands and mandates the National Irrigation Administration to identify these. CARPER law also states that non-implementation of the conversion plan will result to automatic coverage of the subject by CARP.
Achievements[edit]
In 2003, 15 years into the program, studies funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), AsDB, FAO, European Union (EU) and the Philippine Government, had shown that poverty incidence among program beneficiaries declined from 47.6 to 45.2 percent, while increasing among their non-participating counterparts from 55.1 to 56.4 percent.[17]
The Official Gazette released an update on the accomplishments in the field of agrarian reform as of June 30, 2014.
"As of December 31, 2013, the government has acquired and distributed 6.9 million hectares of land, equivalent to 88% of the
total land subject to CARP." Of this area, the Aquino administration has distributed a total of 751,514 hectares, or 45% of the total landholdings to be distributed to the farmer beneficiaries left under this administration. From this, DAR has distributed 412,782 hectares and DENR has already distributed
338,732 hectares.[16]
In 2014 – 2016, Department of Agrarian Reform still needs to acquire 771,795 hectares (187,686 hectares in 2014; 198,631 hectares in 2015; and 385,478 hectares in 2016). The Department of Environment and Nation Resources still needs to acquire 134,857 hectares — a total of 906,652 hectares.
Criticism[edit]
Unsuccessful after 26 years?[edit]
While CARP(er) has had some success in improving food security and reducing poverty overall - through improved farm productivity and increased farmer incomes - the program has not escaped criticism. Major implementation problems include resistance from existing landowners (often objecting to the undervaluation of their properties), legislative gaps and funding shortfalls.[17]
There are also claims that the program has resulted in or worsened violent conflicts between landowners and poor farmers. By June 30, 2014, the official program end date, 664 farmers had been killed in the name of land reform, according to activist group Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (Peasant Movement of the Philippines, or KMP).[18] 568 of these were victims of extrajudicial killings. In the four years of the Noynoy Aquino administration, 96 farmers were killed as opposed to the 9 that were killed during the Arroyo administration. According to Rafael Mariano, KMP chairman, "Farmers asserting their rights to the land were subjected to human rights abuses while peasant leaders were rendered as criminals, incarcerated and, worse, were massacred".[18]
CARP expired when the Congress did not approve Aquino’s proposal to extend it for two more years. The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) has processed 494,945 agrarian law implementation cases since the start of the program, which the KMP claims demonstrate the program's failure and negative impact on the lives of tenants and farmers.[18]
See also[edit]
Land reform in the Philippines
Department of Agrarian Reform (Philippines)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Republic Act No. 6657 (10 June 1988), An act instituting a comprehensive agrarian reform program to promote social justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes, retrieved 5 December 2015
^ Jump up to: a b "What is CARP RA 6657 - Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program". dar.gov.ph. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
Jump up ^ http://dirp3.pids.gov.ph/ris/wp/pidswp9113.pdf
Jump up ^ Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229
Jump up ^ Republic Act No. 8532
Jump up ^ "English - Department of Agrarian Reform". dar.gov.ph. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "CARPER RA 9700 - Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms". dar.gov.ph. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "R.A. 9700". lawphil.net. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Leones & Moreno 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Navarro, Conrado S., “Institutional Aspects of Policy Implementation and Management of the Philippine Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program” Paper presented at the Policy Dialogue on Agrarian Reform Issues in Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation, Manila, Philippines, May 30, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Technical Advisory Support Services". dar.gov.ph. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Ri YuE Yap. "Comprehensive Agrarian Reform in the Philippines". comprehensiveagrarianreform.blogspot.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.lis.dar.gov.ph/home/document_view/3194
Jump up ^ "English - Department of Agrarian Reform". www.dar.gov.ph. Retrieved 2015-07-03.
Jump up ^ "Republic Act No. 9700 | Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines". Retrieved 2015-07-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Q and A: The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program | Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines". Retrieved 2015-07-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Guardian 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c Philippine Star 2014.
Sources[edit]
Guardian, Edgar A. (2003). "Impact of access to land on food security and poverty: the case of Philippine agrarian reform". Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives. FAO (2). Retrieved 30 November 2015.
Leones, Susana Evangelista; Moreno, Frede G. (2012). "Agrarian Reform and Philippine Political Development". Political Economy: International Political Economy: 1–17. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1967844.
Philippine Star, Ding Cervantes. "After 26 years, CARP ends". philstar.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
External links[edit]
CARP Law on The LAWPhil Project
http://kilusangmagbubukidngpilipinas.com/
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Christian cross
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Greek cross
A Latin cross
Latin cross from the 6th-century mosaic in the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna
The Christian cross, seen as a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus, is the best-known symbol of Christianity.[1] It is related to the crucifix (a cross that includes a usually three-dimensional representation of Jesus' body) and to the more general family of cross symbols.
The basic forms of the cross are the Latin cross (✝) and the Greek cross (✚), with numerous variants used in text, visual art, heraldry, and in various confessional contexts.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of use
1.1 Pre-Christian
1.2 Instrument of execution
1.3 Early Christian
2 In contemporary Christianity
3 Exclusion
4 Notable individual crosses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History of use[edit]
Pre-Christian[edit]
Main article: Cross
This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (July 2016)
The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly predates the introduction of Christianity, in both East and West. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have been used not just for its ornamental value, but also with religious significance.[2] It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire or as a symbol of the sun, denoting its daily rotation. It has also been interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, or the emblem of the Aryan pantheon and the primitive Aryan civilization.[2]

Ankh
Another associated symbol is the ansated cross (ankh or crux ansata) used in ancient Egypt. It was often depicted in the hands of the goddess Sekhmet, and as a hieroglyphic sign of life or of the living. Egyptian Christians (Copts) adopted it as the emblem of the cross.[2] In his book, The Worship of the Dead, Colonel J. Garnier wrote: "The cross in the form of the 'Crux Ansata' ... was carried in the hands of the Egyptian priests and Pontiff kings as the symbol of their authority as priests of the Sun god and was called 'the Sign of Life'."[3]

Ndj & nfr
Another Egyptian symbol is the Ndj (Cross-ndj (hieroglyph)) - Uses for the hieroglyph: 1— "to protect, guard, avenge", and "protector, advocate, avenger" 2— "homage to thee", (a form of salutation to gods) 3— "discuss a matter with someone", "to converse", "to take counsel". Yet another Egyptian symbol is the nfr - meaning: beauty or perfect.
In the Bronze Age a representation of the cross as conceived in Christian art appeared, and the form was popularised. The more precise characterization coincided with a corresponding general change in customs and beliefs. The cross then came into use in various forms on many objects: fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments, and on the bottom of drinking vessels. De Mortillet believed that such use of the sign was not merely ornamental, but rather a symbol of consecration, especially in the case of objects pertaining to burial. In the proto-Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it. True crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci.[2]
According to W. E. Vine, the cross was used by worshipers of Tammuz, an Ancient Near East deity of Babylonian origin who had the cross-shaped taw (tau) as his symbol.[4]
Instrument of execution[edit]
Further information: Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion, crux simplex, and tau cross
John Pearson, Bishop of Chester (c. 1660) wrote in his commentary on the Apostles' Creed that the Greek word stauros originally signified "a straight standing Stake, Pale, or Palisador", but that, "when other transverse or prominent parts were added in a perfect Cross, it retained still the Original Name", and he declared: "The Form then of the Cross on which our Saviour suffered was not a simple, but a compounded, Figure, according to the Custom of the Romans, by whose Procurator he was condemned to die. In which there was not only a straight and erected piece of Wood fixed in the Earth, but also a transverse Beam fastned unto that towards the top thereof".[5]
In this he was in accord with the Early Christian descriptions of the execution cross.
A cross in Kerala
Early Christian[edit]
See also: Early Christian descriptions and Early Christian symbols
The Alexamenos graffito
The Sinai icon of Christ Pantocrator (6th century), showing Christ with a cruciform halo and holding a book adorned with a crux gemmata
During the first two centuries of Christianity, the cross was rare in Christian iconography, as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution and Christians were reluctant to use it.[1] A symbol similar to the cross, the staurogram, was used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very early New Testament manuscripts such as P66, P45 and P75, almost like a nomen sacrum (nomina sacra).[6] The extensive adoption of the cross as Christian iconographic symbol arose from the 4th century.[7]
However, the cross symbol was already associated with Christians in the 2nd century, as is indicated in the anti-Christian arguments cited in the Octavius[8] of Minucius Felix, chapters IX and XXIX, written at the end of that century or the beginning of the next,[9] and by the fact that by the early 3rd century the cross had become so closely associated with Christ that Clement of Alexandria, who died between 211 and 216, could without fear of ambiguity use the phrase τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον (the Lord's sign) to mean the cross, when he repeated the idea, current as early as the apocryphal Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in Genesis 14:14 was interpreted as a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (T, an upright with crossbar, standing for 300) and of Jesus (ΙΗ, the first two letter of his name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18),[10] and his contemporary Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. "devotees of the Cross".[11] In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.[12] The crucifix, a cross upon which an image of Christ is present, is not known to have been used until the 6th century AD.[13]
The oldest extant depiction of the execution of Jesus in any medium seems to be the second-century or early third-century relief on a jasper gemstone meant for use as an amulet, which is now in the British Museum in London. It portrays a naked bearded man whose arms are tied at the wrists by short strips to the transom of a T-shaped cross. An inscription in Greek on the obverse contains an invocation of the redeeming crucified Christ. On the reverse a later inscription by a different hand combines magical formulae with Christian terms.[14] The catalogue of a 2007 exhibition says: "The appearance of the Crucifixion on a gem of such an early date suggests that pictures of the subject (now lost) may have been widespread even in the late second or early third century, most likely in conventional Christian contexts".[15][16][17]
The Jewish Encyclopedia says:[18]
The cross as a Christian symbol or "seal" came into use at least as early as the second century (see "Apost. Const." iii. 17; Epistle of Barnabas, xi.-xii.; Justin, "Apologia," i. 55-60; "Dial. cum Tryph." 85-97); and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons (Tertullian, "De Corona," iii.; Cyprian, "Testimonies," xi. 21–22; Lactantius, "Divinæ Institutiones," iv. 27, and elsewhere). Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the second century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, "Apologia," xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, "Octavius," xxix. Christians used to swear by the power of the cross
In contemporary Christianity[edit]
Further information: Cross necklace
A crucifix on the wall of a church
Christian crosses at a joint service for the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity
A man holding several Orthodox Catholic pectoral crosses
Catholics, Orthodox Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, members of the major branches of Christianity with other adherents as Lutheranism and Anglicans, and others often make the Sign of the Cross upon themselves. This was already a common Christian practice in the time of Tertullian.[19]
The Feast of the Cross is an important Christian feast. One of the twelve Great Feasts in Orthodox Catholic is the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the original cross of Jesus was reportedly discovered in 326 by Helena of Constantinople, mother of Constantine the Great. The Catholic Church celebrates the feast on the same day and under the same name (In Exaltatione Sanctae Crucis), though in English it has been called the feast of the Triumph of the Cross.
Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican bishops place a cross [+] before their name when signing a document. The dagger symbol (†) placed after the name of a dead person (often with the date of death) is sometimes taken to be a Christian cross.[20]
Exclusion[edit]
Death on a pole, one of the many forms presented in Justus Lipsius's De Cruce
See also: Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion
Although Christians accepted that the cross was the gallows on which Jesus died,[21] they had already begun in the 2nd century to use it as a Christian symbol.[22] During the first three centuries of the Christian era the cross was "a symbol of minor importance" when compared to the prominence given to it later,[23] but by the second century it was nonetheless so closely associated with Christians that Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. "devotees of the Cross".[24] and it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.[25] Martin Luther at the time of the Reformation retained the cross and crucifix in the Lutheran Church. Luther wrote: "The cross alone is our theology." He believed one knows God not through works but through suffering, the cross, and faith[need quotation to verify].[26]
The crucifixion of Jesus as presented in Justus Lipsius's De Cruce
The Protestant Reformation spurred a revival of iconoclasm, a wave of rejecting sacred images, which in some localities (such as England) included polemics against using the cross in worship. For example, during the 16th century, a minority of theologians in the Anglican and Reformed traditions Nicholas Ridley,[27] James Calfhill,[28] and Theodore Beza,[29] rejected practices that they described as cross worship. Considering it a form of idolatry, there was a dispute in 16th century England over the baptismal use of the sign of the cross and even the public use of crosses.[30] There were more active reactions to religious items that were thought as 'relics of Papacy', as happened for example in September 1641, when Sir Robert Harley, pulled down and destroyed the cross at Wigmore.[31] Writers during the 19th century indicating a pagan origin of the cross included Henry Dana Ward,[32] Mourant Brock,[33] and John Denham Parsons.[34] David Williams, writing of medieval images of monsters, says: "The disembodied phallus is also formed into a cross, which, before it became for Christianity the symbol of salvation, was a pagan symbol of fertility."[35] The study, Gods, Heroes & Kings: The Battle for Mythic Britain states: "Before the fourth century CE, the cross was not widely embraced as a sign of Christianity, symbolizing as it did the gallows of a criminal."[36]
Jehovah's Witnesses do not use the symbol of the cross in their worship, which they believe constitutes idolatry.[37] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than a two-beam cross, arguing that the Greek term stauros indicated a single upright pole.[38] Although early Watch Tower Society publications associated with the Bible Student movement taught that Christ was executed on a cross, it no longer appeared on Watch Tower Society publications after the name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted in 1931,[39] and use of the cross was officially abandoned in 1936.[40]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Jesus died on a cross, however, their prophet Gordon B. Hinckley stated that "for us the cross is the symbol of the dying Christ, while our message is a declaration of the living Christ." When asked what was the symbol of his religion, Hinckley replied "the lives of our people must become the only meaningful expression of our faith and, in fact, therefore, the symbol of our worship."[41][42] Prophet Howard W. Hunter encouraged Latter-day Saints "to look to the temple of the Lord as the great symbol of your membership."[43] Images of LDS temples and the Angel Moroni (who is found in statue on most temples) are commonly used to symbolize the LDS faith.[44]
Notable individual crosses[edit]
A wooden cross at Coventry Cathedral, constructed of the remnants of beams found after the Coventry Blitz
Cross of Sacrifice or War Cross, from a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery
Cross in Valle de los Caídos near Madrid, the highest cross in the world
Kottakkavu Sliva, a Persian cross founded by Mar Sabor and Mar Proth, is preserved at Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Center, North Paravur, India.
The Millennium Cross in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, one of the biggest crosses in the world
The Cross on the Hill, a 199-foot (61 m) cross located in Bossier City, Louisiana
Tile cross from Rødtvet Church in Oslo, Norway, built in 1978
The Ruthwell Cross, a stone Anglo-Saxon cross located in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire
The World Trade Center Cross rises from the World Trade Center wreckage.
Altar and cross in the Chapel at Callaway Gardens
USVA headstone emblem 1
USVA headstone emblem 14
Holly Cross with which the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was founded in Spain.
See also[edit]
Christianity portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crosses.
Christian symbolism
Christian cross variants
Crosses in heraldry
Cross burning
Cross of All Nations
Khachkar
Market cross
Memorial cross
Mount Samat
Roodmas
Rood screen
Ichthys
Alpha and Omega
Staurogram
Chi Rho
IH Monogram
IX Monogram
Scientology cross
Rose Cross
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0901-7 pages 321-323
^ Jump up to: a b c d Marucchi, Orazio. "Archeology of the Cross and Crucifix." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908 Retrieved 13 February 2010. Cf. "Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless examples… The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form of nature worship" (Encyclopædia Britannica (1946), Vol. 6, p. 753.
Jump up ^ John Garnier (1904). The worship of the Dead. p. 226. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
Jump up ^ Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, "Cross, Crucify". See, also, Abram Herbert Lewis, Paganism surviving in Christianity, G.P. Putnam's sons, 1892, pp 237, 238.
Jump up ^ John Pearson, An Exposition of the Creed (London 1715, 5th edition), p. 203
Jump up ^ Hutado, Larry (2006). "The staurogram in early Christian manuscripts: the earliest visual reference to the crucified Jesus?". In Kraus, Thomas. New Testament Manuscripts. Leiden: Brill. pp. 207–26. ISBN 978-90-04-14945-8.
Jump up ^ Stranger, James (2007). "Archeological evidence of Jewish believers?". In Skarsaune, Oskar. Jewish Believers in Jesus The Early Centuries. City: Baker Academic. p. 715. ISBN 9780801047688.
Jump up ^ "''Octavius''". Ccel.org. 2005-06-01. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
Jump up ^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX).
Jump up ^ "Stromata, book VI, chapter XI". Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
Jump up ^ Apology., chapter xvi. In this chapter and elsewhere in the same book, Tertullian clearly distinguishes between a cross and a stake.
Jump up ^ "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" (De Corona, chapter 3)
Jump up ^ Stott, John (2006). The Cross of Christ (20th Anniversary ed.). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-8308-3320-X.
Jump up ^ The Magic Crucifixion Gem in the British Museum
Jump up ^ Extract from The Earliest Christian Art (Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 227-232
Jump up ^ First depiction of Jesus on cross - the Bloodstone amulet
Jump up ^ British Museum Collection online: magical gem / intaglio
Jump up ^ "Jewish Encyclopedia". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2011-12-10. , (see Apocalypse of Mary, viii., in James, "Texts and Studies," iii. 118).
Jump up ^ De Corona, chapter 3, written in 204.
Jump up ^ Keith Houston, Shady Characters (W. W. Norton & Company 2013 ISBN 978-0-39306442-1), pp. 97 and 106
Jump up ^ The perhaps 1st-century Epistle of Barnabas sees the letter T as indicating the cross of Christ (Chapter 9, 7)
Jump up ^ The Jewish Encyclopedia states: "The cross as a Christian symbol or 'seal' came into use at least as early as the 2nd century (see 'Apost. Const.' iii. 17; Epistle of Barnabas, xi.-xii.; Justin, 'Apologia,' i. 55-60; 'Dial. cum Tryph.' 85-97); and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons (Tertullian, 'De Corona,' iii.; Cyprian, 'Testimonies,' xi. 21-22; Lactantius, 'Divinæ Institutiones,' iv. 27, and elsewhere). Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the 2nd century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, 'Apologia,' xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, 'Octavius,' xxix" 9 (Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Cross").
Jump up ^ Jan Willem Drijvers, Helena Augusta: The mother of Constantine the Great and the legend of her finding of the True Cross, Brill 1992, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Tertullian, Apology., chapter xvi.
Jump up ^ "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3)
Jump up ^ Martin Luther: Catholic Critical Analysis and Praise
Jump up ^ Nicholas Ridley, A Treatise on the Worship of Images, written before 1555.
Jump up ^ James Calfhill, An aunsvvere to the Treatise of the crosse (An answer to John Martiall's Treatise of the cross) at 1565.
Jump up ^ Theodore Beza, in his Answer to the Colloquium of Montheliard at 1588, according to Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, Vol. 4, University of Chicago Press 1985, p. 217.
Jump up ^ Peter Blickle, Macht und Ohnmacht der Bilder.: Reformatorischer Bildersturm im Kontext der europäischen Geschichte, Oldenbourg Verlag, 2002, pp. 253-272.
Jump up ^ Religious Politics in Post-Reformation England: Essays in Honour of Nicholas Tyacke, Boydell & Brewer, 2006, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Henry Dana Ward, History of the cross, the pagan origin, and idolatrous adoption and worship of the image, at 1871.
Jump up ^ Mourant Brock, The cross, heathen and Christian: A fragmentary notice of its early pagan existence and subsequent Christian adoption, London 1879.
Jump up ^ John Denham Parsons, The non-Christian cross; an enquiry into the origin and history of the symbol eventually adopted as that of our religion, at 1896.
Jump up ^ David Williams, Deformed Discourse: The function of the Monster in Mediaeval thought and literature, McGill-Queen's Press 1999, p. 161.
Jump up ^ Christopher R. Fee & David Adams Leeming, Gods, Heroes & Kings: The battle for mythic Britain, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 113.
Jump up ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watch Tower Society. pp. 204–205.
Jump up ^ New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, appendix 5C, page 1577
Jump up ^ Franz 2007, p. 150
Jump up ^ Riches, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1936, page 27.
Jump up ^ Hinckley, Gordon B (May 1975). "The Symbol of Christ". Ensign.
Jump up ^ Hinckley, Gordon B (April 2005). "The Symbol of Our Faith". Ensign.
Jump up ^ Hunter, Howard W. (November 1994). "Exceeding Great and Precious Promises". Ensign.
Jump up ^ McKeever, Bill. "Why No Crosses?". Mormonism Research Ministry. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article Archæology of the Cross and Crucifix.
Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article The Cross and Crucifix in Liturgy.
The Christian Cross of Jesus Christ, Symbols of Christianity, and representations of it as objects of devotion
MSN Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31), "Cross"
Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Ch. 6th, "Christian Art: § 77. The Cross and the Crucifix"
An Explanation of the Russian Orthodox Three-Bar Cross
Variations of Crosses - Images and Meanings
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