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1790 United States Census
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1790 United States Census
Seal of the United States Census Bureau
General information
Country
United States
Date taken
August 2, 1790 (1790-08-02)
Total population
3,929,214
Percent change
—%
Most populous state
Virginia
747,610
Least populous state
Delaware
59,094
Title page of 1790 United States Census
The United States Census of 1790 was the first census of the whole United States. It recorded the population of the United States as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws. In the first census, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214.[1]
Congress assigned responsibility for the 1790 census to the marshals of United States judicial districts under an act which, with minor modifications and extensions, governed census taking through 1840. "The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in 'two of the most public places within [each jurisdiction], there to remain for the inspection of all concerned...' and that 'the aggregate amount of each description of persons' for every district be transmitted to the president."[2]
Contents
1 Loss of data
2 Data
3 Contemporary perception
4 Data availability
5 City rankings
6 References
7 External links
Loss of data[edit]
Although the Census was proved statistically factual, based on data collected, the records for several states (including: Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, and Virginia) were lost sometime between 1790 and 1830.[3] Almost one third of the original census data have been lost or destroyed since their original documentation. These include some 1790 data from: Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Vermont; however, the validity and existence of most of these data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census.[4]
Data[edit]
Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as follows: free white males at least 16 years of age (to assess the country's industrial and military potential), free white males under 16 years of age, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves.[5] Under the direction of the current Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, marshals collected data from all thirteen states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia), and from the Southwest Territory.[2] The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year. (From 1777 until early 1791, and hence during all of 1790, Vermont was a de facto independent country whose government took the position that Vermont was not then a part of the United States.)
District
Free white males of 16 years and upward, including heads of families.
Free white males under 16 years.
Free white females, including heads of families.
All other free persons.
Slaves.
Total.
Vermont 22,435 22,328 40,505 255 16[a][6] 85,539[b]
New Hampshire 36,086 34,851 70,160 630 158 141,885
Maine 24,384 24,748 46,870 538 0 96,540
Massachusetts 95,453 87,289 190,582 5,463 0 378,787[c][7]
Rhode Island 16,019 15,799 32,652 3,407 948 68,825
Connecticut 60,523 54,403 117,448 2,808 2,764 237,946
New York 83,700 78,122 152,320 4,654 21,324 340,120
New Jersey 45,251 41,416 83,287 2,762 11,423 184,139
Pennsylvania 110,788 106,948 206,363 6,537 3,737 434,373
Delaware 11,783 12,143 22,384 3,899 8,887 59,094[d]
Maryland 55,915 51,339 101,395 8,043 103,036 319,728
Virginia 110,936 116,135 215,046 12,866 292,627 747,610[e][7]
Kentucky 15,154 17,057 28,922 114 12,430 73,677
North Carolina 69,988 77,506 140,710 4,975 100,572 393,751
South Carolina 35,576 37,722 66,880 1,801 107,094 249,073
Georgia 13,103 14,044 25,739 398 29,264 82,548
Total 807,094 791,850 1,541,263 59,150 694,280 3,893,635
Jump up ^ The census of 1790, published in 1791, reports 16 slaves in Vermont. Subsequently, and up to 1860, the number is given as 17. An examination of the original manuscript allegedly shows that there never were any slaves in Vermont. The original error occurred in preparing the results for publication, when 16 persons, returned as "Free colored", were classified as "Slave". But this claim is disputed by at least one historian.
Jump up ^ Corrected figures are 85,425, or 114 less than the figures published in 1790, due to an error of addition in the returns for each of the towns of Fairfield, Milton, Shelburne, and Williston, in the county of Chittenden; Brookfield, Newbury, Randolph, and Strafford, in the county of Orange; Castleton, Clarendon, Hubbardton, Poultney, Rutland, Shrewsburg, and Wallingford, in the county of Rutland; Dummerston, Guilford, Halifax, and Westminster, in the county of Windham; and Woodstock, in the county of Windsor.
Jump up ^ The figures for Massachusetts do not include the population of Maine. Though Maine was then a part of Massachusetts, the Maine figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Maine.
Jump up ^ Corrected figures are 59,096, or 2 more than figures published in 1790, due to error in addition.
Jump up ^ The figures for Virginia do not include the population of Kentucky. Though Kentucky was then a part of Virginia, the Kentucky figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Kentucky. The Virginia figures do include the portion of Virginia that later became the state of West Virginia.
Contemporary perception[edit]
Commemorative pitcher with census results
Both Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and President George Washington expressed skepticism[8] over the results, believing that the true population had been undercounted. If there was indeed an undercount, possible explanations for it include dispersed population, poor transportation links, limitations of contemporary technology, and individual refusal to participate.
Data availability[edit]
No microdata from the 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System.
City rankings[edit]
Rank
City
State
Population[9]
Region (2016)[10]
Population (2010)
01 New York New York 33,131 Northeast 1,585,873 [Manhattan only]
02 Philadelphia Pennsylvania 28,522 Northeast 1,526,006
03 Boston Massachusetts 18,320 Northeast 617,594
04 Charleston South Carolina 16,359 South 120,083
05 Baltimore Maryland 13,503 South 620,961
06 Northern Liberties Pennsylvania 9,913 Northeast N/A
07 Salem Massachusetts 7,921 Northeast 41,340
08 Newport Rhode Island 6,716 Northeast 24,672
09 Providence Rhode Island 6,380 Northeast 178,042
10 Marblehead Massachusetts 5,661 Northeast 19,808
11 Southwark Pennsylvania 5,661 Northeast N/A
12 Gloucester Massachusetts 5,317 Northeast 28,789
13 Newburyport Massachusetts 4,837 Northeast 17,416
14 Portsmouth New Hampshire 4,720 Northeast 21,233
15 Sherburne Massachusetts 4,555 Northeast 10,172
16 Middleborough Massachusetts 4,526 Northeast 23,116
17 New Haven Connecticut 4,487 Northeast 129,779
18 Taunton Massachusetts 3,804 Northeast 55,874
19 Richmond Virginia 3,761 South 204,214
20 Albany New York 3,498 Northeast 97,856
21 New Bedford Massachusetts 3,313 Northeast 95,072
22 Beverly Massachusetts 3,290 Northeast 39,502
23 Plymouth Massachusetts 2,995 Northeast 56,468
24 Norfolk Virginia 2,959 South 242,803
25 Rochester New Hampshire 2,857 Northeast 29,752
26 Petersburg Virginia 2,828 South 32,420
27 Alexandria Virginia 2,748 South 139,966
28 Hartford Connecticut 2,683 Northeast 124,775
29 Londonderry New Hampshire 2,622 Northeast 24,129
30 Gilmanton New Hampshire 2,613 Northeast 3,777
31 Hudson New York 2,584 Northeast 6,713
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History: 1790 Fast Facts". U.S. Census Bureau.
^ Jump up to: a b "History: 1790 Overview". U.S. Census Bureau.
Jump up ^ Dollarhide, William (2001). The Census Book: A Genealogists Guide to Federal Census Facts, Schedules and Indexes. North Salt Lake, Utah: HeritageQuest. p. 7.
Jump up ^ "1790 Census". 1930 Census Resources for Genealogists.
Jump up ^ "1790 Census of Population and Housing". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on May 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://slavenorth.com/vermont.htm
^ Jump up to: a b "A Century of Population Growth from the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900". 1909. p. 47.
Jump up ^ "1790 Overview". U.S. Census Bureau.
Jump up ^ Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990, U.S. Census Bureau, 1998
Jump up ^ "Regions and Divisions". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on December 3, 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
External links[edit]
Media related to 1790 United States Census at Wikimedia Commons
Historic US Census data
1790 Census of Population and Housing official reports
Population of 24 Urban Places: 1790
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Psychophysics
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Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation"[1] or, more completely, as "the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions".[2]
Psychophysics also refers to a general class of methods that can be applied to study a perceptual system. Modern applications rely heavily on threshold measurement,[3] ideal observer analysis, and signal detection theory.[4]
Psychophysics has widespread and important practical applications. For example, in the study of digital signal processing, psychophysics has informed the development of models and methods of lossy compression. These models explain why humans perceive very little loss of signal quality when audio and video signals are formatted using lossy compression.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Thresholds
2.1 Detection
2.2 Discrimination
3 Experimentation
3.1 Classical psychophysical methods
3.1.1 Method of limits
3.1.2 Method of constant stimuli
3.1.3 Method of adjustment
3.2 Adaptive psychophysical methods
3.2.1 Staircase procedures
3.2.2 Bayesian and maximum-likelihood procedures
3.2.3 Magnitude estimation
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Many of the classical techniques and theories of psychophysics were formulated in 1860 when Gustav Theodor Fechner in Leipzig published Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics).[5] He coined the term "psychophysics", describing research intended to relate physical stimuli to the contents of consciousness such as sensations (Empfindungen). As a physicist and philosopher, Fechner aimed at developing a method that relates matter to the mind, connecting the publicly observable world and a person's privately experienced impression of it. His ideas were inspired by experimental results on the sense of touch and light obtained in the early 1830s by the German physiologist Ernst Heinrich Weber in Leipzig,[6][7] most notably those on the minimum discernible difference in intensity of stimuli of moderate strength (just noticeable difference; jnd) which Weber had shown to be a constant fraction of the reference intensity, and which Fechner referred to as Weber's law. From this, Fechner derived his well-known logarithmic scale, now known as Fechner scale. Weber's and Fechner's work formed one of the bases of psychology as a science, with Wilhelm Wundt founding the first laboratory for psychological research in Leipzig (Institut für experimentelle Psychologie). Fechner's work systematised the introspectionist approach (psychology as the science of consciousness), that had to contend with the Behaviorist approach in which even verbal responses are as physical as the stimuli. During the 1930s, when psychological research in Nazi Germany essentially came to a halt, both approaches eventually began to be replaced by use of stimulus-response relationships as evidence for conscious or unconscious processing in the mind.[8] Fechner's work was studied and extended by Charles S. Peirce, who was aided by his student Joseph Jastrow, who soon became a distinguished experimental psychologist in his own right. Peirce and Jastrow largely confirmed Fechner's empirical findings, but not all. In particular, a classic experiment of Peirce and Jastrow rejected Fechner's estimation of a threshold of perception of weights, as being far too high. In their experiment, Peirce and Jastrow in fact invented randomized experiments: They randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.[9][10][11][12] Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1900s.[9][10][11][12] The Peirce–Jastrow experiments were conducted as part of Peirce's application of his pragmaticism program to human perception; other studies considered the perception of light, etc.[13] Jastrow wrote the following summary: "Mr. Peirce’s courses in logic gave me my first real experience of intellectual muscle. Though I promptly took to the laboratory of psychology when that was established by Stanley Hall, it was Peirce who gave me my first training in the handling of a psychological problem, and at the same time stimulated my self-esteem by entrusting me, then fairly innocent of any laboratory habits, with a real bit of research. He borrowed the apparatus for me, which I took to my room, installed at my window, and with which, when conditions of illumination were right, I took the observations. The results were published over our joint names in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The demonstration that traces of sensory effect too slight to make any registry in consciousness could none the less influence judgment, may itself have been a persistent motive that induced me years later to undertake a book on The Subconscious." This work clearly distinguishes observable cognitive performance from the expression of consciousness.
Modern approaches to sensory perception, such as research on vision, hearing, or touch, measure what the perceiver's judgment extracts from the stimulus, often putting aside the question what sensations are being experienced. One leading method is based on signal detection theory, developed for cases of very weak stimuli. However, the subjectivist approach persists among those in the tradition of Stanley Smith Stevens (1906–1973). Stevens revived the idea of a power law suggested by 19th century researchers, in contrast with Fechner's log-linear function (cf. Stevens' power law). He also advocated the assignment of numbers in ratio to the strengths of stimuli, called magnitude estimation. Stevens added techniques such as magnitude production and cross-modality matching. He opposed the assignment of stimulus strengths to points on a line that are labeled in order of strength. Nevertheless, that sort of response has remained popular in applied psychophysics. Such multiple-category layouts are often misnamed Likert scaling after the question items used by Likert to create multi-item psychometric scales, e.g., seven phrases from "strongly agree" through "strongly disagree".
Omar Khaleefa[14] has argued that the medieval scientist Alhazen should be considered the founder of psychophysics. Although al-Haytham made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and such claims have been rebuffed.[15]
Thresholds[edit]
Psychophysicists usually employ experimental stimuli that can be objectively measured, such as pure tones varying in intensity, or lights varying in luminance. All the senses have been studied: vision, hearing, touch (including skin and enteric perception), taste, smell and the sense of time. Regardless of the sensory domain, there are three main areas of investigation: absolute thresholds, discrimination thresholds and scaling.
A threshold (or limen) is the point of intensity at which the participant can just detect the presence of a stimulus (absolute threshold[16]) or the presence of a difference between two stimuli (difference threshold[7]). Stimuli with intensities below the threshold are considered not detectable (hence: sub-liminal). Stimuli at values close enough to a threshold will often be detectable some proportion of occasions; therefore, a threshold is considered to be the point at which a stimulus, or change in a stimulus, is detected some proportion p of occasions.
Detection[edit]
An absolute threshold is the level of intensity of a stimulus at which the subject is able to detect the presence of the stimulus some proportion of the time (a p level of 50% is often used).[17] An example of an absolute threshold is the number of hairs on the back of one's hand that must be touched before it can be felt – a participant may be unable to feel a single hair being touched, but may be able to feel two or three as this exceeds the threshold. Absolute threshold is also often referred to as detection threshold. Several different methods are used for measuring absolute thresholds (as with discrimination thresholds; see below).
Discrimination[edit]
A difference threshold (or just-noticeable difference, JND) is the magnitude of the smallest difference between two stimuli of differing intensities that the participant is able to detect some proportion of the time (the percentage depending on the kind of task). To test this threshold, several different methods are used. The subject may be asked to adjust one stimulus until it is perceived as the same as the other (method of adjustment), may be asked to describe the direction and magnitude of the difference between two stimuli, or may be asked to decide whether intensities in a pair of stimuli are the same or not (forced choice). The just-noticeable difference (JND) is not a fixed quantity; rather, it depends on how intense the stimuli being measured are and the particular sense being measured.[18] Weber's Law states that the just-noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variation in intensity.[19]
In discrimination experiments, the experimenter seeks to determine at what point the difference between two stimuli, such as two weights or two sounds, is detectable. The subject is presented with one stimulus, for example a weight, and is asked to say whether another weight is heavier or lighter (in some experiments, the subject may also say the two weights are the same). At the point of subjective equality (PSE), the subject perceives the two weights to be the same. The just-noticeable difference,[20] or difference limen (DL), is the magnitude of the difference in stimuli that the subject notices some proportion p of the time (50% is usually used for p in the comparison task). In addition, a two-alternative forced choice (2-afc) paradigm can be used to assess the point at which performance reduces to chance on a discrimination between two alternatives (p will then typically be 75% since p=50% corresponds to chance in the 2-afc task).
Absolute and difference thresholds are sometimes considered similar in principle because there is always background noise interfering with our ability to detect stimuli.[6][21]
Experimentation[edit]
In psychophysics, experiments seek to determine whether the subject can detect a stimulus, identify it, differentiate between it and another stimulus, or describe the magnitude or nature of this difference.[6][7] Software for psychophysical experimentation is overviewed by Strasburger.[22]
Classical psychophysical methods[edit]
Psychophysical experiments have traditionally used three methods for testing subjects' perception in stimulus detection and difference detection experiments: the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli and the method of adjustment.[23]
Method of limits[edit]
In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected.[23]
In experiments, the ascending and descending methods are used alternately and the thresholds are averaged. A possible disadvantage of these methods is that the subject may become accustomed to reporting that they perceive a stimulus and may continue reporting the same way even beyond the threshold (the error of habituation). Conversely, the subject may also anticipate that the stimulus is about to become detectable or undetectable and may make a premature judgment (the error of anticipation).
To avoid these potential pitfalls, Georg von Békésy introduced the staircase procedure in 1960 in his study of auditory perception. In this method, the sound starts out audible and gets quieter after each of the subject's responses, until the subject does not report hearing it. At that point, the sound is made louder at each step, until the subject reports hearing it, at which point it is made quieter in steps again. This way the experimenter is able to "zero in" on the threshold.[23]
Method of constant stimuli[edit]
Instead of being presented in ascending or descending order, in the method of constant stimuli the levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly. This prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation. For 'absolute thresholds' again the subject reports whether he or she is able to detect the stimulus.[23] For 'difference thresholds' there has to be a constant comparison stimulus with each of the varied levels. Friedrich Hegelmaier described the method of constant stimuli in an 1852 paper.[24] This method allows for full sampling of the psychometric function, but can result in a lot of trials when several conditions are interleaved.
Method of adjustment[edit]
The method of adjustment asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. This is repeated many times. This is also called the method of average error.[23] In this method the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two. The difference between the variable stimuli and the standard one is recorded after each adjustment and the error is tabulated for a considerable series. At the end mean is calculated giving the average error which can be taken as the measure of sensitivity.
Adaptive psychophysical methods[edit]
The classic methods of experimentation are often argued to be inefficient. This is because, in advance of testing, the psychometric threshold is usually unknown and much data is collected at points on the psychometric function that provide little information about the parameter of interest, usually the threshold. Adaptive staircase procedures (or the classical method of adjustment) can be used such that the points sampled are clustered around the psychometric threshold. However, the cost of this efficiency is that there is less information regarding the psychometric function's shape. Adaptive methods can be optimized for estimating the threshold only, or threshold and slope. Adaptive methods are classified into staircase procedures (see below) and Bayesian or maximum-likelihood methods. Staircase methods rely on the previous response only and are easier to implement. Bayesian methods take the whole set of previous stimulus-response pairs into account and are believed to be more robust against lapses in attention.[25]
Staircase procedures[edit]
Diagram showing a specific staircase procedure: Transformed Up/Down Method (1 up/ 2 down rule). Until the first reversal (which is neglected) the simple up/down rule and a larger step size is used.
Staircases usually begin with a high intensity stimulus, which is easy to detect. The intensity is then reduced until the observer makes a mistake, at which point the staircase 'reverses' and intensity is increased until the observer responds correctly, triggering another reversal. The values for the last of these 'reversals' are then averaged. There are many different types of staircase procedures, using different decision and termination rules. Step-size, up/down rules and the spread of the underlying psychometric function dictate where on the psychometric function they converge.[25] Threshold values obtained from staircases can fluctuate wildly, so care must be taken in their design. Many different staircase algorithms have been modeled and some practical recommendations suggested by Garcia-Perez.[26]
One of the more common staircase designs (with fixed-step sizes) is the 1-up-N-down staircase. If the participant makes the correct response N times in a row, the stimulus intensity is reduced by one step size. If the participant makes an incorrect response the stimulus intensity is increased by the one size. A threshold is estimated from the mean midpoint of all runs. This estimate approaches, asymptotically, the correct threshold.
Bayesian and maximum-likelihood procedures[edit]
Bayesian and maximum-likelihood adaptive procedures behave, from the observer's perspective, similar to the staircase procedures. The choice of the next intensity level works differently, however: After each observer response, from the set of this and all previous stimulus/response pairs the likelihood is calculated of where the threshold lies. The point of maximum likelihood is then chosen as the best estimate for the threshold, and the next stimulus is presented at that level (since a decision at that level will add the most information). In a Bayesian procedure, a prior likelihood is further included in the calculation.[25] Compared to staircase procedures, Bayesian and ML procedures are more time-consuming to implement but are considered to be more robust. Well-known procedures of this kind are Quest,[27] ML-PEST,[28] and Kontsevich & Tyler’s method.[29]
Magnitude estimation[edit]
In the prototypical case, people are asked to assign numbers in proportion to the magnitude of the stimulus. This psychometric function of the geometric means of their numbers is often a power law with stable, replicable exponent. Although contexts can change the law and exponent, that change too is stable and replicable. Instead of numbers, other sensory or cognitive dimensions can be used to match a stimulus and the method then becomes "magnitude production" or "cross-modality matching". The exponents of those dimensions found in numerical magnitude estimation predict the exponents found in magnitude production. Magnitude estimation generally finds lower exponents for the psychophysical function than multiple-category responses, because of the restricted range of the categorical anchors, such as those used by Likert as items in attitude scales.[30]
See also[edit]
Medical physics
Neurophysics
Behavioral neuroscience
Psychoacoustics
Vision science
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Gescheider G (1997). Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. ix. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Bruce V, Green PR, Georgeson MA (1996). Visual perception (3rd ed.). Psychology Press.
Jump up ^ Boff KR; Kaufman L; Thomas JP (eds.). Handbook of perception and human performance: Vol. I. Sensory processes and perception. New York: John Wiley. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 5: The Theory of Signal Detection". Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Gustav Theodor Fechner (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics).
^ Jump up to: a b c Snodgrass JG. 1975. Psychophysics. In: Experimental Sensory Psychology. B Scharf. (Ed.) pp. 17–67.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 1: Psychophysical Measurement of Thresholds: Differential Sensitivity". Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Broadbent DE. 1964. Behaviour; Neisser U. 1970. Cognitive psychology.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles Sanders Peirce and Joseph Jastrow (1885). "On Small Differences in Sensation". Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 3: 73–83.
^ Jump up to: a b Hacking, Ian (September 1988). "Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design". Isis. 79 (3, "A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment"): 427–451. doi:10.1086/354775. JSTOR 234674. MR 1013489.
^ Jump up to: a b Stephen M. Stigler (November 1992). "A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research". American Journal of Education. 101 (1): 60–70. doi:10.1086/444032.
^ Jump up to: a b Trudy Dehue (December 1997). "Deception, Efficiency, and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design". Isis. 88 (4): 653–673. doi:10.1086/383850. PMID 9519574.
Jump up ^ Joseph Jastrow (21 December 1916). "Charles S. Peirce as a Teacher". The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. 13 (26): 723–726. doi:10.2307/2012322. and text-string search
Jump up ^ Omar Khaleefa (1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?". American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 16 (2).
Jump up ^ Aaen-Stockdale, C.R. (2008). "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics". Perception. 37 (4): 636–638. doi:10.1068/p5940. PMID 18546671.
Jump up ^ Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 2: Psychophysical Measurement of Thresholds: Absolute Sensitivity". Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ John Krantz. "Experiencing Sensation and Perception". pp. 2.3–2.4. Retrieved May 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel L.; Gilbert, Daniel t.; Wegner, Daniel M. (2010). Psychology (2nd ed.)
Jump up ^ Gustav Theodor Fechner (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics), Kap. IX: Das Weber’sche Gesetz.
Jump up ^ Psychology: the Science of Behaviour. 4th ED. Neil R. Carlson, C. Donald Heth
Jump up ^ Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 4: Classical Psychophysical Theory". Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Strasburger H (1995–2014). Software for visual psychophysics: an overview. VisionScience.com
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 3: The Classical Psychophysical Methods". Psychophysics: the fundamentals (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2281-X. PMID 9402648.
Jump up ^ Laming, Donald; Janet Laming (1992). "F. Hegelmaier: On memory for the length of a line". Psychological Research. 54 (4): 233–239. doi:10.1007/BF01358261. ISSN 0340-0727. PMID 1494608. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c Treutwein, Bernhard (September 1995). "Adaptive psychophysical procedures". Vision Research. 35 (17): 2503–2522. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(95)00016-X.
Jump up ^ Garcia-Perez, MA (1998). "Forced-choice staircases with fixed step sizes: asymptotic and small-sample properties". Vision Res. 38 (12): 1861–81. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00340-4. PMID 9797963.
Jump up ^ Watson, Andrew B.; Pelli, Denis G. (March 1983). "Quest: A Bayesian adaptive psychometric method". Perception & Psychophysics. 33 (2): 113–120. doi:10.3758/BF03202828.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Lewis O. (November 1986). "Efficient estimation of sensory thresholds". Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers. 18 (6): 623–632. doi:10.3758/BF03201438.
Jump up ^ Kontsevich, Leonid L.; Tyler, Christopher W. (August 1999). "Bayesian adaptive estimation of psychometric slope and threshold". Vision Research. 39 (16): 2729–2737. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00285-5.
Jump up ^ Stevens, S. S. (1957). "On the psychophysical law". Psychological Review. 64 (3): 153–181. doi:10.1037/h0046162. PMID 13441853.
References[edit]
Steingrimsson, R.; Luce, R. D. (2006). "Empirical evaluation of a model of global psychophysical judgments: III. A form for the psychophysical function and intensity filtering". Journal of Mathematical Psychology. 50: 15–29. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2005.11.005.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psychophysics.
Link German website about a dissertation project with an animation about the staricase method (Transformed Up/Down Staricase Method)
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Atticus Finch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Atticus Finch
Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch, in the 1962 film adaption
First appearance
To Kill a Mockingbird
Last appearance
Go Set a Watchman
Created by
Harper Lee
Portrayed by
Gregory Peck
Information
Gender
Male
Occupation
Lawyer
Family
Jeremy Finch (father)
John Hale "Jack" Finch (brother)
Alexandra Finch Hancock (sister)
Caroline Finch (sister)
Spouse(s)
Jean Graham Finch (deceased)
Children
Jeremy Atticus "Jem" Finch
Jean Louise "Scout" Finch
Relatives
Edgar (cousin)
Joshua (cousin)
Francis Hancock (nephew)
Nationality
American
Atticus Finch is a fictional character in Harper Lee's Pulitzer Prize winning novel of 1960, To Kill a Mockingbird. A preliminary version of the character also appears in the novel Go Set a Watchman, written in the mid 1950s but not published until 2015. Atticus is a lawyer and resident of the fictional Maycomb County, Alabama, and the father of Jeremy "Jem" Finch and Jean Louise "Scout" Finch. Lee based the character on her own father, Amasa Coleman Lee, an Alabama lawyer, who, like Atticus, represented black defendants in a highly publicized criminal trial.[1] Book Magazine's list of The 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900 names Finch as the seventh best fictional character of 20th-century literature.[2][3] In 2003 the American Film Institute voted Atticus Finch, as portrayed in an Academy Award-winning performance by Gregory Peck in the 1962 film adaptation, as the greatest hero of all American cinema.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Impact on the legal profession
2 Social references
3 Go Set a Watchman
4 References
5 Bibliography
Impact on the legal profession[edit]
Claudia Durst Johnson has commented about critiques of the novel, saying, "A greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals".[5] Alice Petry remarked, "Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person".[6] Examples of Atticus Finch's impact on the legal profession are plentiful. Richard Matsch, the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial, counts Atticus as a major judicial influence.[7] One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook from which he taught was To Kill a Mockingbird, and an article in the Michigan Law Review asserts, "No real-life lawyer has done more for the self-image or public perception of the legal profession", before questioning whether "Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun."[8]
In 1992 Monroe Freedman, a professor of law and noted legal ethicist, published two articles in the national legal newspaper Legal Times calling for the legal profession to set aside Atticus Finch as a role model.[9] Freedman argued that Atticus still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered. Freedman's article sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession holding Atticus Finch as a hero and the reason for which they became lawyers.[10] Freedman argued that Atticus Finch is dishonest, unethical, sexist, and inherently racist, and that he did nothing to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb.[11] Freedman's article sparked furious controversy, with one legal scholar opining, "What Monroe really wants is for Atticus to be working on the front lines for the NAACP in the 1930s, and, if he's not, he's disqualified from being any kind of hero; Monroe has this vision of lawyer as prophet. Atticus has a vision of lawyer not only as prophet but as parish priest".[9] In 1997 the Alabama State Bar erected a monument dedicated to Atticus in Monroeville marking his existence as the "first commemorative milestone in the state's judicial history".[12]
Social references[edit]
Atticus Finch's willingness to support social outcasts and victims of prejudice is the eponymous inspiration for the name of the Atticus Circle, which is an organization composed of "straight allies" (that is, heterosexual people supportive of the LGBT-rights movement).[13]
In 2016, the lawyer Joseph Madison Beck published the memoir My Father & Atticus Finch[14], in which he noted the numerous parallels between his father Foster Beck's defense of a black man accused of raping a white woman in the 1938 trial State of Alabama vs. Charles White, Alias, and Atticus Finch's defense of Tom Robinson in To Kill a Mockingbird. In a letter to the author, Harper Lee herself noted the "obvious parallels" between the cases (Lee was 12 at the time of the Charles White trial) and between Atticus Finch and Foster Beck, though she also stated that she could not recall the trial, and that To Kill a Mockingbird was a work of fiction[15].
Former president Barack Obama referenced Atticus Finch as an ideal American character. In addition Atticus was mentioned during one of Obama's speeches.[citation needed]
Go Set a Watchman[edit]
In July 2015, days before Lee's highly anticipated second novel Go Set a Watchman, was officially published, the first chapter was released on The Guardian for public viewing. On that day, a New York Times review of the book (which is set about twenty years after the time period depicted in Mockingbird but is not a chronological sequel)[16] revealed that Atticus, depicted in this version as being in his early seventies, is portrayed as a far less-progressive character. He makes comments that favor segregation and has attended a Citizens’ Council meeting. This has proved controversial to many readers, unaware perhaps that although To Kill a Mockingbird was published first, Watchman is the first draft of the text that later became Mockingbird and the characterizations and key plot details between the two books are not only different but sometimes contradictory.[17]
In terms of plot, Tom Robinson is acquitted in Watchman while in Mockingbird his unjust conviction as the result of prejudice was a central part of not only the story but why Atticus is seen culturally as such a righteous and progressive character. His defense is based on not just Robinson's innocence but on his fundamental equality. His closing argument is a more polished version of the progressive argument the adult Jean Louise makes in Watchman and there are other instances where both versions contain the same descriptions word for word.[16] This kind of character development, where motivations and ideals between characters, for reasons of plot, are changed is not unusual in the process of creative writing. Apart from the more progressive depiction of Atticus, the depiction of the town itself, especially the African-American characters, is also dramatically altered between the two drafts.[18] Real-life comparisons with Lee's father, Amasa Coleman Lee, have also been made in the two differing versions of Atticus in that originally Amasa Lee was in favor of segregation but became more liberal later in life, later changing his views to those of Integration.[19] Tay Hohoff, Lee's editor, has also been argued to have played a major part in the character development of the novel and particularly Atticus' liberal transformation. Jonathan Mahler of The New York Times notes in his article The Invisible Hand Behind Harper Lee’s ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’[20] that Ms. Hohoff, at the same time as she was guiding Ms. Lee through the Mockingbird re-write, was working on her own biography of the early-20th-century New York activist and humanist John Lovejoy Elliot. He notes that the book, A Ministry to Man, was published in 1959, a year before Mockingbird. [20]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Boston, Talmage (June 2010). "Who was Atticus Finch?" (PDF). Texas Bar Journal. 73 (6): 484–485. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
Jump up ^ "Book Magazine's The 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900". InfoPlease.com. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
Jump up ^ Book Magazine, March/April 2002 (March 2002). "100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900". Talk of the Nation. NPR. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains" (PDF). afi.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 20, 2012. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Boundaries p.25-27
Jump up ^ Petry, p. xxiii
Jump up ^ Petry, p. xxiv
Jump up ^ Lubet, Steven. "Reconstructing Atticus Finch." Michigan Law Review 97, no. 6 (May 1999): 1339–62.
^ Jump up to: a b Margolick, David (February 28, 1992). "At the Bar; To Attack A Lawyer In 'To Kill a Mockingbird': An Iconoclast Takes Aim At A Hero". The New York Times. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Monroe H. Freedman, ""Atticus Finch, Esq., R.I.P.,"" 14 LEGAL TIMES 20 (1992); Monroe H. Freedman, ""Finch: The Lawyer Mythologized,"" 14 LEGAL TIMES 25 (1992) and Monroe Freedman, Atticus Finch – Right and Wrong, 45 Ala. L. Rev. 473 (1994).
Jump up ^ Metress, Christopher. "The Rise and Fall of Atticus Finch." The Chattahoochee Review; 24 (1): September, 2003
Jump up ^ "'Mockingbird' Hero Honored in Monroeville." Birmingham News (Alabama): May 3, 1997; Pg. 7A.
Jump up ^ "About Atticus Circle". 2009. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ Beck, Joseph Madison (June 21, 2016). "My Father and Atticus Finch: A Lawyer's Fight for Justice in 1930s Alabama". W. W. Norton & Company – via Amazon.
Jump up ^ Beck, My Father & Atticus Finch, p. vii
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, Keith. "See where 'Go Set a Watchman' overlaps with 'To Kill a Mockingbird,' word-for-word". qz.com.
Jump up ^ Sacks, Sam (July 10, 2015). "Book Review: In Harper Lee's 'Go Set a Watchman' Atticus Finch Defends Jim Crow". The Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ "Review: Harper Lee's 'Go Set a Watchman' Gives Atticus Finch a Dark Side". July 10, 2015 – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ Stevens, Laura (July 13, 2015). "Memories of the Man Who Inspired Atticus Finch". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Mahler, Jonathan (July 12, 2015). "The Invisible Hand Behind Harper Lee's 'To Kill a Mockingbird'". The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Beck, J. M. (2016). My Father and Atticus Finch: A Lawyer's Fight for Justice in 1930's Alabama. Athens, Georgia : The University of Georgia Press.
Johnson, Claudia. To Kill a Mockingbird: Threatening Boundaries. Twayne Publishers: 1994. ISBN 0-8057-8068-8
Johnson, Claudia. Understanding To Kill a Mockingbird: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historic Documents. Greenwood Press: 1994. ISBN 0-313-29193-4
Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. HarperCollins: 1960 (Perennial Classics edition: 2002). ISBN 0-06-093546-4
Mancini, Candice, ed. (2008). Racism in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird , The Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-7377-3904-6
Petry, Alice. "Introduction" in On Harper Lee: Essays and Reflections. University of Tennessee Press: 1994. ISBN 1-57233-578-5
Shields, Charles. Mockingbird: A Portrait of Harper Lee. Henry Holt and Co.: 2006. ISBN 0-8050-7919-X
Michiko Kakutain. "Review: Harper Lee’s ‘Go Set a Watchman’ Gives Atticus Finch a Dark Side" nytimes.com: 2015.
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