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National Woman's Party
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National Woman's Party
Formation
June 5, 1916 (1916-06-05)
Extinction
1997
Purpose
"To secure an amendment to the United States Constitution enfranchising women" and to pass the ERA
Headquarters
Washington, DC
Key people
Alice Paul, Lucy Burns
Website
http://www.nationalwomansparty.org/
Formerly called
Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage
The National Woman's Party (NWP) was an American women's organization formed in 1916 as an outgrowth of the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, which had been formed in 1913 by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns to fight for women's suffrage. The National Woman's Party broke from the much larger National American Woman Suffrage Association, which was focused on attempting to gain women's suffrage at the state level. The National Woman's Party prioritized the passage of a constitutional amendment ensuring women's suffrage throughout the United States.
The National Woman's Party, like the Congressional Union, was under the leadership of Alice Paul, who learned from militant suffragettes in Britain who used a variety of tactics to gain publicity for the cause of suffrage. Paul's strategy was to use publicity to hold the party in power, the Democratic Party and President Woodrow Wilson, responsible for the status of woman suffrage. Starting in January 1917, NWP members known as Silent Sentinels continued their quest for equality by protesting outside the White House.
While the British suffragettes stopped their protests when Britain entered the war in 1914, and supported the British war effort, Paul remained committed to the suffrage cause and continued her campaign after the US entered the war on April 6, 1917. Members of the NWP argued it was hypocritical for the United States to fight a war for democracy in Europe while denying its benefits to half of the US population. Similar arguments were being made in Europe, where most of the allied nations of Europe had enfranchised some women or would soon.[1]
The NWP pickets were controversial as they continued during war time.[2] Many NWP activists were later arrested on the charge of obstructing traffic, and many went on hunger strikes in prison to protest their unlawful detention.[3] Abusive treatment of the protesters, who believed themselves to be political prisoners, angered some Americans and created more support for the suffrage amendment. They were eventually released and their arrests were later declared unconstitutional. In the meantime, NAWSA helped pass the 1917 referendum in New York State in favor of suffrage. In early 1918, Wilson came out in favor of the amendment, and it passed the House, but failed in the Senate despite another round of protests and arrests. After the NWP helped replace anti-suffrage senators in the 1918 elections, the amendment finally passed both houses and was sent to the states for ratification. The Nineteenth amendment was ratified by enough states by 1920, thus giving many women the right to vote. Many African American women in the Jim Crow South remained disenfranchised after the ratification of this amendment.
After ratification, the NWP turned its attention to passage of an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution. Historian Nancy Cott has noted that as the party moved into the 1920s it remained ideologically consistent in the pursuit of equal rights for women and that:
it remained an autocratically run, single-minded and single-issue pressure group, still reliant on getting into the newspapers as a means of publicizing its cause, very insistent on the method of "getting in touch with the key men."...NWP lobbyists went straight to legislators, governors, and presidents, not to their constituents.[4]
Today, the National Woman's Party exists as a 501c3 educational organization. Its task is now the maintenance and interpretation of the collection and archives of the historic National Woman's Party [5] The NWP operates out of the Belmont-Paul Women's Equality National Monument in Washington, DC, where objects from the collection are exhibited.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history
2 Militant suffragists
3 Picketing the White House
4 Fighting for equal rights
5 Civil Rights Act of 1964
6 Publications
7 Notable members
8 See also
9 Further reading
10 References
11 External links
Early history[edit]
After their experience with militant suffrage work in Great Britain, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns reunited in the United States in 1910. The two women originally were appointed to the Congressional Committee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. In March 1913, the two women organized a parade of 5,000–8,000 women (by differing estimates)[citation needed] in Washington, D.C. on the day before Woodrow Wilson's inauguration. Though planned as an elegant progression of symbolically dressed, accomplished, and professional women, the parade quickly devolved into chaos due to violent reactions from the crowd and a lack of support by the local police. The D.C. police did little to help the suffragists; the women were assisted by the Massachusetts National Guard, the Pennsylvania National Guard, and boys from the Maryland Agricultural College, who created a human barrier protecting the women from the angry crowd.[6]
After this incident, which Paul effectively used to rally public opinion to the suffrage cause, Paul and Burns founded the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage in April 1913, which split off from NAWSA later that year. The Congressional Union began publishing a weekly newspaper, The Suffragist, in November 1913. Paul and Burns were frustrated with the National's slower approach of focusing on individual state referendums and wanted to pursue a congressional amendment. Alice Paul had also chafed under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, as she had very different ideas of how to go about suffrage work, and a different attitude towards militancy.[7] Catt disapproved of the radical strategies, inspired by the British "Suffragettes", Paul and Burns were trying to implement into the American Suffrage Movement.
The split was confirmed by a major difference of opinion on the Shafroth-Palmer Amendment. This amendment was spearheaded by Alice Paul's replacement as chair of the National's Congressional Committee, and was a compromise of sorts meant to appease racist sentiment in the South. Shafroth–Palmer was to be a constitutional amendment that would require any state with more than 8 percent signing an initiative petition to hold a state referendum on suffrage. This would have kept the law-making out of federal hands, a proposition more attractive to the South. Southern states feared a congressional women's suffrage amendment as a possible federal encroachment into their restrictive system of voting laws, meant to disenfranchise the black voter.
Paul and Burns felt that this amendment was a lethal distraction from the true and ultimately necessary goal of an all-encompassing federal amendment protecting the rights of all women—especially as the bruising rounds of state referendums were perceived at the time as almost damaging the cause. In Paul's words: "It is a little difficult to treat with seriousness an equivocating, evasive, childish substitute for the simple and dignified suffrage amendment now before Congress."[8]
Portrait of Alice Paul, 1915
Lucy Burns, Vice Chairman Congressional Union, 1913
Rheta Childe Dorr, first editor of The Suffragist
Militant suffragists[edit]
March 8, 1913 front page of Woman's Journal
Women associated with the party staged a very innovative suffrage parade on March 3, 1913, the day before Wilson's inauguration.[9]
During the group's first meeting, Paul clarified that the party would not be a political party and therefore would not endorse a candidate for president during elections. While non-partisan, the NWP directed most of its attention to President Woodrow Wilson and the Democrats, criticizing them as responsible for the failure to pass a constitutional amendment. The National Woman's Party continued to focus on suffrage as their main cause. It refused to either support or attack American involvement in the World War, while the rival National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) under Carrie Chapman Catt gave full support to the war effort. As a result, a diverse group of activists such as pacifists and Socialists were attracted to the NWP due to its opposition to an anti-suffrage president.[10]
Picketing the White House[edit]
NWP members picket the White House during the Silent Sentinels protests in 1917; the banner reads, "Mr. President, How Long Must Women Wait For Liberty."
While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul continued her struggle for women's equality and organized picketing of a war time president to maintain attention to the lack of enfranchisement for women. Known as "Silent Sentinels", their action lasted from January 10, 1917 until June 1919. The picketers were tolerated at first, but when they continued to picket after the United States declared war in 1917, they were arrested by police for obstructing traffic. Many of the NWP's members upon arrest went on hunger strikes; some, including Paul, were force-fed by jail personnel as a consequence. Anne Henrietta Martin, the NWP's first vice chairman, was sentenced to the Occoquan Workhouse, though Wilson pardoned her in less than a week.[11] Other suffragists arrested during the picket included Helena Hill and Iris Calderhead.[citation needed] The resulting publicity at a time when Wilson was trying to build a reputation for himself and the nation as an international leader in human rights was designed to force Wilson to publicly call for the Congress to pass the Suffrage Amendment.[12]
Wilson favored woman suffrage at the state level, but held off support for a nationwide constitutional amendment because his party was sharply divided, with the South opposing an amendment on the grounds of state's rights. The only Southern state to grant women the vote was Arkansas. The NWP in 1917–1919 repeatedly attacked Wilson and his party for not enacting an amendment. Wilson, however, kept in close touch with more moderate suffragists of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. He continued to hold off until he was sure the Democratic Party in the North was supportive; the 1917 referendum in New York State in favor of suffrage proved decisive for him. In January, 1918, Wilson went in person to the House and made a strong and widely published appeal to the House to pass the bill. The innovative non-violent tactics of the NWP were a contributing factor in getting Wilson to change his position on the suffrage bill. It passed but the Senate stalled until 1919 then finally sent the amendment to the states for ratification.[13] Scholar Belinda A. Stillion Southard has written that "...the campaign of the NWP was crucial toward securing the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment."[14]
Fighting for equal rights[edit]
After the ratification of the Nineteenth amendment in 1920, the NWP turned its attention to eliminating other forms of gender discrimination, principally by advocating passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, which Paul drafted in 1923. The organization regrouped and published the magazine Equal Rights. The publication was directed towards women but also intended to educate men about the benefits of women's suffrage, women's rights and other issues concerning American women.
"Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction."[15]
The NWP's agenda was at times opposed by working class women and by the labor unions that represented working class men who feared low-wage women workers would lower the overall pay scale and demean the role of the male breadwinner. Eleanor Roosevelt, an ally of the unions, generally opposed the NWP policies because she believed women needed protective legislation, not equality.[16] However, the National Woman's Party found protective legislation to relegate women to a lower class, and aimed their work on the ERA and other legislation to combat this second class citizenship status. The NWP argued that protective labor legislation would continue to depress women's wages and prevent women from gaining access to all types of work and parts of society.
After 1920, the National Woman's Party authored over 600 pieces of legislation fighting for women's equality; over 300 of these were passed. In addition, the NWP continued to lobby for the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment.[17] Scholar Mary K. Trigg has noted, "...the NWP played a central role in the women's rights movement after 1945. It stuck to its laser-like focus on the ERA, doggedly lobbying year in and year out for the amendment's introduction in Congress."[18] In 1997, the NWP ceased to be a lobbying organization. Instead, it turned its focus to education and to preserving its collection of first hand source documents from the women's suffrage movement. The NWP continues to function as an educational organization, maintaining and interpreting the collection left by the work of the historic National Woman's Party.
First Lady Betty Ford's "Bloomer Flag"
Congress passed the ERA Amendment and many states ratified it, but at the last minute in 1982 it was stopped by a coalition of conservatives led by Phyllis Schlafly and never passed. However, in 1964 the NWP did succeed, with the support of conservatives and over the opposition of liberals, blacks and labor unions, to have "sex" added to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, thus achieving some of the goals sought by the NWP.
Civil Rights Act of 1964[edit]
In 1963 Congress passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex.
The prohibition on sex discrimination was added by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginian Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee. He was a conservative who strongly opposed civil rights laws for blacks, but he supported such laws for white women. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133.
House Rules Committee clerk's record of markup session adding "sex" to bill.
Historians debate Smith's motivation—was it a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to both civil rights for blacks and women, or did he support women's rights and was attempting to improve the bill by broadening it to include women?[19][20][21] Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions.[22]
Smith was not joking: he asserted that he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths,[23] he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment.[22] For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment—with no linkage to racial issues—in the House because he believed in it. For decades he had been close to the National Woman's Party and especially Paul. She and other activists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment.[24] Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting" women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs.[25] The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats.
Publications[edit]
Nina E. Allender, The Spirit of '76.' On to the Senate!, 1915
The Suffragist newspaper was founded by the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage in 1913. It was referred to as "the only women's political newspaper in the United States" and was published to promote women's suffrage activities.[26] Its articles had political cartoons, a form of visual propaganda, by Nina E. Allender to garner support for the movement and communicate the status of the suffrage amendment.[26]
The woman who reads our paper will be informed as to happenings in Congress, not only suffrage happenings, although they come first, but all proceedings of special interest to women. Men do not realize how serious are the changes that are taking place in the conduct of Congress. Women will have to inform them. Only in the pages of The Suffragist will you find the information you need.
—  The Suffragist, 1914[26]
After the amendment for the women's right to vote was passed, the publication was discontinued by the National Woman's Party and succeeded in 1923 by Equal Rights.[26] Published until 1954, Equal Rights began as a weekly newsletter and evolved into a bi-monthly release aimed at keeping NWP members informed about developments related to the ERA and legislative issues. It included field reports, legislation updates and features about the activities of the NWP and featured writing from contributors including Crystal Eastman, Zona Gale, Ruth Hale and Inez Haynes Irwin.[27] Josephine Casey appeared on the cover of the publication in April 1931 as a result of her recurring column about the labour conditions of female textile workers in Georgia.[28]
Notable members[edit]
The Belmont-Paul Women's Equality National Monument, Washington DC, Headquarters of the Historic National Woman's Party
Nina E. Allender
Caroline Lexow Babcock
Abby Scott Baker
Mary Ritter Beard
Harriot Stanton Blatch
Alva Belmont
Lucy Burns
Marion Cothren
Rheta Childe Dorr
Crystal Eastman
Sara Bard Field
Phoebe Hearst
Alison Turnbull Hopkins
Inez Haynes Irwin
Edna Buckman Kearns
Anne Martin
Inez Milholland
Vida Milholland
Alice Paul
Doris Stevens
Caroline Spencer
Mabel Vernon
Amelia Earhart
Maud Younger
See also[edit]
Silent Sentinels
Woman Suffrage Parade of 1913
Suffrage Hikes
History of Feminism
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
Timeline of women's rights (other than voting)
Timeline of women's suffrage
Women's suffrage organizations
Iron Jawed Angels
Further reading[edit]
Adams, Katherine H.; Keene, Michael L. (2008). Alice Paul and the American Suffrage Campaign. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07471-4. The standard scholarly biography; online review
Behn, Beth (2012). Woodrow Wilson's Conversion Experience: The President and the Federal Woman Suffrage Amendment (Ph.D. thesis). University of Massachusetts - Amherst. Retrieved 2015-01-25.
Butler, Amy E. Two Paths to Equality: Alice Paul and Ethel M. Smith in the Era Debate, 1921–1929 (2002)
Cooney, Robert P. J. Winning the Vote: The Triumph of the American Woman Suffrage Movement. Santa Cruz, CA: American Graphic Press, 2005.
Cott, Nancy F. (1987). The Grounding of Modern Feminism. Yale University Press. pp. 51–82. ISBN 0-300-03892-5.
Dodd, Lynda G. (2008). "Parades, pickets, and prison: Alice Paul and the virtues of unruly constitutional citizenship". Journal of Law & Politics. 24 (4): 339–443. SSRN 2226351  .
Lunardini, Christine A. (2000). From Equal Suffrage to Equal Rights: Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party, 1910–1928. ISBN 978-0595000555. The standard scholarly history.
Southard, Belinda A. Stillion (2011). Militant Citizenship: Rhetorical Strategies of the National Woman's Party, 1913-1920. College Station: Texas A & M University Press.
Stevens, Doris (1976). Jailed for Freedom. New York: Schoken Books.
Walton, Mary (2010). A Woman's Crusade: Alice Paul and the Battle for the Ballot. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61175-7.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Behn (2012).
Jump up ^ Cott (1987), pp. 51–82.
Jump up ^ name="nationalwomansparty.org" "Learn:National Woman's Party".
Jump up ^ Cott (1987), p. 80.
Jump up ^ "About the NWP".
Jump up ^ Baltimore Sun, March 4, 1913
Jump up ^ Flexner, Eleanor (1959). Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 259. ISBN 0-674-10654-7.
Jump up ^ Adams & Keene (2008), p. 103.
Jump up ^ Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle, enlarged edition (1959; Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 255–257.
Jump up ^ Cott (1987), pp. 59–61.
Jump up ^ "Photographs from the Records of the National Woman's Party". Doris Stevens, Jailed for Freedom (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1920), 364. The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Doris Stevens, Jailed for Freedom, edited by Ronald McDonald (1920; NewSage Press, 1995), pp. 59–136.
Jump up ^ Lunardini, Christine A.; Knock, Thomas J. (1980). "Woodrow Wilson and woman suffrage: A new look". Political Science Quarterly. 95 (4): 655–671. doi:10.2307/2150609. JSTOR 2150609.
Jump up ^ Southard, Brenda A. Stillion (2011). Militant Citizenship: Rhetorical Strategies of the National Woman's Party, 1913-1920. College Station: Texas A & M Press. p. 190.
Jump up ^ Carol, Rebecca; Myers, Kristina; Lindman, Janet. "The Equal Rights Amendment". Alice Paul: Feminist, Suffragist and Political Strategist. Alice Paul Institute. Retrieved 10 Feb 2016.
Jump up ^ Paula F. Pfeffer, "Eleanor Roosevelt and the National and World Woman's Parties," Historian, Fall 1996, Vol. 59, Issue 1
Jump up ^ Leila J. Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums (Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 24–44.
Jump up ^ Trigg, Mary K. (2014). Feminism as Life's Work. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pp. 178–179.
Jump up ^ Freeman, Jo (March 1991). "How 'Sex' Got Into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy". Law and Inequality. 9 (2): 163–184.
Jump up ^ Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (2008) p. 187–88
Jump up ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 245–246, 249. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Gold, Michael Evan (1981). "A Tale of Two Amendments: The Reasons Congress Added Sex to Title VII and Their Implication for the Issue of Comparable Worth". Faculty Publications – Collective Bargaining, Labor Law, and Labor History. Cornell University Press.
Jump up ^ Lynne Olson, Freedom's daughters: the unsung heroines of the civil rights movement (2001) p 360
Jump up ^ Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (2008) p. 187 notes that Smith had been working for years with two Virginia feminists on the issue.
Jump up ^ Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945–1968 (1989) p. 179
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Suffragist Newspapers". National Woman's Party. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Equal Rights Newspapers". National Woman's Party. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Storrs, Landon R.Y. (2000). Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers' League, Women's Activism, and Labor Standards in the New Deal Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-6099-9.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Woman's Party.
National Woman's Party
Women of Protest: Photographs from the Records of the National Woman's Party
Detailed Chronology of National Woman's Party
Database of National Woman's Party Actions Outside Washington D.C. 1914-1924
National Woman's Party Offices and Actions (Washington D.C. map)
National Woman's Party: a year-by-year history 1913-1922
National Woman's Party 1912-1922: Timeline Story Map
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text:
Effects of tropical cyclones
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Part of a series on
Tropical cyclones
Formation and naming[show]
Development
Structure
Effects[show]
Warnings and watches
Storm surge
Notable storms
Climatology and tracking[show]
Basins
RSMCs
Scales
Observation
Forecasting
Rainfall forecasting
Rainfall climatology
Tropical cyclone naming[show]
Tropical cyclone naming
History of tropical cyclone naming
List of historic tropical cyclone names
List of retired Atlantic hurricane names
List of retired Pacific hurricane names
List of retired Pacific typhoon names
List of retired Philippine typhoon names
List of retired Australian cyclone names
List of retired South Pacific cyclone names
Outline of tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones portal
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t
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Pie graph of American tropical cyclone casualties by cause from 1970–1999
The main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rain, strong wind, large storm surges at landfall, and tornadoes. The destruction from a tropical cyclone depends mainly on its intensity, its size, and its location. Tropical cyclones act to remove forest canopy as well as change the landscape near coastal areas, by moving and reshaping sand dunes and causing extensive erosion along the coast. Even well inland, heavy rainfall can lead to mudslides and landslides in mountainous areas. Their effects can be sensed over time by studying the concentration of the Oxygen-18 isotope within caves within the vicinity of cyclones' paths being very hazardous to people's life.
After the cyclone has passed, devastation often continues. Standing water can cause the spread of disease, and transportation or communication infrastructure may have been destroyed, hampering clean-up and rescue efforts. Nearly two million people have died globally due to tropical cyclones. Despite their devastating effects, tropical cyclones are also beneficial, by potentially bringing rain to dry areas and moving heat from the tropics poleward. Out at sea, ships take advantage of their known characteristics by navigating through their weaker, western half.
When a cyclone hits it causes PST hazards. PST is an acronym standing for Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. A primary hazard involves destructive winds, debris and storm surge. Secondary hazard is flooding, fires and of course fresh water flooding. Finally Tertiary hazards involves food prices that go majorly up and other long term hazards like water poisoning.
Contents
[hide]
1 At sea
1.1 North American colonization
1.2 Shipping
2 Upon landfall
2.1 Strong winds
2.2 Storm surge
2.3 Heavy rainfall
2.4 Tornadoes
3 Deaths
3.1 United States
4 Reconstruction and repopulation
5 Effects on natural resources
5.1 Geomorphology
5.1.1 Coastal ridges
5.1.2 Limestone cave stalagmites
5.2 Landscapes
6 See also
7 References
At sea[edit]
A mature tropical cyclone can release heat at a rate upwards of 6x1014 watts.[1] Tropical cyclones on the open sea cause large waves, heavy rain, and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks.[2] Generally, after its passage, a tropical cyclone stirs up ocean water, lowering sea surface temperatures behind it.[3] This cool wake can cause the region to be less favorable for a subsequent tropical cyclone. On rare occasions, tropical cyclones may actually do the opposite. 2005's Hurricane Dennis blew warm water behind it, contributing to the unprecedented intensity of Hurricane Emily, which followed it closely.[4] Hurricanes help to maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the mid-latitudes and polar regions.[5] Were it not for the movement of heat poleward (through other means as well as hurricanes), the tropical regions would be unbearably hot.
North American colonization[edit]
Shipwrecks are common with the passage of strong tropical cyclones. Such shipwrecks can change the course of history,[6] as well as influence art and literature. A hurricane led to a victory of the Spanish over the French for control of Fort Caroline, and ultimately the Atlantic coast of North America, in 1565.[7] The Sea Venture was wrecked near Bermuda in 1609 which led to the colonization of Bermuda[8] and provided the inspiration for Shakespeare's The Tempest.
Shipping[edit]
The dangerous semicircle is the upper-right corner, with the arrow marking the direction of motion of a Northern Hemisphere storm. Note that typhoons, etc. are asymmetrical, and semicircle is a convenient misnomer.
Mariners have a way to safely navigate around tropical cyclones. They split tropical cyclones in two, based on their direction of motion, and maneuver to avoid the right segment of the cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere (the left in the Southern Hemisphere). Sailors term the right side the dangerous semicircle since the heaviest rain and strongest winds and seas were located in this half of the storm, as the cyclone's translation speed and its rotational wind are additive. The other half of the tropical cyclone is called the navigable semicircle[9] since weather conditions are lessened (subtractive) in this portion of the storm (but are still potentially quite hazardous). The rules of thumb for ship travel when a tropical cyclone is in their vicinity are to avoid them if at all possible and do not cross their forecast path (crossing the T). Those traveling through the dangerous semicircle are advised to keep to the true wind on the starboard bow and make as much headway as possible. Ships moving through the navigable semicircle are advised to keep the true wind on the starboard quarter while making as much headway as possible.[10][11]
Upon landfall[edit]
The most significant effects of a tropical cyclone occur when they cross coastlines, making landfall then it destroys ships and lives.
Strong winds[edit]
See also: Tropical cyclone windspeed climatology
Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, personal property and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. In the United States, major hurricanes comprise just 21% of all land falling tropical cyclones, but account for 83% of all damage.[12] Tropical cyclones often knock out power to tens or hundreds of thousands of people, preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts.[13] Tropical cyclones often destroy key bridges, overpasses, and roads, complicating efforts to transport food, clean water, and medicine to the areas that need it. Furthermore, the damage caused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result in economic damage to a region, and to a diaspora of the population of the region.[14]
Storm surge[edit]
The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in Gulfport, Mississippi. Katrina was the costliest tropical cyclone in United States history.
See also: Storm surge
The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths.[14] The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes. The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales.
Heavy rainfall[edit]
See also: Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces intense rainfall, potentially resulting in flooding, mudslides, and landslides. Inland areas are particularly vulnerable to freshwater flooding, due to residents not preparing adequately.[15] Heavy inland rainfall eventually flows into coastal estuaries, damaging marine life in coastal estuaries.[16] The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone, combined with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate, can induce epidemics of disease which claim lives long after the storm passes.[14] Infections of cuts and bruises can be greatly amplified by wading in sewage-polluted water. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding also contribute to mosquito-borne illnesses. Furthermore, crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation.[14]
Flooding in Seminole County, Florida from Tropical Storm Fay (2008)
Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect and bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Hurricanes in the eastern north Pacific often supply moisture to the Southwestern United States and parts of Mexico.[17] Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons.[18] Hurricane Camille averted drought conditions and ended water deficits along much of its path,[19] though it also killed 259 people and caused $9.14 billion (2005 USD) in damage.
On the other hand, the occurrence of tropical cyclones can cause tremendous variability in rainfall over the areas they affect: indeed cyclones are the primary cause of the most extreme rainfall variability in the world, observed in places such as Onslow and Port Hedland in subtropical Australia where the annual rainfall can range from practically nothing with no cyclones to over 1,000 millimetres (39 in) if cyclones are abundant.
Tornadoes[edit]
Main article: History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
The broad rotation of a land falling tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes, particularly in their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non-tropical counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.[20]
Deaths[edit]
Deaths per year from tropical cyclones
Australia 5[21]
United States 25[22]
East Asia 740[23]
Globally 10000[22]
During the last two centuries, tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1.9 million people worldwide. It is estimated that 10,000 people per year perish due to tropical cyclones.[22] The deadliest tropical cyclone was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which had a death toll of anywhere from 300,000 to 500,000 lives.
United States[edit]
Before Hurricane Katrina, the average death rate for tropical cyclones in the United States was decreasing. The main cause of storm-related fatalities was shifting away from storm surge and towards freshwater flooding.[24] However, the median death rate per storm had increased through 1979, with a lull during the 1980–1995 period. This was due to greater numbers of people moving to the coastal margins and into harm's way. Despite advances in warning strategies and reduction in track forecast error, this increase in fatalities is expected to continue for as long as people migrate towards the shore.[25]
Reconstruction and repopulation[edit]
Aerial image of destroyed houses in Tacloban, following Typhoon Haiyan
While tropical cyclones may well seriously damage settlement, total destruction encourages rebuilding. For example, the destruction wrought by Hurricane Camille on the Gulf coast spurred redevelopment, greatly increasing local property values.[19] Research indicates that the typical hurricane strike raises real house prices for a number of years, with a maximum effect of between 3 percent to 4 percent three years after occurrence.[26] However, disaster response officials point out that redevelopment encourages more people to live in clearly dangerous areas subject to future deadly storms. Hurricane Katrina is the most obvious example, as it devastated the region that had been revitalized after Hurricane Camille. Many former residents and businesses do relocate to inland areas away from the threat of future hurricanes as well.
In isolated areas with small populations, tropical cyclones may cause enough casualties to contribute to the founder's effect as survivors repopulate their place. For example, around 1775, a typhoon hit Pingelap Atoll, and in combination with a subsequent famine, reduced the island's population to a low level. Several generations after the disaster, as many as 10% of Pingelapese have a genetic form of color-blindness called achromatopsia.[27] This is due to one of the survivors of the depopulation brought on by the typhoon having a mutated gene, which the population bottleneck caused to be at a higher-than-usual level in succeeding generations.[27]
Hurricane Isabel (2003)'s effect on the North Carolina Outer Banks
Effects on natural resources[edit]
Geomorphology[edit]
Tropical cyclones reshape the geology near the coast by eroding sand from the beach as well as offshore, rearranging coral, and changing dune configuration onshore. Their rain water gets absorbed into stalagmites within caves, creating a record of past tropical cyclone impacts.
Coastal ridges[edit]
Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones erode undersea sands, erode shell deposits, break off corals from near shore reefs in their paths, and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore, above highest astronomical tide as a ridge of sand, shell and coral.[28] For example, each severe tropical cyclone (i.e. Category 4–5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) crossing northeast Australia's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels (about 5000 years ago) has 'emplaced' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming, in some places, series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3000 – 5000 years.[29]
Eyewitness accounts verify ridges of this kind are formed by severe tropical cyclones and two clear examples cited are the 18 kilometres (11 mi) long, 35 metres (115 ft) wide, 3.5 metres (11 ft) high coral shingle ridge deposited on Funafuti Atoll (Central South Pacific) by Cyclone Bebe in October 1972, and the large coral shingle ridge deposited on Jaluit Atoll (Marshall Islands) by Typhoon Ophelia in January 1958. In tropical northeast Australia, an intense tropical cyclone hit in March 1918 (crossing over the town of Innisfail), at which time there were eyewitness accounts of a 4.5 metres (15 ft) to 5.1 metres (17 ft) high ridge of pumice being deposited by that cyclone's surge as it crossed the coast.).[28]
Limestone cave stalagmites[edit]
When tropical cyclones cross land, thin layers of calcium carbonate of 'light' composition (i.e. unusual isotopic ratio of Oxygen-18 and Oxygen-16) are deposited onto stalagmites in limestone caves up to 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the cyclone's path.[29]
As the cloud tops of tropical cyclones are high and cold, and their air is humid – their rainwater is 'lighter'. In other words, the rainfall contains significantly higher quantities of unevaporated Oxygen-18 than other tropical rainfall. The isotopically lighter rainwater soaks into the ground, percolates down into caves, and, within a couple of weeks, Oxygen-18 transfers from the water into calcium carbonate, before being deposited in thin layers or 'rings' within stalagmites. A succession of such events created within stalagmites maintain a record of cyclones tracking within a 300 kilometres (190 mi) radius of caves going back centuries, millennia, or even millions of years.[30]
At Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in central Belize, researchers drilling stalagmites with a computer- controlled dental drill accurately identified and verified evidence of isotopically light rainfall for 11 tropical cyclones occurring over a 23-year period (1978–2001).[30]
At the Chillagoe limestone caves in northeast Australia (130 kilometres (81 mi) inland from Cairns) researchers identified and matched evidence of isotopically light rainfall with 100 years of cyclone records, and from this have created a record of tropical cyclones from 2004 back to 1200 A.D. (an 800-year record).[29]
Landscapes[edit]
Severe tropical cyclones defoliate tropical forest canopy trees, remove vines and epiphytes from the trees, break tree crown stems, and cause tree falls. The degree of damage they do along their paths, at a landscape level (i.e. > 10 kilometres (6.2 mi)), can be catastrophic yet variable and patchy.[31] Trees break at 42 m/s, regardless of size and type.[32][33] Stripping trees and scattering forest debris also provides fuel for wildfires, such as a blaze that lasted three months in 1989 and burned 460 square miles (1,200 km2) of forest that had been stripped by Hurricane Gilbert.[34]
Wind velocity gradients or horizontal wind shear (size of cyclone, the intensity of cyclone, proximity to the cyclone, and local scale cyclonic convection effects).
Degree of exposure (windward exposure, leeward acceleration, or local topographic sheltering/shading); and
Ecosystem species composition and forest structure
Assessments of cyclone damage done to tropical rainforest landscapes in northeast Australia, have produced the following typology for describing and 'mapping' the variable impacts they have along their paths, as follows:[35]
Severe and extensive closest to the centre of cyclone: impact appears to be multidirectional and is evidenced by crowns of most trees having been broken, smashed or windthrown
Severe and localised closer to the cyclone centre than its edge: direction of the destructive winds is clearly identifiable, and severe canopy disruption is limited to the windward aspect of these forested areas
Moderate canopy disturbance closer to cyclone edge than its centre: most of the tree stems are still standing, with only some treefalls, and most of the damage is the defoliation of the canopy and branch breakage;
Slight canopy disturbance closest to cyclone edge: occasional stem fall or branch breakage, with most of the damage consisting of loss of foliage on the forest edges only, subsequently followed by leaf damage and heavy leaf litter falls.
See also[edit]
Tropical cyclones portal
Tropical cyclones and climate change
List of wettest tropical cyclones by country
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (August 2000). "NOAA Question of the Month: How much energy does a hurricane release?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-03-31.
Jump up ^ David Roth and Hugh Cobb (2001). "Eighteenth Century Virginia Hurricanes". NOAA. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
Jump up ^ Earth Observatory (2005). "Passing of Hurricanes Cools Entire Gulf". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 2006-09-30. Retrieved 2006-04-26.
Jump up ^ Franklin, James (July 12, 2005). "Tropical Storm Emily Discussion No. 8, 5:00 p.m. EDT". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2006-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Living With an Annual Disaster". Zurich Financial Services. July–August 2005. Archived from the original on March 24, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-29.
Jump up ^ Edward N. Rappaport and Jose Fernandez-Partagas. The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996. Retrieved on 2008-01-01.
Jump up ^ Sun-Sentinel. Hurricane timeline: 1495 to 1800. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.
Jump up ^ Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker. The Wreck of the Sea-Venture.
Jump up ^ American Meteorological Society. "AMS Glossary". Glossary of Meteorology. Allen Press. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
Jump up ^ The Pennsylvania State University. Lesson 21: Weather. Retrieved on 2007-05-26. Archived November 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Typhoons and Hurricanes. United States Navy. 1971.
Jump up ^ Chris Land sea (1998). "How does the damage that hurricanes cause increase as a function of wind speed?". Hurricane Research Division. Archived from the original on 2007-03-09. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
Jump up ^ Staff Writer (2005-08-30). "Hurricane Katrina Situation Report #11" (PDF). Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d James M. Shultz, Jill Russell and Zelde Espinel (2005). "Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development". Oxford Journal. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
Jump up ^ Rappaport, Ed (May 2006). "Inland Flooding". National Hurricane Preparedness Week. National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2006-03-31.
Jump up ^ South Florida Water Management District (2005-10-11). "Editorial Perspectives". Archived from the original on 2007-05-17. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
Jump up ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2005 Tropical Eastern North Pacific Hurricane Outlook accessed May 2, 2006
Jump up ^ Whipple, Addison (1982). Storm. Alexandria, VA: Time Life Books. p. 54. ISBN 0-8094-4312-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Christopherson, Robert W. (1992). Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. pp. 222–224. ISBN 0-02-322443-6.
Jump up ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division (2006-10-04). "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
Jump up ^ Christopher J. Ryan (December 1993). Costs and benefits of tropical cyclones, severe thunderstorms and bushfires in Australia. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robert F. Adler (June 20, 2005). Estimating the benefit of TRMM tropical cyclone data in saving lives. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Mark Saunders and Paul Rockett (2001). Improving typhoon predictions. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters. Did you know? Archived 2007-05-08 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Anthony Arguez and James B. Elsner (April 11, 2001). Trends in U.S. Tropical Cyclone Mortality During the Past Century. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, The Impact of Hurricanes on Housing Prices: Evidence from US Coastal Cities, October 2010
^ Jump up to: a b Val C. Sheffield (2000). "The vision of Typhoon Lengkieki". Nature Medicine. pp. 746–7. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Nott, J.F. (2003) ."Intensity of Prehistoric Tropical Cyclones", Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(D7) Archived 2007-08-30 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nott, J.F: "Global Climate change and the tropical cyclone palaeo-record in Australia", Paper Delivered to Cyclone Science Seminar, James Cook University, 27 September 2007
^ Jump up to: a b Frappier, A.B. et al. (2007) "Stalagmite stable isotope record of recent tropical cyclone events", ' 'Geology' ', 35(2): 111–114]
Jump up ^ Turton, S.M. and A. Dale (2007) A preliminary assessment of the environmental impacts of Cyclone Larry on the forest landscapes of northeast Queensland, with reference to responses to natural resource management issues in the aftermath, Journal Report Submitted to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology: 2 Archived 2007-11-29 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.93.023001
Jump up ^ http://physics.aps.org/synopsis-for/10.1103/PhysRevE.93.023001
Jump up ^ Natural Hazards of North America (map). National Geographic Society. July 1998.
Jump up ^ Unwin, G. L., Applegate G. B., Stocker G. C. & Nicholson D. I. (1988) "Initial effects of tropical cyclone Winifred on forests in north Queensland", Proceedings ofEcological Society of Australia. 15: 283–296
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/wiki/Landfall_(meteorology)
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Landfall (meteorology)

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Standing water

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The Tempest (play)

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Precipitation (meteorology)

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Founder's effect

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Forest canopy

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The Pennsylvania State University

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