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Viggo Mortensen
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Viggo Mortensen
Mortensen at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival
Born
Viggo Peter Mortensen Jr.
(1958-10-20) October 20, 1958 (age 59)
New York City, New York, U.S.
Alma mater
St. Lawrence University (1980)
Occupation
Actor, producer, author, musician, photographer, poet, painter
Years active
1984–present
Spouse(s)
Exene Cervenka
(m. 1987; div. 1998)
Partner(s)
Ariadna Gil
(2009–present)
Children
1
Viggo Peter Mortensen Jr. (/ˈviːɡoʊ ˈmɔːrtənsən/; Danish: [viːɡo ˈmɒːdn̩sn̩]; born October 20, 1958) is a Danish American[1] actor, producer, author, musician, photographer, poet, and painter.
Mortensen made his film debut in Peter Weir's 1985 thriller Witness and appeared in many notable films of subsequent years, including The Indian Runner (1991), Carlito's Way (1993), Crimson Tide (1995), Daylight (1996), The Portrait of a Lady (1996), G.I. Jane (1997), A Perfect Murder (1998), A Walk on the Moon (1999), and 28 Days (2000).
Mortensen received international attention in the early 2000s with his role as Aragorn in the epic film trilogy The Lord of the Rings. In 2005, Mortensen won critical acclaim for David Cronenberg's crime thriller A History of Violence.[2] Two years later, another Cronenberg film, Eastern Promises (2007), earned him further critical acclaim and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. A third teaming with Cronenberg in A Dangerous Method (2011) resulted in a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture. Other well-received films have included Appaloosa (2008) and Far from Men (2014). He received a second Best Actor nomination in 2017 at the 89th Academy Awards for his role in Captain Fantastic.[3]
Aside from acting, Mortensen's other artistic pursuits include fine arts, photography, poetry, and music. In 2002, he founded the Perceval Press to publish the works of little-known artists and authors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Acting career
2.2 Perceval Press
2.3 Bibliography
2.4 Visual arts and discography
2.5 Awards and honors
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Books
6 Awards and nominations
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Viggo Peter Mortensen Jr. was born in New York City on October 20, 1958, the son of Grace Gamble (July 8, 1928 - April 25, 2015, née Atkinson) and Viggo Peter Mortensen Sr. (May 8, 1929 - March 2, 2017) His mother was American, while his father was Danish; they met in Norway.[4] His maternal grandfather was a Canadian from Nova Scotia,[5] and his maternal grandmother's family was from New England.[6] The family moved to Venezuela, then Denmark, and eventually settled in Argentina in the provinces of Córdoba, Chaco, and Buenos Aires, where Mortensen attended primary school and acquired a fluent proficiency in Spanish while his father managed poultry farms and ranches.[7]
When Mortensen was 11, his parents divorced and he and his mother returned to New York, where he spent the rest of his childhood, graduating from Watertown High School in Watertown in 1976.[8][9] He then attended St. Lawrence University in Canton, earning a bachelor's degree in Spanish Studies and Politics in 1980. Upon graduating, he lived in England and Spain, then moved back to Denmark, where he took various jobs such as driving trucks in Esbjerg and selling flowers in Copenhagen.[10][11] He eventually returned to the United States to pursue an acting career.[12]
Career[edit]
Acting career[edit]
Mortensen made his first film appearance playing an Amish farmer in Peter Weir's Witness (Mortensen had actually acted in at least one prior film, The Purple Rose of Cairo, but his scenes were deleted from the final cuts). Also in 1985, he was cast in the role of Bragg on Search for Tomorrow. Mortensen's 1987 performance in Bent at the Coast Playhouse, Los Angeles, won him a Dramalogue Critics' Award. Coincidentally, the play, about homosexual concentration camp prisoners, was originally brought to prominence by Ian McKellen, with whom Mortensen later costarred in The Lord of the Rings. In 1987, Mortensen guest starred as a police detective on the hit series Miami Vice.
During the 1990s, Mortensen appeared in supporting roles in a variety of films, including Jane Campion's The Portrait of a Lady, Young Guns II, Prison, Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, Sean Penn's The Indian Runner, Danny Cannon's The Young Americans, Carl Colpaert's The Crew, which won the São Paulo Film Festival Audience Award, Brian de Palma's Carlito's Way, Crimson Tide, G.I. Jane, Daylight, A Walk on the Moon, American Yakuza, Charles Robert Carner's remake Vanishing Point, Philip Ridley's films The Reflecting Skin and The Passion of Darkly Noon, the remake films A Perfect Murder and Gus Van Sant's Psycho (the 1998 remakes of two Alfred Hitchcock's movies Dial M for Murder and Psycho), 28 Days, and The Prophecy, with Christopher Walken. Of these roles, Mortensen was probably best known for playing Master Chief John Urgayle in G.I. Jane.[13]
Mortensen at the premiere of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, December 1, 2003.
Another major mainstream breakthrough came in 1999, when Peter Jackson cast him as Aragorn in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. According to the Special Extended Edition DVD of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, Mortensen was a last-minute replacement for Stuart Townsend, and would not have taken the part of Aragorn had it not been for his son's enthusiasm for the J. R. R. Tolkien novel. In The Two Towers DVD extras, the film's swordmaster, Bob Anderson, described Mortensen as "the best swordsman I've ever trained." Mortensen often performed his own stunts, and even the injuries he sustained during several of them did not dampen his enthusiasm. At one point during shooting of The Two Towers, Mortensen, Orlando Bloom, and Brett Beattie (scale double for John Rhys-Davies) all had painful injuries, and during a shoot of them, running in the mountains, Peter Jackson jokingly referred to the three as "the walking wounded." Also, according to the Special Extended Edition DVD of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, Mortensen purchased the two horses, Uraeus and Kenny, whom he rode and bonded with over the duration of the films. He received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Aragorn, and was ranked No. 15 on a 2015 survey of "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters" conducted by Empire.[14]
In 2004, Mortensen starred as Frank Hopkins in Hidalgo, the story of an ex-army courier who travels to Arabia to compete with his horse, Hidalgo, in a dangerous desert race for a contest prize.
In 2005, Mortensen starred in David Cronenberg's movie A History of Violence as a family man revealed to have had an unsavory previous career. He was nominated for a Satellite Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture for this role. In the DVD extras for A History of Violence, Cronenberg related that Mortensen is the only actor he had come across who would come back from weekends with his family with items he had bought to use as props on the set.
Interviewed by eTalk Daily at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival, for A History of Violence
In 2006, he starred as Captain Diego Alatriste in the Spanish language film Alatriste, based on the series of novels The Adventures of Captain Alatriste, written by the Spanish writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte.
In September 2007, the film Eastern Promises, directed by David Cronenberg, was released to critical acclaim for the film itself and for Mortensen's performance as a Russian gangster on the rise in London. His nude fight scene in a steam room was applauded by Roger Ebert: "Years from now, it will be referred to as a benchmark."[15] Mortensen's performance in Eastern Promises resulted in his winning the Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film award from the British Independent Film Awards.[16] He was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor.[17]
In 2009, Mortensen appeared as himself in the film Reclaiming The Blade, in which he discussed his passion for the sword and his sword-work in films such as The Lord of the Rings and Alatriste. Mortensen also talked about his work with Bob Anderson, the swordmaster on The Lord of the Rings, Alatriste, Pirates of the Caribbean and many others.
Mortensen at the 32nd Genie Awards in March 2012.
In 2009, Mortensen performed in The People Speak, a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States.
While it was reported in April 2009 that Mortensen had, at least temporarily, retired from film acting,[18] Mortensen said he was misquoted. In a 2012 interview, he denied that he ever said he was retiring, only that he didn't have "plans to do another movie" at the time and that he was "taking a little break now. I don’t have anything lined up.”[19]
In 2009 he joined the cast of The Road, a film adaptation of the Cormac McCarthy novel of the same name,[20] and collaborated with David Cronenberg for a third time on A Dangerous Method.[21]
After two decades, Mortensen returned to theatre in 2011, starring in Ariel Dorfman's Purgatorio in Madrid.[22]
Mortensen in 2010
Perceval Press[edit]
With part of his earnings from The Lord of the Rings, Mortensen founded the Perceval Press publishing house—named after the knight from the legend of King Arthur—to help other artists by publishing works that might not find a home in more traditional publishing venues.[23]
Perceval Press is also the home of Mortensen's many personal artistic projects in the area of fine arts, photography, poetry, song, and literature (see below).
Bibliography[edit]
Viggo Mortensen at the 2009 Venice Film Festival.
Mortensen is also an author, with various books of poetry, photography, and painting published. His bibliography includes:
Ten Last Night – (1993), his first collection of poetry.
Recent Forgeries – (1998), ISBN, 5th Edition, documents Viggo's first solo exhibition and includes a CD with music and spoken-word poetry. Introduction by Dennis Hopper.
Errant Vine – (2000), limited edition booklet of an exhibit at the Robert Mann Gallery.
Hole in the Sun – (2002, ISBN), color and black & white photographs of a back yard swimming pool.
SignLanguage – (2002 ISBN), a catalog from an exhibition of his works, combining photographs, paintings, and poetry into a multimedia diary of his time in New Zealand while filming The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Introduction by Kevin Power.
Coincidence of Memory – (2002, ISBN) Third Edition. In this book, the artist combines photographs, paintings, and poems that cover his artistic output from 1978 to 2002.
Mo Te Upoko-o-te-ika/For Wellington – (2003), ISBN, a book to accompany the joint exhibitions at Massey University and the Wellington City Gallery during the premiere of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
45301 – (2003), ISBN. Abstract images, fragments, and phrases from poems comprise this photography book. Many of the photographs were shot during travels to Morocco, Cuba, and the northern plains of the United States.
Un hueco en el sol – (2003), a small booklet published to accompany the exhibition "Un hueco en el sol" at the Fototeca de Cuba in Havana. In Spanish.
Miyelo – (2003), a series of panoramic photographs of a Lakota Ghost Dance. It also tells about the events leading up to the massacre at Wounded Knee.
Nye Falsknerier – (2003). Paintings and poems translated into Danish from Ten Last Night, Recent Forgeries, Coincidence of Memory.
The Horse is Good – (2004), ISBN, a photography book, partly shot during his work on the film Hidalgo, about horses as partners, teachers, and fellow travelers. Images from Morocco, South Dakota, Montana, California, Iceland, New Zealand, Denmark, Brazil, and Argentina. This book reflects Mortensen's fondness for horses. In fact, he bought Uraeus—the horse who played Brego, Aragorn's steed (Roheryn in the books) in The Lord of the Rings movies—as well as TJ, one of the horses who played Hidalgo. He also purchased the stallion that played Arwen's horse, a grey Andalusian stallion named Florian, and gave it to the stunt woman, Jane Abbott, who rode the horse in place of Liv Tyler.
Linger – (2005). In this book, the artist combines black and white photographs and prose poems. Images from Spain (partly shot during his work on the film Alatriste), Morocco, Iceland, United States, Denmark...
I Forget You For Ever – (2006). Texts and photographs.
Skovbo – (2008). Collection of photographs, poems (in English, Spanish and Danish) and quotes.
Sådanset – (2008). A small booklet published to accompany the exhibition Sådanset (October 18 – November 16, 2008) at the Palæfløjen in Roskilde (Denmark).
Canciones de Invierno – Winter Songs – (2010). Collection of photographs and poems. Bilingual : in Spanish and English. It includes new texts (most of the poems and all the translations) and revised versions of texts previously published. They're accompanied by pictures of landscapes taken during the previous two winters.
That Turned Ugly Fast - (2015), ISBN, Poems by Mark Berriman, with a foreword by Viggo Mortensen.
Ramas Para Un Nido - (2017). Collection of photos comprising a “distillation of isolated instances”.
Visual arts and discography[edit]
Mortensen at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival
Mortensen is a painter and photographer. His paintings are frequently abstract and often contain fragments of his poetry in them. His paintings have been featured in galleries worldwide, and many of the paintings of the artist he portrayed in A Perfect Murder are his own.
Mortensen experiments with his poetry and music by mixing the two art forms. He has collaborated with guitarist Buckethead on several albums, mostly released on his own label (Perceval Press) or TDRS Music. Viggo was first introduced to Buckethead's work while working on sounds for an educational CD on Greek mythology. The finished product included a guitar part by Buckethead, which caught Viggo's ear and led him to initiate contact with the guitarist. The collaboration grew from there.[24]
Mortensen's discography includes:
1994: Don't Tell Me What to Do
1997: One Less Thing to Worry About
1998: Recent Forgeries
1999: The Other Parade
1999: One Man's Meat
1999: Live at Beyond Baroque
2003: Pandemoniumfromamerica
2004: Live At Beyond Baroque II
2004: Please Tomorrow
2004: This, That, and The Other
2005: Intelligence Failure
2006: 3 Fools 4 April
2007: Time Waits for Everyone
2008: At All
2010: Canciones de Invierno
2011: Reunion
2013: Acá
Mortensen is featured on The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King soundtrack, singing "Aragorn's Coronation" (the name of the extended version of this song in the 3rd original sound track is "The Return of the King"), the words by Tolkien and the music composed by Mortensen. In the extended DVD edition of the first Lord of the Rings movie, The Fellowship of the Ring, he sings the song "The Lay of Beren and Lúthien". His poems are written in English, Danish, and Spanish.
Awards and honors[edit]
Mortensen and Kodi Smit-McPhee, screenwriter Joe Penhall, director John Hillcoat and producer Steve Schwartz at the 2009 Venice Film Festival for The Road
Following his appearance in the Lord of the Rings trilogy, in 2006 he was granted an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, St. Lawrence University.[5][25]
On October 13, 2006, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Province and the City of León, Spain.
On April 16, 2010, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog.[26]
In 2017 he received his second Best Actor nomination in the 89th Academy Awards for his role in Captain Fantastic.[3]
Personal life[edit]
Mortensen holds dual American and Danish citizenship.[1] He speaks fluent Danish, English, French and Spanish; he is also conversational in Italian, and understands Norwegian and Swedish. He has stated that he was raised speaking English and Spanish, and sometimes feels more comfortable expressing himself in Spanish.[27] He also has some knowledge of Catalan; twice, when receiving a prize in Catalonia, he made a short speech in Catalan.
Mortensen met actress and singer Exene Cervenka in 1986 on the set of the comedy Salvation! The couple married on July 8, 1987. On January 28, 1988, Cervenka gave birth to a son named Henry Blake Mortensen. Mortensen and Cervenka lived in Idaho for three years.[28] They separated in 1992 and divorced in 1997.[29] Since 2009, he has been in a relationship with Spanish actress Ariadna Gil.
Mortensen has expressed a liking of association football, ice hockey and baseball. His favorite soccer players are Diego Maradona and Héctor "Bambino" Veira, and his favorite teams include Argentine club San Lorenzo de Almagro,[30] English team Fulham FC, Turkish side Besiktas[31] and both the Argentine and Danish national teams. He is a fan of the Montreal Canadiens and wore a Canadiens shirt underneath his costume throughout the filming of the Lord of the Rings trilogy.[32] During the 100th year anniversary celebrations of the Montreal Canadiens, Mortensen introduced one of his idols, Guy Lafleur, to the crowd at the Bell Centre in Montreal.[33] He is also a fan of the New York Mets and, in an interview promoting 2009 film The Road, was seen wearing apparel indicating his support of the Australian Football League's Collingwood Magpies.[34] While appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman, he held a sign supporting the New York Giants.
Mortensen was a good friend of Icelandic painter Georg Guðni Hauksson until the latter's death in 2011. He had long been an admirer of Georg Guðni's work as a landscape artist, and the two published books together as well as maintaining a close friendship.[35] He was one of the signees of the "Toronto Declaration" protesting against spotlighting Tel-Aviv at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2009. Mortensen has owned property in northern Sandpoint, Idaho, and spends time there when not filming movies.[36]
Mortensen endorsed Green Party candidate Jill Stein in the 2016 U.S Presidential race.[37] He wrote an open letter just before Election Day 2016 where he listed the reasons he disagreed with Hillary Clinton and could not support her in the race against Donald Trump, though he also thought that Clinton would be elected President in the end.[citation needed]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1985 Witness Moses Hochleitner
1987 Miami Vice Eddie Episode: "Red Tape"
Salvation! Jerome Stample
Prison Burke / Forsythe Electrocution
1988 Fresh Horses Green
1990 Once in a Blue Moon
Tripwire Hans
Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III Edward "Tex" Sawyer
Young Guns II John W. Poe
The Reflecting Skin Cameron Dove
1991 The Indian Runner Frank Roberts
1993 Boiling Point Ronnie
Ruby Cairo John E. "Johnny" Faro
Carlito's Way Lalin
The Young Americans Carl Frazer
1994 The Crew Phillip
Floundering Homeless Man
Gospel According to Harry Wes
American Yakuza Nick Davis/David Brandt
1995 Gimlet Hombre
Crimson Tide Lieutenant Peter "Weps" Ince
The Passion of Darkly Noon Clay
Black Velvet Pantsuit Junkie
The Prophecy Lucifer
1996 Albino Alligator Guy Foucard
Daylight Roy Nord
The Portrait of a Lady Caspar Goodwood
1997 Vanishing Point Jimmy Kowalski
G.I. Jane Master Chief John James "Jack" Urgayle
My Brother's Gun Juanito
1998 A Perfect Murder David Shaw
Psycho Samuel "Sam" Loomis
1999 A Walk on the Moon Walker Jerome
2000 28 Days Eddie Boone
2001 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring Aragorn
2002 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
2003 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
2004 Hidalgo Frank Hopkins
2005 A History of Violence Tom Stall / Joey Cusack
2006 Alatriste Diego Alatriste y Tenorio
2007 Eastern Promises Nikolai Luzhin
2008 Appaloosa Everett Hitch
Good John Halder
2009 The Road The Man
2011 A Dangerous Method Sigmund Freud
2012 On the Road Old Bull Lee
Everybody Has a Plan Agustín / Pedro (assumes twin characters)
2014 The Two Faces of January Chester MacFarland
Jauja Gunnar Dinesen
Far from Men Daru
2016 Captain Fantastic Ben Cash
TBA Green Book Tony Lip Filming
Books[edit]
With anthropologists Federico Bossert and Diego Villar, Mortensen has written several works related to ethnography of natives in South America,[38] specifically in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Some of the published books, co-authored by Mortensen, are Sons of the Forest and Skovbo.
Awards and nominations[edit]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Viggo Mortensen
See also[edit]
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Stone, Andrew; Carolyn Bain; Michael Booth; Fran Parnell (2008). "Cinema". Lonely Planet Denmark. Lonely Planet. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-741-04669-4. Although [Mortensen] was born in New York and has lived outside of Denmark for most of his life, he retains Danish citizenship.
Jump up ^ " Flawed father role a test for Viggo Mortensen". Toronto Star, Michael O'Sullivan, July 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oscar Nominations 2017: Viggo Mortensen on 'Captain Fantastic' Nod". ABC News. January 24, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Viggo Mortensen gets nude for 'Eastern Promises' fight scene | HamptonRoads.com | PilotOnline.com Archived October 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "St. Lawrence University: Commencement". Stlawu.edu. May 21, 2006. Archived from the original on February 13, 2011. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Film: Viggo Mortensen magret seg ned 15 kilo for drømmerollen VG Nett". Vg.no. May 20, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Pearlman, Cindy. "Superstar Viggo's a serious soul at heart." Archived April 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Chicago Sun-Times. September 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Macreena A. (2003). "Viggo Mortensen '80 REMEMBERS". St. Lawrence Magazine. St. Lawrence University. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ DePaulo, Lisa. "Why Viggo Mortensen Is Off the Grid". Esquire. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Xan (April 17, 2009). "The happy trails of Viggo Mortensen". The Guardian. Retrieved October 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lane, Harriet (February 22, 2008). "My mother is very happy about it". The Guardian. Retrieved October 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Viggo Mortensen". denmark.dk. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Applebaum, Stephen (December 5, 2002). "Mortensen's battle scars". BBC News.
Jump up ^ "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Empire, June 29, 2015
Jump up ^ "Eastern Promises". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved December 22, 2007.
Jump up ^ "British Independent Film Awards 2007 nominations". British Independent Film Awards. Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. Retrieved January 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ "80th Academy Awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on January 23, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Rigorous Promotions Have Viggo Mortensen Considering Retirement". starpulse.com. April 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ Gilsdorf, Ethan (March 10, 2012). "Viggo Mortensen Speaks: Part 1 of 3". Wired.
Jump up ^ Shoard, Catherine (August 6, 2010). "Viggo Mortensen to star in Walter Salles's On the Road". The Guardian. London. Retrieved March 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lodderhose, Diana (April 22, 2010). "UPI to distribute new Cronenberg pic". Variety. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Viggo Mortensen vuelve al teatro con Carme Elias en una obra sobre la capacidad de perdón (in Spanish)". El País. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Little press shines with star power". Los Angeles Times. March 3, 2004. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Viggo & Buckethead", March 5, 2004, IGN Music". Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Viggo Mortensen Tells Grads 'Activism Not A Dirty Word'". Newswise. May 21, 2006.
Jump up ^ Bysted A/S. "Kongehuset - Forside". Kongehuset.dk. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "10 Questions for Viggo Mortensen". Time. December 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Trucks, Rob (May 20, 2008). "Interview: Exene Cervenka of X". The Village Voice. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Heller, Zoe (December 2, 2011). "Viggo Talks and Talks". The New York Times. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Interview with Clarín (in Spanish)
Jump up ^ "Hollywood'da doğdu Beşiktaşlı oldu - Hürriyet Magazin Hattı". Hürriyet. Retrieved November 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hockey is my religion, the Canadiens are my god." The Globe and Mail. January 23, 2009
Jump up ^ "Guy Lafleur présenté par Viggo Mortensen". YouTube. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Best of ABC Online". ABC News.
Jump up ^ DV ehf. "Viggo Mortensen kveður Georg Guðna". DV.is. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ "A Visit with Viggo." Sandpoint Magazine. Winter 2004 Edition.
Jump up ^ "Viggo Mortensen Goes Green: 'I Trust Hillary About as Much as I Trust Donald Trump'". The Daily Beast. 16 July 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Viggo editará la obra de Branislava Susnik. ABC Color (Paraguay)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Viggo Mortensen.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Viggo Mortensen
Viggo Mortensen on IMDb
Viggo Mortensen at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Perceval Press Viggo Mortensen's publishing house
Viggo Mortensen at BAFTA, A Life in Pictures event
[show]
Awards for Viggo Mortensen
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Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television award winners for Best Supporting Actor
Canadian Film Award
1969–1978
Michael Posner (1969)
Gratien Gélinas (1970)
Danny Freedman (1971)
Donald Pilon (1972)
Willie Lamothe (1973)
no award (1974)
Henry Beckman (1975)
Frank Moore (1976)
Jean Lapointe (1977)
Henry Beckman (1978)
Genie Award
1980–2011
Gordon Pinsent (1980)
Germain Houde (1981)
Saul Rubinek (1982)
R. H. Thomson (1983)
Michael Zelniker (1984)
Alan Scarfe (1985)
Alan Arkin (1986)
Gabriel Arcand (1987)
Germain Houde (1988)
Rémy Girard (1989)
Rémy Girard (1990)
August Schellenberg (1991)
Michael Hogan (1992)
Kevin Tighe (1993)
Don McKellar (1994)
Kenneth Welsh (1995)
Peter Donaldson (1996)
Peter MacNeill (1997)
Callum Keith Rennie (1998)
Mark McKinney (1999)
Martin Cummins (2000)
Vincent Gale (2001)
Elias Koteas (2002)
Stéphane Rousseau (2003)
Jean Lapointe (2004)
Denis Bernard (2005)
Stephen McHattie (2006)
Armin Mueller-Stahl (2007)
Callum Keith Rennie (2008)
Maxim Gaudette (2009)
Dustin Hoffman (2010)
Viggo Mortensen (2011)
Canadian Screen Award
2012–present
Serge Kanyinda (2012)
Gordon Pinsent (2013)
John Cusack (2014)
Nick Serino (2015)
Vincent Cassel (2016)
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BIFA Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film
Ray Winstone (1998)
Ian McKellen (1999)
Daniel Craig (2000)
Ben Kingsley (2001)
James Nesbitt (2002)
Chiwetel Ejiofor (2003)
Phil Davis (2004)
Ralph Fiennes (2005)
Tony Curran (2006)
Viggo Mortensen (2007)
Michael Fassbender (2008)
Tom Hardy (2009)
Colin Firth (2010)
Michael Fassbender (2011)
Toby Jones (2012)
James McAvoy (2013)
Brendan Gleeson (2014)
Tom Hardy (2015)
Dave Johns (2016)
Josh O'Connor (2017)
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Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Acting Ensemble
2000s
2001
Gosford Park
Eileen Atkins, Bob Balaban, Alan Bates, Charles Dance, Stephen Fry, Michael Gambon, Richard E. Grant, Tom Hollander, Derek Jacobi, Kelly Macdonald, Helen Mirren, Jeremy Northam, Clive Owen, Ryan Phillippe, Maggie Smith, Geraldine Somerville, Kristin Scott Thomas, Sophie Thompson, Emily Watson, James Wilby
2002
Chicago
Christine Baranski, Ekaterina Shchelkanova, Taye Diggs, Denise Faye, Colm Feore, Richard Gere, Deidre Goodwin, Queen Latifah, Lucy Liu, Susan Misner, Mýa, John C. Reilly, Dominic West, Renée Zellweger, Catherine Zeta-Jones
2003
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
Sean Astin, Sean Bean, Cate Blanchett, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Bernard Hill, Ian Holm, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, John Noble, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, Hugo Weaving, David Wenham, Elijah Wood
2004
Sideways
Thomas Haden Church, Paul Giamatti, Virginia Madsen, Sandra Oh
2005
Crash
Christopher "Ludacris" Bridges, Sandra Bullock, Don Cheadle, Matt Dillon, Jennifer Esposito, William Fichtner, Brendan Fraser, Terrence Howard, Thandie Newton, Ryan Phillippe, Larenz Tate
2006
Little Miss Sunshine
Alan Arkin, Abigail Breslin, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Paul Dano, Greg Kinnear
2007
Hairspray
Nikki Blonsky, Amanda Bynes, Paul Dooley, Zac Efron, Allison Janney, Elijah Kelley, Queen Latifah, James Marsden, Michelle Pfeiffer, Brittany Snow, Jerry Stiller, John Travolta, Christopher Walken
2008
Milk
Josh Brolin, Joseph Cross, James Franco, Victor Garber, Emile Hirsch, Diego Luna, Denis O'Hare, Sean Penn, Alison Pill
2009
Inglourious Basterds
Daniel Brühl, August Diehl, Julie Dreyfus, Michael Fassbender, Sylvester Groth, Jacky Ido, Diane Kruger, Mélanie Laurent, Denis Ménochet, Mike Myers, Brad Pitt, Eli Roth, Til Schweiger, Rod Taylor, Christoph Waltz, Martin Wuttke
2010s
2010
The Fighter
Amy Adams, Christian Bale, Melissa Leo, Jack McGee, Mark Wahlberg
2011
The Help
Jessica Chastain, Viola Davis, Bryce Dallas Howard, Allison Janney, Chris Lowell, Ahna O'Reilly, Sissy Spacek, Octavia Spencer, Mary Steenburgen, Emma Stone, Cicely Tyson, Mike Vogel
2012
Silver Linings Playbook
Bradley Cooper, Robert De Niro, Anupam Kher, Jennifer Lawrence, Chris Tucker, Jacki Weaver
2013
American Hustle
Amy Adams, Christian Bale, Louis C.K., Bradley Cooper, Jack Huston, Jennifer Lawrence, Alessandro Nivola, Michael Peña, Jeremy Renner, Elisabeth Röhm, Shea Whigham
2014
Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance)
Zach Galifianakis, Michael Keaton, Edward Norton, Andrea Riseborough, Amy Ryan, Emma Stone, Naomi Watts
2015
Spotlight
Billy Crudup, Brian d'Arcy James, Michael Keaton, Rachel McAdams, Mark Ruffalo, Liev Schreiber, John Slattery, Stanley Tucci
2016
Moonlight
Mahershala Ali, Patrick Decile, Alex R. Hibbert, Naomie Harris, André Holland, Jharrel Jerome, Janelle Monáe, Jaden Piner, Trevante Rhodes, Ashton Sanders
2017
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri
Abbie Cornish, Peter Dinklage, Woody Harrelson, John Hawkes, Lucas Hedges, Željko Ivanek, Caleb Landry Jones, Frances McDormand, Clarke Peters, Sam Rockwell, Samara Weaving
[show]
v
t
e
Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture
Musical or Comedy
(1996–2010, retired)
Tom Cruise (1996)
Jack Nicholson (1997)
Ian Bannen (1998)
Philip Seymour Hoffman (1999)
Michael Douglas (2000)
Ewan McGregor (2001)
Kieran Culkin (2002)
Bill Murray (2003)
Jamie Foxx (2004)
Terrence Howard (2005)
Joseph Cross (2006)
Ryan Gosling (2007)
Ricky Gervais (2008)
Michael Stuhlbarg (2009)
Michael Cera (2010)
Motion Picture Drama
(1996–2010, retired)
Geoffrey Rush (1996)
Robert Duvall (1997)
Edward Norton (1998)
Terence Stamp (1999)
Geoffrey Rush (2000)
Brian Cox (2001)
Michael Caine / Daniel Day-Lewis (2002)
Sean Penn (2003)
Don Cheadle (2004)
Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005)
Forest Whitaker (2006)
Viggo Mortensen (2007)
Richard Jenkins (2008)
Jeremy Renner (2009)
Colin Firth (2010)
Motion Picture
(2011–present)
Ryan Gosling (2011)
Bradley Cooper (2012)
Matthew McConaughey (2013)
Michael Keaton (2014)
Leonardo DiCaprio (2015)
Andrew Garfield / Viggo Mortensen (2016)
Gary Oldman / Harry Dean Stanton (2017)
[show]
v
t
e
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture (2001–2010)
2001
Gosford Park
Eileen Atkins, Bob Balaban, Alan Bates, Charles Dance, Stephen Fry, Michael Gambon, Richard E. Grant, Tom Hollander, Derek Jacobi, Kelly Macdonald, Helen Mirren, Jeremy Northam, Clive Owen, Ryan Phillippe, Maggie Smith, Geraldine Somerville, Kristin Scott Thomas, Sophie Thompson, Emily Watson, James Wilby
2002
Chicago
Christine Baranski, Ekaterina Shchelkanova, Taye Diggs, Denise Faye, Colm Feore, Richard Gere, Deidre Goodwin, Queen Latifah, Lucy Liu, Susan Misner, Mýa, John C. Reilly, Dominic West, Renée Zellweger, Catherine Zeta-Jones
2003
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
Sean Astin, Sean Bean, Cate Blanchett, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Bernard Hill, Ian Holm, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, John Noble, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, Hugo Weaving, David Wenham, Elijah Wood
2004
Sideways
Thomas Haden Church, Paul Giamatti, Virginia Madsen, Sandra Oh
2005
Crash
Christopher "Ludacris" Bridges, Sandra Bullock, Don Cheadle, Matt Dillon, Jennifer Esposito, William Fichtner, Brendan Fraser, Terrence Howard, Thandie Newton, Ryan Phillippe, Larenz Tate
2006
Little Miss Sunshine
Alan Arkin, Abigail Breslin, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Paul Dano, Greg Kinnear
2007
No Country for Old Men
Javier Bardem, Josh Brolin, Garret Dillahunt, Tess Harper, Woody Harrelson, Tommy Lee Jones, Kelly Macdonald
2008
Slumdog Millionaire
Rubina Ali, Tanay Chheda, Ashutosh Lobo Gajiwala, Azharuddin Mohammed Ismail, Anil Kapoor, Irrfan Khan, Ayush Mahesh Khedekar, Tanvi Ganesh Lonkar, Madhur Mittal, Dev Patel, Freida Pinto
2009
Inglourious Basterds
Daniel Brühl, August Diehl, Julie Dreyfus, Michael Fassbender, Sylvester Groth, Jacky Ido, Diane Kruger, Mélanie Laurent, Denis Ménochet, Mike Myers, Brad Pitt, Eli Roth, Til Schweiger, Rod Taylor, Christoph Waltz, Martin Wuttke
2010
The King's Speech
Anthony Andrews, Helena Bonham Carter, Jennifer Ehle, Colin Firth, Michael Gambon, Derek Jacobi, Guy Pearce, Geoffrey Rush, Timothy Spall
Complete list
(1995–2000)
(2001–2010)
(2011–2020)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 75052789
LCCN: nr99025465
ISNI: 0000 0001 1029 6296
GND: 133819671
SUDOC: 057750009
BNF: cb140198291 (data)
ULAN: 500349273
MusicBrainz: 44b3288f-c16f-430d-81dd-545cf3d2963f
BNE: XX1149093
RKD: 239525
SNAC: w6nz8fs3
PIC: 294461
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viggo_Mortensen&oldid=826593812"
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Diplomatic mission
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Spanish Embassy to the Holy See and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
A diplomatic mission or foreign mission[1] is a group of people from one state or an organisation present in another state to represent the sending state/organisation officially in the receiving state. In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the resident mission, namely the embassy, which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country, usually but not necessarily the receiving state's capital city. Consulates on the other hand are smaller diplomatic missions which are normally located outside the capital of the receiving state (but can be located in the capital, usually when the sending country has no embassy in the receiving state). As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, it may also be a non-resident permanent mission to one or more other countries. There are thus resident and non-resident embassies.[2][3][4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Naming
2 Extraterritoriality
3 Role
4 Multiple missions in a city
5 Non-diplomatic offices
6 See also
7 Notes and references
8 External links
Naming[edit]
A permanent diplomatic mission is typically known as an embassy, and the head of the mission is known as an ambassador, or high commissioner. The term "embassy" is commonly used also as a section of a building in which the work of the diplomatic mission is carried out, but, strictly speaking, it is the diplomatic delegation itself that is the embassy, while the office space and the diplomatic work done is called the chancery. Therefore, the embassy operates in the chancery.
The members of a diplomatic mission can reside within or outside the building that holds the mission's chancery, and their private residences enjoy the same rights as the premises of the mission as regards inviolability and protection. [6]
All missions to the United Nations are known simply as permanent missions, while EU Member States' missions to the European Union are known as permanent representations and the head of such a mission is typically both a permanent representative and an ambassador. European Union missions abroad are known as EU delegations. Some countries have more particular naming for their missions and staff: a Vatican mission is headed by a nuncio (Latin "envoy") and consequently known as an apostolic nunciature. Under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya's missions used the name "people's bureau" and the head of the mission was a secretary.
Missions between Commonwealth countries are known as high commissions and their heads are high commissioners.[7] This is because ambassadors are exchanged between foreign countries, but since the beginning of the Commonwealth, member countries have nominally maintained that they are not foreign to one another (the same reason as the naming of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office).[citation needed] An ambassador represents one head of state to another and an ambassador's letters of credence are addressed by one head of state to another. Until India became a republic on 26 January 1950, all members of the Commonwealth had the same head of state, making the appointment of ambassadors between them impossible. The senior representative of a Commonwealth country to another was therefore called a high commissioner, accredited not to the head of state but to the government of the receiving country, but at the same time considered the equivalent of an ambassador.[8][9] Still today, even if two Commonwealth countries have distinct heads of state (Presidents), each one's senior diplomatic representative to the other continues to be called a high commissioner, whether he or she represents a sending government or a sending head of state.[10]
In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower-ranking official (an envoy or minister resident) was known as a legation. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of legation is no longer used today. (See diplomatic rank.)
A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. A consulate or consulate general is generally a representative of the embassy in locales outside of the capital city.[7] For instance, the United Kingdom has its Embassy of the United Kingdom in Washington, D.C., but also maintains seven consulates-general and four consulates elsewhere in the US. The person in charge of a consulate or consulate-general is known as a consul or consul-general, respectively. Similar services may also be provided at the embassy (to serve the region of the capital) in what is normally called a consular section.
In cases of dispute, it is common for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure. This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a chargé d'affaires (usually the deputy chief of mission) who may have limited powers. A chargé d'affaires ad interim also heads the mission during the interim between the end of one chief of mission's term and the beginning of another.
Extraterritoriality[edit]
Diplomatic Corps seal - Corps Diplomatique emblem
Contrary to popular belief, most diplomatic missions do not enjoy full extraterritorial status and in those cases are not sovereign territory of the represented state.[11] Rather, the premises of diplomatic missions usually remain under the jurisdiction of the host state while being afforded special privileges (such as immunity from most local laws) by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Diplomats themselves still retain full diplomatic immunity, and (as an adherent to the Vienna Convention) the host country may not enter the premises of the mission without permission of the represented country, even to put out a fire.[12] International rules designate an attack on an embassy as an attack on the country it represents.[citation needed] The term "extraterritoriality" is often applied to diplomatic missions, but normally only in this broader sense.
As the host country may not enter the representing country's embassy without permission, embassies are sometimes used by refugees escaping from either the host country or a third country. For example, North Korean nationals, who would be arrested and deported from China upon discovery, have sought sanctuary at various third-country embassies in China. Once inside the embassy, diplomatic channels can be used to solve the issue and send the refugees to another country. See the List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission for a list of some notable cases.
Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include repeated invasions of the British Embassy, Beijing (1967),[13] the Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981), and the Japanese embassy hostage crisis at the ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru (1996-1997).
Role[edit]
Embassy of Nicaragua in Washington, D.C..
The Vienna Convention states:
The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, inter alia, in representing the sending State in the receiving State; protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.[14]
Diplomatic missions between members of the British Commonwealth of Nations are not called embassies, but High Commissions, as Commonwealth nations share a special diplomatic relationship. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country. Canadian and Australian nationals enjoy even greater cooperation between their respective consular services, as outlined in Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement. The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the member states of the European Union (EU). European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU member state.
The rights and immunities (such as diplomatic immunity) of diplomatic missions are codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
Multiple missions in a city[edit]
Some cities may host more than one mission from the same country. An example is Rome, where many states maintain missions to Italy and another to the Holy See. It is not customary for these missions to share premises nor diplomatic personnel. At present, only the Iraqi missions to Italy and the Holy See share premises; however, two ambassadors are appointed, one to each country. In the case of the UN's Food Agencies, the Head of Mission to the Italian Republic is usually accredited as Permanent Representative. The United States maintains a separate United States Mission to the UN Agencies in Rome whose head is the United States Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture. Kolkata, India hosts two Bangladeshi Deputy High Commissions, one at Park Circus and another at Mirza Galib Street. This was done to reduce overcrowding inside the Deputy High Commission. At first the Park Circus was opened and later, the one at Mirza Galib Street. Now both the Deputy High Commissions issue Bangladeshi visa.
Non-diplomatic offices[edit]
Governments of states not recognized by the receiving state and of territories that make no claim to be sovereign states may set up offices abroad that do not have official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. Examples are the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices that represent the government of the Republic of China; Somaliland's Representative Offices in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, and Washington, D.C.; the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices that represent the government of that territory. Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents. They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the Hong Kong offices in London and Toronto, for example.
See also[edit]
International relations portal
Diplomacy
Embassy Row, Washington, D.C.
List of attacks on diplomatic missions
Lists of diplomatic missions
List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission
Paradiplomacy
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ "What is a Foreign Mission /Chancery?". www.state.gov. Retrieved 2017-08-25.
Jump up ^ Tom Nierop, Systems and Regions in Global Politics (Wiley, John and Sons 1994 ISBN 978-0-471-94942-8), p. 67.
Jump up ^ "The Russian Federation has diplomatic relations with a total of 187 countries, but some of them – mainly for financial reasons – maintain non-resident embassies in other countries", International Affairs, issues 4–6 (Znanye Pub. House, 2006), p. 78
Jump up ^ "Of Chile's 109 foreign diplomatic missions in 1988, no fewer than 31 were on a non-residential basis, while 17 of the 63 missions in Santiago were non resident" (Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis (University of Cambridge 1990 ISBN 0-521-40268-9), p. 158).
Jump up ^ "America's diplomatic mission to (Saudi Arabia) was changed from non-resident to permanent Minister in Jeddah" (Fahad M. Al-Nafjan, The Origins of Saudi-American Relations, page not numbered).
Jump up ^ "1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, article 30" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b Sidhur Andrews (1 Jun 2007). Introduction To Tourism And Hospitality Industry. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 33.
Jump up ^ Nutt, Jim S. "Diplomatic and Consular Representations".
Jump up ^ "Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, "What does the work of a High Commissioner involve?"" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Ivor Roberts (editor), Satow's Diplomatic Practice (Oxford University Press 2009 ISBN 978-0-19955927-5), p. 426
Jump up ^ 'Laws and Rules Regarding Extraterritoriality' on integrity-legal.com: "There is a common misconception that Embassies and Consulates have extraterritoriality. As anecdotal evidence of this misconception, people will often say things like, 'the US Embassy sits upon United States soil.' For the most part, this is not the case as extraterritoriality is not conferred upon an Embassy or Consulate, but in some situations extraterritoriality may be created by Treaty".
Jump up ^ "What is a U.S. Embassy?". diplomacy.state.gov.
Jump up ^ "Sir Ray Whitney". The Daily Telegraph. London. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2015. Red Guards scaled the British mission's wall as diplomats watched the Ealing comedy Two-Way Stretch. They retreated to an inner room without switching off the projector, pushing a piano across the door as the mob broke windows and began climbing in. Whitney and his colleagues retreated again to the embassy's secure zone, with heavily barred windows. The Chinese set fire to the mission, then used a battering ram on the steel emergency door.
Jump up ^ "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relationships, article 3" (PDF).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diplomatic missions.
Diplomatic missions travel guide from Wikivoyage
Embassies and consulates around the world
Embassies and Consulates Search Directory
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Spartan Constitution
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Sparta

Zeus on his throne with his eagle
This article is part of the series:
Spartan Constitution
Great Rhetra
Laws of Lycurgus
Politeia
List of Kings of Sparta
Gerousia
Ephorate
Apella of the demos
Spartiates
Perioeci
Helots
Agoge
Syssitia
Spartan army • Other Greek city-states • Law Portal
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The Spartan Constitution, or Politeia, refers to the government and laws of the Dorian city-state of Sparta from the time of Lycurgus, the legendary law-giver, to the incorporation of Sparta into the Roman Empire: approximately the 9th century BC to the 2nd century BC. Every city-state of Greece had a politeia at all times of its sovereign life, including the preceding Achaean Sparta and the subsequent Roman Sparta. The politeia of Dorian Sparta, however, was noted by many classical authors for its unique features, which supported a rigidly layered social system and a strong military.
Contents
[hide]
1 The act of foundation
1.1 Great Rhetra
1.2 Laws of Lycurgus
2 Structure of Spartan society and government
2.1 Society
2.1.1 Spartiates
2.1.2 Perioeci
2.1.3 Helots
2.2 Government
2.2.1 Dual Kingship
2.2.2 Ephors
2.2.3 Gerousia
2.2.4 Apella
3 Notes
4 References
5 Bibliography
The act of foundation[edit]
Great Rhetra[edit]
According to Plutarch,[1] Lycurgus (to whom is attributed the establishment of the severe reforms for which Sparta has become renowned, sometime in the 9th century BC) first sought counsel from the god Apollo by obtaining an oracle from Delphi regarding the formation of his government. The divine proclamation, which he received in this manner, is known as a "rhetra" and is given in part by Plutarch as follows:
When thou hast built a temple to Zeus Syllanius and Athena Syllania, divided the people into 'phylai' and into 'obai', and established a senate of thirty members, including the 'archagetai', then from time to time 'appellazein' between Babyca and Cnacion, and there introduce and rescind measures; but the people must have the deciding voice and the power.[1]
Plutarch provides by way of explanation: "In these clauses, the "phylai" and the "obai" refer to divisions and distributions of the people into clans and phratries, or brotherhoods; by "archagetai" the kings are designated, and "appellazein" means to assemble the people, with a reference to Apollo, the Pythian god, who was the source and author of the polity. The Babyca is now called Cheimarrus, and the Cnacion Oenus; but Aristotle says that Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge."[1]
Another version of the rhetra is given by H. Michell:[2]
After having built a temple to Zeus Syllanius and Athene Syllania, and having 'phyled the phyles' (φυλάς φυλάξαντα) and 'obed the obes' (ώβάς ώβάξαντα) you shall establish a council of thirty elders, the leaders included.
That is to say that after the people had been divided according to their different tribes ("phyles" and "obes"), they would welcome the new Lycurgan reforms.
Laws of Lycurgus[edit]
The Spartans had no historical records, literature, or written laws, which were, according to tradition, expressly prohibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus, excluding the Great Rhetra.
Issuance of coinage was forbidden. Spartans were obliged to use iron obols (bars or spits), meant to encourage self-sufficiency and discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. A Spartan citizen in good standing was one who maintained his fighting skills, showed bravery in battle, ensured that his farms were productive, was married and had healthy children. Spartan women were the only Greek women to hold property rights on their own, and were required to practice sports before marriage. Although they had no formal political rights, they were expected to speak their minds boldly and their opinions were heard.
Structure of Spartan society and government[edit]
Spartan society can be represented by a three-layer pyramid ruled by the government.
The structure of Spartan society, c. early 7th century BC
Society[edit]
Spartiates[edit]
Not all inhabitants of the Spartan state were considered citizens (part of the demos). Only those who had successfully undertaken military training, called the agoge, were eligible. Usually, the only people eligible to receive the agoge were Spartiates—men who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city—although there were two exceptions. Trophimoi ("foster sons") were foreign teenagers invited to study. This was meant as a supreme honor. The pro-Spartan Athenian magnate Xenophon sent his two sons to Sparta for their education as trophimoi. Alcibiades, being an Alcmaeonid and thus a member of a family with old and strong connections to Sparta, was admitted as a trophimos and famously excelled in the agoge as well as otherwise (he was rumoured to have seduced one of the two queen consorts with his exceptional looks). The other exception was that sons of helots could be enrolled as syntrophoi (comrades, literally "the ones fed, or reared, together") if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. If a syntrophos did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate himself. A free-born Spartan who had successfully completed the agoge became a "peer" (ὅμοιος, hómoios, literally "similar") with full civil rights at the age of 20, and remained one as long as he could contribute his equal share of grain to the common military mess in which he was obliged to dine every evening for as long as he was battle-worthy (usually until the age of 60). This was meant as assurance that every peer took good care of his estates and patrimony. Such hómoioi were also required to sleep in the barracks until the age of 30, regardless of whether they were married or not.
Perioeci[edit]
Others in the state were the perioeci, who can be described as civilians.
Helots[edit]
Helots were the state-owned serfs who made up 90 percent of the population. They were citizens of conquered states, such as Messenia who were conquered for their fertile land during the First Messenian War.
Government[edit]
The Doric state of Sparta, copying the Doric Cretans, instituted a mixed governmental state: it was composed of elements of monarchical, oligarchical, and democratic systems. Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).
Dual Kingship[edit]
The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and the Eurypontid families, both descendants of Heracles and equal in authority so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater honour by virtue of seniority of his family for being the "oldest extant" (Herod. vi. 5).
There are several legendary explanations for this unusual dual kingship, which differ only slightly; for example, that King Aristodemus had twin sons, who agreed to share the kingship, and this became perpetual. Modern scholars have advanced various theories to account for the anomaly. Some theorize that this system was created in order to prevent absolutism, and is paralleled by the analogous instance of the dual consuls of Rome. Others believe that it points to a compromise arrived at to end the struggle between two families or communities. Other theories suggest that this was an arrangement that was met when a community of villages combined to form the city of Sparta. Subsequently the two chiefs from the largest villages became kings. Another theory suggests that the two royal houses represent respectively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors: those who hold this last view appeal to the words attributed by Herodotus (v. 72) to Cleomenes I: "I am no Dorian, but an Achaean"; although this is usually explained by the (equally legendary) descent of Aristodemus from Heracles. Either way, kingship in Sparta was hereditary and thus every king Sparta had was a descendant of the Agiad and the Eurypontid families. Accession was given to the male child who was first born after a king's accession.
The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and militaristic. They were the chief priests of the state, and performed certain sacrifices and also maintained communication with the Delphic sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus (about 450 BC), their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Civil cases were decided by the ephors, and criminal jurisdiction had been passed to the ephors, as well as to a council of elders. By 500 BC the Spartans had become increasingly involved in the political affairs of the surrounding city-states, often putting their weight behind pro-Spartan candidates. Shortly before 500 BC, as described by Herodotus, such an action fueled a confrontation between Sparta and Athens, when the two kings, Demaratus and Cleomenes, took their troops to Athens. However, just before the heat of battle, King Demaratus changed his mind about attacking the Athenians and abandoned his co-king. For this reason, Demaratus was banished, and eventually found himself at the side of Persian King Xerxes for his invasion of Greece twenty years later (480 BC), after which the Spartans enacted a law demanding that one king remain behind in Sparta while the other commanded the troops in battle.
Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. I285a), Here also, however, the royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war, and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Real power was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia.
Ephors[edit]
The ephors, chosen by popular election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution.
After the ephors were introduced, they, together with the two kings, were the executive branch of the state.[3] Ephors themselves had more power than anyone in Sparta, although the fact that they only stayed in power for a single year reduced their ability to conflict with already established powers in the state. Since reelection was not possible, an ephor who abused his power, or confronted an established power center, would have to suffer retaliation. Although the five ephors were the only officials with regular legitimization by popular vote, in practice they were often the most conservative force in Spartan politics.
Gerousia[edit]
The difference with today's states is that Sparta had a special policy maker, the gerousia, a council consisting of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the demos.
Apella[edit]
The collective body of Spartan citizenry would select one of the alternatives by voting. Unlike most Greek poleis, the Spartan citizen assembly could neither set the agenda of issues to be decided, nor debate them, merely vote on the alternatives presented to them. Neither could foreign embassies or emissaries address the assembly; they had to present their case to the Gerousia, which would then consult with the Ephors. Sparta considered all discourse from outside as a potential threat and all other states as past, present, or future enemies, to be treated with caution in the very least, even when bound with alliance treaties.
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Plutarch, Perrin (1914). Plutarch's Lives. London : William Heinemann , New York : The McMillan Co.
Jump up ^ Michell, H. (1964). Sparta. Cambridge University Press. p. 100.
Jump up ^ ephor - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Bibliography[edit]
Cartledge, Paul (2003). Spartan Reflections. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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values: המשטר הספרטני – Hebrew

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