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Human embryogenesis
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This article is about Human embryogenesis. For Embryogenesis in general, see Embryogenesis.
The initial stages of human embryogenesis.
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Human embryogenesis is the process of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development. In biological terms, human development entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being. Fertilisation occurs when the sperm cell successfully enters and fuses with an egg cell (ovum). The genetic material of the sperm and egg then combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of prenatal development commences.[1] Embryogenesis covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus. Human embryology is the study of this development during the first eight weeks after fertilisation. The normal period of gestation (pregnancy) is nine months or 38 weeks.
The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization through the development of the early embryo until implantation is completed in the uterus. The germinal stage takes around 10 days.[2] During this stage, the zygote begins to divide, in a process called cleavage. A blastocyst is then formed and implanted in the uterus. Embryogenesis continues with the next stage of gastrulation, when the three germ layers of the embryo form in a process called histogenesis, and the processes of neurulation and organogenesis follow.
In comparison to the embryo, the fetus has more recognizable external features and a more complete set of developing organs. The entire process of embryogenesis involves coordinated spatial and temporal changes in gene expression, cell growth and cellular differentiation. A nearly identical process occurs in other species, especially among chordates.
Contents
[hide]
1 Germinal stage
1.1 Fertilization
1.2 Cleavage
1.3 Blastulation
1.4 Implantation
1.5 Embryonic disc
2 Gastrulation
3 Neurulation
4 Development of the nervous system
5 Blood cell development
6 Organogenesis
6.1 Development of the heart and circulatory system
6.2 Development of the digestive system
7 Development of the face and neck
8 Development of the eye
9 Development of the limbs
10 Clinical significance
11 See also
12 Additional images
13 References
14 External links
Germinal stage[edit]
Fertilization[edit]
Fertilization takes place when the spermatozoon has successfully entered the ovum and the two sets of genetic material carried by the gametes fuse together, resulting in the zygote (a single diploid cell). This usually takes place in the ampulla of one of the fallopian tubes. The zygote contains the combined genetic material carried by both the male and female gametes which consists of the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the ovum and the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the sperm. The 46 chromosomes undergo changes prior to the meiotic division which leads to the formation of the embryo having two cells.
Successful fertilization is enabled by three processes, which also act as controls to ensure species-specificity. The first is that of chemotaxis which directs the movement of the sperm towards the ovum. Secondly there is an adhesive compatibility between the sperm and the egg. With the sperm adhered to the ovum, the third process of acrosomal reaction takes place; the front part of the spermatozoan head is capped by an acrosome which contains digestive enzymes to break down the zona pellucida and allow its entry.[3] The entry of the sperm causes calcium to be released which blocks entry to other sperm cells. A parallel reaction takes place in the ovum called the zona reaction. This sees the release of cortical granules that release enzymes which digest sperm receptor proteins, thus preventing polyspermy. The granules also fuse with the plasma membrane and modify the zona pellucida in such a way as to prevent further sperm entry.
Cleavage[edit]
Further information: Cleavage (embryo)
8-cell embryo, at 3 days
The beginning of the cleavage process is marked when the zygote divides through mitosis into two cells. This mitosis continues and the first two cells divide into four cells, then into eight cells and so on. Each division takes from 12 to 24 hours. The zygote is large compared to any other cell and undergoes cleavage without any overall increase in size. This means that with each successive subdivision, the ratio of nuclear to cytoplasmic material increases.[4] Initially the dividing cells, called blastomeres (blastos Greek for sprout), are undifferentiated and aggregated into a sphere enclosed within the membrane of glycoproteins (termed the zona pellucida) of the ovum. When eight blastomeres have formed they begin to develop gap junctions, enabling them to develop in an integrated way and co-ordinate their response to physiological signals and environmental cues.[5]
When the cells number around sixteen the solid sphere of cells within the zona pellucida is referred to as a morula[6] At this stage the cells start to bind firmly together in a process called compaction, and cleavage continues as cellular differentiation.
Blastulation[edit]
Further information: Polarity in embryogenesis
Blastocyst with an inner cell mass and trophoblast.
Cleavage itself is the first stage in blastulation, the process of forming the blastocyst. Cells differentiate into an outer layer of cells (collectively called the trophoblast) and an inner cell mass. With further compaction the individual outer blastomeres, the trophoblasts, become indistinguishable. They are still enclosed within the zona pellucida. This compaction serves to make the structure watertight, containing the fluid that the cells will later secrete. The inner mass of cells differentiate to become embryoblasts and polarise at one end. They close together and form gap junctions, which facilitate cellular communication. This polarisation leaves a cavity, the blastocoel, creating a structure that is now termed the blastocyst. (In animals other than mammals, this is called the blastula.) The trophoblasts secrete fluid into the blastocoel. The resulting increase in size of the blastocyst causes it to hatch through the zona pellucida, which then disintegrates.[7][4]
The inner cell mass will give rise to the embryo proper, the amnion, yolk sac and allantois, while the fetal part of the placenta will form from the outer trophoblast layer. The embryo plus its membranes is called the conceptus, and by this stage the conceptus has reached the uterus. The zona pellucida ultimately disappears completely, and the now exposed cells of the trophoblast allow the blastocyst to attach itself to the endometrium, where it will implant. The formation of the hypoblast and epiblast, which are the two main layers of the bilaminar germ disc, occurs at the beginning of the second week.[8] Either the embryoblast or the trophoblast will turn into two sub-layers.[9] The inner cells will turn into the hypoblast layer, which will surround the other layer, called the epiblast, and these layers will form the embryonic disc that will develop into the embryo.[8][9] The trophoblast will also develop two sub-layers: the cytotrophoblast, which is front of the syncytiotrophoblast, which in turn lies within the endometrium.[8] Next, another layer called the exocoelomic membrane or Heuser’s membrane will appear and surround the cytotrophoblast, as well as the primitive yolk sac.[9] The syncytiotrophoblast will grow and will enter a phase called lacunar stage, in which some vacuoles will appear and be filled by blood in the following days.[8][9] The development of the yolk sac starts with the hypoblastic flat cells that form the exocoelomic membrane, which will coat the inner part of the cytotrophoblast to form the primitive yolk sac. An erosion of the endothelial lining of the maternal capillaries by the syncytiotrophoblastic cells of the sinusoids will form where the blood will begin to penetrate and flow through the trophoblast to give rise to the uteroplacental circulation.[10][11] Subsequently new cells derived from yolk sac will be established between trophoblast and exocelomic membrane and will give rise to extra-embryonic mesoderm, which will form the chorionic cavity.[9]
At the end of the second week of development, some cells of the trophoblast penetrate and form rounded columns into the syncytiotrophoblast. These columns are known as primary villi. At the same time, other migrating cells form into the exocelomic cavity a new cavity named the secondary or definitive yolk sac, smaller than the primitive yolk sac.[9][10]
Implantation[edit]
Main article: Implantation (human embryo)
Trophoblast differentiation
After ovulation, the endometrial lining becomes transformed into a secretory lining in preparation of accepting the embryo. It becomes thickened, with its secretory glands becoming elongated, and is increasingly vascular. This lining of the uterine cavity (or womb) is now known as the decidua, and it produces a great number of large decidual cells in its increased interglandular tissue. The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called Trophoblast.The trophoblast then differentiates into an inner layer, the cytotrophoblast, and an outer layer, the syncytiotrophoblast. The cytotrophoblast contains cuboidal epithelial cells and is the source of dividing cells, and the syncytiotrophoblast is a syncytial layer without cell boundaries.
The syncytiotrophoblast implants the blastocyst in the decidual epithelium by projections of chorionic villi, forming the embryonic part of the placenta. The placenta develops once the blastocyst is implanted, connecting the embryo to the uterine wall. The decidua here is termed the decidua basalis; it lies between the blastocyst and the myometrium and forms the maternal part of the placenta. The implantation is assisted by hydrolytic enzymes that erode the epithelium. The syncytiotrophoblast also produces human chorionic gonadotropin, a hormone that stimulates the release of progesterone from the corpus luteum. Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so that it can oxygenate and sustain the developing embryo. The uterus liberates sugar from stored glycogen from its cells to nourish the embryo.[12] The villi begin to branch and contain blood vessels of the embryo. Other villi, called terminal or free villi, exchange nutrients. The embryo is joined to the trophoblastic shell by a narrow connecting stalk that develops into the umbilical cord to attach the placenta to the embryo.[9][13] Arteries in the decidua are remodelled to increase the maternal blood flow into the intervillous spaces of the placenta, allowing gas exchange and the transfer of nutrients to the embryo. Waste products from the embryo will diffuse across the placenta.
As the syncytiotrophoblast starts to penetrate the uterine wall, the inner cell mass (embryoblast) also develops. The inner cell mass is the source of embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent and can develop into any one of the three germ layer cells,and which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
Embryonic disc[edit]
The embryoblast forms an embryonic disc, which is a bilaminar disc of two layers, an upper layer called the epiblast (primitive ectoderm) and a lower layer called the hypoblast (primitive endoderm). The disc is stretched between what will become the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac. The epiblast is adjacent to the trophoblast and made of columnar cells; the hypoblast is closest to the blastocyst cavity and made of cuboidal cells. The epiblast migrates away from the trophoblast downwards, forming the amniotic cavity, the lining of which is formed from amnioblasts developed from the epiblast. The hypoblast is pushed down and forms the yolk sac (exocoelomic cavity) lining. Some hypoblast cells migrate along the inner cytotrophoblast lining of the blastocoel, secreting an extracellular matrix along the way. These hypoblast cells and extracellular matrix are called Heuser's membrane (or the exocoelomic membrane), and they cover the blastocoel to form the yolk sac (or exocoelomic cavity). Cells of the hypoblast migrate along the outer edges of this reticulum and form the extraembryonic mesoderm; this disrupts the extraembryonic reticulum. Soon pockets form in the reticulum, which ultimately coalesce to form the chorionic cavity or extraembryonic coelom.
Gastrulation[edit]
Main article: Gastrulation
Histogenesis of the three germ layers
Artificially colored - gestational sac, yolk sac and embryo (measuring 3 mm at 5 weeks)
Embryo attached to placenta in amniotic cavity

The primitive streak, a linear band of cells formed by the migrating epiblast, appears, and this marks the beginning of gastrulation, which takes place around the seventeenth day (week 3) after fertilisation. The process of gastrulation reorganises the two-layer embryo into a three-layer embryo, and also gives the embryo its specific head-to-tail, and front-to-back orientation, by way of the primitive streak which establishes bilateral symmetry. A primitive node (or primitive knot) forms in front of the primitive streak which is the organiser of neurulation. A primitive pit forms as a depression in the centre of the primitive node which connects to the notochord which lies directly underneath. The node has arisen from epiblasts of the amniotic cavity floor, and it is this node that induces the formation of the neural plate which serves as the basis for the nervous system. The neural plate will form opposite the primitive streak from ectodermal tissue which thickens and flattens into the neural plate. The epiblast in that region moves down into the streak at the location of the primitive pit where the process called ingression, which leads to the formation of the mesoderm takes place. This ingression sees the cells from the epiblast move into the primitive streak in an epithelial-mesenchymal transition; epithelial cells become mesenchymal stem cells, multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into various cell types. The hypoblast is pushed out of the way and goes on to form the amnion.The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The epiblast has now differentiated into the three germ layers of the embryo, so that the bilaminar disc is now a trilaminar disc, the gastrula.
The three germ layers are the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and are formed as three overlapping flat discs. It is from these three layers that all the structures and organs of the body will be derived through the processes of somitogenesis, histogenesis and organogenesis.[14] The embryonic endoderm is formed by invagination of epiblastic cells that migrate to the hypoblast, while the mesoderm is formed by the cells that develop between the epiblast and endoderm. In general, all germ layers will derive from the epiblast.[9][13] The upper layer of ectoderm will give rise to the outermost layer of skin, central and peripheral nervous systems, eyes, inner ear, and many connective tissues.[15] The middle layer of mesoderm will give rise to the heart and the beginning of the circulatory system as well as the bones, muscles and kidneys. The inner layer of endoderm will serve as the starting point for the development of the lungs, intestine, thyroid, pancreas and bladder.
Following ingression, a blastopore develops where the cells have ingressed, in one side of the embryo and it deepens to become the archenteron, the first formative stage of the gut. As in all deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus whilst the gut tunnels through the embryo to the other side where the opening becomes the mouth. With a functioning digestive tube, gastrulation is now completed and the next stage of neurulation can begin.
Neurulation[edit]
Main article: Neurulation
Neural plate
Following gastrulation, the ectoderm gives rise to epithelial and neural tissue, and the gastrula is now referred to as the neurula. The neural plate that has formed as a thickened plate from the ectoderm, continues to broaden and its ends start to fold upwards as neural folds. Neurulation refers to this folding process whereby the neural plate is transformed into the neural tube, and this takes place during the fourth week. They fold, along a shallow neural groove which has formed as a dividing median line in the neural plate. This deepens as the folds continue to gain height, when they will meet and close together at the neural crest. The cells that migrate through the most cranial part of the primitive line form the paraxial mesoderm, which will give rise to the somitomeres that in the process of somitogenesis will differentiate into somites that will form the sclerotome, the syndetome,[16] the myotome and the dermatome to form cartilage and bone, tendons, dermis (skin), and muscle. The intermediate mesoderm gives rise to the urogenital tract and consists of cells that migrate from the middle region of the primitive line. Other cells migrate through the caudal part of the primitive line and form the lateral mesoderm, and those cells migrating by the most caudal part contribute to the extraembryonic mesoderm.[9][13]
The embryonic disc begins flat and round, but eventually elongates to have a wider cephalic part and narrow-shaped caudal end.[8] At the beginning, the primitive line extends in cephalic direction and 18 days after fertilization returns caudally until it disappears. In the cephalic portion, the germ layer shows specific differentiation at the beginning of the 4th week, while in the caudal portion it occurs at the end of the 4th week.[9] Cranial and caudal neuropores become progressively smaller until they close completely (by day 26) forming the neural tube.[17]
Development of the nervous system[edit]
Main articles: Development of the nervous system in humans and Development of the human brain
Embryonic development
Development of brain in 8 week old embryo
Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube flexes at the level of the future midbrain—the mesencephalon. Above the mesencephalon is the prosencephalon (future forebrain) and beneath it is the rhombencephalon (future hindbrain).
Cranial neural crest cells migrate to the pharyngeal arches as neural stem cells, where they develop in the process of neurogenesis into neurons.
The optical vesicle (which eventually becomes the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. The alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon) whilst its basal plate becomes the diencephalon. Finally, the optic vesicle grows to form an optic outgrowth.

Blood cell development[edit]
Haematopoietic stem cells that give rise to all the blood cells develop from the mesoderm.
Organogenesis[edit]
The development of the organs starts during the third to eighth weeks of embryogenesis.
Development of the heart and circulatory system[edit]
Main article: Heart development
Further information: Vascular remodelling in the embryo
The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at around 21 or 22 days.[18] Cardiac myoblasts and blood islands in the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme on each side of the neural plate, give rise to the cardiogenic region.[9]:165This is a horseshoe-shaped area near to the head of the embryo. By day 19, following cell signalling, two strands begin to form as tubes in this region, as a lumen develops within them. These two endocardial tubes grow and by day 21 have migrated towards each other and fused to form a single primitive heart tube, the tubular heart. This is enabled by the folding of the embryo which pushes the tubes into the thoracic cavity.[19]
Also at the same time that the endocardial tubes are forming, vasculogenesis (the development of the circulatory system) has begun. This starts on day 18 with cells in the splanchnopleuric mesoderm differentiating into angioblasts that develop into flattened endothelial cells. These join to form small vesicles called angiocysts which join up to form long vessels called angioblastic cords. These cords develop into a pervasive network of plexuses in the formation of the vascular network. This network grows by the additional budding and sprouting of new vessels in the process of angiogenesis.[19] Following vasculogenesis and the development of an early vasculature, a stage of vascular remodelling takes place.
The tubular heart quickly forms five distinct regions. From head to tail, these are the infundibulum, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and the sinus venosus. Initially, all venous blood flows into the sinus venosus, and is propelled from tail to head to the truncus arteriosus. This will divide to form the aorta and pulmonary artery; the bulbus cordis will develop into the right (primitive) ventricle; the primitive ventricle will form the left ventricle; the primitive atrium will become the front parts of the left and right atria and their appendages, and the sinus venosus will develop into the posterior part of the right atrium, the sinoatrial node and the coronary sinus.[18]
Cardiac looping begins to shape the heart as one of the processes of morphogenesis, and this completes by the end of the fourth week. Programmed cell death in the process of apoptosis is involved in this stage, taking place at the joining surfaces enabling fusion to take place.[19] In the middle of the fourth week, the sinus venosus receives blood from the three major veins: the vitelline, the umbilical and the common cardinal veins.
During the first two months of development, the interatrial septum begins to form. This septum divides the primitive atrium into a right and a left atrium. Firstly it starts as a crescent-shaped piece of tissue which grows downwards as the septum primum. The crescent shape prevents the complete closure of the atria allowing blood to be shunted from the right to the left atrium through the opening known as the ostium primum. This closes with further development of the system but before it does, a second opening (the ostium secundum) begins to form in the upper atrium enabling the continued shunting of blood.[19]
A second septum (the septum secundum) begins to form to the right of the septum primum. This also leaves a small opening, the foramen ovale which is continuous with the previous opening of the ostium secundum. The septum primum is reduced to a small flap that acts as the valve of the foramen ovale and this remains until its closure at birth. Between the ventricles the septum inferius also forms which develops into the muscular interventricular septum.[19]
Development of the digestive system[edit]
Main article: Development of the digestive system
The digestive system starts to develop from the third week and by the twelfth week, the organs have correctly positioned themselves.
Development of the face and neck[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Main article: Face and neck development of the embryo
From the third to the eighth week the face and neck develop.
Development of the eye[edit]
Main article: Eye development
The eye begins to develop from the third week to the tenth week.
Development of the limbs[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Main articles: Limb development and Limb bud
Further information: Zone of polarizing activity
In the fourth week limb development begins.
Clinical significance[edit]
Toxic exposures during the germinal stage may cause prenatal death resulting in a miscarriage, but do not cause developmental defects. However, toxic exposures in the embryonic period can be the cause of major congenital malformations, since the precursors of the major organ systems are now developing.
Each cell of the preimplantation embryo has the potential to form all of the different cell types in the developing embryo. This cell potency means that some cells can be removed from the preimplantation embryo and the remaining cells will compensate for their absence. This has allowed the development of a technique known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis, whereby a small number of cells from the preimplantation embryo created by IVF, can be removed by biopsy and subjected to genetic diagnosis. This allows embryos that are not affected by defined genetic diseases to be selected and then transferred to the mother's uterus.
Sacrococcygeal teratomas, tumours formed from different types of tissue, that can form, are thought to be related to primitive streak remnants, which ordinarily disappear.[8][9][11]
First arch syndromes are congenital disorders of facial deformities, caused by the failure of neural crest cells to migrate to the first pharyngeal arch.
Spina bifida a congenital disorder is the result of the incomplete closure of the neural tube.
Vertically transmitted infections can be passed from the mother to the unborn child at any stage of its development.
Hypoxia a condition of inadequate oxygen supply can be a serious consequence of a preterm or premature birth.
See also[edit]
Aorta-gonad-mesonephros
CDX2
Development of the reproductive system
Development of the urinary system
Developmental biology
Drosophila embryogenesis
Embryomics
Gonadogenesis
Human tooth development
Potential person
Recapitulation theory
Additional images[edit]
Representing different stages of embryogenesis
Early stage of the gastrulation process
Phase of the gastrulation process
Top of the form of the embryo
Establishment of embryo medium
Spinal cord at 5 weeks
Head and neck at 32 days
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sherk, Stephanie Dionne. "http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/prenatal-development". Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health, 2006. Gale. Archived from the original on 1 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013. External link in |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "germinal stage". Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. Elsevier. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "acrosome definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Retrieved 2007-08-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Forgács, G.; Newman, Stuart A. (2005). "Cleavage and blastula formation". Biological physics of the developing embryo. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-521-78337-8.
Jump up ^ Brison, D. R.; Sturmey, R. G.; Leese, H. J. (2014). "Metabolic heterogeneity during preimplantation development: the missing link?". Human Reproduction Update. 20 (5): 632–640. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu018. ISSN 1355-4786. PMID 24795173.
Jump up ^ Boklage, Charles E. (2009). How New Humans Are Made: Cells and Embryos, Twins and Chimeras, Left and Right, Mind/Self/Soul, Sex, and Schizophrenia. World Scientific. p. 217. ISBN 978-981-283-513-0.
Jump up ^ http://www.vanat.cvm.umn.edu/TFFLectPDFs/LectEarlyEmbryo
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Carlson, Bruce M. (1999) [1t. Pub. 1997]. "Chapter 4: Formation of germ layers and initial derivatives". Human Embryology & Developmental Biology. Mosby, Inc. pp. 62–68. ISBN 0-8151-1458-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Sadler, T.W.; Langman, Jan (2012) [1st. Pub. 2001]. "Chapter 3: Primera semana del desarrollo: de la ovulación a la implantación". In Seigafuse, sonya. Langman, Embriología médica. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Wolters Kluwer. pp. 29–42. ISBN 978-84-15419-83-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Keith L.; Persaud, V.N. (2003) [1t. Pub. 1996]. "Chapter 3: Formation of the bilaminar embryonic disc: second week". The Developing Human, Clinically Oriented Embryology. W B Saunders Co. pp. 47–51. ISBN 0-7216-9412-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Larsen, William J.; Sherman, Lawrence S.; Potter, S. Steven; Scott, William J. (2001) [1t. Pub. 1998]. "Chapter 2: Bilaminar embryonic disc development and establishment of the uteroplacental circulation". Human Embryology. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 37–45. ISBN 0-443-06583-7.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Smith Agreda, Víctor; Ferrés Torres, Elvira; Montesinos Castro-Girona, Manuel (1992). "Chapter 5: Organización del desarrollo: Fase de germinación". Manual de embriología y anatomía general. Universitat de València. pp. 72–85. ISBN 84-370-1006-3.
Jump up ^ Ross, Lawrence M. & Lamperti, Edward D., ed. (2006). "Human Ontogeny: Gastrulation, Neurulation, and Somite Formation". Atlas of anatomy: general anatomy and musculoskeletal system. Thieme. ISBN 978-3-13-142081-7.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9TgTaGt6UC&pg=PA6
Jump up ^ "Pregnancy week by week". Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Brent AE, Schweitzer R, Tabin CJ (April 2003). "A somitic compartment of tendon progenitors". Cell. 113 (2): 235–48. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00268-X. PMID 12705871. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ Larsen, W J (2001). Human Embryology (3rd ed.). Elsevier. p. 87. ISBN 0-443-06583-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Betts, J. Gordon (2013). Anatomy & physiology. pp. 787–846. ISBN 1938168135.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Larsen, W J (2001). Human Embryology (3rd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 170–190. ISBN 0-443-06583-7.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human embryos.
Photo of blastocyst in utero
Slideshow: In the Womb
Online course in embryology for medicine students developed by the universities of Fribourg, Lausanne and Bern
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Human embryogenesis in the first three weeks
Week 1
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Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Week 2
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Neurulation
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Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
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Axial mesoderm
Paraxial
Somite
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Intermediate
Lateral plate
Intraembryonic coelom
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
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Cells in humans derived from ectoderm
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G cell
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Enterochromaffin-like cell
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S cell
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alpha cell
beta cell
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Pharyngeal pouch
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Capital punishment in Florida
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in the U.S. state of Florida.
Since 1976, the state has executed 96 convicted murderers, all at Florida State Prison.[1] As of February 24, 2018, 346 offenders are awaiting execution.[2]
The execution chamber in Florida State Prison.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Capital crimes
3 Legal process
4 Executions
5 Clemency
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Ted Bundy
Florida performed its last pre-Furman execution in 1964 (Sie Dawson). After the Supreme Court of the United States struck down all states' death penalty procedures in the Furman v. Georgia ruling, essentially ruling the imposition of the death penalty at the same time as a guilty verdict unconstitutional, Florida was the first state to draft a newly written statute on August 12, 1972.[3]
Florida performed the first involuntary execution after the Supreme Court, in the 1976 case Gregg v. Georgia, permitted the death penalty once more. John Arthur Spenkelink was electrocuted on May 25, 1979.[4]
In 1989, it executed notorious serial killer Ted Bundy.
Capital crimes[edit]
In Florida, murder can be punished by death if it involves one of the following aggravating factors:[5]
It was committed by a person previously convicted of a felony, under sentence of imprisonment, placed on community control, or on felony probation.
The defendant was previously convicted of another capital felony or of a felony involving the use or threat of violence to the person.
The defendant knowingly created a great risk of death to many persons.
It was committed while the defendant was engaged, or was an accomplice, in the commission of, or an attempt to commit a specified felony (such as aggravated child abuse, arson, kidnapping, placing or discharging of a destructive device or bomb).
It was committed for the purpose of avoiding or preventing a lawful arrest or effecting an escape from custody.
It was committed for pecuniary gain.
It was committed to disrupt or hinder the lawful exercise of any governmental function or the enforcement of laws.
It was especially heinous, atrocious, or cruel.
It was committed in a cold, calculated, and premeditated manner without any pretense of moral or legal justification.
The victim was a law enforcement officer engaged in the performance of his or her official duties.
The victim was an elected or appointed public official engaged in the performance of his or her official duties if the motive for the capital felony was related, in whole or in part, to the victim’s official capacity.
The victim was a person less than 12 years of age.
The victim was particularly vulnerable due to advanced age or disability, or because the defendant stood in a position of familial or custodial authority over the victim.
It was committed by a criminal gang member.
It was committed by a person currently or formerly designated as a sexual predator.
It was committed by a person subject to a restrictive order or a foreign protection order, and was committed against the person who obtained the injunction or protection order or any spouse, child, sibling, or parent of this person.
A Florida statute also provides the death penalty for capital drug trafficking. A provision for capital sexual battery was found unconstitutional in the 2008 U.S. Supreme Court case Kennedy v. Louisiana. No one is on death row in the United States for drug trafficking.
Legal process[edit]
On June 14, 2013, Governor Rick Scott signed the Timely Justice Act of 2013. The law is designed to overhaul and speed up the process of capital punishment. It creates tighter time frames for a person sentenced to death to make appeals and post-conviction motions and imposes reporting requirements on case progress.[6]
In Hurst v. Florida (January 2016), the United States Supreme Court struck down part of Florida's death penalty law, saying it was not sufficient for a judge to determine the aggravating facts to be used in considering a death sentence. Under Florida law, the jury made a recommendation to the judge, with a finding by majority vote, and the judge separately determined aggravating facts other than what the jury proposed. The Court ruled that Florida's law violated the Sixth Amendment guaranteeing a jury trial.[7][8] It was unclear whether the ruling would apply retroactively to current condemned men.
The Florida legislature passed a new statute to comply with the judgement in March 2016, and it also changed the sentencing method, requiring a 10 jurors supermajority to issue a sentence of death. If fewer than 10 jurors vote in favor of the death sentence, life imprisonment is imposed (there is no hung jury nor retrial).[9] Previously, the judge decided the sentence alone, and the jury gave only a non-binding advice.[10] This new sentencing scheme was also struck down, however, the Florida Supreme Court ruling 5-2 in October 2016 that a death sentence must be issued by a unanimous jury.[11]
In March 2017, the Florida legislature passed a new statute complying with the state supreme court holding that death sentences must be unanimous. It also provides that in case of a hung jury during the penalty phase of the trial, a life sentence is issued, even if a single juror opposed death (there is no retrial).[12]
Executions[edit]
New electric chair installed in 1999 at the Florida State Prison in Starke, Florida.
Florida used public hanging under a local jurisdiction, overseen and performed by the sheriffs of the counties where the crimes took place. However, in 1923, the Florida Legislature passed a law replacing hanging with the electric chair and stated that all future execution will be performed under state jurisdiction inside prisons.[13][14] The electric chair became a subject of strong controversy in the 1990s after three executions received considerable media attention and were labeled as "botched" by opponents (Jesse Tafero in 1990, Pedro Medina in 1997, and Allen Lee Davis in 1999). While most states switched to the lethal injection, many politicians in Florida opposed giving up "Old Sparky", seeing it as a "deterrent".[15] Finally, after the Davis execution, lethal injection was enabled and became the default method.[16] Inmates, however, may still choose electrocution,[17] though none have been executed by this method since the Davis execution.
In January 2016[18] Wayne Doty, asked the state to carry out his death sentence by electric chair, becoming the first inmate to do so since electrocution became optional.
Today, the only execution chamber in Florida is located at Florida State Prison in Starke. When sentenced, male convicts who receive the death penalty are incarcerated at either Florida State Prison itself, or at Union Correctional Institution next door to Florida State Prison, while female convicts who are sentenced to death are incarcerated at Lowell Correctional Institution north of Ocala. Inmates are moved to the death row at Florida State Prison when their death warrant is signed.
Clemency[edit]
The Governor of Florida has the right to commute the death penalty, but only with positive recommendation of clemency from a Board, where he or she sits.[19]
Between 1925 and 1965, 57 commutations were granted out of 268 cases.[20] Since 1972, when the death penalty was re-instituted, only six commutations have been granted, all under the administration of Governor Bob Graham.[19]
See also[edit]
List of individuals executed in Florida
List of United States death row inmates
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Florida Department of Corrections. "Execution List - Florida Department of Corrections". Dc.state.fl.us. Archived from the original on May 31, 2016. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Death Row Roster". Dc.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2017-01-24.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on May 23, 2015. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Nation: At Issue: Crime and Punishment". Time. June 4, 1979.
Jump up ^ Florida Statutes § 921.141
Jump up ^ "Rick Scott signs bill speeding up capital punishment". NaplesNews.com. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ LIZETTE ALVAREZ, "Supreme Court Ruling Has Florida Scrambling to Fix Death Penalty Law", The New York Times, February 2, 2016, accessed February 3, 2016
Jump up ^ ADAM LIPTAK, "Supreme Court Strikes Down Part of Florida Death Penalty", The New York Times, January 12, 2016, accessed February 3, 2016
Jump up ^ Berman, Mark (2016-03-07). "Florida death penalty officially revamped after Supreme Court struck it down". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-08-03.
Jump up ^ "HB 7101". Flsenate.gov. Florida state senate. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Klas, Mary Ellen; Ovalle, David (October 14, 2016). "Court again tosses state death penalty; ruling raises bar on capital punishment". Miami Herald. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "SB 280: Sentencing for Capital Felonies". flsenate.gov. Retrieved March 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Timeline: 1922-1924 - A History of Corrections in Florida". Dc.state.fl.us. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved 2016-07-21.
Jump up ^ "DPIC | Death Penalty Information Center". Deathpenaltyinfo.org. Retrieved 2016-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on June 8, 2011. Retrieved April 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Timeline: 1999 - A History of Corrections in Florida". Dc.state.fl.us. Archived from the original on June 28, 2014. Retrieved 2016-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Methods of Execution | Death Penalty Information Center". Deathpenaltyinfo.org. Retrieved 2016-07-21.
Jump up ^ Bradford County Public Records
^ Jump up to: a b "Clemency | Death Penalty Information Center". Deathpenaltyinfo.org. Retrieved 2016-07-21.
Jump up ^ Kathleen A. O'Shea, Women and the death penalty in the United States, 1900-1998, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999
External links[edit]
Look up Florida flambe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Florida execution chamber photo
Florida Capital Cases website
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text:
Dew point
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This article is about the meteorological dew point. For the petroleum term, see Hydrocarbon dew point.
Humidity and hygrometry
Specific concepts
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The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor. When further cooled, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew). When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air, water will condense on the surface.[1][2] When the temperature is below the freezing point of water, the dew point is called the frost point, as frost is formed rather than dew.[3] The measurement of the dew point is related to humidity. A higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the air.[2]
Contents
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1 Humidity
2 Relationship to human comfort
3 Measurement
4 Extreme values
5 Calculating the dew point
5.1 Simple approximation
6 Frost point
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Humidity[edit]
Given that all the other factors influencing humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls. This is because less vapor is needed to saturate the air so, vapor condenses as the temperature falls. Dew point temperature is never greater than the air temperature because relative humidity cannot exceed 100%.[4]
In technical terms, the dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in a sample of air at constant barometric pressure condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates.[5] At temperatures below the dew point, the rate of condensation will be greater than that of evaporation, forming more liquid water. The condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface, or frost if it freezes. The condensed water is called either fog or a cloud, depending on its altitude, when it forms in the air.
A high relative humidity implies that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. A relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the moisture content remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases.[6]
General aviation pilots use dew point data to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog, and to estimate the height of a cumuliform cloud base.
This graph shows the maximum percentage, by mass, of water vapor that air at sea-level pressure across a range of temperatures can contain. For a lower ambient pressure, a curve has to be drawn above the current curve. A higher ambient pressure yields a curve under the current curve.
At a given temperature but independent of barometric pressure, the dew point is a consequence of the absolute humidity, the mass of water per unit volume of air. If both the temperature and pressure rise, however, the dew point will increase and the relative humidity will decrease accordingly. Reducing the absolute humidity without changing other variables will bring the dew point back down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the absolute humidity after a temperature drop brings the dew point back down to its initial level. If the temperature rises in conditions of constant pressure, then the dew point will remain constant but the relative humidity will drop. For this reason, a constant relative humidity with different temperatures implies that when it is hotter, a higher fraction of the air is present as water vapor compared to when it is cooler.
At a given barometric pressure but independent of temperature, the dew point indicates the mole fraction of water vapor in the air, or, put differently, determines the specific humidity of the air. If the pressure rises without changing this mole fraction, the dew point will rise accordingly. Reducing the mole fraction, i.e., making the air less humid, would bring the dew point back down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the mole fraction after a pressure drop brings the relative humidity back up to its initial level. Considering New York (33 ft or 10 m elevation) and Denver (5,280 ft or 1,610 m elevation),[7] for example, this means that if the dew point and temperature in both cities are the same, then the mass of water vapor per cubic meter of air will be the same, but the mole fraction of water vapor in the air will be greater in Denver.
Relationship to human comfort[edit]
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When the air temperature is high, the human body uses the evaporation of sweat to cool down, with the cooling effect directly related to how fast the perspiration evaporates. The rate at which perspiration can evaporate depends on how much moisture is in the air and how much moisture the air can hold. If the air is already saturated with moisture, perspiration will not evaporate. The body's thermoregulation will produce perspiration in an effort to keep the body at its normal temperature even when the rate it is producing sweat exceeds the evaporation rate, so one can become coated with sweat on humid days even without generating additional body heat (such as by exercising).
As the air surrounding one's body is warmed by body heat, it will rise and be replaced with other air. If air is moved away from one's body with a natural breeze or a fan, sweat will evaporate faster, making perspiration more effective at cooling the body. The more unevaporated perspiration, the greater the discomfort.
A wet bulb thermometer also uses evaporative cooling, so it provides a good measure for use in evaluating comfort level.
Discomfort also exists when the dew point is low (below around −30 °C or −22 °F).[citation needed] The drier air can cause skin to crack and become irritated more easily. It will also dry out the airways. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration recommends indoor air be maintained at 20–24.5 °C (68–76 °F) with a 20–60% relative humidity, equivalent to a dew point of −4.5 to 15.5 °C (24 to 60 °F).[citation needed]
Lower dew points, less than 10 °C or 50 °F, correlate with lower ambient temperatures and the body requires less cooling. A lower dew point can go along with a high temperature only at extremely low relative humidity, allowing for relatively effective cooling.
People inhabiting tropical and subtropical climates acclimatize somewhat to higher dew points. Thus, a resident of Darwin or Miami, for example, might have a higher threshold for discomfort than a resident of a temperate climate like London or Chicago. Those accustomed to temperate climates often begin to feel uncomfortable when the dew point reaches between 15 and 20 °C (59–68 °F), while others might find dew points below 18 °C (64 °F) comfortable. Most inhabitants of these areas will consider dew points above 21 °C or 70 °F oppressive and tropical-like.
Dew point
Human perception[6]
Relative humidity at 32 °C (90 °F)
Over 26 °C Over 80 °F Severely high, even deadly for asthma related illnesses 73% and higher
24–26 °C 75–80 °F Extremely uncomfortable, oppressive 62–72%
21–24 °C 70–74 °F Very humid, quite uncomfortable 52–61%
18–21 °C 65–69 °F Somewhat uncomfortable for most people at upper edge 44–51%
16–18 °C 60–64 °F OK for most, but all perceive the humidity at upper edge 37–43%
13–16 °C 55–59 °F Comfortable 31–36%
10–12 °C 50–54 °F Very comfortable 26–30%
Under 10 °C Under 50 °F A bit dry for some 25% and lower
Measurement[edit]
Devices called hygrometers are used to measure dew point over a wide range of temperatures. These devices consist of a polished metal mirror which is cooled as air is passed over it. The temperature at which dew forms is, by definition, the dew point. Manual devices of this sort can be used to calibrate other types of humidity sensors, and automatic sensors may be used in a control loop with a humidifier or dehumidifier to control the dew point of the air in a building or in a smaller space for a manufacturing process.
Extreme values[edit]
A dew point of 33 °C (91 °F) was observed at 14:00 EDT on July 12, 1987, in Melbourne, Florida. A dew point of 32 °C (90 °F) has been observed in the United States on at least two other occasions: Appleton, Wisconsin, at 17:00 CDT on July 13, 1995, and New Orleans Naval Air Station at 17:00 CDT on July 30, 1987. A dew point of 35 °C (95 °F) was observed at Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, at 15:00 AST on July 8, 2003, which caused the heat index to reach 81 °C (178 °F), the highest value recorded.
Calculating the dew point[edit]
Graph of the dependence of the dew point upon air temperature for several levels of relative humidity.
See also: Psychrometric chart
A well-known approximation used to calculate the dew point, Tdp, given just the actual ("dry bulb") air temperature, T (in degrees Celsius) and relative humidity (in percent), RH, is the Magnus formula:
γ ( T , R H ) = ln  ( R H 100 ) + b T c + T ; T d p = c γ ( T , R H ) b − γ ( T , R H ) ; {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\gamma (T,\mathrm {RH} )&=\ln \left({\frac {\mathrm {RH} }{100}}\right)+{\frac {bT}{c+T}};\\[8pt]T_{\mathrm {dp} }&={\frac {c\gamma (T,\mathrm {RH} )}{b-\gamma (T,\mathrm {RH} )}};\end{aligned}}}
The more complete formulation and origin of this approximation involves the interrelated saturated water vapor pressure (in units of millibars, also called hectopascals) at T, Ps(T), and the actual vapor pressure (also in units of millibars), Pa(T), which can be either found with RH or approximated with the barometric pressure (in millibars), BPmb, and "wet-bulb" temperature, Tw is (unless declared otherwise, all temperatures are expressed in degrees Celsius):
P s ( T ) = 100 R H P a ( T ) = a e b T c + T ; P a ( T ) = R H 100 P s ( T ) = a e γ ( T , R H ) ≈ P s ( T w ) − B P m b 0.00066 ( 1 + 0.00115 T w ) ( T − T w ) ; T d p = c ln  P a ( T ) a b − ln  P a ( T ) a ; {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P_{\mathrm {s} }(T)&={\frac {100}{\mathrm {RH} }}P_{\mathrm {a} }(T)=ae^{\frac {bT}{c+T}};\\[8pt]P_{\mathrm {a} }(T)&={\frac {\mathrm {RH} }{100}}P_{\mathrm {s} }(T)=ae^{\gamma (T,\mathrm {RH} )}\\&\approx P_{\mathrm {s} }(T_{\mathrm {w} })-BP_{\mathrm {mb} }0.00066\left(1+0.00115T_{\mathrm {w} }\right)\left(T-T_{\mathrm {w} }\right);\\[8pt]T_{\mathrm {dp} }&={\frac {c\ln {\frac {P_{\mathrm {a} }(T)}{a}}}{b-\ln {\frac {P_{\mathrm {a} }(T)}{a}}}};\end{aligned}}}
For greater accuracy, Ps(T) (and therefore γ(T, RH)) can be enhanced, using part of the Bögel modification, also known as the Arden Buck equation, which adds a fourth constant d:
P s , m ( T ) = a e ( b − T d ) ( T c + T ) ; γ m ( T , R H ) = ln  ( R H 100 e ( b − T d ) ( T c + T ) ) ; T d p = c γ m ( T , R H ) b − γ m ( T , R H ) ; {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P_{\mathrm {s,m} }(T)&=ae^{\left(b-{\frac {T}{d}}\right)\left({\frac {T}{c+T}}\right)};\\[8pt]\gamma _{\mathrm {m} }(T,\mathrm {RH} )&=\ln \left({\frac {\mathrm {RH} }{100}}e^{\left(b-{\frac {T}{d}}\right)\left({\frac {T}{c+T}}\right)}\right);\\[8pt]T_{dp}&={\frac {c\gamma _{m}(T,\mathrm {RH} )}{b-\gamma _{m}(T,\mathrm {RH} )}};\end{aligned}}}
where
a = 6.1121 mb, b = 18.678, c = 257.14 °C, d = 234.5 °C.
There are several different constant sets in use. The ones used in NOAA's presentation[8] are taken from a 1980 paper by David Bolton in the Monthly Weather Review:[9]
a = 6.112 mb, b = 17.67, c = 243.5 °C.
These valuations provide a maximum error of 0.1%, for −30 °C ≤ T ≤ 35°C and 1% < RH < 100%. Also noteworthy is the Sonntag1990,[10]
a = 6.112 mb, b = 17.62, c = 243.12 °C; for −45 °C ≤ T ≤ 60 °C (error ±0.35 °C).
Another common set of values originates from the 1974 Psychrometry and Psychrometric Charts, as presented by Paroscientific,[11]
a = 6.105 mb, b = 17.27, c = 237.7 °C; for 0 °C ≤ T ≤ 60 °C (error ±0.4 °C).
Also, in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,[12] Arden Buck presents several different valuation sets, with different minimum accuracies for different temperature ranges. Two particular sets provide a range of −40 °C to +50 °C between the two, with even greater minimum accuracy than all of the other, above sets (maximum error at extremes of temperature range):
a = 6.1121 mb, b = 17.368, c = 238.88 °C; for 0 °C ≤ T ≤ 50 °C (error ≤ 0.05%).
a = 6.1121 mb, b = 17.966, c = 247.15 °C; for −40 °C ≤ T ≤ 0 °C (error ≤ 0.06%).
Simple approximation[edit]
There is also a very simple approximation that allows conversion between the dew point, temperature, and relative humidity. This approach is accurate to within about ±1 °C as long as the relative humidity is above 50%:
T d p ≈ T − 100 − R H 5 ; R H ≈ 100 − 5 ( T − T d p ) ; {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T_{\mathrm {dp} }&\approx T-{\frac {100-\mathrm {RH} }{5}};\\[5pt]\mathrm {RH} &\approx 100-5(T-T_{\mathrm {dp} });\end{aligned}}}
This can be expressed as a simple rule of thumb:
For every 1 °C difference in the dew point and dry bulb temperatures, the relative humidity decreases by 5%, starting with RH = 100% when the dew point equals the dry bulb temperature.
The derivation of this approach, a discussion of its accuracy, comparisons to other approximations, and more information on the history and applications of the dew point are given in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.[13]
For temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit, these approximations work out to
T d p , ∘ F ≈ T ∘ F − 9 25 ( 100 − R H ) ; R H ≈ 100 − 25 9 ( T ∘ F − T d p , ∘ F ) ; {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T_{\mathrm {dp,^{\circ }F} }&\approx T_{\mathrm {{}^{\circ }F} }-{\tfrac {9}{25}}\left(100-\mathrm {RH} \right);\\[5pt]\mathrm {RH} &\approx 100-{\tfrac {25}{9}}\left(T_{\mathrm {{}^{\circ }F} }-T_{\mathrm {dp,^{\circ }F} }\right);\end{aligned}}}
For example, a relative humidity of 100% means dew point is the same as air temp. For 90% RH, dew point is 3 °F lower than air temperature. For every 10 percent lower, dew point drops 3 °F.
Frost point[edit]
The frost point is similar to the dew point, in that it is the temperature to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled, at constant barometric pressure, for water vapor to be deposited on a surface as ice without going through the liquid phase. (Compare with sublimation.) The frost point for a given parcel of air is always higher than the dew point, as the stronger bonding between water molecules on the surface of ice requires higher temperature to break.[14]
See also[edit]
Bubble point
Carburetor heat
Hydrocarbon dew point
Psychrometrics
Thermodynamic diagrams
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Glossary - NOAA's National Weather Service
^ Jump up to: a b John M. Wallace; Peter V. Hobbs (24 March 2006). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey. Academic Press. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-0-08-049953-6.
Jump up ^ Glossary - NOAA's National Weather Service
Jump up ^ Observed Dew Point Temperature: indicates the amount of moisture in the air
Jump up ^ Dew Point | Definition of dew point by Merriam-Webster
^ Jump up to: a b Horstmeyer, Steve (2006-08-15). "Relative Humidity....Relative to What? The Dew Point Temperature...a better approach". Steve Horstmeyer, Meteorologist, WKRC TV, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Retrieved 2009-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Denver Facts Guide – Today". The City and County of Denver. Archived from the original on February 3, 2007. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ Relative Humidity and Dewpoint Temperature from Temperature and Wet-Bulb Temperature
Jump up ^ Bolton, David (July 1980). "The Computation of Equivalent Potential Temperature" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 108 (7): 1046–1053. Bibcode:1980MWRv..108.1046B. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1980)108<1046:TCOEPT>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ SHTxx Application Note Dew-point Calculation
Jump up ^ "MET4 and MET4A Calculation of Dew Point". Archived from the original on May 26, 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Buck, Arden L. (December 1981). "New Equations for Computing Vapor Pressure and Enhancement Factor" (PDF). Journal of Applied Meteorology. 20 (12): 1527–1532. Bibcode:1981JApMe..20.1527B. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1981)020<1527:NEFCVP>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Mark G. (February 2005). "The Relationship between Relative Humidity and the Dewpoint Temperature in Moist Air: A Simple Conversion and Applications". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 86 (2): 225–233. Bibcode:2005BAMS...86..225L. doi:10.1175/BAMS-86-2-225.
Jump up ^ Haby, Jeff. "Frost point and dew point". Retrieved September 30, 2011.
External links[edit]
Often Needed Answers about Temp, Humidity & Dew Point from the sci.geo.meteorology
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