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Fourth Crusade
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Fourth Crusade
Part of the Crusades

Conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204
Date
1202–1204
Location
Balkans
Result
Crusader victory
Zara and Constantinople sacked
Solidification of the schism between the Latin and Greek churches
Byzantine Empire irrevocably weakened
Outbreak of the Nicaean-Latin wars and the Bulgarian-Latin wars
Territorial
changes
Venetian authority asserted over Zara
Foundation of several Latin crusader states in the Balkans
Partitioning of the Byzantine Empire into rump states centred in Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus
Belligerents
Crusaders:
Republic of Venice
Holy Roman Empire
Montferrat
Hainaut
Halberstadt
Pairis Abbey
Kingdom of France
Champagne
Blois
Burgundy
Flanders
Saint-Pol
Île-de-France
Amiens
Eastern Christian opponents:
Byzantine Empire
Latin Christian opponents:
Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Commanders and leaders
Enrico Dandolo
Boniface I of Montferrat
Theobald III of Champagne
Balduin of Flanders
Louis I of Blois
Hugh IV of Saint-Pol
Conrad of Halberstadt
Martin of Pairis
Alexios IV Angelos
Alexios III Angelos
Alexios V Doukas
Strength
4-5,000 knights
8,000 infantry
300 siege weapons
10,000 sailors and marines
60 war galleys
100 horse transports
50 troop transports
10,000 Byzantine infantry
5,000 Varangians
20 war galleys
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Fourth Crusade
Zara
1st Constantinople
2nd Constantinople
The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was a Latin Christian armed expedition called by Pope Innocent III. The stated intent of the expedition was to recapture the Muslim-controlled city of Jerusalem, by first conquering the powerful Egyptian Ayyubid Sultanate, the strongest Muslim nation of the time. However, a sequence of economic and political events culminated in the Crusader army sacking the city of Constantinople, the capital of the Greek Christian-controlled Byzantine Empire.
In late 1202, financial issues led to the Crusader army sacking Zara, which was then brought under Venetian control. In January 1203, en-route to Jerusalem, the Crusader leadership entered into an agreement with the Byzantine prince Alexios Angelos to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and restore his deposed father as Emperor. The intent of the Crusaders was then to continue to Jerusalem with promised Byzantine financial and military aid. On 23 June 1203, the bulk of the Crusaders reached Constantinople, while smaller contingents continued to Acre.
In August, following clashes outside Constantinople, Alexios was crowned co-Emperor. However, in January 1204, he was deposed by a popular uprising. The Crusaders were no longer able to receive their promised payments from Alexios. Following the murder of Alexios on 8 February, the Crusaders decided on the outright conquest of the city. In April 1204, they captured and plundered the city's enormous wealth. Only a handful of the Crusaders continued to the Holy Land thereafter.
The conquest of Constantinople was followed by the fragmentation of the Empire into three rump states centred in Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus. The Crusaders then founded several Crusader states in former Byzantine territory, largely hinged upon the Latin Empire of Constantinople. The presence of the Latin Crusader states almost immediately led to war with the Byzantine successor states and the Bulgarian Empire. The Nicaean Empire eventually recovered Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire in 1261.
The Crusade is considered to be one of the most prominent acts that solidified the schism between the Greek and Latin Christian churches, and dealt an irrevocable blow to the already weakened Byzantine Empire, paving the way for Muslim conquests in Anatolia and Balkan Europe in the coming centuries.
Contents
1 Background
2 The Crusade begins
3 Attack on Zara
4 Diversion to Constantinople
4.1 Siege of July 1203
4.2 Further attacks on Constantinople
4.3 Sack of Constantinople
5 Outcome
6 Legacy
7 In fiction and music
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
9.2.1 Primary sources
9.2.2 Secondary sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
Ayyubid Sultan Saladin had conquered most of the Frankish, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, including the ancient city itself, in 1187. The Kingdom had been established 88 years before, after the capture and sack of Jerusalem in the First Crusade, which had been a Byzantine holding prior to the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The city was sacred to Christians, Muslims and Jews, and returning it to Christian hands had been a primary purpose of the First Crusade. Saladin led a Muslim dynasty, and his incorporation of Jerusalem into his domains shocked and dismayed the Catholic countries of Western Europe. Legend has it that Pope Urban III literally died of the shock, but the timing of his death makes that impossible.[1] The crusader states had been reduced to three cities along the sea coast: Tyre, Tripoli, and Antioch.[2]
The Third Crusade (1189–92) reclaimed an extensive amount of territory for the Kingdom of Jerusalem, including the key towns of Acre and Jaffa, but had failed to retake Jerusalem. The crusade had also been marked by a significant escalation in long standing tensions between the feudal states of western Europe and the Byzantine Empire,[3] centred in Constantinople. The experiences of the first two crusades had thrown into stark relief the vast cultural differences between the two Christian civilisations. The Latins (as the Byzantines referred to them because of their adherence to the Latin Rite) viewed the Byzantine preference for diplomacy and trade over war as duplicitous and degenerate, and their policy of tolerance and assimilation towards Muslims as a corrupt betrayal of the faith. For their part, the educated and wealthy Byzantines maintained a strong sense of cultural, organizational, and social superiority over the Latins.[4]
Constantinople had been in existence for 874 years at the time of the Fourth Crusade and was the largest and most sophisticated city in Christendom.[5] Almost alone amongst major medieval urban centres, it had retained the civic structures, public baths, forums, monuments, and aqueducts of classical Rome in working form. At its height, the city held an estimated population of about half a million people[6] behind thirteen miles of triple walls. Its planned location made Constantinople not only the capital of the surviving eastern part of the Roman Empire but also a commercial centre that dominated trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea,[7] China, India and Persia.[8] As a result, it was both a rival and a tempting target for the aggressive new states of the west, notably the Republic of Venice.
One of the leaders of the Third Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, openly plotted with the Serbs, Bulgars, Byzantine traitors, and even the Muslim Seljuks against the Eastern Empire and at one point sought Papal support for a crusade against the Orthodox Byzantines.[9] Crusaders also seized the breakaway Byzantine province of Cyprus; rather than return it to the Empire, Richard I of England sold the island to the Knights Templar. Barbarossa died on crusade, and his army quickly disintegrated, leaving the English and French, who had come by sea, to fight Saladin. In 1195 Henry VI, son and heir of Barbarossa, sought to efface this humiliation by declaring a new crusade, and in the summer of 1197 a large number of German knights and nobles, headed by two archbishops, nine bishops, and five dukes, sailed for Palestine. There they captured Sidon and Beirut, but at the news of Henry's death in Messina along the way, many of the nobles and clerics returned to Europe. Deserted by much of their leadership, the rank and file crusaders panicked before an Egyptian army and fled to their ships in Tyre.
Also in 1195, the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos was deposed in favour of his brother by a palace coup. Ascending as Alexios III Angelos, the new emperor had his brother blinded (a traditional punishment for treason, considered more humane than execution) and exiled. Ineffectual on the battlefield, Isaac had also proven to be an incompetent ruler who had let the treasury dwindle and outsourced the navy to the Venetians. His actions in wastefully distributing military weapons and supplies as gifts to his supporters had undermined the empire's defenses.[10] The new emperor was to prove no better. Anxious to shore up his position, Alexios bankrupted the treasury. His attempts to secure the support of semi-autonomous border commanders undermined central authority. He neglected his crucial responsibilities for defence and diplomacy. The emperor's chief admiral (his wife's brother-in-law), Michael Stryphnos, reportedly sold the fleet's equipment down to the very nails to enrich himself.
The Crusade begins[edit]
Pope Innocent III succeeded to the papacy in January 1198, and the preaching of a new crusade became the prime goal of his pontificate, expounded in his bull Post miserabile.[11][12] His call was largely ignored by the European monarchs: the Germans were struggling against Papal power, and England and France were still engaged in warfare against each other. However, due to the preaching of Fulk of Neuilly, a crusading army was finally organised at a tournament held at Écry-sur-Aisne by Count Thibaut of Champagne in 1199.[13] Thibaut was elected leader, but he died in 1201 and was replaced by an Italian count, Boniface of Montferrat.[14]
Boniface and the other leaders sent envoys to Venice, Genoa, and other city-states in 1200 to negotiate a contract for transport to Egypt, the stated objective of their crusade; one of the envoys was the future historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin. Earlier crusades focused on Palestine had involved the slow movement of large and disorganised land hosts across a generally hostile Anatolia. Egypt was now the dominant Muslim power in the eastern Mediterranean but also a major trading partner of Venice.[15] An attack on Egypt would clearly be a maritime enterprise, requiring the creation of a fleet. Genoa was uninterested, but in March 1201 negotiations were opened with Venice, which agreed to transport 33,500 crusaders, a very ambitious number. This agreement required a full year of preparation on the part of the Venetians to build numerous ships and train the sailors who would man them, all the while curtailing the city's commercial activities. The crusading army was expected to consist of 4,500 knights (as well as 4,500 horses), 9,000 squires, and 20,000 foot-soldiers.
The majority of the crusading army that set out from Venice in early October 1202 originated from areas within France. It included men from Blois, Champagne, Amiens, Saint-Pol, the Île-de-France, and Burgundy. Several other regions of Europe sent substantial contingents as well, such as Flanders and Montferrat. Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire, including the men under Bishop Martin of the Pairis Abbey and Bishop Conrad of Halberstadt, together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the doge, Enrico Dandolo. The crusade was to be ready to sail on 24 June 1203 and make directly for the Ayyubid capital, Cairo. This agreement was ratified by Pope Innocent, with a solemn ban on attacks on Christian states.[16]
Attack on Zara[edit]
Main article: Siege of Zara
The crusaders conquering the City of Zadar, painted by Tintoretto
There was no binding agreement among the crusaders that all should sail from Venice. Accordingly, many chose to sail from other ports, particularly Flanders, Marseille, and Genoa. By May 1202, the bulk of the crusader army was collected at Venice, although with far smaller numbers than expected: about 12,000 (4–5,000 knights and 8,000 foot soldiers) instead of 33,500.[17] The Venetians had performed their part of the agreement: there awaited 50 war galleys and 450 transports – enough for three times the assembled army.[18] The Venetians, under their aged and blind Doge Dandolo, would not let the crusaders leave without paying the full amount agreed to, originally 85,000 silver marks. The crusaders could only initially pay 35,000 silver marks. The Doge threatened to keep them interned unless full payment was made so a further 14,000 marks was collected, and that only by reducing the crusaders to extreme poverty.[19] This was disastrous to the Venetians, who had halted their commerce for a great length of time to prepare this expedition. In addition, about 14,000 men or as many as 20–30,000 men (out of Venice's population of 60–100,000 people) were needed to man the entire fleet, placing further strain on the Venetian economy.[18][20]
Dandolo and the Venetians considered what to do with the crusade. It was too small to pay its fee, but disbanding the force gathered would harm Venetian prestige and cause significant financial and trading loss. Dandolo, who joined the crusade during a public ceremony in the church of San Marco di Venezia, proposed that the crusaders pay their debts by intimidating many of the local ports and towns down the Adriatic, culminating in an attack on the port of Zara in Dalmatia.[21] The city had been dominated economically by Venice throughout the 12th century but had rebelled in 1181 and allied itself with King Emeric of Hungary and Croatia.[22][23][24] Subsequent Venetian attempts to recover control of Zara had been repulsed, and by 1202 the city was economically independent, under the protection of the King.[25]
King Emeric was Catholic and had himself taken the cross in 1195 or 1196. Many of the crusaders were opposed to attacking Zara, and some, including a force led by the elder Simon de Montfort, refused to participate altogether and returned home. While the Papal legate to the Crusade, Cardinal Peter of Capua, endorsed the move as necessary to prevent the crusade's complete failure, the Pope was alarmed at this development and wrote a letter to the crusading leadership threatening excommunication.[26]
In 1202, Pope Innocent III, despite wanting to secure papal authority over Byzantium, forbade the crusaders of Western Christendom from committing any atrocious acts against their Christian neighbours.[27] However, this letter was concealed from the bulk of the army who arrived at Zara on 10–11 November 1202, and the attack proceeded. The citizens of Zara made reference to the fact that they were fellow Catholics by hanging banners marked with crosses from their windows and the walls of the city, but nevertheless the city fell on 24 November 1202 after a brief siege. There was extensive pillaging, and the Venetians and other crusaders came to blows over the division of the spoils. Order was achieved, and the leaders of the expedition agreed to winter in Zara, while considering their next move.[28] The fortifications of Zara were demolished by the Venetians.
When Innocent III heard of the sack, he sent a letter to the crusaders excommunicating them and ordering them to return to their holy vows and head for Jerusalem. Out of fear that this would dissolve the army, the leaders of the crusade decided not to inform their followers of this. Regarding the Crusaders as having been coerced by the Venetians, in February 1203 he rescinded the excommunications against all non-Venetians in the expedition.[29]
Diversion to Constantinople[edit]
Dandolo Preaching the Crusade by Gustave Doré
The commercial rivalry between the Republic of Venice and the Byzantine Empire and the living memory of the Massacre of the Latins did much to exacerbate the feeling of animosity among the Venetians towards the Byzantines. According to the Chronicle of Novgorod Doge Enrico Dandolo had been blinded by the Byzantines during the 1171 expedition to Byzantium and thus held personal enmity towards the Byzantines.[30]
Boniface of Montferrat, meanwhile, had left the fleet before it sailed from Venice, to visit his cousin Philip of Swabia. The reasons for his visit are a matter of debate; he may have realized the Venetians' plans and left to avoid excommunication, or he may have wanted to meet with the Byzantine prince Alexios IV Angelos, Philip's brother-in-law and the son of the recently deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos. Alexios IV had recently fled to Philip in 1201 but it is unknown whether or not Boniface knew he was at Philip's court. There, Alexios IV offered to pay the entire debt owed to the Venetians, give 200,000 silver marks to the crusaders, 10,000 Byzantine professional troops for the Crusade, the maintenance of 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy to transport the Crusader Army to Egypt, and the placement of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the authority of the Pope, if they would sail to Byzantium and topple the reigning emperor Alexios III Angelos, brother of Isaac II. This tempting offer, for an enterprise that was short on funds, reached the leaders of the Crusade on 1 January 1203 as they wintered at Zara.[31] Doge Dandolo was a fierce supporter of the plan; however, in his earlier capacity as an ambassador to Byzantium and someone who knew the finer details of how Byzantine politics worked, it is likely he knew the promises were false and there was no hope of any Byzantine emperor raising the money promised, let alone raising the troops and giving the church to the Holy See. Count Boniface agreed and Alexios IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. Most of the rest of the crusade's leaders, encouraged by bribes from Dandolo,[29] eventually accepted the plan as well. However, there were dissenters. Led by Reynold of Montmirail, those who refused to take part in the scheme to attack Constantinople sailed on to Syria.[29] The remaining fleet of 60 war galleys, 100 horse transports, and 50 large transports (the entire fleet was manned by 10,000 Venetian oarsmen and marines) sailed in late April 1203.[32] In addition, 300 siege engines were brought along on board the fleet.[33] Hearing of their decision, the Pope hedged and issued an order against any more attacks on Christians unless they were actively hindering the Crusader cause, but he did not condemn the scheme outright.[34]
When the Fourth Crusade arrived at Constantinople on 23 June 1203, the city had a population of approximately 500,000 people,[35] a garrison of 15,000 men (including 5,000 Varangians), and a fleet of 20 galleys.[36][37][38][39] For both political and financial reasons, the permanent garrison of Constantinople had been limited to a relatively small force, made up of elite guard and other specialist units. At previous times in Byzantine history when the capital had come under direct threat, it had been possible to assemble reinforcements from frontier and provincial forces. On this occasion, the suddenness of the danger posed by the Fourth Crusade put the defenders at a serious disadvantage.[35] The main objective of the crusaders was to place Alexios IV on the Byzantine throne so that they could receive the rich payments he had promised them. Conon of Bethune delivered this ultimatum to the Lombard envoy sent by the Emperor Alexios III Angelos, who was the pretender's uncle and had seized the throne from the pretender's father Isaac II. The citizens of Constantinople were not concerned with the cause of the deposed emperor and his exiled son; hereditary right of succession had never been adopted by the empire and a palace coup between brothers was not considered illegitimate in the way it would have been in the West. First the crusaders attacked and were repulsed from the cities of Chalcedon and Chrysopolis, suburbs of the great city. They won a cavalry skirmish in which they were outnumbered, defeating 500 Byzantines with just 80 Frankish knights.[40]
Siege of July 1203[edit]
Main article: Siege of Constantinople (1203)
The Crusader attack on Constantinople, from a Venetian manuscript of Geoffreoy de Villehardouin's history, c. 1330
To take the city by force, the crusaders first needed to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse transports, and galleys delivered the crusading army across the narrow strait, where Alexios III had lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusader knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and the Byzantine army fled south. The Crusaders followed and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held the northern end of the massive chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. As they laid siege to the Tower, the Byzantines counterattacked with some initial success. The crusaders rallied, and the Byzantines retreated to the Tower, but the crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the Gate and took the Tower. The Golden Horn now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian fleet entered. The Crusaders sailed alongside Constantinople with 10 galleys to display the would-be Alexios IV, but from the walls of the city citizens taunted the puzzled crusaders, who had been led to believe that they would rise up to welcome the young pretender Alexios as a liberator.[41]
On 11 July, the Crusaders took positions opposite the Palace of Blachernae on the northwest corner of the city. Their first attempts were repulsed, but on 17 July, with four divisions attacking the land walls while the Venetian fleet attacked the sea walls from the Golden Horn, the Venetians took a section of the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard held off the Crusaders on the land wall. The Varangians shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated under the screen of fire. The fire destroyed about 120 acres (0.49 km2) of the city and left some 20,000 people homeless.[42]
Alexios III finally took offensive action, leading 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. Alexios III's army of about 8,500 men faced the Crusaders' seven divisions (about 3,500 men), but his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight.[43] The unforced retreat and the effects of the fire greatly damaged morale, and the disgraced Alexios III abandoned his subjects, slipping out of the city and fleeing to Mosynopolis in Thrace.[44] The Imperial officials quickly deposed their runaway emperor and restored Isaac II, robbing the crusaders of the pretext for attack.[44] The crusaders were now in the quandary of having achieved their stated aim while being debarred from the actual objective, namely the reward that the younger Alexios had (unbeknownst to the Byzantines) promised them. The crusaders insisted that they would only recognize the authority of Isaac II if his son was raised to co-emperor, and on 1 August the latter was crowned as Alexios Angelos IV, co-emperor.[44]
Further attacks on Constantinople[edit]
Capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204
Alexios IV realised that his promises were hard to keep. Alexios III had managed to flee with 1,000 pounds of gold and some priceless jewels, leaving the imperial treasury short on funds. At that point the young emperor ordered the destruction and melting of valuable Byzantine and Roman icons in order to extract their gold and silver, but even then he could only raise 100,000 silver marks. In the eyes of all Greeks who knew of this decision, it was a shocking sign of desperation and weak leadership, which deserved to be punished by God. The Byzantine historian Nicetas Choniates characterized it as "the turning point towards the decline of the Roman state".[45]
Forcing the populace to destroy their icons at the behest of an army of foreign schismatics did not endear Alexios IV to the citizens of Constantinople. In fear of his life, the co-emperor asked the crusaders to renew their contract for another six months, to end by April 1204. Alexios IV then led 6,000 men from the Crusader army against his rival Alexios III in Adrianople.[46] During the co-emperor's absence in August, rioting broke out in the city and a number of Latin residents were killed. In retaliation armed Venetians and other crusaders entered the city from the Golden Horn and attacked a mosque (Constantinople at this time had a sizable Muslim population), which was defended by Muslim and Byzantine residents[citation needed]. In order to cover their retreat the Westerners instigated the "Great Fire", which burnt from 19 to 21 August, destroying a large part of Constantinople and leaving an estimated 100,000 homeless.
In January 1204, the blinded and incapacitated Isaac II died, probably of natural causes.[45] Opposition to his son and co-emperor Alexios IV had grown during the preceding months of tension and spasmodic violence in and around Constantinople. The Byzantine Senate elected a young noble Nicolas Canabus as emperor, in what was to be one of the last known acts of this ancient institution. However he declined the appointment and sought church sanctuary.[47]
A nobleman Alexios Doukas (nicknamed Mourtzouphlos) became the leader of the anti-crusader faction within the Byzantine leadership. While holding the court rank of protovestilarios, Doukas had led Byzantine forces during the initial clashes with the crusaders, winning respect from both military and populace. He was accordingly well-placed to move against the increasingly isolated Alexios IV, whom he overthrew, imprisoned, and had strangled in early February. Doukas then was crowned as Emperor Alexios V. He immediately moved to have the city fortifications strengthened and summoned additional forces to the city.[48]
The crusaders and Venetians, incensed at the murder of their supposed patron, demanded that Mourtzouphlos honour the contract that Alexios IV had promised. When the Byzantine emperor refused, the Crusaders assaulted the city once again. On 8 April Alexios V's army put up a strong resistance, which did much to discourage the crusaders.[45] The Byzantines hurled large projectiles onto the enemy siege engines, shattering many of them. Bad weather conditions were a serious hindrance to the crusaders. Fierce wind blew from the shore and prevented most of the ships from drawing close enough to the walls to launch an assault. Only five of the wall's towers were actually engaged and none of these could be secured; by mid-afternoon it was evident that the attack had failed.[45]
The Latin clergy discussed the situation amongst themselves and settled upon the message they wished to spread through the demoralised army. They had to convince the men that the events of 9 April were not God's judgment on a sinful enterprise: the campaign, they argued, was righteous and with proper belief it would succeed. The concept of God testing the determination of the crusaders through temporary setbacks was a familiar means for the clergy to explain failure in the course of a campaign.[45] The clergy's message was designed to reassure and encourage the Crusaders. Their argument that the attack on Constantinople was spiritual revolved around two themes. First, the Greeks were traitors and murderers since they had killed their rightful lord, Alexios IV.[45] The churchmen used inflammatory language and claimed that "the Greeks were worse than the Jews",[45] and they invoked the authority of God and the pope to take action.
Although Innocent III had again demanded that they not attack, the papal letter was suppressed by the clergy, and the crusaders prepared for their own attack, while the Venetians attacked from the sea. Alexios V's army stayed in the city to fight, along with the imperial bodyguard, the Varangians, but Alexios V himself fled during the night. An attempt was made to find a further replacement emperor from amongst the Byzantine nobility, but the situation had now become too chaotic for either of the two candidates who came forward to find sufficient support.
Sack of Constantinople[edit]
Main article: Siege of Constantinople (1204)
The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople (Eugène Delacroix, 1840). The most infamous action of the Fourth Crusade was the sack of the Orthodox Christian city of Constantinople.
On 12 April 1204, the weather conditions finally favoured the crusaders. A strong northern wind aided the Venetian ships in coming close to the walls, and after a short battle approximately seventy crusaders managed to enter the city. Some were able to knock holes in the walls, large enough for only a few knights at a time to crawl through; the Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from the sea, though there was fighting with the Varangians. The Anglo-Saxon "axe bearers" had been amongst the most effective of the city's defenders, but they now attempted to negotiate higher wages from their Byzantine employers, before dispersing or surrendering.[49] The crusaders captured the Blachernae section of the city in the northwest and used it as a base to attack the rest of the city. While attempting to defend themselves with a wall of fire, however, they burned even more of the city. This second fire left 15,000 people homeless.[46] The crusaders completely took the city on 13 April.
The crusaders sacked Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient Greco-Roman and medieval Byzantine works of art were stolen or ruined. Many of the civilian population of the city were killed and their property looted. Despite the threat of excommunication, the crusaders destroyed, defiled and looted the city's churches and monasteries.[50][51] It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that was their due, while the crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly up between the crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many crusader knights.[52][53]
Speros Vryonis in Byzantium and Europe gives a vivid account of the sack:
The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though the Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Byzantium, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became an easy prey to the Turks. The Fourth Crusade and the crusading movement generally thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention.[50][51]
When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his pilgrims he was filled with shame and rage, and he strongly rebuked them.
According to a subsequent treaty, the empire was apportioned between Venice and the leaders of the crusade, and the Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boniface was not elected as the new emperor, although the citizens seemed to consider him as such; the Venetians thought he had too many connections with the former empire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat, who had been married to Maria Komnene, empress in the 1170s and 1180s. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders on the throne. Boniface went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica, a vassal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea. Meanwhile, Byzantine refugees founded their own rump states, the most notable of these being the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Laskaris (a relative of Alexios III), the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus.
Outcome[edit]
Partition of the Byzantine Empire into The Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, and Despotate of Epirus after 1204
Only a relatively small number of the members of the Fourth Crusade finally reached their originally intended goal of the Holy Land. Research indicates that about a tenth of the knights who had taken the cross in Flanders arrived to reinforce the remaining Christian states there, plus about half of those from the Île-de-France.[54] During the ensuing half century the unstable Latin Empire siphoned off much of Europe's crusading energy. The legacy of the Fourth Crusade was the deep sense of betrayal felt by the Greek Christians. With the events of 1204, the schism between the Churches in the East and West was not just complete but also solidified.[55]
As an epilogue to the event, Pope Innocent III, the man who had unintentionally launched the ill-fated expedition, spoke against the crusaders thus:
How, indeed, will the church of the Greeks, no matter how severely she is beset with afflictions and persecutions, return into ecclesiastical union and to a devotion for the Apostolic See, when she has seen in the Latins only an example of perdition and the works of darkness, so that she now, and with reason, detests the Latins more than dogs? As for those who were supposed to be seeking the ends of Jesus Christ, not their own ends, who made their swords, which they were supposed to use against the pagans, drip with Christian blood, they have spared neither religion, nor age, nor sex. They have committed incest, adultery, and fornication before the eyes of men. They have exposed both matrons and virgins, even those dedicated to God, to the sordid lusts of boys. Not satisfied with breaking open the imperial treasury and plundering the goods of princes and lesser men, they also laid their hands on the treasures of the churches and, what is more serious, on their very possessions. They have even ripped silver plates from the altars and have hacked them to pieces among themselves. They violated the holy places and have carried off crosses and relics.[56]
Nevertheless, the Pope accepted the new situation. When the crusaders took some of the piles of money, jewels, and gold that they had captured in the sack of Constantinople back to Rome, Innocent III accepted the stolen items. Furthermore, at the Fourth Council of the Lateran the Pope welcomed and recognised to it western (Catholic) prelates from Sees established in the conquered lands – thus recognising their legitimacy over formerly Orthodox areas.[citation needed]
The Latin Empire was soon faced with a number of enemies. Besides the individual Byzantine Greek states in Epirus and Nicaea, there were also the Bulgarian Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate. The Greek states fought for supremacy against both the Latins and each other.[57]
Several of the major Greek and Latin protagonists in the event died or were killed in the years following the fall of the city. The betrayal and blinding of Murtzuphlus by Alexios III led to his capture by the Latins and his execution in 1205. Not long after, Alexios III was captured by Boniface and sent to exile in Southern Italy. He died in Nicaea in 1211. In 1205, Kaloyan of Bulgaria crushed the Latin Crusaders with his Cuman light cavalry.[58] On 14 April 1205, one year after the conquest of the city, Emperor Baldwin was decisively defeated and captured at the Battle of Adrianople by the Bulgarians. In 1205 or 1206, the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan mutilated him and left him to die, while others suggest he was kept captive in the famous Baldwin's Tower in the Bulgarian capital Veliko Turnovo, where he died under unknown circumstances. The Venetian Doge Dandolo died in May 1205. On 4 September 1207, the Bulgarians killed Boniface in an ambush. He was succeeded by his infant son Demetrius of Montferrat, who ruled until he reached adulthood but was eventually defeated by Theodore I Doukas, the despot of Epirus and a relative of Murtzuphlus. The Kingdom of Thessalonica was restored to Byzantine rule in 1224.[59]
Various Latin-French lordships throughout Greece – in particular, the Duchy of Athens and the principality of the Morea – provided cultural contacts with western Europe and promoted the study of Greek. There was also a French cultural work, notably the production of a collection of laws, the Assises de Romanie. The Chronicle of Morea appeared in both French and Greek (and later Italian and Aragonese) versions. Impressive remains of crusader castles and Gothic churches can still be seen in Greece. Nevertheless, the Latin Empire always rested on shaky foundations. Constantinople was re-captured by the Nicaean Greeks under Michael VIII Palaeologos in 1261, and commerce with Venice was re-established.
During the middle of the 15th century, the Latin Church (Roman Catholic Church) tried to organise a new crusade aimed at restoring the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, which was gradually being torn down by the advancing Ottoman Turks. The attempt failed, however, as the vast majority of Greek civilians and a growing part of their clergy refused to recognize and accept the short-lived near-union of the Churches of East and West signed at the Council of Florence and Ferrara by the Ecumenical patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople. The Greek population, reacting to the Latin conquest, believed that the Byzantine civilization that revolved around the Orthodox faith would be more secure under Ottoman Islamic rule[citation needed]. Overall, religious-observant Greeks preferred to sacrifice their political freedom and political independence in order to preserve their faith's traditions and rituals in separation from the Roman See.
In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, "crusades" on a limited scale were organised by the Kingdoms of Hungary, Poland, Wallachia, and Serbia. These were not the traditional expeditions aimed at the recovery of Jerusalem but rather defensive campaigns intended to prevent further expansion to the west by the Ottoman Empire.[60] During the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453, up to 2,000 Venetian and Genoese volunteers formed part of the approximately 9,000 defenders of the city. [61]
Legacy[edit]
"O City, City, eye of all cities, universal boast, supramundane wonder, nurse of churches, leader of the faith, guide of Orthodoxy, beloved topic of orations, the abode of every good thing! Oh City, that hast drunk at the hand of the Lord the cup of his fury! O City, consumed by fire..."
Niketas Choniates laments the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders.[62]
The prominent medievalist Steven Runciman wrote in 1954: "There was never a greater crime against humanity than the Fourth Crusade."[63] The controversy that has surrounded the Fourth Crusade has led to diverging opinions in academia on whether its objective was indeed the capture of Constantinople. The traditional position, which holds that this was the case, was challenged by Donald E. Queller and Thomas F. Madden in their book The Fourth Crusade (1977).[64]
Constantinople was considered as a bastion of Christianity that defended Europe from the advancing forces of Islam, and the Fourth Crusade's sack of the city dealt an irreparable blow to this eastern bulwark. Although the Greeks retook Constantinople after 57 years of Latin rule, the Byzantine Empire had been crippled by the Fourth Crusade. Reduced to Constantinople, north-western Anatolia, and a portion of the southern Balkans, the empire fell to the Ottoman Turks who captured the city in 1453.[65]
Eight hundred years later, Pope John Paul II twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth Crusade. In 2001, he wrote to Christodoulos, Archbishop of Athens, "It is tragic that the assailants, who set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret."[66] In 2004, while Bartholomew I, Patriarch of Constantinople, was visiting the Vatican, John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries, the pain and disgust."[67] This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for the massacres perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade.[68]
In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the city's capture, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800 years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of Pascha. "The spirit of reconciliation of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches."[69]
The Fourth Crusade was one of the last of the major crusades to be launched by the Papacy, though it quickly fell out of Papal control. After bickering between laymen and the papal legate led to the collapse of the Fifth Crusade, later crusades were directed by individual monarchs, mostly against Egypt. One subsequent crusade, the Sixth, succeeded in restoring Jerusalem to Christian rule for 15 years.
In fiction and music[edit]
The Fourth Crusade is depicted in Poul Anderson's novel There Will Be Time from the point of view of a 20th-century time traveler who saves the life of a Byzantine girl during the carnage and falls in love with her.
Neal Stephenson's and Nicole Galland's novel The Rise and Fall of D.O.D.O deals with events leading up to and during the Sack of Constantinople from the perspective of modern time travellers.
Umberto Eco's novel Baudolino begins shortly after the Sack of Constantinople.
The second volume of Judith Tarr's trilogy The Hound and the Falcon – titled The Golden Horn – also depicts the Fourth Crusade and Sack, showing it from its prelude through the aftermath in a historical fiction/fantasy setting that captures elements of both the Latin and Greek sides of the conflict.
The IVth Crusade is the title of British death metal band Bolt Thrower's fourth studio album released in 1992.
See also[edit]
Alexios III
Alexios IV
Alexios V
Cumans
Battle of Adrianople (1205)
Byzantine Empire
Constantinople
Crusades
Crusader states
Fifth crusade
Jews of the Byzantine Empire during the Fourth Crusade
Kaloyan of Bulgaria
Latin Empire of Constantinople
Massacre of the Latins
Pope Innocent III
Principality of Achaea
Second Bulgarian Empire
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, (1995; repr., London: Folio Society, 2003), 169
Jump up ^ Mayer, Hans Eberhard. The Crusades. p. 136. ISBN 0-19-873097-7.
Jump up ^ Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium at War. Oxford: Osprey. p. 87.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Jonathan (2004). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. New York: Viking. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-14-303590-9.
Jump up ^ Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202–04 – the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 15. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5.
Jump up ^ Nicolle, David. The Fourth Crusade 1202-04. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84908-319-5.
Jump up ^ Norman Davies, page 311, "Vanished Kingdoms. The History of Half-forgotten Europe", ISBN 978-0-141-04886-4
Jump up ^ Sherrard, Philip (1967). Byzantium. Nederland: Time-Life Books. pp. 42–43.
Jump up ^ John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, (1995; repr., London: Folio Society, 2003), 169–70
Jump up ^ John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, (1995; repr., London: Folio Society, 2003)
Jump up ^ Madden, Thomas F. (August 19, 2008). The Fourth Crusade: Event, Aftermath, and Perceptions: Papers from the Sixth Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East in Istanbul, Turkey. ISBN 0-7546-6319-1.
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven (1954). A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (Volume 3). ISBN 0-14-013705-X.
Jump up ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1976). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. American Philosophical Society. p. 7. ISBN 9780871691149.
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven (1954). A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (Volume 3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-521-34772-3.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition, page 306 Macropaedia Volume 5
Jump up ^ Philips Hughes, "Innocent III & the Latin East," History of the Church, Sheed & Ward, 1948, vol. 2, p. 370.
Jump up ^ D. E. Queller, The Fourth Crusade The Conquest of Constantinople, 232
^ Jump up to: a b D. E. Queller, The Fourth Crusade The Conquest of Constantinople, 17
Jump up ^ Robert de Clari, La Prise de Constantinople, xi–xii, in Hopf, Chroniques Greco-Romaines, pp. 7–9. Old French.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 57.
Jump up ^ Zara is the today the city of Zadar in Croatia; it was called "Jadera" in Latin documents and "Jadres" by French crusaders. The Venetian (Italian) "Zara" is a later derivation of the contemporary vernacular "Zadra".
Jump up ^ Person Page 10465. thePeerage.com.
Jump up ^ Madden, Thomas F., and Donald E. Queller. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997.
Jump up ^ Emeric (king of Hungary). Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ Phillips, The Fourth Crusade, pp. 110–11.
Jump up ^ Philip Hughes, "Innocent III & the Latin East," History of the Church, vol. 2, p. 371, Sheed & Ward, 1948.
Jump up ^ Hindley, Geoffrey (2003). The Crusades: A History of Armed Pilgrimage and Holy War. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. pp. 143, 152.
Jump up ^ Runciman, Stephen (1975). A History of the Crusades – the Kingdom of Arce and the Later Crusades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 0 521 20554 9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Runciman, Steven. The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, (1954; repr., London: Folio Society, 1994), 98
Jump up ^ Madden (2003)
Jump up ^ Richard, Jean. The Crusades c. 1071 – c. 1291. p. 247. ISBN 0-521-62566-1.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Jonathan (2004). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. New York: Viking. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-14-303590-9.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 113.
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven. The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, (1954; repr., London: Folio Society, 1994), 99
^ Jump up to: a b Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202–04 – the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 41. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5.
Jump up ^ D. Queller, The Fourth Crusade The Conquest of Constantinople, 185
Jump up ^ Phillips, The Fourth Crusade, p. 157.
Jump up ^ Treadgold, W. A Concise History of Byzantium, 187
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 159.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 162.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 164.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 176.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 177.
^ Jump up to: a b c Runciman, Steven. The Kingdom of Acre and the later Crusades, (1954; repr., London: Folio Society, 1994), 100
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Phillips, The Fourth Crusade
^ Jump up to: a b Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. 209.
Jump up ^ Chambers's Encyclopaedia, vol. II, London, 1868, p. 471
Jump up ^ Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202–04 – the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. pp. 25, 65. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5.
Jump up ^ Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202–04 – the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 77. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Vryonis, Speros (1967). Byzantium and Europe. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. p. 152.
^ Jump up to: a b Hughes, Philip. "Innocent III & the Latin East," History of the Church, Sheed & Ward, 1948, vol. 2, p. 372.
Jump up ^ Konstam, Historical Atlas of The Crusades, 162
Jump up ^ W. Treadgold, A History of Byzantine State and Society, 663
Jump up ^ Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202–04 – the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 78. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5.
Jump up ^ page 310, volume 5; "Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983, ISBN 0-85229-400-X
Jump up ^ Pope Innocent III, Letters, 126 (given July 12, 1205, and addressed to the papal legate, who had absolved the crusaders from their pilgrimage vows). Text taken from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook by Paul Halsall. Modified. Original translation by J. Brundage.
Jump up ^ Richard, Jean. The Crusades c. 1071 – c. 1291. pp. 252–57. ISBN 0 521 62369 3.
Jump up ^ Bulgarian Folk Customs, Mercia MacDermott, pg 27
Jump up ^ Thurbon, Colin (1981). The Venetians. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books Inc. pp. 25, 65. ISBN 0-7054-0633-4.
Jump up ^ page 308, volume 5; "Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983, ISBN 0-85229-400-X
Jump up ^ D'Amato, Raffaele (2007). The Eastern Romans 330–1461 AD. Hong Kong: Concord Publications. p. 42. ISBN 962-361-089-0.
Jump up ^ Choniates, Niketas; Magoulias, Harry J. (trans.) (1984). O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Wayne State University Press. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-8143-1764-8.
Jump up ^ Runciman. History of the Crusades. 3. p. 130.
Jump up ^ Queller, D. E. & Madden, T. F. (1997). The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople, 1201–1204. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Sherrard, Philip (1967). Byzantium. Nederland: Time-Life Books. pp. 166–67.
Jump up ^ Pope John Paul II (2001). "In the Footsteps of St. Paul: Papal Visit to Greece, Syria & Malta – Words". EWTN.
Jump up ^ "Pope sorrow over Constantinople". BBC News. June 29, 2004.
Jump up ^ Phillips. The Fourth Crusade. p. xiii.
Jump up ^ Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I (April 2004). "News". In Communion. Archived from the original on 2007-10-09.
Bibliography[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Choniates, Nicetas. "The Sack of Constantinople". Fordham.edu.
Chronicle of Morea
de Villehardouin, Geoffrey. "Chronicle of The Fourth Crusade and The Conquest of Constantinople". Fordham.edu.
Pope Innocent III. "Reprimand of Papal Legate". Fordham.edu.
Robert of Clari. "The Conquest of Constantinople". deremilitari.org. (see also excerpts from another translation)
"The Fourth Crusade 1204: Collected Sources". Fordham.edu. (excerpts from several contemporary accounts)
"The Sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders". shsu.edu. 1204. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27.
"The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade – A New Annotated Translation". academia.edu.
Secondary sources[edit]
"Crusades". Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.
Angold, Michael, The Fourth Crusade, Harlow: Pearson, 2003
Charles Brand. Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180–1204, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1968
Godfrey, John. 1204: The Unholy Crusade. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980
Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0
Harris, Jonathan, 'Collusion with the infidel as a pretext for military action against Byzantium', in Clash of Cultures: the Languages of Love and Hate, ed. S. Lambert and H. Nicholson, Turnhout: Brepols, 2012, pp. 99–117
Hindley, Geoffrey. The Crusades: A History of Armed Pilgrimage and Holy War. New York, NY: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2003. New edition: The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy. New York, NY: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2004.
Lilie, Ralph-Johannes. Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096–1204. Translated by J. C. Morris and Jean E. Ridings. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993; originally published in 1988.
Madden, Thomas F. (2003). Enrico Dandolo and the Rise of Venice. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7317-1.
Madden, Thomas F., and Donald E. Queller. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997
Marin, Serban. A Humanist Vision regarding the Fourth Crusade and the State of the Assenides. The Chronicle of Paul Ramusio (Paulus Rhamnusius), Annuario del Istituto Romano di Cultura e Ricerca Umanistica vol. 2 (2000), pp. 51–57.
McNeal, Edgar, and Robert Lee Wolff. The Fourth Crusade, in A History of the Crusades (edited by Kenneth M. Setton and others), vol. 2, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962
Nicol, Donald M. Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Noble, Peter S. Eyewitnesses of the Fourth Crusade – the War against Alexius III, Reading Medieval Studies v.25, 1999.
Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople. New York: Viking, 2004. ISBN 978-0-14-303590-9.
Queller, Donald E. The Latin Conquest of Constantinople. New York, NY; London, U.K.; Sydney, NSW; Toronto, ON: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1971.
Queller, Donald E., and Susan J. Stratton. "A Century of Controversy on the Fourth Crusade", in Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History v. 6 (1969): 237–77; reprinted in Donald E. Queller, Medieval Diplomacy and the Fourth Crusade. London: Variorum Reprints, 1980.
Thomas F. Madden. Crusades: The Illustrated History
Further reading[edit]
Angold, Michael. The Fourth Crusade: Event and Context. Harlow, NY: Longman, 2003.
Bartlett, W. B. An Ungodly War: The Sack of Constantinople and the Fourth Crusade. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000.
Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, London: Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0
Harris, Jonathan, "The problem of supply and the sack of Constantinople", in The Fourth Crusade Revisited, ed. Pierantonio Piatti, Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2008, pp. 145–54. ISBN 978-88-209-8063-4.
Kazhdan, Alexander "Latins and Franks in Byzantium", in Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (eds.), The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001: 83–100.
Kolbaba, Tia M. "Byzantine Perceptions of Latin Religious ‘Errors’: Themes and Changes from 850 to 1350", in Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (eds.), The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001: 117–43.
Nicolle, David. The Fourth Crusade 1202–04: The betrayal of Byzantium, Osprey Campaign Series #237. Osprey Publishing. 2011. ISBN 978-1-84908-319-5.
External links[edit]
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1204 Crusade that captured Constantinople rather than Jerusalem
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Punjab Legislative Assembly
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Punjab Legislative Assembly
ਪੰਜਾਬ ਵਿਧਾਨ ਸਭਾ
Type
Type
Unicameral
Leadership
Speaker
Rana K. P. Singh[1], INC
Deputy Speaker
Ajaib Singh Bhati, INC
Leader of the House
Capt. Amarinder Singh, INC
Leader of the Opposition
Sukhpal Singh Khaira [2], AAP
Structure
Seats
117
Political groups
Government (77)
INC (77)[3]
Opposition (40)
AAP (20)
SAD (14)
BJP (3)
LIP (2)
Vacant (1) Shahkot
Length of term
5 years
Elections
Voting system
First-past-the-post
Last election
4 February 2017
Meeting place
Vidhan Bhavan, Chandigarh, India
Website
Homepage
The Punjab Legislative Assembly or the Punjab Vidhan Sabha (Punjabi: ਪੰਜਾਬ ਵਿਧਾਨ ਸਭਾ) is the unicameral legislature of the state of Punjab in northern India. At present, it consists of 117 members, directly elected from 117 single-seat constituencies. The tenure of the Legislative Assembly is five years, unless dissolved sooner. The current Speaker of the Assembly is Rana K. P. Singh, he is Pro-tem Speaker. The meeting place of the Legislative Assembly since 6 March 1961 is the Vidhan Bhavan in Chandigarh.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 British Raj
1.2 1947 – present
2 Speaker of the Vidhan Sabha
3 Past speakers
4 Past deputy speakers
5 Political Parties and MLAs in 2017[4]
5.1 Members of the Punjab Legislative Assembly elected in 2017
6 See also
7 References
History[edit]
British Raj[edit]
An Executive Council was formed under The Indian Councils Act, 1861. It was only under the Government of India Act 1919 that a Legislative Council was set up in Punjab. Later, under the Government of India Act 1935, the Punjab Legislative Assembly was constituted with a membership of 175. It was summoned for the first time on 1 April 1937. In 1947, Punjab Province was partitioned into West Punjab and East Punjab and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly was formed, the forerunner of the current assembly consisting of 72 members.
1947 – present[edit]
On 15 July 1948, eight princely states of East Punjab grouped together to form a single state, Patiala and East Punjab States Union. The Punjab State Legislature was a bicameral house in April 1952, comprising the Vidhan Sabha (lower house) and Vidhan Parishad (upper house). In 1956 the state was reorganised and renamed Punjab, the strength of the Vidhan Parishad of the new State of Punjab was enhanced from 40 seats to 46 seats and in 1957, it was increased to 51. Punjab was tri-furcated in 1966 to form Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Punjab. The Vidhan Parishad was reduced to 40 seats and the Vidhan Sabha was grown by 50 seats to 104 seats. On 1 January 1970, the Vidhan Parishad was abolished leaving the state with a unicameral legislature.
Speaker of the Vidhan Sabha[edit]
Rana KP Singh is the current Speaker of the Punjab Legislative Assembly; he is Pro-tem Speaker.
Past speakers[edit]
Name
Term
Kapur Singh 1947–1951
Satya Pal 1952–1954
Gurdial Singh Dhillon 1954–1962
Parbodh Chandra 1962–1964
Harbans Lal 1964–1967
Joginder Singh Mann 1967–1969
Darbara Singh 1969–1973
Kewal Krishan 1973–1977
Ravi Inder Singh 1977–1980
Brij Bhushan Mehra 1985–1986
Ravi Inder Singh 1985–1986
Surjit Singh Minhas 1986–1992
Harcharan Singh Ajnala 1992–1993
Harnam Das Johar 1993–1996
Dilbagh Singh Daleke 1996–1997
Charanjit Singh Atwal 1997–2002
Kewal Krishan 2002–2007
Nirmal Singh Kahlon 2007-2012
Charanjit Singh Atwal 2012–2017
Rana KP Singh (Pro-tem Speaker) 2017–
Past deputy speakers[edit]
Name
from
to
Thakur Panchan Chand 03.11.1947 20.03.1951
Smt. Chhanno Devi 26.03.1951 20.06.1951
S. Gurdial Singh Dhillon 10.05.1952 17.05.1954
Ch. Swaroop Singh 19.05.1954 28.02.1962
Smt. Shanno Devi 19.03.1962 31.10.1966
Dr. Jagjit Singh 27.03.1967 27.11.1967
S. Baldev Singh 08.12.1967 23.08.1968
Brig. (Retd.) Bikramajit Singh Bajwa 20.03.1969 24.04.1970
Brig. (Retd.) Bikramajit Singh Bajwa 28.07.1970 13.10.1971
Dr. Kewal Krishan 28.03.1972 25.09.1973
S. Nasib Singh Gill 28.09.1973 30.04.1977
Sh. Panna Lal Nayyar 08.07.1977 17.02.1980
S. Guizar Singh 08.07.1980 26.06.1985
S. Nirmal Singh Kahlon 05.11.1985 06.05.1986
S. Jaswant Singh 02.06.1986 05.03.1988
Sh. Romesh Chander Dogra 07.04.1992 07.01.1996
Sh. Naresh Thakur 28.02.1996 11.02.1997
Ch. Swarna Ram 18.06.1997 26.07.1997
Dr. Baldev Raj Chawla 23.12.1997 31.12.1999
Shri Satpal Gosain 05.09.2000 24.02.2002
Prof. Darbari Lal 26.06.2002 10.03.2003
S. Bir Devinder Singh 27.03.2003 09.07.2004
Prof.Darbari Lal 12.07.2004 10.03.2012
Dinesh Singh 20.03.2012 03.2017
Ajaib Singh Bhatti 2017 onwards
Political Parties and MLAs in 2017[4][edit]
Rank
Party
Seats Contested
Seats Won
% Votes
1 Indian National Congress 117 77 38.5
2 Aam Aadmi Party 112 20 23.7
3 Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) 94 15 25.2
4 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 23 3 5.4
5 Lok Insaaf Party 5 2 1.2
Total 117
Members of the Punjab Legislative Assembly elected in 2017[edit]
Constituency
Member
Political party
Number of votes won
Abohar ARUN NARANG Bharatiya Janata Party 55091
Adampur PAWAN KUMAR TINU Shiromani Akali Dal 45229
Ajnala HARPARTAP SINGH Indian National Congress 61378
Amargarh SURJIT SINGH DHIMAN Indian National Congress 50994
Amloh RANDEEP SINGH Indian National Congress 39669
Amritsar Central OM PARKASH SONI Indian National Congress 51242
Amritsar East NAVJOT SINGH SIDHU Indian National Congress 60477
Amritsar North SUNIL DUTTI Indian National Congress 59212
Amritsar South INDERBIR SINGH BOLARIA Indian National Congress 47581
Amritsar West RAJ KUMAR VERKA Indian National Congress 52271
Anandpur Sahib KANWAR PAL SINGH Indian National Congress 60800
Atam Nagar SIMARJEET SINGH BAINS Lok Insaaf Party 53421
Attari TARSEM SINGH D.C. Indian National Congress 55335
Baba Bakala SANTOKH SINGH Indian National Congress 45965
Balachaur DARSHAN LAL Indian National Congress 49558
Balluana NATHU RAM Indian National Congress 25266
Banga SUKHWINDER KUMAR Shiromani Akali Dal 45256
Barnala GURMEET SINGH MEET HAHER Aam Aadmi Party 47606
Bassi Pathana GURPREET SINGH Indian National Congress 47319
Batala LAKHBIR SINGH LODHINANGAL Shiromani Akali Dal 42517
Bathinda Rural RUPINDER KAUR RUBY Aam Aadmi Party 51572
Bathinda Urban MANPREET SINGH BADAL Indian National Congress 63942
Bhadaur PIRMAL SINGH DHAULA Aam Aadmi Party 57095
Bhagha Purana DARSHAN SINGH BRAR Indian National Congress 48668
Bhoa JOGINDER PAL Indian National Congress 67865
Bholath SUKHPAL SINGH KHAIRA Aam Aadmi Party 48873
Bhucho Mandi PRITAM SINGH KOTBHAI Indian National Congress 51605
Budhlada BUDH RAM Aam Aadmi Party 52265
Chabbewal DR. RAJ KUMAR Indian National Congress 57857
Chamkaur Sahib CHARANJIT SINGH CHANNI Indian National Congress 61060
Dakha HARVINDER SINGH PHOOLKA Aam Aadmi Party 58923
Dasuya ARUN DOGRA Indian National Congress 56527
Dera Baba Nanak SUKHJINDER SINGH RANDHAWA Indian National Congress 60385
Dera Bassi NARINDER KUMAR SHARMA Shiromani Akali Dal 70792
Dharamkot SUKHJIT SINGH Indian National Congress 63238
Dhuri DALVIR SINGH GOLDY Indian National Congress 49347
Dina Nagar ARUNA CHAUDHARY Indian National Congress 72176
Dirba HARPAL SINGH CHEEMA Aam Aadmi Party 46434
Faridkot KUSALDEEP SINGH KIKI DHILLON Indian National Congress 51026
Fatehgarh Churian TRIPT RAJINDER SINGH BAJWA Indian National Congress 54348
Fatehgarh Sahib KULJIT SINGH NAGRA Indian National Congress 58205
Fazilka DAVINDER SINGH GHUBAYA Indian National Congress 39276
Firozpur City PARMINDER SINGH PINKI Indian National Congress 67559
Firozpur Rural SATKAR KAUR Indian National Congress 71037
Garhshankar JAI KRISHAN Aam Aadmi Party 41720
Ghanaur THEKEDAR MADAN LAL JALALPUR Indian National Congress 65965
Gidderbaha AMRINDER SINGH @ RAJA WARRING Indian National Congress 63500
Gill KULDEEP SINGH VAID(BULARA) Indian National Congress 67927
Gurdaspur BARINDERMEET SINGH PAHRA Indian National Congress 67709
Guru Har Sahai GURMEET SINGH SODHI Indian National Congress 62787
Hoshiarpur SUNDER SHAM ARORA Indian National Congress 49951
Jagraon SARAVJIT KAUR MANUKE Aam Aadmi Party 61521
Jaitu BALDEV SINGH Aam Aadmi Party 45344
Jalalabad SUKHBIR SINGH BADAL Shiromani Akali Dal 75271
Jalandhar Cantt. PARGAT SINGH POWAR Indian National Congress 59349
Jalandhar Central RAJINDER BERI Indian National Congress 55518
Jalandhar North AVTAR SINGH JUNIOR Indian National Congress 69715
Jalandhar West SUSHIL KUMAR RINKU Indian National Congress 53983
Jandiala SUKHWINDER SINGH DANNY BANDALA Indian National Congress 53042
Kapurthala RANA GURJIT SINGH Indian National Congress 56378
Kartarpur CHAUDHARY SURINDER SINGH Indian National Congress 46729
Khadoor Sahib RAMANJEET SINGH SAHOTA SIKKI Indian National Congress 64666
Khanna GURKIRAT SINGH KOTLI Indian National Congress 55690
Kharar KANWAR SANDHU Aam Aadmi Party 54171
Khem Karan SUKHPAL SINGH BHULLAR Indian National Congress 81897
Kotkapura KULTAR SINGH SANDHWAN Aam Aadmi Party 47401
Lambi PARKASH SINGH Shiromani Akali Dal 66375
Lehra PARMINDER SINGH DHINDSA Shiromani Akali Dal 65550
Ludhiana Central SURINDER KUMAR DAWAR Indian National Congress 47871
Ludhiana East SANJEEV TALWAR Indian National Congress 43010
Ludhiana North RAKESH PANDEY Indian National Congress 44864
Ludhiana South BALVINDER SINGH BAINS Lok Insaaf Party 53955
Ludhiana West BHARAT BHUSHAN (ASHU) Indian National Congress 66627
Majitha BIKRAM SINGH MAJITHIA Shiromani Akali Dal 65803
Malerkotla RAZIA SULTANA Indian National Congress 58982
Malout AJAIB SINGH BHATTI Indian National Congress 49098
Mansa NAZAR SINGH MANSHAHIA Aam Aadmi Party 70586
Maur JAGDEV SINGH Aam Aadmi Party 62282
Mehal Kalan KULWANT SINGH PANDORI Aam Aadmi Party 57551
Moga HARJOT KAMAL SINGH Indian National Congress 52357
Mukerian RAJNISH KUMAR BABBI Indian National Congress 56787
Muktsar KANWARJIT SINGH Shiromani Akali Dal 44894
Nabha SADHU SINGH Indian National Congress 60861
Nakodar GURPRATAP SINGH WADALA Shiromani Akali Dal 56241
Nawanshahr ANGAD SINGH Indian National Congress 38197
Nihal Singhwala MANJIT SINGH Aam Aadmi Party 67313
Pathankot AMIT Indian National Congress 56383
Patiala AMARINDER SINGH Indian National Congress 72586
Patiala Rural BRAHM MOHINDRA Indian National Congress 68891
Patti HARMINDER SINGH GILL Indian National Congress 64617
Payal LAKHVIR SINGH LAKHA Indian National Congress 57776
Phagwara SOM PARKASH Bharatiya Janata Party 45479
Phillaur BALDEV SINGH KHAIRA Shiromani Akali Dal 41336
Qadian FATEHJANG SINGH BAJWA Indian National Congress 62596
Raikot JAGTAR SINGH JAGGA HISSOWAL Aam Aadmi Party 48245
Raja Sansi SUKHBINDER SINGH SARKARIA Indian National Congress 59628
Rajpura HARDIAL SINGH KAMBOJ Indian National Congress 59107
Rampura Phul GURPREET SINGH KANGAR Indian National Congress 55269
Rupnagar AMARJIT SINGH SANDOA Aam Aadmi Party 58994
S.A.S.Nagar BALBIR SINGH SIDHU Indian National Congress 66844
Sahnewal SHARANJIT SINGH DHILLON Shiromani Akali Dal 63184
Samana RAJINDER SINGH Indian National Congress 62551
Samrala AMRIK SINGH DHILLON Indian National Congress 51930
Sangrur VIJAY INDER SINGLA Indian National Congress 67310
Sanour HARINDER PAL SINGH CHANDUMAJRA Shiromani Akali Dal 58867
Sardulgarh DILRAJ SINGH Shiromani Akali Dal 59420
Shahkot AJIT SINGH KOHAR Shiromani Akali Dal 46913
Sham Chaurasi PAWAN KUMAR ADIA Indian National Congress 46612
Shutrana NIRMAL SINGH Indian National Congress 58008
Sri Hargobindpur BALWINDER SINGH Indian National Congress 57489
Sujanpur DINESH SINGH Bharatiya Janata Party 48910
Sultanpur Lodhi NAVTEJ SINGH CHEEMA Indian National Congress 41843
Sunam AMAN ARORA Aam Aadmi Party 72815
Talwandi Sabo PROF. BALJINDER KAUR Aam Aadmi Party 54553
Tarn Taran Dr. Dharambir Agnihotri Indian National Congress 59794
Urmar SANGAT SINGH GILZIAN Indian National Congress 51477
Zira KULBIR SINGH Indian National Congress 69899
See also[edit]
Punjab Legislative Assembly election, 2012; previously held Legislative assembly election (in 2012)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Congress picks Hindu face Rana KP as new Punjab assembly speaker | punjab". Hindustan Times. 2016-04-22. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "H S Phoolka to be Leader of Oppn in Punjab | Business Standard News". Business-standard.com. 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "Punjab elections results: All you need to know". The Times of India. Indiatimes. 11 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Punjab MLA List 2017
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