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Asexual reproduction
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Asexual reproduction in liverworts: a caducous phylloid germinating
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of gametes, and almost never changes the number of chromosomes. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as the Archaea and bacteria. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well.
While all prokaryotes reproduce asexually (without the formation and fusion of gametes), mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation, transformation and transduction are sometimes likened to sexual reproduction or at least with sex, in the sense of genetic recombination in meiosis.[1] A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, particularly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them. Current hypotheses[2] suggest that asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity, allowing adaptation to changing environments. Developmental constraints[3] may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life-cycles. Another constraint on switching from sexual to asexual reproduction would be the concomitant loss of meiosis and the protective recombinational repair of DNA damage afforded as one function of meiosis.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
1.1 Fission
1.2 Budding
1.3 Vegetative propagation
1.4 Sporogenesis
1.5 Fragmentation
1.6 Agamogenesis
1.6.1 Parthenogenesis
1.6.2 Apomixis and nucellar embryony
2 Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction
3 Inheritance in sexual species
4 Examples in animals
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Types[edit]
Fission[edit]
Main article: Fission (biology)
An important form of fission is binary fission. In binary fission, the parent organism is replaced by two daughter organisms, because it literally divides in two. Only prokaryotes (the archaea and the bacteria) reproduce asexually through binary fission. Eukaryotes (such as protists and unicellular fungi) may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by mitosis; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.
Another type of fission is multiple fission. Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.[6][7][8]
In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony, is manifested either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane,[9][10] sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.
Budding[edit]
Main article: Budding
Some cells split via budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a "mother" and "daughter" cell. The offspring organism is smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the hydra, which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.
Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two (endodyogeny) or more (endopolygeny) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.[11]
Also, budding (external or internal) is present in some worm like Taenia or Echinococci; these worm produce cyst and then produce (invaginated or evaginated) protoscolex with budding.
Vegetative propagation[edit]
Main article: Vegetative propagation
Vegetative plantlets of mother-of-thousands, Bryophyllum (Kalanchoe) daigremontianum
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores by meiosis or syngamy.[12] Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves (for example in kalanchoe) and some produce new plants out of rhizomes or stolon (for example in strawberry). Other plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and dahlia tubers). Some plants produce adventitious shoots and may form a clonal colony, where all the individuals are clones, and the clones may cover a large area.[13]
Sporogenesis[edit]
Main article: Sporogenesis
Many multicellular organisms form spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, who undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals (called gametophytes in the case of plants) without a fertilization event. These haploid individuals give rise to gametes through mitosis. Meiosis and gamete formation therefore occur in separate generations or "phases" of the life cycle, referred to as alternation of generations. Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined as the fusion of gametes (fertilization), spore formation in plant sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction (agamogenesis) despite being the result of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy. However, both events (spore formation and fertilization) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the plant life cycle.
Fungi and some algae can also utilize true asexual spore formation, which involves mitosis giving rise to reproductive cells called mitospores that develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found for example in conidial fungi and the red algae Polysiphonia, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. However, mitotic sporogenesis is an exception and most spores, such as those of plants, most Basidiomycota, and many algae, are produced by meiosis.
Fragmentation[edit]
Linckia guildingi "comet", a starfish regrowing from a single arm
Main article: Fragmentation (reproduction)
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms. Animals that reproduce asexually include planarians, many annelid worms including polychaetes[14] and some oligochaetes,[15] turbellarians and sea stars. Many fungi and plants reproduce asexually. Some plants have specialized structures for reproduction via fragmentation, such as gemma in liverworts. Most lichens, which are a symbiotic union of a fungus and photosynthetic algae or bacteria, reproduce through fragmentation to ensure that new individuals contain both symbiont. These fragments can take the form of soredia, dust-like particles consisting of fungal hyphen wrapped around photobiont cells.
Clonal Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity.[16] Researchers claim today that due to many environmental and epigenetic differences, that clones originated in the same ancestor might actually be genetically and epigenetically different.[17]
Agamogenesis[edit]
Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. Examples are parthenogenesis and apomixis.
Parthenogenesis[edit]
Aphid giving birth to live young from an unfertilized egg
Main article: Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a form of agamogenesis in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in many plants, invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps), and vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles, amphibians, rarely birds). In plants, apomixis may or may not involve parthenogenesis.
Apomixis and nucellar embryony[edit]
Main articles: Apomixis and Nucellar embryony
Apomixis in plants is the formation of a new sporophyte without fertilization. It is important in ferns and in flowering plants, but is very rare in other seed plants. In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is now most often used for agamospermy, the formation of seeds without fertilization, but was once used to include vegetative reproduction. An example of an apomictic plant would be the triploid European dandelion. Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg within a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as the Saharan Cypress Cupressus dupreziana, where the genetic material of the embryo are derived entirely from pollen. The term "apomixis" is also used for asexual reproduction in some animals, notably water-fleas, Daphnia.
Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction[edit]
See also: Plant reproduction § Sexual reproduction
Some species alternate between the sexual and asexual strategies, an ability known as heterogamy, depending on conditions. Alternation is observed in several rotifer species (cyclical parthenogenesis e.g. in Brachionus species) and a few types of insects, such as aphids which will, under certain conditions, produce eggs that have not gone through meiosis, thus cloning themselves. The cape bee Apis mellifera subsp. capensis can reproduce asexually through a process called thelytoky. A few species of amphibians, reptiles, and birds have a similar ability (see parthenogenesis for examples). For example, the freshwater crustacean Daphnia reproduces by parthenogenesis in the spring to rapidly populate ponds, then switches to sexual reproduction as the intensity of competition and predation increases. Another example are monogonont rotifers of the genus Brachionus, which reproduce via cyclical parthenogenesis: at low population densities females produce asexually and at higher densities a chemical cue accumulates and induces the transition to sexual reproduction. Many protists and fungi alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction.
For example, the slime mold Dictyostelium undergoes binary fission (mitosis) as single-celled amoebae under favorable conditions. However, when conditions turn unfavorable, the cells aggregate and follow one of two different developmental pathways, depending on conditions. In the social pathway, they form a multicellular slug which then forms a fruiting body with asexually generated spores. In the sexual pathway, two cells fuse to form a giant cell that develops into a large cyst. When this macrocyst germinates, it releases hundreds of amoebic cells that are the product of meiotic recombination between the original two cells.[18]
The hyphae of the common mold (Rhizopus) are capable of producing both mitotic as well as meiotic spores. Many algae similarly switch between sexual and asexual reproduction.[19] A number of plants use both sexual and asexual means to produce new plants, some species alter their primary modes of reproduction from sexual to asexual under varying environmental conditions.[20]
Inheritance in sexual species[edit]
For example, in the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus asexual reproduction (obligate parthenogenesis) can be inherited by a recessive allele, which leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.[21][22]
Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus fabarum.[23]
Examples in animals[edit]
Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark[24] and the blacktip shark.[25] In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. The New Mexico whiptail is another example.
Reptiles use the ZW sex-determination system, which produces either males (with ZZ sex chromosomes) or females (with ZW or WW sex chromosomes). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female offspring with WW chromosomes.[26] The female boa could have chosen any number of male partners (and had successfully in the past) but on these occasions she reproduced asexually, creating 22 female babies with WW sex-chromosomes.
Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the 9-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.
Bdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have allowed them to survive better in periods of dehydration.[27]
Molecular evidence strongly suggest that several species of the stick insect genus Timema have used only asexual (parthenogenetic) reproduction for millions of years, the longest period known for any insect.[28]
In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been several transitions to asexuality, likely due to different causes.[29]
See also[edit]
Alternation of generations
Bacterial conjugation
Biological life cycle
Biological reproduction, also simply reproduction
Cloning
Parthenogenesis
Plant reproduction
Sex
Sexual reproduction
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Narra HP, Ochman H (2006). "Of what use is sex to bacteria?". Current Biology. 16 (17): R705–710. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.024. PMID 16950097.
Jump up ^ Dawson KJ (October 1995). "The Advantage of Asexual Reproduction: When is it Two-fold?". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 176 (3): 341–347. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1995.0203.
Jump up ^ Engelstädter J (November 2008). "Constraints on the evolution of asexual reproduction". BioEssays. 30 (11–12): 1138–1150. doi:10.1002/bies.20833. PMID 18937362.
Jump up ^ Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The molecular basis of the evolution of sex". Adv. Genet. Advances in Genetics. 24: 323–70. doi:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7. ISBN 9780120176243. PMID 3324702.
Jump up ^ Avise, J. (2008) Clonality: The Genetics, Ecology and Evolution of Sexual Abstinence in Vertebrate Animals. See pp. 22-25. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019536967X ISBN 978-0195369670
Jump up ^ "Cell reproduction". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9.
Jump up ^ P.Puranik; Asha Bhate (2007). Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-791-6.
Jump up ^ Lynn Margulis; Heather I. McKhann; Lorraine Olendzenski (2001). Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists. Jones & Bartlett learn. ISBN 978-0-86720-081-2.
Jump up ^ Yoshinori Tanada; Harry K. Kaya (1993). Insect pathology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-683255-6.
Jump up ^ James Desmond Smyth; Derek Wakelin (1994). Introduction to animal parasitology (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 0-521-42811-4.
Jump up ^ "Asexual Reproduction". Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Fun Fact (11 May 2010). "Celebrating Wildflowers - Fading Gold - How Aspens Grow". Fs.fed.us. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Annelida". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 434–441. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.
Jump up ^ Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Annelida". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 466–469. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.
Jump up ^ Helen Nilsson Sköld; Matthias Obst; Mattias Sköld & Bertil Åkesson (2009). "Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates". In Baruch Rinkevich & Valeria Matranga. Stem Cells in Marine Organisms. Springer. p. 125. ISBN 978-90-481-2766-5.
Jump up ^ Neuhof, Moran; Levin, Michael; Rechavi, Oded (26 August 2016). "Vertically and horizontally-transmitted memories – the fading boundaries between regeneration and inheritance in planaria". Biology Open. 5: bio.020149. doi:10.1242/bio.020149. PMC 5051648  . PMID 27565761. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
Jump up ^ R. S. Mehrotra; K. R. Aneja (December 1990). An Introduction to Mycology. New Age International. pp. 83 ff. ISBN 978-81-224-0089-2. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Cole; Robert G. Sheath (1990). Biology of the red algae. Cambridge University Press. pp. 469–. ISBN 978-0-521-34301-5. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Edward G. Reekie; Fakhri A. Bazzaz (28 October 2005). Reproductive allocation in plants. Academic Press. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-0-12-088386-8. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010). "Loss of Sexual Reproduction and Dwarfing in a Small Metazoan". PLoS ONE. 5 (9): e12854. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854. PMC 2942836  . PMID 20862222.
Jump up ^ Scheuerl, T.; Riss, S.; Stelzer, C.P. (2011). "Phenotypic effects of an allele causing obligate parthenogenesis in a rotifer". Journal of Heredity. 102 (4): 409–415. doi:10.1093/jhered/esr036. PMC 3113615  . PMID 21576287.
Jump up ^ Sandrock C, Vorburger C (2011). "Single-locus recessive inheritance of asexual reproduction in a parasitoid wasp". Curr. Biol. 21 (5): 433–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.070. PMID 21353557.
Jump up ^ Savage, Juliet Eilperin (23 May 2007). "Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find". Washington Post. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Chapman, D. D.; Firchau, B.; Shivji, M. S. (11 October 2008). "'Virgin Birth' By Shark Confirmed: Second Case Ever". Journal of Fish Biology. Sciencedaily.com. 73 (6): 1473–1477. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02018.x. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Boa constrictor produces fatherless babies". CBC News - Technology&Science. 3 November 2010. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
Jump up ^ Pouchkina-Stantcheva, N. N.; McGee, B. M.; Boschetti, C.; Tolleter, D.; Chakrabortee, S.; Popova, A. V.; Meersman, F.; MacHerel, D.; Hincha, D. K. (2007). "Functional Divergence of Former Alleles in an Ancient Asexual Invertebrate". Science. 318 (5848): 268–71. doi:10.1126/science.1144363. PMID 17932297.
Jump up ^ T Schwander et al. 2011 Molecular evidence for ancient asexuality in Timema stick insects Current Biology 21:1129-34
Jump up ^ CJ van der Kooi & T Schwander (2014) Evolution of asexuality via different mechanisms in grass thrips (Thysanoptera: Aptinothrips) Evolution 86:1883-1893
Further reading[edit]
Graham, L., J. Graham, & L. Wilcox. 2003. Plant Biology. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp. 258–259.
Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F., Eichhorn, S.E. 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, NY.
Avise, J. 2008. Clonality: The Genetics, Ecology, and Evolution of Sexual Abstinence in Vertebrate Animals. Oxford University Press
External links[edit]
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Industry
Food
Founded
August 1990; 27 years ago (1990-08)
Headquarters
Athens, Georgia, U.S.
Key people
Zach McLeroy, Tony Townley (Founders)
Products
wings, french fries, Texas toast, and chicken fingers
Website
www.zaxbys.com
Zaxby's is a franchised/corporate chain of fast food restaurants[1] offering chicken wings, chicken fingers, sandwiches, and salads. The company operates primarily in the Southern United States with more than 800 locations.
Contents
[hide]
1 History, menu and themes
2 Advertising
3 Sponsorships
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History, menu and themes[edit]
Zaxby's chicken fingers, drink cup, crinkle fries, and Texas toast.
The first Zaxby's restaurant opened in Statesboro, Georgia in March 1990. The company's first restaurant outside of Georgia was opened in September 1994 in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Zaxby's now operates in 18 states.[2]
Zaxby's chicken and Zax Sauce is based on another smaller chicken finger chain called Guthrie's that existed in Athens, Georgia while Zach McLeroy attended the University of Georgia. The first Zaxby's was established in Statesboro, Georgia, near the Georgia Southern University campus, by childhood friends Zach McLeroy and Tony Townley. The company operates as a casual dining restaurant, offering prepared-at-order chicken fingers, chicken wings, sandwiches, salads, and appetizers.[3] Dipping sauces are offered with chicken finger orders, and range from mild, to the moderate "Zax sauce", to the intensely hot "Nuclear" and "Insane". Dining rooms at Zaxby's restaurants are decorated with assorted whimsical objects and signs, which often vary in theme by location and region. Some locations in college towns feature objects and decorations related to the local university. Similarly, citrus-industry themed decorations line the walls at an Orlando, Florida location.
Zax sauce
Since the December 2013 announcement that Zaxby's would begin to offer the Coca-Cola Freestyle machine at their locations, the decor in the fountain drink dispensing area has been dominated by that distinctive dispenser and other Coca-Cola branding.[4][5]
Advertising[edit]
In late 2007, the chain began running a series of commercials featuring celebrities eating Zaxby's menu items. The celebrities of 2007/2008 included Laverne and Shirley stars Penny Marshall and Cindy Williams, Bobby Allison, Diana DeGarmo, Herschel Walker, Evander Holyfield, Elijah Kelley, Lorenzo Lamas, Cody Linley, Jerry Rice, John Schneider, Alyson Stoner, Kerri Strug, Richard Thomas, Richard Karn, Reginald VelJohnson, David Garrard, and Spud Webb. In 2009, celebrities included Orange County Choppers Paul Teutul, Sr. and Michael Teutul, Béla Károlyi, Fred Willard, Paul Sorvino, and Mike Ditka. 2010 and 2011 celebrities included Doris Roberts, E! News host Giuliana Rancic Jaime Pressly, Ryan Stiles, and musician Little Richard. In 2012, the chain featured celebrities Rachel Dratch, Chris Kattan, Jill Hennessy, Lee Ann Womack, and National Football League linebacker Clay Matthews in its commercials. Zaxby's 2013 commercials featured David Alan Grier and Waylon Payne, with comedian Wayne Brady and actress Leigh-Allyn Baker.[6]
In October 2008, Zaxby's was featured as a restaurant on the streets of Los Angeles in the video game Midnight Club: Los Angeles, although California, in real life, has none.[7]
Sponsorships[edit]
Zaxby's is "The Official Chicken of Sports Fanz®" and has collective intellectual property rights at nearly 30 Division I colleges through 2015 through a deal with their football and basketball teams. The sponsorship, which was made through IMG College, includes 25 states, seven conferences, and the entire area of Zaxby's locations. Included are ten colleges from the Southeastern Conference, six colleges from the Atlantic Coast Conference, three colleges from Conference USA, two each from the Big Ten Conference and Sun Belt Conference, and one college from the Big 12 Conference.[8] Additionally, Zaxby's has a separate agreement with Clemson University to provide brand presence at all football and men's and women's basketball games.[9]
Zaxby's is also the sponsor of the Heart of Dallas Bowl, played at the historic Cotton Bowl Stadium.[10]
Zaxby's also sponsored John Wes Townley (son of co-founder Tony) in NASCAR's Camping World Truck Series and Xfinity Series, and Townley's Athenian Motorsports.[11] John Wes retired from competition after 2016, thus ending the sponsorship.[12]
In honor of the children the restaurant chain serves every year, Zaxby's is a supporter of Make-A-Wish.[13]
See also[edit]
List of fast-food chicken restaurants
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Green, Alex (March 16, 2015). "Love of poultry drives fast-casual chain restaurant". Times Free Press. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Net Lease Zaxby's Property Profile and Cap Rates - The Boulder Group". The Boulder Group. 2017-02-25. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Zappetizers". Zaxby's Franchising LLC. 2016. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Extra Mile for Freestyle". Here Comes the Shrink. September 11, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zaxby's Saturday & Today | My Clinton News". www.clintonchronicle.com. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Watch "Escape - Zaxby's" Video at Nation's Restaurant News". Nation's Restaurant News. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Zaxby's Ads Featured In Video Game". The Franchise Mall. October 15, 2008. Archived from the original on May 3, 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "IMG College - Zaxby's Scores Big With Major College Sports Sponsorship". www.imgcollege.com. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Army defeats North Texas in overtime at Zaxby's Heart of Dallas Bowl: Score, stats, recap". OregonLive.com. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Playing Chicken: Georgia-Based Zaxby's Signs Sponsorship Deal With 25 Colleges". www.sportsbusinessdaily.com. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ "John Wes Townley Joins Red Horse Racing". Speedway Media. December 18, 2012. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ "John Wes Townley retiring, Athenian Motorsports closing". AccessWDUN. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
Jump up ^ tamara (2013-12-02). "Zaxby's Teams Up with Make-A-Wish for Third Year". QSR magazine. Retrieved 2017-03-23.
External links[edit]
Zaxby's web site
Food portal
companies portal
Georgia (U.S. state) portal
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Best friends forever
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the type of friendship. For the South Park episode, see Best Friends Forever (South Park). For US TV comedy series, see Best Friends Forever (TV series). For Indian TV teen drama, see Best Friends Forever?
The words "Best Friends Forever" written on the Golden Gate Bridge (Guillaume Paumier, CC-BY)
"Best friends forever" ("BFF") is a phrase that describes a close friendship.
It was also used by the character Phoebe in Season 3 Episode 25 of the show "Friends" in 1997.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Origin
3 Cultural perception
4 In the media
5 Academic studies
6 Commercial use
7 References
Definition[edit]
A BFF is a term for someone's best friend[1] and are characterized by intimacy, trust, and permanence.[2] BFFs are usually in close contact and have shared experiences, such as attending the same school or sharing musical tastes. Relationships described as BFF are common in high school and often decline when the parties go to college.[3] The term BFF does not necessarily convey exclusivity; depending on a person's individual interpretation or philosophy of the concept of "BFF", an individual may or may not have more than one BFF simultaneously.[4]
Origin[edit]
Although the concept of having or being a "best friend" is ageless, the acronym BFF was popularized as a quick way for friends to sign off and express their positive feelings for one another while instant-messaging (IM-ing) on the computer or sending a text message on cell phones.[4]
The acronym "BFF" was added to the New Oxford American Dictionary on 16 September 2010.[5] The dictionary states that the acronym BFF originated in 1996.[5]
Cultural perception[edit]
According to a survey in France, the BFF friendship is a concept that occupies a certain place on social networks.[6] This value is reassuring, especially for the millennial generation that experiences a divorce frequently. It is a sign of social success and a balanced life.
A large survey of friendship in the UK in 2003 found that on average, people had nine close friends.[2] In elementary and middle school, best friendships often last less than one full academic year.[7]
Barbara Delinsky described a BFF as "someone you don't have to see every day to still connect with, someone who loves you whether you talk often or not, someone who would drop everything and catch the next flight if you needed her. It's someone who couldn't care less where or what she eats, as long as she's with you."[8]
In the media[edit]
In a 1997 episode of Friends, Lisa Kudrow's character, Phoebe Buffay, uses the term.
Michael Scott uses the abbreviation as well in S2E2 of "The Office (U.S. TV series)".
Paris Hilton's My New BFF, also known as My New BFF, is a competitive reality television show in which Paris Hilton searches for her new BFF.
Best Friends Forever was an American television comedy series that ran on NBC from April 4, to June 1, 2012.[9]
In 2009, social networking service Myspace launched "BFF", an online game show series that tested how well best friends knew each other.[10]
Best Friends Forever (South Park) is an episode of Comedy Central's South Park, which first aired 30 March 2005, based on the Terri Schiavo case.
Academic studies[edit]
Eileen Kennedy-Moore says that parents can help children cope with a conflict between friends through strategies such as empathizing, discouraging retaliation, and encouraging relationship repair.[11]
In 2010, the BFF concept was a part of a BFF contract "to encourage the signatories to work through their differences before splitting up."[12]
In their article "Friendship and Natural Selection" in July, 2014, Nicholas Christakis and James Fowler reported a positive correlation between close friendships and common genotypes, indicating that DNA similarities may be a causal factor in establishing friendships.[13]
In a study conducted at the University of Oxford, Tamas David-Barrett and his colleagues reported that there is an unusually large number of profile pictures on Facebook that depict two women.[14] This pattern is present in each region of the world. After eliminating the alternative hypotheses, the study concluded that the finding suggests that (a) close friendship formation patterns are universal among humans, and (b) there is a marked gender difference in the propensity to form lasting friendship due to an evolutionary ultimate cause.[14] This suggests that the BFF concept, albeit with a different name, may exist in many cultures, going back to evolutionary times. Recent studies have also shown that close friends are treated as siblings[15] throughout the lifespan.[16]
Commercial use[edit]
Companies like Coca Cola have used the expression on some of their Cola products. Their cans say "Share a Diet Coke with your BFF".[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ New Oxford American Dictionary, BFF, Official website, UK, retrieved August 30, 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Irene S. Levine (2009), "Ch. 1: Understanding Female Friendships", Best Friends Forever, Penguin, ISBN 9781590203705
Jump up ^ Debra L. Oswald, Eddie M. Clark (2003), "Best friends forever?: High school best friendships and the transition to college", Personal Relationships, 10 (2): 187–196, doi:10.1111/1475-6811.00045
^ Jump up to: a b "BFF: DOB 1996 - Welcome to the Oxford English Dictionary". Psychology Today.
^ Jump up to: a b "My BFF just told me "TTYL" is in the dictionary. LMAO. - OUPblog". OUPblog.
Jump up ^ Mina Soundiram, lexpress.fr, Amitié: appartenir à une bande est devenu un signe de réussite sociale, France , December 14, 2015
Jump up ^ Berndt, T. J.; Hawkins, J. A.; Hoyle, S. G. (1986). "Changes in friendship during a school year: Effects on children's and adolescents' impressions of friendship and sharing with friends". Child Development. 57: 1284–1297.
Jump up ^ "What is a BFF?". barbaradelinsky.com.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (February 21, 2012). "'Community' Returns March 15 at 8pm + Premieres for 'Bent,' 'Best Friends Forever' and 'Betty White's Off Their Rockers'". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on February 24, 2012. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "MySpace Launches "BFF," Online Game Show Series", Bloomberg, April 2, 2009, retrieved March 25, 2014
Jump up ^ Kennedy-Moore, E. (2012). Make new friends but keep the old...or not.
Jump up ^ "The BFF Contract makes friendships a lasting proposition", Sarasota Herald Tribune, p. B1, February 11, 2010, retrieved March 25, 2014
Jump up ^ Nicholas A. Christakis. "Friendship and natural selection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111: 10796–10801. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400825111.
^ Jump up to: a b David-Barrett, Tamas; Rotkirch, Anna; Carney, James; Behncke Izquierdo, Isabel; Krems, Jaimie A.; Townley, Dylan; McDaniell, Elinor; Byrne-Smith, Anna; Dunbar, Robin I. M. (2015-03-16). "Women Favour Dyadic Relationships, but Men Prefer Clubs: Cross-Cultural Evidence from Social Networking". PLoS ONE. 10 (3): e0118329. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118329. PMC 4361571  . PMID 25775258.
Jump up ^ Rotkirch, Anna; Lyons, Minna; David-Barrett, Tamas; Jokela, Markus (1 October 2014). "Gratitude for Help among Adult Friends and Siblings". Evolutionary Psychology. 12.
Jump up ^ David-Barrett, Tamas; Behncke Izquierdo, Isabel; Carney, James; Nowak, Katharina; Launay, Jacques; Rotkirch, Anna (14 May 2016). "Life course similarities on social networking sites". Advances in Life Course Research. 30: 84–89. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2016.04.002.
Jump up ^ Coca-Cola Celebrates a Summer of Sharing, Coca Cola Press Release June 10, 2014
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Best_friends_forever&oldid=815514616"
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List of Solar System objects most distant from the Sun in 2015
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Positions of known outer Solar System objects.
Sun
Jupiter trojans (6,178)
Scattered disc (>300) Giant planets: J · S · U · N
Centaurs (44,000)
Kuiper belt (>1,000)
(scale in AU; epoch as of January 2015; # of objects in parenthesis)
The orbit of Sedna, shown in red, with the dot marking its current location. Inside are the orbits of the giant planets of the Solar System, and that of Pluto in purple. Sedna will travel out nearly 1000 AU, taking almost six millennia to do so. It is currently less than 100 AU from the Sun.
One of the Sun's "wild things", a distant trans-Neptunian object wrapping itself around the planets on slanted orbit. Shown highlighted here is the orbit of 2004 XR190
Eris and its moon as viewed with Hubble, 2007
Makemake viewed with Hubble, 2006
Sedna viewed with Hubble Space Telescope, 2004
This observation of Halley's Comet in 2003 at 28 AU from the Sun illustrates some of the difficulty in observing objects as they grow more distant.
Graph showing the numbers of KBOs for a given distance from the Sun. The plutinos are the "spike" at 39 AU, whereas the classicals are between 42 and 47 AU, the twotinos are at 48 AU, and the 5:2 resonance is at 55 AU. Note this lists semi-major axis distances, not current distance from the Sun (see Kuiper cliff)
These Solar System objects were the furthest away from the Sun as of December 2015. The objects have been categorized by their approximate heliocentric distance from the Sun, not by the greatest calculated aphelion in their orbit.
This list does not mention objects that were discovered, but not announced, by 2015. An example would be 2015 TH367, which was discovered in October 2015 but not announced until 2018.
The list changes over time because the objects are moving. Some objects are inbound and some are outbound. It would be difficult to detect long-distance comets if it weren't for their comas, which become visible when heated by the Sun.
Distances are measured in astronomical units (AU, Sun–Earth distances). The distances are not the minimum (perihelion) or the maximum (aphelion) that may be achieved by these objects in the future.
Contents
1 List
2 Notable objects
3 See Also
4 References
List[edit]
Body
Distance (AU)
V774104 103
136199 Eris 96.3[1]
2014 UZ224[A] 91.9[1]
2015 TH367 88.2
(225088) 2007 OR10 87.4[1]
2013 FS28 85.9[1]
(90377) Sedna 85.8[1]
2014 FC69 84.1[1]
2006 QH181 83.34[1]
2012 VP113 (aka "Biden") 83.30[1]
"third sednoid" 83[2]
2015 UH87 82.3[1]
2013 FY27 80.3[1]
2015 TJ367 77.1[1]
2010 GB174 70.6[1]
2014 FJ72 70.1[1]
(148209) 2000 CR105 60.4[1]
2003 QX113 59.9[1]
2013 SY99 (aka "uo3L91")[B] 59.8[1]
2008 ST291 59.7[1]
2013 JQ64 58.4[1]
2004 XR190 (aka "Buffy") 57.5[3]
2006 HX122 55.5[3]
2009 KL30 54.7[3]
2013 GQ136 54.7[3]
2004 VU130 53.8[3]
2007 VK305 53.8[3]
2002 FV6 53.8[3]
2010 RF43 53.2[3]
2010 RE64 53[3]
2012 UT177 52.9[3]
1999 KR18 52.65[3]
(136472) Makemake 52.427[3]
2009 KK30 52.382[3]
(42301) 2001 UR163 52.285[3]
2013 JM65 52.209[3]
2013 JV64 51.996[3]
2007 LF38 51.931[3]
2013 JH64 51.626[3]
(303775) 2005 QU182 51.323[3]
2002 CY248 51.092[3]
2000 CO105 51.083[3]
2001 UP18 50.86[3]
2001 OM109 50.849[3]
(386723) 2009 YE7 50.693[3]
(136108) Haumea 50.676[3]
(437915) 2002 GD32 50.551[3]
2011 UQ411 50.521[3]
2000 AF255 50.157[3]
1999 RU214 50.089[3]
(54520) 2000 PJ30 49.758[4]
2011 UT411 49.68[4]
2003 UB292 49.676[4]
2004 DH64 49.494[4]
2000 WM183 49.313[4]
(182397) 2001 QW297 49.305[4]
1999 OG4 49.203[4]
(385362) 2002 PT170 49.173[4]
2000 SK331 49.159[4]
2011 UV412 48.961[4]
2013 GT136 48.89[4]
2013 FZ27 48.793[4]
2001 KG76 48.467[4]
2000 CK105 48.461[4]
2000 CJ105 48.412[4]
2013 GG138 48.38[4]
2011 UM411 48.359[4]
2011 UE412 48.312[4]
(202421) 2005 UQ513 48.286[4]
1999 RX214 48.09[4]
2003 FL127 48.087[4]
2012 WD36 48.084[4]
2003 HX56 48.069[4]
(90482) Orcus 48.046[4]
2005 EN302 47.967[4]
2010 VK201 47.92[4]
2014 FT71 47.872[4]
(385363) 2002 PW170 47.85[4]
2002 CZ224 47.811[4]
2006 JU58 47.803[4]
1999 CP153 47.784[4]
2001 KA77 47.755[4]
2004 MU8 47.744[4]
2002 CY154 47.73[4]
2001 KL76 47.694[4]
2005 EW318 47.657[4]
2004 VN112 47.612[4]
1998 WW31 47.578[4]
2003 QA112 47.571[4]
2013 FC28 47.404[4]
2002 PA171 47.394[4]
2013 SE99 47.387[4]
2011 HE103 47.335[4]
2002 XH91 47.318[4]
2000 PL30 47.274[4]
1999 OK4 47.254[4]
(19308) 1996 TO66 47.229[4]
2004 HD79 47.193[4]
2011 JX31 47.179[4]
2002 VE130 47.131[4]
2002 CX224 47.11[4]
2004 KK19 47.066[4]
2000 CG105 47.047[4]
(174567) Varda 47.033[4]
2004 PX117 47.007[4]
2003 GF55 46.996[4]
2000 CN105 46.982[4]
2001 UN18 46.96[4]
2004 VB131 46.953[4]
2005 JA175 46.913[4]
2004 OJ14 46.907[4]
1999 CD158 46.858[4]
(307261) 2002 MS4 46.844[4]
2011 UT412 46.831[4]
2001 ES24 46.754[4]
2000 CQ114 46.736[4]
2000 PY29 46.719[4]
2003 UZ291 46.687[4]
2007 XV50 46.68[4]
1999 CL119 46.656[4]
2014 UF224 46.654[4]
2009 KO30 46.644[4]
1999 OA4 46.562[4]
2000 FC8 46.554[4]
2013 GV137 46.516[4]
2002 PO149 46.486[4]
2005 JR179 46.424[4]
1999 CH119 46.419[4]
2005 PT21 46.29[4]
2013 JJ64 46.285[4]
1998 KY61 46.219[4]
2010 FX86 46.214[4]
(145480) 2005 TB190 46.201[4]
2004 PW117 46.188[4]
2000 YF2 46.154[4]
2010 KZ39 46.148[4]
2002 FX36 46.056[4]
2011 US412 46.032[4]
2009 DR143 46.005[4]
2007 RM314 45.978[4]
2013 RD98 45.962[4]
2000 PG30 45.951[4]
2000 WL183 45.942[4]
2000 PM30 45.933[4]
1999 RZ214 45.929[4]
2005 EB318 45.924[4]
2000 PD30 45.918[4]
(66452) 1999 OF4 45.902[4]
2003 QB91 45.897[4]
2001 OQ108 45.864[4]
(1999) DA 45.844[4]
2012 UH177 45.842[4]
2003 TK58 45.834[4]
(148780) Altjira 45.814[4]
2013 GK137 45.771[4]
2004 LW31 45.753[4]
(55565) 2002 AW197 45.753[4]
2013 GE138 45.714[4]
(363330) 2002 PQ145 45.671[4]
(385201) 1999 RN215 45.65[4]
2005 EE296 45.645[4]
(79978) 1999 CC158 45.632[4]
2013 JG64 45.595[4]
2011 UF412 45.584[4]
2000 CP104 45.536[4]
2001 HA59 45.442[4]
1995 WY2 45.437[4]
2000 QE226 45.435[4]
2011 UZ411 45.366[4]
(78799) 2002 XW93 45.351[4]
1996 RR20 45.35[4]
2000 CQ105 45.336[4]
2003 UT291 45.331[4]
1999 OM4 45.29[4]
(69988) 1998 WA31 45.29[4]
(82075) 2000 YW134 45.277[4]
2003 KO20 45.264[4]
2005 JY185 45.264[4]
2000 WV12 45.249[4]
1999 GS46 45.232[4]
(15883) 1997 CR29 45.203[4]
2000 FB8 45.156[4]
2000 YA2 45.15[4]
(88611) Teharonhiawako 45.142[4]
2005 CD81 45.131[4]
2000 PA30 45.123[4]
2011 UB412 45.095[4]
(84522) 2002 TC302 45.071[4]
2007 CQ79 45.043[4]
1998 WX24 45.038
2000 WT169 45.024[4]
(48639) 1995 TL8 45.02[4]
2013 FA28 45.015[4]
↑Discovered in 2014, announced in 2016
↑Discovered in 2013, announced in 2016
Notable objects[edit]
The discovery of an object known as V774104 was announced in November 2015 and was heralded by many news outlets as "the most distant Solar System object", surpassing Eris by close to 7 AU (not counting space probes and long-period comets). There is some confusion regarding its distance as of 2018, as V774104 might now be suspected of being closer than Eris,[5] but this is due to a misunderstanding (which arose because Scott Sheppard was referring to an unannounced Sednoid).[6]
Another very distant body is Sedna, which was discovered in November 2003. Although it takes over 10,000 years to orbit, during the next 60 years it will slowly move closer to the Sun as it comes to perihelion.[7]
See Also[edit]
List of Solar System objects most distant from the Sun in 2018
List of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion
List of hyperbolic comets
Pluto (30–49 AU, about 34 AU in 2015)
List of trans-Neptunian objects
Objects with very large aphelion
2012 DR30 (14–2049 AU, came to 14.5 AU in 2011)
2005 VX3 (4–2049 AU)
2013 BL76 (8–1920 AU)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r AstDyS-2 list of minor planets more than 57 AU from the Sun → Archived 21 September 2015 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Astronomer Michele Bannister (29 Mar 2018)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac AstDyS-2 Distance down to 50 AU
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el Hundreds of minor planets between 45–50AU
Jump up ^ Beatty, Kelly (29 January 2018). "V774104 update". Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Astronomer Michele Bannister (29 Mar 2018)
Jump up ^ Most Distant Object In Solar System Discovered
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