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NHL outdoor games
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The 2012 Winter Classic at Philadelphia
The National Hockey League (NHL) first held a regular season outdoor ice hockey game in 2003, and since 2008 the league has scheduled at least one per year.
The NHL primarily uses three brands for outdoor games: the Heritage Classic, Winter Classic, and Stadium Series. The Heritage Classic has been infrequently held four times, and has thus far featured match-ups between Canadian teams. The 2003 Heritage Classic between the Edmonton Oilers and Montreal Canadiens was the first outdoor regular season game in NHL history. This led to the annual Winter Classic, held on New Year's Day in the United States, starting with the 2008 game between the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Buffalo Sabres. The NHL then started the Stadium Series in 2014 for additional outdoor games. The number of Stadium series games has since varied per season (four in 2014, two in 2016, and only one each in 2015, 2017, and 2018). Both the Winter Classic and the Stadium series featured match-ups between American teams, until the Toronto Maple Leafs' appearances in both the 2014 Winter Classic and the 2018 Stadium Series.
To celebrate the NHL's 100 year anniversary in 2017, the league scheduled two special outdoor games: the NHL Centennial Classic between Detroit and Toronto on January 1 (through season 2016-2017) to kick off the year, and then the NHL 100 Classic on December 16 (during 2017-2018 season) between Montreal and the Ottawa Senators to conmemorate the league's very first game, having taken place exactly 100 years before, between the same contenders. The four teams involved in said honorific matches, alongside Boston and New York, constitute the sprinkling count of the league's earliest members.

Prior to 2003, NHL teams had been involved in at least three outdoor exhibitions. Two of these came in the 1950s and were effectively informal scrimmages; in 1954, the Detroit Red Wings visited Marquette Branch Prison and played a match against the prison inmates in a fenced-off, open air ice rink, while in 1956, the Boston Bruins played a game against several local teams in Bay Roberts, Newfoundland. In neither case was a formal game structure maintained or score kept, as the NHL teams hopelessly outmatched the hosts. In 1991, the Los Angeles Kings and New York Rangers played a pre-season game outside Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, in the first officially sanctioned outdoor NHL contest.
The NHL's outdoor series have proven wildly popular with fans and have led to numerous attendance records. The 2003 Heritage Classic drew 57,167 fans, a league record that stood until 71,217 fans in Buffalo set another NHL record in the inaugural Winter Classic in 2008. The 2014 Winter Classic, between Toronto and the Detroit Red Wings drew 105,491 fans, the current NHL record.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Hosting statistics
1.2 Cancelled games
2 List of NHL outdoor games
3 Outdoor games by team
4 References
History[edit]
The first outdoor game on record to feature an NHL team was attempted on February 2, 1954.[1] The Detroit Red Wings played an exhibition game on an outdoor ice surface, in 21 °F (−6 °C) degree weather, against the Marquette Pirates, an athletic club composed of inmates at Michigan's Marquette Branch Prison. The game, and the Pirates club, was allegedly organized as a way for Red Wings manager Jack Adams to make good with two convicted mafia members incarcerated at the prison. By the end of the first period alone, the Red Wings had amassed an 18–0 score against the prisoners; score keeping was abandoned after that point and the rest of the game effectively became an informal scrimmage.[2]
Two years after the 1954 prison match, the Boston Bruins went on a postseason barnstorm of Atlantic Canada in April 1956, which included a stop in Bay Roberts, Newfoundland. On April 9, 1956 the Bruins played an exhibition game against teams from the Conception Bay North Hockey League on an outdoor artificial ice surface, under similar rules to those of the 1954 prison match. Four teams each played one period against the Bruins who dominated the game. Only one goal was scored on Terry Sawchuk by the local teams.[3]
During their time at the Civic Arena, the Pittsburgh Penguins could have theoretically hosted an outdoor NHL game due to the arena having a retractable roof. (The arena was originally built for the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera, who only stayed at the arena until 1973.) However, the roof was always closed during hockey games with both the Penguins and their AHL predecessors, the Pittsburgh Hornets, whom the Penguins replaced upon the 1967 NHL expansion. The roof was permanently closed after 1994 when the Penguins replaced the center scoreboard.[4]
The Flames and Canadiens at the 2011 Heritage Classic
The first outdoor game between two NHL teams (and the first played to completion) was an official pre-season match-up on September 27, 1991. The game took place in the parking lot of Caesars Palace[5] in Las Vegas, Nevada, and featured the Los Angeles Kings and the New York Rangers.[6] The process of keeping the ice cool in the desert heat required three times as much coolant as a standard NHL rink.[7] There were few problems despite temperatures that reached 95 °F (35 °C) during the day and a game time temperature of 80 °F (27 °C).[7] During the contest grasshoppers began to jump onto the ice, where they would freeze or drown in water used to maintain the ice, and by the end of the second period the ice was littered with the bugs.[6] Nearly 14,000 fans watched the Kings defeat the Rangers 5–2.[8] Since 1997, the Los Angeles Kings have returned to Las Vegas to play an annual indoors preseason game as part of the Frozen Fury series. As of the 2017-2018 season Las Vegas has its own NHL franchise. Interesting fact, future recording artist, a young Usher, sang The National Anthem for this match.
The first regular-season outdoor game in the history of the NHL took place on November 22, 2003, at Edmonton's Commonwealth Stadium, when the Edmonton Oilers played the Montreal Canadiens in the 2003 Heritage Classic.[9] The Oilers had suggested the idea of hosting an outdoor game as early as the mid 1980s,[10] but the genesis of the 2003 event was the "Cold War" outdoor game played two years prior between Michigan State University and the University of Michigan.[11]
In 2005, NBC Sports Executive VP Jon Miller then pitched the concept an annual outdoor game as a television event to the NHL, "but they didn't find the concept workable."[12] In December 2006, Miller found an ally in then-league Executive VP/Business & Media John Collins, who embraced the idea.[13][14] This led to the inaugural Winter Classic game on January 1, 2008, with the Pittsburgh Penguins visiting the Buffalo Sabres at Ralph Wilson Stadium.[9]
On May 1, 2013, the NHL announced that the Chicago Blackhawks would host the Pittsburgh Penguins at Soldier Field in Chicago on March 1, 2014, as part of a new series of outdoor games called the NHL Stadium Series.[15] By the end of May 2013, the NHL had scheduled a record six outdoor NHL games for the 2013–14 season: one Winter Classic, one Heritage Classic, and four Stadium Series games.
In scheduling outdoor games in the New York metropolitan area that feature the New York Rangers (first occurring during two of the four 2014 Stadium Series games, and subsequently the 2018 Winter Classic), the team has always been designated as the "away" team. This is to maintain the property tax-exempt status of the Rangers' home arena, Madison Square Garden (MSG). The tax exemption stipulates that it only applies if the Rangers do not "cease playing" home games at MSG, generally interpreted as playing any "home" game outside of MSG.[16][17] By designating the Rangers as the "away" team and Buffalo as the "home" team in the 2018 Winter Classic at Citi Field in New York City, it would save MSG from paying more than $40 million in property taxes.[18]
In 2016, the Penguins and the Philadelphia Flyers worked out an agreement to play a home-and-home series of outdoors games.[19] The two archrivals played the 2017 Stadium Series game at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, and will follow with the 2019 Stadium Series game at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. The two teams had also discussed playing a neutral site game at Beaver Stadium at State College, Pennsylvania, but this did not materialize, due mainly to concerns about Beaver Stadium's plumbing being unable to withstand an event in winter[20][19] On March 6, 2016, the NHL officially announced that the Jets will host the Oilers in the 2016 Heritage Classic during the 2016–17 NHL season, held in October.[21]
To celebrate the NHL's 100th year in 2017, the league is having two special outdoor games. The first, branded as the Centennial Classic, between the Detroit Red Wings and Toronto Maple Leafs, was held on January 1 (during the 2016–17 NHL season) to kick off the year.[22] The second, branded as the NHL 100 Classic, was held on December 16 (during the 2017–18 season) between the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Senators.[23]
Hosting statistics[edit]
As of the conclusion of the end of the 2017-18 season:
23 of the NHL's 31 teams will have participated in an outdoor regular-season game. The eight that have not are Arizona, Carolina, Columbus, Dallas, Florida, Nashville, Tampa Bay and Vegas.
12 teams will have played more than one game.
Chicago will have made the most appearances (5).
19 metropolitan areas (out of 28 represented among the league's 31 teams) will have hosted the 25 outdoor regulation games. In addition to the eight metropolitan areas represented by teams that have not played in any outdoor games, Montreal has played in outdoor games but has yet to host any themselves (although New Jersey has also not yet hosted a home game in its home state, its home city of Newark is still part of the New York metropolitan area.)
New York City will have hosted three times. Chicago, Massachusetts, Maryland–DC, and Pittsburgh will have each hosted twice.
Yankee Stadium and Heinz Field will have each hosted two games.
No non-NHL (neutral site) market has yet hosted a regular season outdoor game. Notre Dame, Indiana will be the first non-NHL market to host an outdoor game when it hosts the 2019 Winter Classic.[citation needed]
Cancelled games[edit]
The Dallas Stars had originally been scheduled to play a stadium game at Houston's Reliant Stadium during their 2011 pre-season, but this game was ultimately cancelled.[24][25][26]
The 2013 NHL Winter Classic was originally scheduled to be contested at Michigan Stadium between the Detroit Red Wings and Toronto Maple Leafs. Due to the 2012–13 NHL lockout resulting in an abbreviated 2012–13 season, this Winter Classic matchup at Michigan Stadium was postponed and held during the following season instead.[27][28][29][30][31]
The Winnipeg Jets announced in 2013 that they had reached an agreement with the NHL to host a fourth Heritage Classic at Investors Group Field, the home of the CFL's Winnipeg Blue Bombers, which they hoped to hold during the team's fifth anniversary in 2015–16.[32] However, a disagreement occurred between the NHL and the Winnipeg Blue Bombers over the game's exact date: the league wanted it held in December 2015 while the football team became concerned that this date was too close to the 103rd Grey Cup being held at the stadium on November 29.[33] In January 2015, the Jets announced that they could not reach an agreement to finalize a date for the Heritage Classic during the 2015–16 season and that they were now looking for a new date during the 2016–2017 season.[34] On March 6, 2016, the NHL officially announced that the Jets will host the Oilers in the 2016 Heritage Classic during the 2016–17 NHL season, held in October.[21]
List of NHL outdoor games[edit]
Bolded teams denote winners
Date
Event
Site
Away team
Home team
Score
Attendance
February 2, 1954 exhibition game Marquette Branch Prison,
Marquette, Michigan Detroit Red Wings Marquette Prison Pirates[35] N/A 0
April 9, 1956 Conception Bay Sports Arena,
Bay Roberts, Newfoundland Boston Bruins Bay Roberts, Brigus,
Shearstown, Coley's Point
(1 period each) [36] N/A N/A
September 27, 1991 Caesars Palace,
Las Vegas, Nevada New York Rangers Los Angeles Kings 5–2 13,007
November 22, 2003 Heritage Classic Commonwealth Stadium,
Edmonton, Alberta Montreal Canadiens Edmonton Oilers 4–3 57,167
January 1, 2008 Winter Classic Ralph Wilson Stadium,
Orchard Park, New York Pittsburgh Penguins Buffalo Sabres 2–1 (SO) 71,217
January 1, 2009 Wrigley Field,
Chicago, Illinois Detroit Red Wings Chicago Blackhawks 6–4 40,818
January 1, 2010 Fenway Park,
Boston, Massachusetts Philadelphia Flyers Boston Bruins 2–1 (OT) 38,112
January 1, 2011 Heinz Field,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Washington Capitals Pittsburgh Penguins 3–1 68,111
February 20, 2011 Heritage Classic McMahon Stadium,
Calgary, Alberta Montreal Canadiens Calgary Flames 4–0 41,022
January 2, 2012 Winter Classic Citizens Bank Park,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania New York Rangers Philadelphia Flyers 3–2 46,967
January 1, 2014 Michigan Stadium,
Ann Arbor, Michigan Toronto Maple Leafs Detroit Red Wings 3–2 (SO) 105,491
January 25, 2014[37] Stadium Series Dodger Stadium,
Los Angeles, California Anaheim Ducks Los Angeles Kings 3–0 54,099
January 26, 2014[38] Yankee Stadium,
New York, New York New York Rangers New Jersey Devils 7–3 50,105
January 29, 2014[38] New York Islanders 2–1 50,027
March 1, 2014[39] Soldier Field,
Chicago, Illinois Pittsburgh Penguins Chicago Blackhawks 5–1 62,921[40]
March 2, 2014[39] Heritage Classic BC Place,
Vancouver, British Columbia Ottawa Senators Vancouver Canucks 4–2 54,194
January 1, 2015[39] Winter Classic Nationals Park,
Washington, D.C. Chicago Blackhawks Washington Capitals 3–2 42,832
February 21, 2015 Stadium Series Levi's Stadium,
Santa Clara, California Los Angeles Kings San Jose Sharks 2–1 70,205
January 1, 2016 Winter Classic Gillette Stadium,
Foxborough, Massachusetts Montreal Canadiens Boston Bruins 5–1 67,246
February 21, 2016 Stadium Series TCF Bank Stadium,
Minneapolis, Minnesota Chicago Blackhawks Minnesota Wild 6–1 50,426
February 27, 2016 Coors Field,
Denver, Colorado Detroit Red Wings Colorado Avalanche 5–3 50,095
October 23, 2016 Heritage Classic Investors Group Field,
Winnipeg, Manitoba Edmonton Oilers Winnipeg Jets 3–0 33,240
January 1, 2017 Centennial Classic BMO Field,
Toronto, Ontario Detroit Red Wings Toronto Maple Leafs 5–4 (OT) 40,818[41]
January 2, 2017 Winter Classic Busch Stadium,
St. Louis, Missouri Chicago Blackhawks St. Louis Blues 4–1 46,556
February 25, 2017 Stadium Series Heinz Field,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Philadelphia Flyers Pittsburgh Penguins 4–2 67,318
December 16, 2017 NHL 100 Classic TD Place Stadium,
Ottawa, Ontario Montreal Canadiens Ottawa Senators 0–3 33,959
January 1, 2018 Winter Classic Citi Field,
New York, New York New York Rangers Buffalo Sabres 3–2 (OT) 41,821
March 3, 2018 Stadium Series Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium,
Annapolis, Maryland Toronto Maple Leafs Washington Capitals 2–5 29,516
January 1, 2019 Winter Classic Notre Dame Stadium,
Notre Dame, Indiana Boston Bruins Chicago Blackhawks
February 23, 2019 Stadium Series Lincoln Financial Field,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Pittsburgh Penguins Philadelphia Flyers
Outdoor games by team[edit]
Team
Number of
appearances
'Home'
appearances
'Visitor'
appearances
Appearances
Wins
Losses
Anaheim Ducks 1 0 1 2014 1 0
Boston Bruins 3 2 1 2010, 2016, 2019 1 1
Buffalo Sabres 2 2 0 2008, 2018 0 2
Calgary Flames 1 1 0 2011 1 0
Chicago Blackhawks 6 3 3 2009, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019 1 4
Colorado Avalanche 1 1 0 2016 0 1
Detroit Red Wings 4 1 3 2009, 2014, 2016, 2017 2 2
Edmonton Oilers 2 1 1 2003, 2016 1 1
Los Angeles Kings 2 1 1 2014, 2015 1 1
Minnesota Wild 1 1 0 2016 1 0
Montreal Canadiens 4 0 4 2003, 2011, 2016, 2017 2 2
New Jersey Devils 1 1 0 2014 0 1
New York Islanders 1 1 0 2014 0 1
New York Rangers 4 N/A* 4 2012, 2014 (2 games), 2018 4 0
Ottawa Senators 2 1 1 2014, 2017 2 0
Philadelphia Flyers 4 2 2 2010, 2012, 2017, 2019 0 3
Pittsburgh Penguins 5 2 3 2008, 2011, 2014, 2017, 2019 2 2
San Jose Sharks 1 1 0 2015 0 1
St. Louis Blues 1 1 0 2017 1 0
Toronto Maple Leafs 3 1 2 2014, 2017, 2018 2 1
Vancouver Canucks 1 1 0 2014 0 1
Washington Capitals 3 2 1 2011, 2015, 2018 3 0
Winnipeg Jets 1 1 0 2016 0 1
Note: This table excludes exhibition games with non-NHL opponents (such as those in 1954 and 1956) and pre-season games (such as the one in 1991).
(*) The Rangers have officially been designated as the away team for the three games held in New York City to comply with a property tax exemption for Madison Square Garden that requires the Rangers to play all of their home games at the arena.
Italics indicate a future outdoor game.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Detroit Red Wings Head for Prison", The Milwaukee Journal, February 2, 1954, pg. 13
Jump up ^ "Red Wings Played Prison Football Team In 1954". GreatestHockeyLegends.com. March 24, 2010. Retrieved February 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ 1956 Boston Bruins tour. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Home Sweet Dome". Pittsburgh Magazine. 1970-05-02. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
Jump up ^ Springer, Steve (August 27, 1991). "Ice in Desert? It's No Mirage Hockey: Kings, Rangers play in Caesars Palace parking lot tonight". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Huskey, Melody (December 31, 2008). "Kings No Stranger To Outdoor Game". Archived from the original on October 1, 2011. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas, Robert (August 29, 1991). "1991–1992 N.F.L. SEASON; Gamble Works: Rangers Play In Las Vegas". The New York Times. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Save the Date – Frozen Fury XIII – OCT. 2, 2010 Take A Look Back at the history of Frozen Fury". Retrieved November 24, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Caurchidi, Sam (January 3, 2012). "How the Winter Classic snowballed". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved January 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Dolezar, Jon A. (2003-11-14). "The great outdoors". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2013-11-19.
Jump up ^ "It's Nice Outside—Oilers Stage Heritage Classic". Edmonton Oilers Community Foundation. Archived from the original on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2013-11-19.
Jump up ^ Wyshynski, Greg (December 21, 2010). "Chatting with NBC Sports executive producer Sam Flood about Winter Classic, cable cam for hockey, Mike Milbury and HBO '24/7'". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ Brink, Bill. "Winter Classic is a cool concept", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 26, 2010
Jump up ^ Dowbiggen, Bruce. "How hockey found its signature moment", The Globe and Mail, December 30, 2010
Jump up ^ "Hawks to host Pens outside as part of 'Stadium Series'". National Hockey League. May 1, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Rangers on Road in the Bronx? Money May Be Why". The New York Times. January 25, 2014. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sabres to play Rangers in 2018 Winter Classic". Die by the Blade (SBNation). Vox Media. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Benjamin, Cody (May 12, 2017). "Sabres 'hosting' 2018 Winter Classic vs. Rangers reportedly saves MSG $40M". CBSSports.com. Retrieved May 15, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Molinari, Dave (2016-02-05). "Penguins, Flyers planning home-and-home series of outdoors games | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Penn St. officials looking to renovate or replace stadium in near future". ESPN.com. October 1, 2015. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "2016 Tim Hortons NHL Heritage Classic coming to Winnipeg". NHL. March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Detroit Red Wings, Maple Leafs set to play outdoor Centennial Classic". Detroit Free Press. Gannett. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Senators to host Canadiens in outdoor NHL game Dec. 16 at TD Place". CBC News Ottawa. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Brad (June 21, 2011). "Dallas Stars To Play Pre-Season Game At Reliant Stadium in Houston". www.defendingbigd.com. Retrieved February 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Travis (June 21, 2011). "Dallas Stars To Play Preseason Game At Houston's Reliant Stadium". www.sbnation.com. Retrieved February 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Brad (July 5, 2011). "Stars' Preseason Game in Houston at Reliant Stadium Cancelled". /www.defendingbigd.com. Retrieved February 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Red Wings, Maple Leafs to meet in 2014 NHL Winter Classic". CBC Sports. April 7, 2013. Retrieved April 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Michigan regents approve renting Michigan Stadium to NHL for Winter Classic". Click on Detroit. Archived from the original on February 10, 2012. Retrieved February 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Decision day arrives for NHL's Winter Classic". The Buffalo News. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Strang, Katie, and Craig Custance (November 2, 2012). "Source: Winter Classic canceled". ESPN.com. Retrieved November 2, 2012. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Johnston, Chris (December 30, 2013). NHL dreaming 'Big' for Winter Classic. Sportsnet. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lawless, Gary (2013-12-10). "Winnipeg lands Heritage Classic". Winnipeg Free Press. p. D3. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Mike (2015-01-20). "Winnipeg Heritage Classic postponed until 2016". Sportsnet. Retrieved 2015-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Statement Regarding the Heritage Classic". Winnipeg Jets. 2015-01-20. Retrieved 2015-01-20.
Jump up ^ "Wings' first outdoor game was in prison". Redwings.nhl.com. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
Jump up ^ "1956 Boston Bruins tour". NLHHS. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Dodger Stadium to host Los Angeles Kings, Anaheim Ducks in January". NHL.com. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Stadium Series New York event to feature Islanders, Devils and Rangers at Yankee Stadium". NHL.com. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Blackhawks to host Penguins outdoors as part of Stadium Series". NHL.com. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Jonathan Toews, Blackhawks beat Penguins at snowy Soldier Field". espn.go.com. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
Jump up ^ "Matthews, Maple Leafs top Red Wings in Centennial Classic". yahoo.com. January 1, 2017.
[show]
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NHL outdoor games
Exhibition
1954
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1991
Heritage Classic
2003
2011
2014
2016
Winter Classic
2008
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2010
2011
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2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Stadium Series
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Other games
Centennial Classic
NHL 100 Classic
List of outdoor games
List of broadcasters
AHL Outdoor Classic
[show]
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Amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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President George W. Bush signs amendments to the Act in July 2006.
Congress enacted major amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in 1970, 1975, 1982, 1992, and 2006. Each of these amendments coincided with an impending expiration of some of the Act's special provisions, which originally were set to expire by 1970. However, in recognition of the voting discrimination that continued despite the Act, Congress repeatedly amended the Act to reauthorize the special provisions.[1]:6–8[2]:209–210
In each of these amendments except for the 1992 amendments, Congress extended the special provisions that were tied to the coverage formula, such as the preclearance requirement. These provisions were extended for five years in 1970, seven years in 1975, and 25 years in both 1982 and 2006. In 1970 and 1975, Congress also expanded the coverage formula, supplementing it with new 1968 and 1972 trigger dates. Coverage was further enlarged in 1975 when Congress expanded the meaning of "tests or devices" to encompass any jurisdiction that provided English-only election information, such as ballots, if the jurisdiction had a single language minority group that constituted more than five percent of the jurisdiction's voting-age citizens. These expansions brought numerous jurisdictions into coverage, including many located outside of the South.[3] To ease the burdens of the reauthorized special provisions, Congress liberalized the bailout procedure in 1982, allowing covered jurisdictions to escape coverage by upholding the voting rights of protected minorities and affirmatively acting to expand minority political participation.[4]:523
In addition to reauthorizing the special provisions and expanding coverage, Congress amended and added several other provisions to the Act. For instance, Congress expanded the original ban on "tests or devices" to apply nationwide in 1970, and in 1975, Congress made the ban permanent.[1]:6–9 Separately, in 1975 Congress expanded the Act's scope to protect language minorities from voting discrimination. Congress defined "language minority" to include "persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage."[5] Congress amended various provisions, such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement and Section 2 general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws, to prohibit discrimination against language minorities.[6]:199
Congress also enacted a bilingual election requirement in Section 203, which requires election officials in certain jurisdictions with large numbers of English-illiterate language minorities to provide ballots and voting information in the language of the language minority group. Originally set to expire after 10 years, Congress reauthorized Section 203 in 1982 for seven years, expanded and reauthorized it in 1992 for 15 years, and reauthorized it in 2006 for 25 years.[7]:19–21, 25, 49 The bilingual election requirements have remained controversial, with proponents arguing that bilingual assistance is necessary to enable recently naturalized citizens to vote and opponents arguing that the bilingual election requirements constitute costly unfunded mandates.[7]:26
Several of the amendments responded to judicial rulings that Congress disagreed with. In 1982, amended the Section 2 general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws to overturn the Supreme Court case Mobile v. Bolden (1980), which held that Section 2 prohibited only purposeful discrimination. Congress expanded Section 2 to explicitly ban any voting practice that had a discriminatory effect, irrespective of whether the practice was enacted or operated for a discriminatory purpose.[8] The creation of this "results test" shifted the majority of litigation brought under the Voting Rights Act from claims of Section 5 violations to claims of Section 2 violations.[4]:644–645 In 2006, Congress amended the Act to overturn two Supreme Court cases: Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board (2000),[9] which interpreted Section 5 to prohibit voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" discriminatory purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003),[10] which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates.[11]:207–208
In response to the Supreme Court case Shelby County v. Holder (2013), which struck down the current coverage formula as unconstitutional,[12]several amendment acts were proposed, but all failed to make progress.[13][14][15][16][17][18]
Contents
[hide]
1 1970
2 1975
3 1982
4 1992
5 2006
6 References
1970[edit]
Anticipating the expiration of the Act's special provisions in 1970, Congress held extensive hearings on whether the Act should be amended and its special provisions reauthorized. Congress noted discrimination in voting continued in spite of the Act and that the Section 5 preclearance requirement had been minimally enforced since its enactment; between 1965 and 1970, covered jurisdictions had made merely 578 preclearance submissions. Ultimately, Congress determined that although significant progress had been made in reducing racial discrimination in voting since 1965, sufficient discrimination existed to justify extending the special provisions.[1]:6−8
President Richard Nixon's administration, which generally disliked civil rights laws but hoped to politically capitalize on the alienation of Southern white voters from the Democratic Party that the Act was causing, sought to reauthorize but weaken the law. Attorney General John N. Mitchell proposed a 3-year extension with amendments to extend the ban on "tests or devices" nationwide and abolish both the coverage formula and the preclearance requirement. Opposed by liberals and supported by Southern Democrats and Midwestern Republicans, this proposal initially passed in the House of Representatives,[2]:204–205 but it was rejected by the Senate, which crafted its own compromise bill. The Senate passed its version by a 64-12 vote, and the House then passed it by a bipartisan 237-132 vote.[19]:686–687 The legislation was enacted on June 17, 1970 as the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970.[20] President Nixon signed it into law on June 22.[2]:204–205, 207
Through this legislation, Congress extended the special provisions for five years.[1]:8 Congress also expanded the coverage formula by supplementing it with 1968 trigger dates, bringing into coverage several new jurisdictions outside of the South[3] and appeasing several Southern legislators who felt the original coverage formula unfairly singled out Southern states. Simultaneously, Congress amended the bailout provision to require covered jurisdictions seeking bailout to prove that they had not used a test or device in a discriminatory manner in the ten-year period preceding their bailout request, an increase from the original five-year period requirement. Congress also expanded the ban on using tests or devices to the entire nation.[1]:6–8
Congress also add new provisions to the Act. Two new provisions exclusively regulated presidential elections: one created uniform rules for voter registration and absentee voting, and the other prohibited states from applying their own durational residency requirements as voting qualifications.[1]:7 Influenced by the draft of males at least 18 years of age to fight in the Vietnam War, Senator Ted Kennedy convinced Congress to add a provision guaranteeing citizens at least 18 years of age the right to vote in federal, state, and local elections.[2]:205–206 In a statement explaining his decision to sign the amendments, Nixon expressed doubts that this provision was constitutional, and he instructed the Attorney General to expedite litigation to test its constitutionality.[21] Later that year, the Supreme Court, in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970),[22] struck down the part of the provision lowering the voting age in state elections as unconstitutional; the Court upheld only the part of the provision that lowered the voting age in federal elections. The decision precipitated the ratification of the Twenty-sixth Amendment the following year, which lowered the voting age in all elections to 18.[4]:60
1975[edit]
Congress revisited the Act in 1975, the year that the Act's special provisions were again set to expire. The debate was less acrimonious than previous debates concerning the Act, reflecting an expanded consensus in Congress that the law remained necessary to remedy continued racial discrimination in voting. Unlike Nixon, President Gerald Ford's administration, which worked to improve relations with African Americans after Nixon's presidency, supported extending the Act without weakening it.[2]:209–210 After conducting several hearings, Congress passed legislation amending the Act; the Senate approved the amendments by a 77-12 vote, and the House of Representatives by a 346-56 vote.[19]:706 President Ford signed the amendments into law on August 6, 1975.[2]:214[23]
The amendments extended the Act's special provisions for seven years. Congress chose seven years to avoid having to reconsider the special provisions during the 1980s reapportionment process.[4]:624 Relatedly, Congress amended the bailout provision to require covered jurisdictions seeking bailout to prove that they had not used a test or device in a discriminatory manner in the 17-year period preceding their bailout request.[24]:1349 Congress also expanded the coverage formula by adding new dates in 1972 as triggering dates, which brought more jurisdictions into coverage.[3] Furthermore, Congress made permanent the nationwide prohibition on tests or devices.[1]:9
The 1975 amendments also expanded voting rights for minority groups that traditionally had fallen outside the Act's protections. Civil rights organizations representing Hispanic, Asian American, Native Alaskan, and Native American interests argued before Congress that such groups often were the victims of discriminatory voting practices, particularly in areas where English was not the dominant language.[24]:1350 After Congress heard testimony of language discrimination in voting, Congresswoman Barbara Jordan (D-TX) successfully led an effort to amend the Act to protect language minorities.[2]:211 Specifically, Congress amended the definition of "test or device" to prohibit laws requiring ballots and voting information be provided exclusively in English in jurisdictions where a single-language minority group comprised more than 5% of the voting-age population. This in turn expanded the coverage formula to reach states such as Texas that Congress wanted to cover. Congress also enacted bilingual election requirements, which require election officials in certain jurisdictions to provide ballots and voting information in the language of language minority groups.[4]:57, 521
1982[edit]
As the special provisions neared expiration again, Congress reconsidered the Act in 1982. Organizations in The Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Education Association (NEA), organized to pressure Congress both to extend the special provisions and to expand the Act's general prohibition on discriminatory voting laws.[24]:1351–1353 Congressional opponents of the amendments had little support for their positions outside of Congress.[24]:1387
The House of Representatives, which was the first chamber to consider amendments,[24]:1380 conducted seven weeks of hearings on amendatory legislation at which over 100 witnesses testified, most of whom supported extending the Act's special provisions by at least 10 years.[1]:17 President Ronald Reagan's administration largely stayed out of the debate as the legislation worked its way through the House. However, President Reagan did indicate he supported replacing the coverage formula with a nationwide preclearance requirement.[24]:1384–1385 The House ultimately passed legislation maintaining the coverage formula and permanently extending the special provisions.[24]:1383 Supporters of the House bill hoped to sustain the momentum from the House and expedite approval of the House bill in the Senate, but Senators opposing the legislation slowed its passage through extensive committee hearings.[24]:1383–1384 Furthermore, the Reagan Administration announced its support for only a 10-year extension of the special provisions.[24]:1386 The Senate eventually compromised on maintaining the coverage formula unchanged and extending the special provisions by 25 years,[24]:1415 except for the Section 203(c) bilingual election requirement, which was extended for seven years.[7]:23 The Senate also agreed to liberalize the bailout procedure to allow a covered state or local government to escape coverage by proving to the U.S. District Court for D.C. that it had complied with the Voting Rights Act and undertook constructive efforts to expand opportunities for political participation in the 10 years preceding its bailout request.[4]:523 The bailout procedure was also amended to allow a local government to bail out of coverage even if its parent state was covered.[7]:23[25]
The provision Congress most intensely focused on amending was Section 2, which prescribes a general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws.[24]:1352 Two years earlier, the Supreme Court, in Mobile v. Bolden (1980), held that racially discriminatory laws violated the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments only if the laws were enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose; thus, showing that a law simply had a discriminatory effect was insufficient to state a constitutional claim of discrimination. The Court further held that Section 2 mirrored this constitutional standard.[26]:60–61 The decision had a major effect on voting rights litigation; civil rights lawyers decided not to pursue many planned cases, and courts overturned several judgments that were previously entered in favor of plaintiffs. This prompted nationwide outrage that weighed heavily on Congress as it considered amending the Act in 1982.[27]:149
During the nine days of Senate hearings concerning whether to amend the Act, Section 2 was the primary focus[24]:1389—in particular, whether to amend Section 2 to create a "results" test that prohibited any voting law that had a discriminatory effect, irrespective of whether the law was enacted or operated for a discriminatory purpose. President Reagan opposed creating a results test because its impact would be uncertain.[24]:1388–1389 Furthermore, some members of Congress, such as Senator Orrin Hatch (R-UT), raised concerns that a results test would fundamentally alter American democracy by requiring courts to impose proportional representation for protected minority groups as a remedy.[24]:1392 To assuage this concern, Senator Robert Dole (R-KS) proposed legislative language explicitly disclaiming that a results test would require proportional representation. This compromise won support from the Senate, the House, and the Reagan Administration.[24]:1414–1415 The House passed this version of the bill by a 389-24 vote, and the Senate passed it by an 85-8 vote.[19]:707[28] President Reagan signed the legislation into law on June 29, 1982.[2]:231 The creation of the Section 2 results test shifted the majority of litigation brought under the Voting Rights Act from claims of Section 5 violations to claims of Section 2 violations.[4]:645
1992[edit]
As the bilingual election requirement in Section 203(c) neared expiration in 1992, Congress considered legislation to extend and expand it. Representative José E. Serrano (D-NY) introduced legislation,[29] dubbed the Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992, to extend the provision for 15 years, making its term coterminous with the other special provisions scheduled to expire in 2007. The legislation also expanded the coverage formula and the Section 203(c) bilingual election requirement to cover jurisdictions containing at least 10,000 persons of any one of the covered language minorities.[30]:50–51 This reached major cities such as Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.[31]:1486–1487 Finally, in recognition of "the historical fact that reservation boundaries predate and therefore often do not correspond to State or county lines," the legislation created an alternative coverage formula for Native American language-minority voters living on Indian reservations.[6]:225–226
This legislation received more Congressional opposition than the 1982 amendments did, most of it from Republicans.[31] Proponents argued that the lack of bilingual assistance hindered recently naturalized citizens from exercising their voting rights and that the country had a history of acceptance toward linguistic pluralism. Opponents argued that the Voting Rights Act was never meant to protect language minorities and that the bilingual assistance provision was a costly unfunded mandate.[7]:26 Opponents proposed several amendments to weaken the legislation, including limiting the extension to 5 years, requiring the federal government to pay for the bilingual voting materials, and completely removing the bilingual provisions. These amendments failed, and Congress passed the legislation with mostly Democratic support;[31] the House passed it by a 237-125 vote, and the Senate passed it by a 75-20 vote. President George H. W. Bush signed the legislation on August 26, 1992.[29]
2006[edit]
Congress reconsidered the Act in 2006 as the special provisions were due to expire in 2007. Civil rights organizations advocated for the renewal and strengthening of the special provisions.[32]:206 As a matter of principle, Democrats generally supported renewing the special provisions. However, the Republican Party controlled both chambers of Congress and the presidency, and many Republicans considered the preclearance requirement an affront to states' rights and the principle of color-blindness.[11]:180 Furthermore, conservatives believed that the primary beneficiaries of the special provisions were African Americans, who overwhelmingly and increasingly voted for Democratic Party candidates.[32]:207 However, Republicans were receiving increasing support from some language minority groups, particularly Hispanics and Asian Americans, and they did not wish to risk losing that support by refusing to reauthorize the special provisions.[32]:208 Republicans also recognized that the Act often helped Republican candidates win by requiring jurisdictions to pack Democratic-leaning racial minorities into few electoral districts. In addition, House Judiciary Committee Chair Jim Sensenbrenner (R-WI) had a strong desire to reauthorize the special provisions, and he led an early effort to pass a reauthorization bill before his chairmanship expired at the end of 2006. Thus, a consensus in favor of reauthorizing the special provisions emerged early in the legislative process.[11]:180–181
In 2005, the House Judiciary Subcommittee on the Constitution began holding hearings on amending the Voting Rights Act. Few witnesses at the hearings testified against reauthorizing the special provisions, and the committee focused primarily on assembling evidence of discrimination in voting.[11]:181–182 Congress's evidentiary record of voting discrimination was viewed as particularly important because Congress believed that according to the Supreme Court case Boerne v. Flores (1997) and its progeny, Congress needed to demonstrate that legislation passed to enforce the Reconstruction Amendments was "congruent and proportional" to remedying or preventing constitutional violations. To make this showing, the committee needed to assemble evidence to demonstrate that the special provisions were generally successful in combating racial discrimination in voting, but not so successful as to no longer be necessary. Given the uncertainty surrounding the congruence and proportionality standard, political constraints, and the Supreme Court previously having upheld the special provisions as constitutional, the committee decided to reauthorize the special provisions without amending the coverage formula.[11]:192–194 The committee ultimately included in the record four types of evidence to support this reauthorization: statistics showing rates of minority voter registration, turnout, and elective officeholding in covered versus non-covered jurisdictions; statistics showing the behavior of covered jurisdictions and the Department of Justice in the preclearance process; instances of voting discrimination in covered jurisdictions; and data comparing successful Section 2 litigation in covered versus non-covered jurisdictions.[11]:195
On May 2, 2006, Representative Sensenbrenner introduced the Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, and Coretta Scott King Voting Rights Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 2006.[33][34] The bill proposed to extend the special provisions by 25 years and keep the coverage formula unchanged. The bill also proposed to amend the Act to overturn two recent Supreme Court cases: Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board (2000),[9] which interpreted Section 5 to prohibit voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003),[10] which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates.[11]:207–208 While passage of the bill was virtually certain, a few Republican lawmakers attempted to amend the bill on the House floor. One group of legislators, led by Congressman Lynn Westmoreland (R–GA), argued that the reauthorization unfairly targeted certain jurisdictions for long-past discrimination.[35][36] Another group of 80 legislators signed a letter originated by Congressman Steve King (R–IA) arguing that the Act's bilingual election requirements constituted costly unfunded mandates.[37] All proposed amendments to the bill failed, though three received the support of a majority of the Republican caucus. Following the defeat of these amendments, the House passed the bill on July 13, 2006 by a 390-33 vote.[34] Notably, this tally included many Republicans who had previously voted in favor of the failed amendments.[38]
Shortly thereafter, the Senate unanimously passed the bill without amendment on July 20, 2006 by a 98–0 vote.[39] However, in an unprecedented event for a bill that passed unanimously out of committee, Senators of only one political party, Republicans, signed onto the bill's Senate committee report,[11]:178 and the report was not filed until six days after the bill's passage. The Senate report differed in significant ways from the House report, and in their own statement, Senate Democrats objected to parts of the Senate report that they believed highlighted evidence that could jeopardize the bill's constitutionality.[11]:186–189 The day after the committee report was filed, President George W. Bush signed the bill in a morning ceremony on the South Lawn of the White House on July 27, 2006, one year in advance of the 2007 expiration date.[39] The audience at the signing ceremony included family members of Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks, the reverends Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson, NAACP Chairman Julian Bond, and other civil rights leaders.[39]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Williamson, Richard A. (1984). "The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions". Washington University Law Review. 62 (1). Retrieved August 29, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h May, Gary (April 9, 2013). Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy (Kindle ed.). Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01846-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a work now in the public domain: "Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act". U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Issacharoff, Samuel; Karlan, Pamela S.; Pildes, Richard H. (2012). The Law of Democracy: Legal Structure of the Political Process (4th ed.). Foundation Press. ISBN 1-59941-935-1.
Jump up ^ 42 U.S.C. § 1973l(c)(3)
^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, James Thomas (2006). "Enfranchising Language Minority Citizens: The Bilingual Election Provisions of the Voting Rights Act" (PDF). New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy. 10. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e This article incorporates public domain material from the Congressional Research Service document "The Voting Rights Act of 1965, As Amended: Its History and Current Issues" by Garrine, Laney (June 12, 2008) (retrieved on October 6, 2013).
Jump up ^ Rhodes, Jesse (2017). Ballot Blocked: The Political Erosion of the Voting Rights Act. http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=26493: Stanford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board, 528 U.S. 320 (2000)
^ Jump up to: a b Georgia v. Ashcroft,539 U.S. 461 (2003)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Persily, Nathaniel (2007). "The Promise and Pitfalls of the New Voting Rights Act". Yale Law Journal. 117. Retrieved September 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Moving Forward on the VRAA". NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Fuller, Jaime (June 26, 2014). "Republicans used to unanimously back the Voting Rights Act. Not any more". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "H.R. 3899 (113th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014". GovTrack. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "S. 1945 (113th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014". GovTrack. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "All Bill Information (Except Text) for H.R. 885 - Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015". Library of Congress. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "H.R. 885 (114th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015". GovTrack. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "H.R. 2867 (114th): Voting Rights Advancement Act of 2015". GovTrack. GovTrack. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kousser, J. Morgan (2008). "The Strange, Ironic Career of Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–2007". Texas Law Review. 86. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-285, 84 Stat. 315 (1970) (codified as amended in scattered sections of 42 U.S.C. §§ 1973–1973bb-l)
Jump up ^ Richard Nixon, Public Papers of the Presidents, June 22, 1970, p. 512.
Jump up ^ Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970)
Jump up ^ Pub. L. No. 94-73, 89 Stat. 400 (1975)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Boyd, Thomas M.; Markman, Stephen J. (1983). "The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Legislative History". Washington and Lee Law Review. 40 (4). Retrieved August 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ Voting Rights Act of 1965 § 4(a) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1973(a)(1)(F))
Jump up ^ Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980)
Jump up ^ Derfner, Armand (October 1989). Chandler Davidson, ed. Minority Vote Dilution. Vote Dilution and the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1982: Howard University Press. ISBN 0-88258-176-7.
Jump up ^ 91st Congress (1970) (June 22, 1970). "H.R. 4249 (91st)". Legislation. GovTrack.us. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "H.R. 4312 (102nd): Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992". govtrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved October 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ Laney, Garrine P. (March 13, 2013). The Voting Rights Act of 1965: Historical Background and Current Issues. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 1-59033-671-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c DeSipio, Louis; O. de la Garza, Rodolfo (1993). "Save the Baby, Change the Bathwater, and Scrub the Tub: Latino Electoral Participation After Seventeen Years of Voting Rights Act Coverage". Texas Law Review. 71. Retrieved October 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tucker, James Thomas (2007). "The Politics of Persuasion: Passage of the Voting Rights Act Reauthorization Act of 2006" (PDF). Journal of Legislation. 33. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ Pub. L. No. 109-246, 2006 U.S.C.C.A.N. (120 Stat.) 577 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 1971–1973aa-1a)
^ Jump up to: a b "H.R. 9 (109th)". GovTrack.us. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lyman, Rick (March 29, 2006). "Extension of Voting Act Is Likely Despite Criticism". The New York Times. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "House delays renewal of Voting Rights Act". USA Today. June 21, 2006. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Babington, Charles (June 22, 2006). "GOP Rebellion Stops Voting Rights Act". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
Jump up ^ Rhodes, Jesse (2017). Ballot Blocked: The Political Erosion of the Voting Rights Act. http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=26493: Stanford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bush signs Voting Rights Act extension: Historic 1965 law renewed for 25 years". NBC News. Associated Press. July 27, 2006. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
[show]
v
t
e
Voting rights in the United States
Constitutional
provisions
Article I
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14th Amendment
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15th Amendment
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Federal laws
Voting Rights Act of 1965
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List of covered jurisdictions
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
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Help America Vote Act of 2002
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[show]
v
t
e
African-American civil rights movement (1954–1968)
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events
(timeline)
1954–1959
Brown v. Board of Education
Bolling v. Sharpe
Briggs v. Elliott
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
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Royal Ice Cream sit-in
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1960–1963
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1964–1968
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