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Italian War of 1551–59
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Italian War of 1551–1559
Part of Italian Wars

The Battle of Scannagallo in 1554 by Giorgio Vasari, in the Palazzo Vecchio of Florence.
Date
1551–59
Location
France, Flanders, Italy and the Mediterranean
Result
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis; Spain is confirmed as the dominant power in Italy
Territorial
changes
France renounces its claim in Italy but wins the Three Bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun) in Lorraine and the Pale of Calais from England
Republic of Siena annexed by the Duchy of Florence
Belligerents
Kingdom of France
Swiss mercenaries
Republic of Siena
Ottoman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
Spanish Empire
Duchy of Mantua
Kingdom of England
Duchy of Florence
Duchy of Savoy
Commanders and leaders
Henry II
Duke of Guise
Duke of Montmorency
Paul de Thermes
Piero Strozzi
Suleiman I
Koca Sinan Pasha
Dragut
Charles I-V
Ferdinand I
Ferrante I Gonzaga
William of Orange
Philip II
Duke of Alba
Count of Egmont
Mary I
Baron Wentworth
Cosimo I de' Medici
Gian Giacomo Medici
Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy
[show]
v
t
e
Italian War of 1551–59
Tripoli
Mirandola
Metz
Ponza
Corsica
Marciano
Renty
St. Quentin
Calais
Thionville
Gravelines
[show]
v
t
e
Italian Wars
1494–98
1499–1504
League of Cambrai
Urbino
1521–26
League of Cognac
1536–38
1542–46
1551–59
Full list of battles
[show]
v
t
e
Anglo-French wars
1202–04
1213–14
1215–1217
1242–1243
1294–1303
1337–1453
1496-98
1512–14
1522–26
1542–46
1551–59
1627–29
1666–67
1689–97
1702–13
1744–48
1754–63
1778–83
1793–1802
1803–1814
1815
The Italian War of 1551 (1551–1559), sometimes known as the Habsburg–Valois War and the Last Italian War, began when Henry II of France, who had succeeded Francis I to the throne, declared war against Holy Roman Emperor Charles V with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. The war was the last of a series of wars between the same parties since 1521. Historians have emphasized the importance of gun powder technology, new styles of fortification to resist cannon fire, and the increased professionalization of the soldiers.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Operations
1.1 Mediterranean campaigns
1.2 Land campaigns
1.3 Military technology
1.4 Finance
2 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Operations[edit]
Mediterranean campaigns[edit]
Henry II remitting the Order of Saint-Michel to Marshall de Tavannes after the Battle of Renty, on 13 August 1554.
Henry II sealed a treaty with Suleiman the Magnificent in order to cooperate against the Habsburgs in the Mediterranean.[2] This was triggered by the conquest of Mahdiya by the Genoese Admiral Andrea Doria on 8 September 1550, for the account of Charles V. The alliance allowed Henry II to push for French conquests towards the Rhine, while a Franco-Ottoman fleet defended southern France.[3]
The 1551 Ottoman Siege of Tripoli was the first step of the all-out Italian War of 1551–59 in the European theater, and in the Mediterranean the French galleys of Marseille were ordered to join the Ottoman fleet.[4] In 1552, when Henry II attacked Charles V, the Ottomans sent 100 galleys to the Western Mediterranean,[5] which were accompanied by three French galleys under Gabriel de Luetz d'Aramon in their raids along the coast of Calabria in Southern Italy, capturing the city of Reggio.[6] In the Battle of Ponza in front of the island of Ponza, the fleet met with 40 galleys of Andrea Doria, and managed to vanquish the Genoese and capture seven galleys. This alliance would also lead to the combined Invasion of Corsica in 1553. The Ottomans continued harassing the Habsburg with various operations in the Mediterranean, such as the Ottoman invasion of the Balearic islands in 1558, following a request by Henry II.[7]
Land campaigns[edit]
On the Continental front, Henry II allied with German Protestant princes at the Treaty of Chambord in 1552. An early offensive into Lorraine was successful, with Henry capturing the three episcopal cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and securing them by defeating the invading Habsburg army at the Battle of Renty in 1554. However, the French invasion of Tuscany in 1553, in support of Siena attacked by an imperial‐Tuscany army, was defeated at the Battle of Marciano by Gian Giacomo Medici in 1554. Siena fell in 1555 and eventually became part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany founded by Cosimo I de' Medici.[8]
The Treaty of Vaucelles was signed on 5 February 1556 between Philip II of Spain and Henry II of France. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of the Franche-Comté was relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards.
After Charles' abdication in 1556 split the Habsburg empire between Philip II of Spain and Ferdinand I, the focus of the war shifted to Flanders, where Philip, in conjunction with Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, defeated the French at St. Quentin. England's entry into the war later that year led to the French capture of Calais, and French armies plundered Spanish possessions in the Low Countries. Nonetheless, Henry was forced to accept a peace agreement in which he renounced any further claims to Italy.[9]
The wars ended for other reasons, including the Double Default of 1557, when the Spanish Empire, followed quickly by the French, defaulted on its debts. In addition, Henry had to confront a growing Protestant movement at home, which he hoped to crush.[10]
Military technology[edit]
Oman (1937) argues that the inconclusive campaigns which generally lack a decisive engagement were largely due to an effective leadership and lack of offensive spirit. He notes that mercenary troops were used too often and proved unreliable. Hale emphasizes the defensive strength of fortifications newly designed at angles to dissipate cannon fire. Cavalry, which had traditionally used shock tactics to overawe the infantry, largely abandoned them and relied on pistol attacks by successive ranks of attackers. Hale notes the use of old-fashioned mass formations, which he attributes to lingering conservatism. Overall, Hale emphasizes new levels of tactical proficiency.[11]
Finance[edit]
In 1552 Charles V had borrowed over 4 million ducats, with the Metz campaign alone costing 2.5 million ducats. Shipments of treasure from the Indies totalled over 2 million ducats between 1552-53. By 1554, the cash deficit for the year was calculated to be over 4.3 million ducats, even after all tax receipts for the six ensuing years had been pledged and the proceeds spent in advance. Credit at this point began costing the crown 43 percent interest (largely financed by the Fugger and Welser banking families). By 1557 the crown was refusing payment from the Indies since even this was required for payment of the war effort (used in the offensive and Spanish victory at the battle of St. Quentin in August 1557).[12]
French finances during the war were mainly financed by the increase in the taille tax, as well as indirect taxes like the gabelle and customs fees. The French monarchy also resorted to heavy borrowings during the war from financiers at rates of 10-16 percent interest.[13] The taille was estimated in collection for 1551 at around 6 million livres.
During the 1550s, Spain had an estimated military manpower of around 150,000 soldiers, whereas France had an estimated manpower of 50,000.[13]
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)[edit]
The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed between Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain on 3 April 1559, at Le Cateau-Cambrésis, around twenty kilometers south-east of Cambrai.[14] Under its terms, France restored Piedmont and Savoy to the Duke of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa, but retained Saluzzo, Calais and the Three Bishoprics: Metz, Toul, and Verdun.[15] Spain retained Franche-Comté, but, more importantly, the treaty confirmed its direct control of Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the State of Presidi, and indirectly (through dominance of the rulers of Tuscany, Genoa, and other minor states) of northern Italy. The Pope was also their natural ally. The only truly independent entities on Italian soil were Savoy and the Republic of Venice. Spanish control of Italy lasted until the early eighteenth century. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60 year, Habsburg-Valois wars.
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy married Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry, the sister of Henry II of France. Philip II of Spain married Elisabeth, the daughter of Henry II of France.[16] Henry died during a tournament when a sliver from the shattered lance of Gabriel Montgomery, captain of the Scottish Guard at the French Court, pierced his eye and entered his brain.
The French had achieved mixed results: their situation had improved significantly when compared to the late 1520s, they had made some territorial gains and the treaty was considered an agreement between two equal powers. However, they had failed to change the balance of power in Italy, or break the Habsburg encirclement. Most importantly, their good position would soon be jeopardized by the French Wars of Religion. For the Habsburgs as a whole, the result was mixed too, as the war had weakened their position in the Holy Roman Empire and led to the separation of Charles' realms. However, for the Spanish Empire, the results were much better, as it was left as the sole dominant power in Italy and had successfully withstood the French effort. England fared poorly during the war, and the loss of its last stronghold on the continent damaged its reputation.
The Peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559). Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain were in reality absent, and the peace was signed by their ambassadors.
The fatal tournament between Henry II and Montgomery (Lord of "Lorges").
See also[edit]
Franco-Ottoman alliance
States of Italy in 1559
Elizabeth I of England
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Charles Messenger, ed., Reader's Guide to Military History (2001) pp 635-36
Jump up ^ Miller, p.2
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, p.328
Jump up ^ The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II by Fernand Braudel p.920- [1]
Jump up ^ European warfare, 1494-1660 by Jeremy Black p.177
Jump up ^ The History of England Sharon Turner, p.311
Jump up ^ The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571) by Kenneth M. Setton pp. 698ff
Jump up ^ Charles W.C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937).
Jump up ^ Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937).
Jump up ^ Elliott, J.H. (1968). Europe Divided: 1559–1598 (page 11). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-131414-8.
Jump up ^ J. R. Hale, "Armies, navies and the art of war." in Elton ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: The Reformation 1520–1559 (1975) 2: 481–509.
Jump up ^ Lynch, John (1984). Spain under the Habsburgs Second Edition. New York: New York University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 0-8147-5010-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy, Paul (1989). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0-679-72019-7.
Jump up ^ Robert Jean Knecht, Catherine de Medici, (Longman, 1997), 54.
Jump up ^ James Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic, (Oxford University Press, 2008), 31.
Jump up ^ Mark Konnert, Early Modern Europe: The Age of Religious War, 1559-1715, (University of Toronto Press, 2006), 122.
References[edit]
Baumgartner, Frederic J. Henry II, King of France 1547–1559 (Duke Univ Press, 1988).
Oman, Charles W.C. A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937).
Pepper, Simon, and Nicholas Adams. Firearms & Fortifications: Military Architecture and Siege Warfare in Sixteenth-century Siena (University of Chicago Press, 1986).
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text:
Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
An archer about to launch an arrow
A fruit fly on a banana peel
"Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana" is a humorous saying that is used in linguistics as an example of a garden path sentence or syntactic ambiguity, and in word play as an example of punning, double entendre, and antanaclasis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Analysis of the basic ambiguities
2 History
2.1 Other attributions
3 Use in linguistics
4 See also
5 References
Analysis of the basic ambiguities[edit]
"Time flies like an arrow" is an English phrase often used to illustrate syntactic ambiguity.[1] In this connection the sentence is often seen as part of the elaboration: "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana".
Modern English speakers unambiguously understand the sentence to mean "As a generalisation, time passes in the same way that an arrow generally flies (i.e. quickly)" (as in the common metaphor time goes by quickly). However, the matter is more difficult in the formal interpretation of natural language; formally the sentence is logically ambiguous and alternatively could be interpreted as meaning, for example:[2]
(as an imperative) Measure the speed of flies like you would measure that of an arrow—i.e. (You should) time flies as you would time an arrow.
(imperative) Measure the speed of flies in the way an arrow would—i.e. (You should) time flies in the same manner that an arrow would time them.
(imperative) Measure the speed of flies with qualities resembling those of arrows—i.e. (You should) time those flies that are like an arrow.
(declarative) Time moves in a way an arrow would.
(declarative, i.e. neutrally stating a proposition) Certain flying insects, called "time flies", enjoy an arrow.
In addition, the sentence contains semantic ambiguity. For instance, the noun phrase "Time flies" could refer to all time flies or particular time flies, and "an arrow" to all arrows, a particular arrow, or different arrows for different flies; compare "Fruit flies like a banana", "Fruit flies ate a banana", "Fruit flies live on a banana". Likewise, the noun "Time" could refer to the magazine.
History[edit]
The expression is based on the proverb: "Time flies", a translation of the Latin Tempus fugit, where "fly" is to be taken in the sense of flee.
An early example of a pun with the expression "Time flies" may be found in a 1930 issue of Boys' Life:
Flies Around
Scoutmaster: Time flies.
Smart Tenderfoot: You can't. They go too fast.[3][4]
Anthony Oettinger gives "fruit flies like bananas" as contrasted with "time flies like an arrow" as an example of the difficulty of handling ambiguous syntactic structures as early as 1963,[5] although his formal publications with Susumu Kuno do not use that example.[6] This is quoted by later authors.[7]
A fuller exposition with the banana example appeared in a 1966 article by Oettinger in Scientific American.[8]
This article prompted the following response in a letter:[9]
Time Flies Like an Arrow
An Ode to Oettinger
Now, thin fruit flies like thunderstorms,
And thin farm boys like farm girls narrow;
And tax firm men like fat tax forms –
But time flies like an arrow.
When tax forms tax all firm men's souls,
While farm girls slim their boyfriends' flanks;
That's when the murd'rous thunder rolls –
And thins the fruit flies ranks.
Like tossed bananas in the skies,
The thin fruit flies like common yarrow;
Then's the time to time the time flies –
Like the time flies like an arrow.
Edison B. Schroeder 1966
The verse is popular as a specimen of didactic humor trading on syntactic ambiguity. Like the poem The Chaos, by Gerard Nolst Trenité,[10] its themes are popular among practitioners and students in fields such as natural language processing and linguistics.[11]
Other attributions[edit]
The saying is sometimes attributed to Groucho Marx, but the earliest attribution to him dates only to 1982,[12] and there is no reason to believe he actually said it.[13]
Use in linguistics[edit]
The saying is used as a linguistic example of antanaclasis, the stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a different meaning each time.[citation needed]
It is also used as an example of punning.[citation needed] The wordplay is based on the distinct meanings of the two occurrences of the word flies (the verb "travel through the air" and the noun for certain insects), and of the word like (the preposition "similarly to" and the verb "enjoy"). For example, the second clause can be read as "fruit travels through the air similar to a banana" or as "certain insects enjoy a banana".
This is an example of a garden-path sentence, a phrase that the reader or listener normally begins to parse according to one grammatical structure, and is then forced to back up and reparse when the sentence ends in an unexpected way.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
List of linguistic example sentences
Amphibology
Antanaclasis
Paraprosdokian
Perverb
Sentence processing
Syntactic ambiguity
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marc de Mey(1982), The cognitive paradigm: an integrated understanding of scientific development D. Reidel (1992), University of Chicago Press (1992).
Jump up ^ Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct. New York: W. Morrow and Co. p. 209. ISBN 0-06-097651-9.
Jump up ^ Boys' Life. Boy Scouts of America, Inc. February 1930. p. 48. ISSN 0006-8608. The official youth magazine for the Boy Scouts of America Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Rigney, Francis J. (February 1930). "Think and Grin". Boys' Life. Boy Scouts of America: 48.
Jump up ^ Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 66:205, 1963
Jump up ^ e.g., Anthony Oettinger, Susumo Kuno, "Syntactic structure and ambiguity of English", Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall 1963:397-418. doi:10.1145/1463822.1463864
Jump up ^ Gilbert Burck (1965). The computer age and its potential for management. Harper & Row. p. 62.
Jump up ^ Anthony G. Oettinger, "The Uses of Computing in Science", Scientific American 215:3 (September 1966); republished as Information, W.H. Freeman, 1966. Lib. of Congress No. 66-29386
Jump up ^ Scientific American, November 1966, p. 12, correspondence column
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on April 15, 2005. Retrieved June 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Jurafsky, Daniel & Martin, James H. Speech and Language Processing. Pub. Pearson Prentice Hall 2008. ISBN 978-0131873216
Jump up ^ https://groups.google.com/forum/?hl=en#!original/net.jokes/z_X93iYiJLA/W5UDCyQMs4kJ
Jump up ^ Fred R. Shapiro, ed. (2006). The Yale Book of Quotations. Yale University Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-300-10798-2.
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values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

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