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Drunk driving law by country
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The laws of driving under the influence vary between countries. One difference is the acceptable limit of blood alcohol content before a person is charged with a crime.
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
2 Americas
2.1 North America
2.1.1 Canada
2.1.2 Mexico
2.1.3 United States
2.2 Caribbean
2.3 Central America
2.4 South America
3 Asia
3.1 Central Asia
3.2 East Asia
3.3 South Asia
3.4 Southeast Asia
3.5 Western Asia
4 Europe
4.1 Britain
4.1.1 Further rules in the United Kingdom (UK)
4.1.2 Magistrates' sentencing guidelines
5 Oceania
5.1 Australia
5.1.1 Australian Capital Territory
5.1.2 New South Wales
5.1.3 Northern Territory
5.1.4 Queensland
5.1.5 South Australia
5.1.6 Tasmania
5.1.7 Victoria
5.1.8 Western Australia
5.2 New Zealand
5.3 Other countries in Oceania
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Africa[edit]
Angola: 0.06%[1]
Algeria: 0.02%[2]
Benin: 0.05%[2]
Cape Verde: 0.08%[2]
Central African Republic: 0.08%[2]
Comoros: 0[2]
Congo: 0.01%[2]
Egypt: 0.05%[3]
Equatorial Guinea: 0.15%[2]
Eritrea: 0.03% for commercial or professional drivers, 0.05% for all other drivers.[2]
Ethiopia: 0.08[4]
The Gambia: No limit[2]
Ghana: 0.08%[2]
Guinea: 0.08%[2]
Guinea-Bissau: 0.15%[2]
Kenya: No limit[2]
Libya: 0[2]
Malawi: 0.08%[2]
Mauritius: 0.05%[2]
Morocco: 0.00%[2]
Namibia: 0.05%[2]
Niger: No limit[2]
Nigeria: 0.05%[5]
Seychelles: 0.08%[2]
South Africa: 0.05% and 0.02% for professional drivers (trucks over 3.5 tonnes, and vehicles carrying passengers for reward) National Road Traffic Act, 1996.
Togo: No limit[2]
Uganda: 0.08%[2]
Tanzania: 0 for professional or commercial drivers, 0.08% for all other drivers.[2]
Zambia: 0.08%[2]
Americas[edit]
North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
Main article: Impaired driving in Canada
Canada: 0.0–0.08%
The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1968–69 made it a per se offense to drive with a BAC in excess of 80 mg/100 ml of blood. Refusal of a police officer's demand to provide a breath sample was made an offence at the same time and both began as summary conviction offenses , with a mandatory minimum $50 fine.[6]
Mexico[edit]
Mexico: 0.04–0.10%.[7]
United States[edit]
Main article: Drunk driving in the United States
A 1937 poster warns US drivers about the dangers of mixing alcohol and driving.
United States: Depends on state, 0.08% or 0.05% BAC by volume
In the United States, the blood alcohol level at which all states make it unlawful to operate a motor vehicle is 0.08, although it is possible to be convicted of impaired driving at a lower blood alcohol level.[8] Some states define two impaired driving offenses.[9]
The first is the traditional offense, variously called driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI), driving while intoxicated/impaired (DWI),[10] operating under the influence (OUI), or operating while intoxicated/impaired (OWI).[11]
The second and more recent is the so-called illegal per se offense of driving with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) by volume (mass of alcohol/volume of blood) of 0.08% (previously 0.10%) or higher.
The first offense requires proof of intoxication, although evidence of BAC is admissible as rebuttably presumptive evidence of that intoxication; the second requires only proof of BAC at the time of being in physical control of a motor vehicle. An accused may potentially be convicted of both offenses as a result of a single incident, but may only be punished for one.[12] The differences between state penalties still varies. Wisconsin, for instance, is the only state that continues to treat first offense drunk driving arrests as forfeiture.[13]
Some states also include a lesser charge of driving with a BAC of 0.05%; other states limit this offense to drivers under the age of 21. All states and DC also now have zero tolerance laws: the license of anyone under 21 driving with any detectable alcohol in their bloodstream (BAC limits of 0.01% or 0.02% apply in some states, such as Florida.) will be suspended. In 2009, Puerto Rico joined these states, setting a limit of 0.02 for drivers under 21, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18.[14]
The blood alcohol limit for commercial drivers is 0.04%.[15] Pilots of aircraft may not fly within eight hours of consuming alcohol, while under the impairing influence of alcohol or any other drug, or while showing a blood alcohol concentration equal to or greater than 0.04 grams per decilitre of blood.[16]
Utah became the first U.S. state to lower the legal limit to .05% BAC by volume on March 24, 2017. The law takes effect on December 30, 2018.[17] The bill’s passage, HB155, was controversial in the state. A poll published on July 29, 2017 found 50 percent of Utahns supported the new law, but 47 percent opposed it.
In most states, the timing of the chemical test for suspected drunk driving is important because the law mandates a result within a given time period after the driving stopped, usually two hours.[citation needed]
The aftermath of a drunk driving car crash is simulated as part of an anti-drunk driving campaign for California high school students.
Caribbean[edit]
Bahamas: 0.06%[18]
Cuba: 0 for young or inexperienced drivers and professional or commercial drivers, 0.05% for all other drivers.[2]
Dominican Republic: 0.03%[2]
Jamaica: The law states that the legal alcohol limit is 35 μg/100 ml alcohol in breath or a blood alcohol level of 80 mg/100 ml alcohol in blood.[19]
Trinidad and Tobago: 35 μg/100 mL BrAC, 80 mg/ml BAC[20][21]
Central America[edit]
Belize: 0.08%[2]
Costa Rica: 0.02%[2] for public transport, commercial drivers and new drivers, or 0.05% for all others results in a fine of CRC 280,000 (US$489.61 as of 27 July 2017). A BAC in excess of 0.05% for public transport, commercial drivers and new drivers or 0.075% for all others additionally results in a 1 to 3 year prison sentence, vehicle impoundment and 2 year licence suspension.[22]
El Salvador: 0.05%[2]
Guatemala: 0.08%[2]
Honduras: 0.07%[2]
Nicaragua: 0.05%[23]
Panama: 0.08%[2]
South America[edit]
Argentina: 0% for public transport and commercial vehicles, 0.02% for motorcycles, and 0.05% for all others.[24]
Bolivia: 0.05% for professional drivers only.[25]
Brazil: Since 2008 Brazil practices a zero tolerance. If a driver is found to be driving with any BAC (up to .06%), the driver is to have their license suspended for 12 months, pay a fine of BRL 2,934.70 (doubled if recurrence) and will have the car seized. Anything above 0.06% is considered a criminal offense. [26][27]
Chile: From 15 March 2012, 0.03–0.08% the driver is considered to be driving under the influence and carries a three-month suspension and a fine of US$82–410 (as of 19 March 2012[update]); over 0.08% the driver is considered to be drunk and carries a prison term of 61 to 301 days, a fine of US$164–820 (as of 19 March 2012[update]) and a two-year suspension for the first offense, a five-year suspension for a second offense, and a life suspension for a third offense.[28]
Colombia: Colombia is known to have the toughest penalties against those driving under the influence in all of Latin America and practice a zero tolerance policy on DUIs. If a driver is found to be driving with 20–39 mg/100 ml ethanol in blood (equivalent to 0.02–0.039% BAC), the driver is to have their license suspended for a year, pay a fine of US$914 (as of 22 December 2013[update]), and serve twenty hours of community service. In the most extreme cases, if a driver is found to be driving with grade three alcohol (150 mg/100 ml ethanol in blood), the driver is to have their licence confiscated for ten years, pay a fine of US$7,314 (as of 22 December 2013[update]), and serve fifty hours of community service. If the driver gets in an accident and causes injuries and or deaths, the driver is to face between 2.5 and eighteen years of prison sentence.[29]
Ecuador: 0.01% for commercial or professional drivers; 0.03% for all other drivers.[2]
Guyana: 0.08%[2]
Paraguay: 0 [30]
Peru: Drivers below a 0.05% BAC will be given a warning. At a 0.05% and over, the driver will be given a fine and a license suspension of no less than six months and no more than two years. If the driver is involved in an accident without causing death or severe injury to another individual, he or she may possibly face jail time. If the driver's causes an accident with a BAC over 0.101%, involving death or severe injury to another party, he or she will receive a mandatory prison sentence of three to five years. The driver's license will also be permanently revoked.[citation needed]
Suriname: 0.05%[2]
Uruguay: 0 tolerance for every driver, professional or not (since January 2016)[2] The driver will have to pay a fine of US$464 (as of 29 April 2015[update]) and will have their licence suspended. Depending on the concentration of alcohol in blood and the times the driver was found guilty, the suspension goes from a minimum of six months to a maximum of two years.[31] If the driver causes an accident involving death, he or she will be charged with negligent homicide and will face a minimum of six months in prison.
Venezuela: 0.08%[2]
Asia[edit]
Central Asia[edit]
Kyrgyzstan: 0.05%[2]
Mongolia: 0.05%[2]
Turkmenistan: 0[2]
East Asia[edit]
China: 0.02%. Over 0.02% but under 0.08%: CN¥ 1000–2000 fine, six months licence suspension; Over 0.08%: up to three years imprisonment,[32] five years licence suspension. If the driver causes serious injuries or death, the license will be suspended for life.[33]
Hong Kong: 0.05% or BAC 0.22 mg/L or urine 0.067%. Driving under the influence of alcohol beyond legal limit is punishable with a monetary fine and up to three years imprisonment, with ten driving-offense points and mandatory Driving Improvement Course.[34]
Japan: BrAC 0.15 mg/L (equivalent to 0.03%). Additionally, regardless of alcohol readings, police may also determine the driver to be "driving drunk", which is punished more severely than exceeding the designated alcohol limits.[35]
Republic of Korea: 0.05%[36]
Taiwan: 0.05% (BrAC 0.15 mg/L). Over 0.05% but under 0.11%: TWD 15,000 to 90,000 fine.[citation needed] 0.11% and above: license suspension for one year, and charge of offences against public safety with possible prison sentence up to two years as the maximum penalty. If the driver is convicted of causing accidents, the penalty shall be increased by half.[citation needed] If the driver causes serious injuries or death, the license will be suspended for life or even face the death penalty.
South Asia[edit]
Afghanistan: 0[2]
India: 0.03%. This is according to section 185 of Motor Vehicles Act 1988. On a first offence, the punishment is imprisonment of six months, a fine of 2000 Indian Rupees (INR) or both. If the second offence is committed within three years, the punishment is two years, a fine of 3000 Indian Rupees (INR) or both. The clause of 30 mg/dL was added by an amendment in 1994. It came into effect beginning 14 November 1994.
Nepal: 0%. Breathalyzer testing is regularly used in major cities like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar and Highways. For more verification, driver will be taken to nearest hospitals for blood and urine test (if demanded by the driver). Licence will be seized instantly. Driver will get the licence back after attending anti-alcoholic classes run by Nepal Traffic Police and fine will be charged NRS 1000.[citation needed]
Pakistan: Falls under Drink and Drugs, S. No 14. No Set limit. 8 Penalty Points.[37]
Sri Lanka: 0.06%.[citation needed] Breathalyzer testing is not used routinely. If suspected by police the driver is produced before the closest government medical officer who examines and determines whether the driver is under influence. If the driver refuses examination by the medical officer he is considered to have been under influence by default.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Brunei: Not applicable, alcohol is banned.
Cambodia: 0.01%[2]
Laos: 80 mg/100 ml of blood.[38][citation needed]
Indonesia: 0[2]
Malaysia: 0.08%, or 80 mg100 ml alcohol in blood.[39]
Philippines: The Republic Act 10586 or the "Anti-Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013" indicates that blood alcohol content (BAH) should be 0.05% for non-professional drivers and 0.01% for motorcycle riders and professional drivers. A traffic enforcer must first establish probable cause before directing a motorist suspected of DUI to pull over. Then, the motorist should do the following field sobriety tests – the horizontal gaze nystagmus (eye test), the walk-and-turn, and one-leg stand. A breath analyzer shall only be used after the motorist fails these three tests.[40]
Singapore: 0.08% (80 mg/100 ml alcohol blood) or BrAC: 35 μg/100 ml alcohol in breath, strictly enforced.[citation needed]
Thailand: 0 for professional or commercial drivers, 0.05% for all other drivers.[2]
Vietnam: 50 mg/100 ml alcohol in blood motorbikes and 0 for cars or larger vehicles.[41]
Western Asia[edit]
Turkey: 0.05%,[42] 0 for commercial transport and public service drivers.
Armenia: 0.04%[43]
Azerbaijan: 0[44]
Iran: Not applicable, alcohol is banned.
Israel: 0.024% 24 mg/100 ml alcohol in breath (penalties only apply above 29 mg/100 ml alcohol in breath due to lawsuits about sensitivity of devices used).[45] New drivers, drivers under 24 years of age and commercial drivers 0.005% 5 mg/100 ml alcohol in breath.[46]
Jordan: 0.05.[2] Breathalyzer testing is not routinely used. If suspected by police the driver is produced before the closest government medical officer who examines and determines whether the driver is under influence.
Kuwait: Not applicable, alcohol is banned.
Lebanon: 0.02%, often unenforced.
Saudi Arabia: Not applicable, alcohol is banned.
Syria: often unenforced, unless heavily drunk and driving. License revoked for 1 to 3 month. 2000 Syrian pounds fine.
United Arab Emirates: 0[citation needed]
Europe[edit]
Map of Europe showing countries' blood alcohol limits as defined in g/dl for the general population
Note: Take zero to usually mean below detection limit.
Albania: 0.01%[42]
Austria: 0.05%.[2] 0.01% for drivers who have held a licence for less than two years and drivers of vehicles over 7.5 tonnes[citation needed]
Belarus: 0.03%
Belgium: 0.05%[42] Fines and driving bans increase as the alcohol concentration in the blood increases.[47]
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 0.03% for all drivers except for drivers of C, CE, D and DE categories, public service drivers, professional drivers, driving instructors, and drivers younger than 21 years or without 3 years of experience, where limit is zero. [48]
Bulgaria: 0.05%[2]
Czech Republic: Zero[42]
Croatia: 0.05%. Zero for drivers aged 16 to 24 and professional drivers on duty.[49][50]
Cyprus: 0.05%[2]
Denmark: 0.05%, imprisonment if over 0.20%, zero if not driving safely. Fine: one month's pay after taxes × BAC × 10.[51]
Estonia: 0.019%[52]
Finland: 0.05%,[42] 0.12% (aggravated). The penalty is a fine or jail up to six months plus license suspension from one month to five years. For aggravated, also a prison sentence (sixty days to two years) is possible,[53] usually as a suspended sentence. Routine breath testing without a probable cause is permitted and often practiced. Penalties vary by level of intoxication.
France: 0.05% or 0.02% for new drivers (under three years of driving license) and bus drivers (€135 fine and six demerit points on the driver's license, which can be suspended for three years maximum),[42] 0.08% (aggravated, criminal offense, license suspension for three years, €4,500 fine, and up to two years imprisonment)
Georgia: 0.02%[2]
Germany: Zero for beginners (less than two years' experience or under the age of 21), professional drivers, bus drivers, truck drivers, and drivers transporting passengers commercially; 0.03% in conjunction with any other traffic offense or accident; 0.05% otherwise. For cyclists, the limit is set at 0.16%, where not in conjunction with any other traffic offense or accident. From 0.16%, cyclists face the same penalties as driving a car at that limit.[54]
Penalties start at a €500 fine and one-month license suspension. From 0.11%, the penalty is a €500 fine and the withdrawal of the driver's licence for at least six months, but usually about one year (penalty is set by the court); from 0.16%, reissue of the licence requires a successful Medical Psychological Assessment (MPU).[55] From 0.11% within ten years of an offence from 0.05%, there is a minimum €7003100000000000000♠1000 fine and a one-year licence withdrawal; the driver has to successfully pass an MPU and is required to prove to the court that they have been sober for the last twelve months, before they can get their licence back. For repeat offenses, the fine is multiplied by the ordinal of the offence (doubled, tripled, etc.), regardless of the amount by which the driver was over the limit. These minimum penalties are usually exceeded by the German courts. From 0.11%, the courts usually also require the DUI offender to do unpaid community service.
Gibraltar: 0.05%[56]
Greece: 0.05% (BrAC 0.25 mg/L),[42] reduced to 0.02% (BrAC 0.10 mg/L) for unlicensed or new drivers who have held a license for less than two years, motor cycle and professional drivers. Above 0.11% (BrAC 0.60 mg/L) it's considered a flagrant misdemeanor punishable with up to two years of imprisonment and a hefty fine in the court plus the revoking of the drivers licence for six months. Routine breath testing without a probable cause is permitted and practiced by the traffic police, especially on weekends and major holidays.
Hungary: Zero[2]
Iceland: 0.04%[42]
Ireland: 0.05% generally or 0.02% for learner drivers, newly qualified drivers (those who have their license for less than two years) and professional drivers, and those who do not have their driving license on them when stopped by the Gardaí (police).[57] Police do not need a reason to request a breath sample. Being convicted of drunk driving usually carries a two-year ban as well as a €1,500 fine.[58]
Italy: From 0.05% to 0.08% (€500-2,000 fine, three to six months license suspension), from 0.08% to 0.15% (aggravated, €800-3,200 fine, six to twelve months license suspension, up to six months imprisonment), over 0.15% (aggravated, €1,500-6,000 fine, one to two years license suspension, six to twelve months imprisonment, vehicle seizure and confiscation), zero for drivers with less than three years experience and professional drivers (bus, trucks, etc.). License is always revoked in case of: professional drivers, second offence committed within two years or in case of an accident. If the driver refuses examination he is considered to have been under influence by default applying the over 0.15% rules.[59] Limit is zero for newly qualified drivers (those who have their license for less than three years). Routine breath testing without a probable cause is permitted and practiced by various law enforcement agencies.
Latvia: 0.02% for drivers with less than two years of experience and 0.05% for those with more than two years of experience
Liechtenstein: 0.08%[citation needed]
Lithuania: Zero for taxi, truck, bus, motorcycle drivers. 0.02% for drivers with less than two years of experience and 0.04% for those with more than two years of experience[42]
Luxembourg: 0.02% for professional drivers and drivers with less than two years of experience and 0.05% for the rest (€145 fine and two demerit points on the driving licence if caught). 0.08% earns you a citation, 0.12% means loss of license (since October 1, 2007)[60]
Macedonia: Zero for professional drivers, public service drivers, commercial transport and beginner drivers, 0.05% for all others[61]
Moldova: 0.03%[42]
Malta: 0.08%[42]
Netherlands: 0.05%,[42] 0.02% for drivers with less than five years' experience (or less than seven years' experience when the driver got his license before reaching the age of eighteen)
Norway: 0.02%.[42] Punishment depends on the alcohol level. 0.02% (fine, but one may also risk a suspended licence if any aggravated circumstances are present.), 0.05% (fine, suspended sentence and suspended license), 0.10% (fine, suspended or mandatory sentence and suspended license), 0.15% (fine, mandatory sentence and suspended license). The guidelines state that the fine for an alcohol level of more than 0.05% should be around 1.5 months base salary and usually not lower than 10,000 NOK. For 0.02 to 0.05% the fine is lower. Prison sentences are usually around three weeks to three months with a maximum of one year. The suspension period varies from less than a year to forever, when license is suspended forever, one may apply to get it back after five years.[62]
Poland: 0.02% (driving license banned from six months up to three years, jail up to one month), 0.05% (driving license banned from minimum three years, prison up to three years).[42] Limits and penalties for riding the bicycles were same as for motorized vehicles to December 2013. Almost half of people imprisoned for drunk driving were riding bicycles.[63]
Portugal: 0.05%. 0.02% for drivers with less than three years of experience[42]
Romania: Zero. Above 0.8 mg/L imprisonment or criminal fine and suspended licence. Between 0 and 0.8 mg/L civil fine and suspended licence.[citation needed][64]
Russian Federation: 0.0356% since 1 September 2013,[65][66] previously zero since 2010[67][68]
Serbia: 0.03% for all, zero for motorcycle drivers, professional drivers, public service drivers, commercial transport and beginning drivers.[69] Starting 2018 it will be 0.02% for non professional drivers.
Slovakia: Zero[42]
Slovenia: Zero for drivers with three years or less experience and professional drivers, 0.24 mg/l (0.05%) for all others.[citation needed]
Spain: 0.05% BAC (0.25 mg/l BrAC)[70] and 0.03% BAC (0.15 mg/l BrAC) for drivers with less than two years experience and drivers of freight vehicles over 3.5 tonnes, and of passenger vehicles with more than nine seats. Surpassing the limit is a serious offence, fined with €500.[71] Driving with an alcohol rate over 0.12% is a crime (up to six months imprisonment and license suspension up to one years).[72]
Sweden: 0.02%, above 0.1% is considered aggravated[73]. Annually about 2.5 million random tests are performed for alcohol and about twelve thousand tests on suspicion of drugs.[74]
Switzerland: Zero for drivers with less than three years experience, 0.05%[42] for all others.
United Kingdom
Scotland: 50 mg/100 ml (~0.05% BAC) alcohol in blood or 22 μg/100 ml alcohol in breath (legislation became effective from 5 December 2014)[75]
England and Wales: 80 mg/100 ml (~0.08% BAC) alcohol in blood, 35 μg/100 ml alcohol in breath or 107 mg/100 ml alcohol in urine.[76]
Northern Ireland: 80 mg/100 ml (~0.08% BAC) alcohol in blood. As of November 2014[update] results of a public consultation regarding reduction of this limit were being considered,[77] with a reduction to fifty being thought likely[78]
Ukraine: 0.02%[79]
Britain[edit]
In British law it is a criminal offence to be drunk in charge of a motor vehicle. The definition depends on such things as being in or near the vehicle, and having access to a means of starting the vehicle's engine and driving it away (i.e., the keys to a vehicle). A passenger in the vehicle can also be prosecuted if the police can prove that they were driving under the influence at some point.[80]
The UK's drug driving laws were updated in 2015. The changes included: a new roadside testing kit, which could detect the presence of cocaine and cannabis in a suspect's saliva; zero tolerance limits for a number of illegal drugs, Limits were also set for certain prescription medications. The laws, however, did not end the use of the field impairment test, but made them more relevant for determining driver impairment by those drugs that are not now covered by the new legislation, or cannot be identified by the limited use of a device, that currently are only authorised for cannabis and cocaine.[81]
Further rules in the United Kingdom (UK)[edit]
In the UK, driving or attempting to drive whilst above the legal limit of 0.08% BAC in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and 0.05% BAC in Scotland or unfit through drink carries a maximum penalty of six months' imprisonment, a fine of up to £5,000 and a minimum twelve months' disqualification. For a second offence committed within ten years of conviction, the minimum ban is three years. Being in charge of a vehicle whilst over the legal limit or unfit through drink could result in three months' imprisonment plus a fine of up to £2,500 and a driving ban. Causing death by careless driving when under the influence of alcohol or other drugs carries a maximum penalty of fourteen years in prison, a minimum two-year driving ban and a requirement to pass an extended driving test before the offender is able to drive legally again.
It is an offence to refuse to provide a specimen of breath, blood or urine for analysis. The penalties for refusing are the same as those for actual drunk driving.
The offence of driving whilst under the influence of alcohol is one to which there is no defence, as such (although defences such as duress or automatism, which are not specific to the offence of driving with excess alcohol, may apply in certain rare circumstances). However, it may be possible to argue that special reasons exist which are such that you should not be disqualified from driving despite having committed the offence. Special reasons are notoriously difficult to establish and the burden of proof is always upon the accused to establish them. Such reasons may include:
shortness of distance driven
unintentional commission of the offence (i.e., laced drinks)
emergencies
Magistrates' sentencing guidelines[edit]
In England and Wales, when DWI offenders appear before a magistrates' court, the magistrates have guidelines they refer to before they decide on a suitable sentence to give the offender. These guidelines are issued by the Sentencing Guidelines Council[82] and cover offences for which sentence is frequently imposed in a magistrates' court when dealing with adult offenders.
Offences can either be tried summarily which means they can only be heard in the magistrates' court or they can be either way offences which means magistrates may find their sentencing powers are insufficient and indict the case to crown court. The majority of drunk driving offences are summary only offences which can only be tried in a magistrates' court. Only the most serious offences such as a collision, death or injury involved are indicted to crown court. The maximum sentence magistrates can usually impose for "being in charge of a vehicle while above the legal limit or unfit through drink" is a £2,500 fine, a three-month prison sentence or a driving ban; the maximum sentence magistrates can usually impose for "driving or attempting to drive while above the legal limit or unfit through drink" is six months’ imprisonment, an unlimited fine or a driving ban for at least 1 year (3 years if convicted twice in 10 years).[83] In theory, the fine is means tested and based on disposable income.[84]
As with England and Wales, road traffic law in Scotland is in the main framed within the Road Traffic Act 1988 as amended. Prosecution and disposal of drink-drive offences is broadly similar to England and Wales with less serious cases prosecuted on complaint through the sheriff summary courts. Cases involving aggravations, life-changing or fatal injuries are prosecuted on indictment via the sheriff solemn or high court. As with most UK-wide legislation, the penalties and sentencing guidelines for drunk driving in Scotland mirror those in effect in England and Wales.
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
A roadside warning in Victoria, Australia
Road laws are state or territory based, but all states and territories have set similar rules.
Australian law allow police officers to stop any driver and perform a random breath test without reason. Roadblocks can be set up (for example, leading out of town centres on Friday and Saturday nights and after football matches or other major events), where every single driver will be breath-tested.
This differs from UK and US laws where police generally need a reason to suspect that the driver is intoxicated before requesting a breath or sobriety test. It is an offence to refuse to provide a sample of breath when requested with severe penalties including prison.[85]
Australian Capital Territory[edit]
0 for drivers or riders holding a learner, provisional, restricted or probationary license and for drivers operating heavy vehicles over 15t GVM or driving a public vehicle for hire or reward (for example taxi and bus drivers).[86]
0.05% for all other drivers.
New South Wales[edit]
Zero for Learner and Provisional licences.[87]
0.02% for drivers of vehicles of "gross vehicle mass" greater than 13.9 tonnes, vehicles carrying dangerous goods or public vehicles such as a taxi or bus.
0.05% for all other drivers
0 limit for methamphetamine, Cannabis and MDMA.
Northern Territory[edit]
0 for provisional (probationary) licence holders and all motorcyclists.
0.05% for all other drivers.
Queensland[edit]
A 0 limit applies to the drivers of trucks, buses, articulated vehicles, vehicles carrying dangerous goods, pilot vehicles, taxis, all learner drivers and provisional drivers and RE class licensed motorcyclists in their first twelve months.[88]
0.05% for other drivers.[89]
0 limit for methamphetamine, Cannabis and MDMA.[89]
South Australia[edit]
0 limit for learner, provisional, probationary, heavy (greater than fifteen tonnes) vehicle, taxis, licensed chauffeured vehicles, dangerous goods, and bus licenses.
0.05% for all other drivers.
0 limit for methamphetamine, Cannabis and MDMA.
Tasmania[edit]
0 limit for learner, provisional, truck, bus, and taxi licences.
0.05% for all other drivers.
0 limit for methamphetamine, Cannabis and MDMA.
Victoria[edit]
0 limit applies for unlicensed drivers, holders of learner permits and probationary licences, "professional" drivers, and certain relicensed drunk-drivers.
0.05% for all other drivers.
0 limit for methamphetamine, Cannabis and MDMA.
There are also other restrictions for drivers in Victoria:
Limits apply within three hours of driving - that is, police can require a person to submit to an alcohol or drugs test within three hours of driving and it is an offense to fail that test, unless the drug or alcohol use occurred after driving (see Road Safety Act 1986, ss. 49, 53 and 55E).
Licenses cancelled for certain serious drunk-driving offenses may only be reissued after obtaining a court order. This is the case for repeat offenders, and first offenders above 0.15% . In such cases, the relicensed driver is subject to a 0 limit for three years following relicensing, or for as long as the person is required to use an alcohol interlock.
Alcohol interlocks must be imposed whenever a repeat drunk-driver is relicensed.
A court also has discretion to impose an alcohol interlock when relicensing a first offender in certain serious cases, generally when the offense involves a BAC of 0.15% or higher.
The law requires interlocks to be used for certain minimum periods, but the requirement to use an interlock does not automatically end at the completion of the minimum period. Once that period has expired, an individual may apply to a court to have the interlock condition removed from their driver's licence. The State Police must be given notice of the application and may make submissions to the court on whether the interlock condition should be removed. The court will also take into account data recorded by the interlock itself (e.g., whether any attempts were made to start the vehicle by a person who had been drinking).
Driving without an interlock when one is required carries severe penalties, including imprisonment.
If a doctor sees any patient who is aged fifteen years or over as a result of a motor vehicle accident, the patient must allow the doctor to take a blood sample for testing for alcohol and drug content in a way that preserves the chain of evidence. If this process is skipped the doctor may not be able to discover the alcohol blood level. The results can be used as evidence in subsequent court proceedings.
The law allows a police officer to require any driver (or any person who has driven a vehicle within the last three hours) to perform a random saliva test for methamphetamine, Cannabis or MDMA, all of which are subject to a zero limit (see Road Safety Act 1986: ss. 49, 55E & 55D)
Western Australia[edit]
0 for learner and probationary licence holders and persons convicted of driving under the influence or failing to comply with a request for breath, blood or urine (for three years after the offense).
0.05% for all other drivers.
Readings over 0.08% but under 0.15% BAC, and 0.15% BAC and above (legally defined as Drunk Driving) comprise separate offenses, the latter attracting heavier penalties. Persistent offenders may be barred from driving for terms up to and including life, and may also be imprisoned.
The law allows a police officer to require any driver to perform a random saliva test for methamphetamine, Cannabis or MDMA, all of which are subject to a zero limit.
New Zealand[edit]
New Zealand operates a program called Compulsory Breath Testing, which allows police to stop motorists at any time. CBT is usually carried out at roadside checkpoints but mobile patrol cars can also randomly stop motorists to administer a test. The police also carry out roadside drug tests upon motorists they suspect have used drugs.[90]
The system in New Zealand is age-based.[91] the limits are:
0 limit for persons under twenty years.
0.05% BAC or 250μg/L breath for persons twenty years and over.
The penalties for exceeding the limits are:
Persons under twenty years, up to 0.03% BAC, 150 μg/L breath: instant NZ$200 fine and fifty demerit points.
Persons under twenty years, 0.03–0.08% BAC, 150–400 μg/L breath: up to three months imprisonment, up to NZ$2,250 fine or both; loss of licence for three months or more.
Persons twenty years and over, 0.051–0.08% BAC, 251–400 μg/L breath: instant NZ$200 fine and fifty demerit points. Twelve hour prohibition from driving immediately after test.[92]
All persons over 0.08% BAC, 400 μg/L breath (first and second offenses): up to three months imprisonment, up to NZ$4,500 fine or both; loss of licence for six months or more.
All persons over 0.08% BAC, 400 μg/L breath (third and subsequent offenses): two years imprisonment; NZ$6,000 fine; loss of licence for one year or more.
Note that penalties apply to the lowest reading taken across both breath and blood tests. For example, if a driver twenty years or over has a breath test result of 426 μg/L but a subsequent blood test returns 0.077% BAC, then the driver is not charged with any drink driving offence despite the breath reading being over the breath alcohol limit. The penalty for injuring or killing someone when under the influences is the same as dangerous driving (up to five years imprisonment, up to NZ$20,000 or both; loss of licence for one year or more).
Other countries in Oceania[edit]
French Polynesia: 0.05%[citation needed]
Micronesia: 0.05%[2]
Palau: 0 for new or inexperienced drivers and commercial or professional drivers, 0.10% for all other drivers.[2]
See also[edit]
Breathalyzer
DWI court
Expungement
Sobriety checkpoints
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ See, e.g., N.Y. Vehicle and traffic law, section 1192, found at New York Assembly official web site. Go to "Bill Search and Legislative Materials", then "New York State Laws." Accessed March 17, 2008.
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Jump up ^ "Điều 8: Luật Giao Thông Đường Bộ Việt Nam".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Blood Alcohol Concentration Limits Worldwide Archived 2008-07-02 at the Wayback Machine., International Centre For Policy Studies. Page retrieved 30 October 2006
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Jump up ^ and carries a €500 fine and a minimum licence suspension of one year, but usually carries out a higher suspension as prerequisites for reissue of licences
Jump up ^ UK Government Advice on Gibraltar Page retrieved 30 October 2006.
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Jump up ^ "Consumul de alcool si procedura de recoltare". 3 July 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Russia lifts zero permille limit for drunk driving". bbcrussian. 2013-07-24.
Jump up ^ "Russian drivers to be allowed to have slight alcohol content in blood". Itar-tass. 2013-07-26.
Jump up ^ (Russian) Medvedev signed the law, completely abolishing any alcohol limits. Even minimal alcohol content will lead to revoking of the driving licence [4]
Jump up ^ "Medvedev signs total drink driving ban". RIAN. 2010-07-23.
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Jump up ^ Jurídicas, Noticias. "Los Delitos contra la seguridad vial y el atestado policial. · Noticias Jurídicas". Retrieved 30 March 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Blåstestet avslöjar knarkade bilförare". Retrieved 16 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lower drink drive limit". Scottish Government News. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Drink driving and the legal alcohol limit". drinkaware. June 6, 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
Jump up ^ DOE Northern Ireland: Road safety consultations; see section "Drink Driving: Consultation on the Road Traffic (Drink Driving) (Amendment) Bill and Additional Measures to Tackle Drink and Drug Driving in Northern Ireland"
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Jump up ^ "Legal BAC limits by country", Legal BAC limits-data by country, apps.who.int
Jump up ^ "In charge with excess alcohol/while unfit through drink or drugs". Motor Lawyers. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
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Jump up ^ "Sentencing Guidelines Council". Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Drink-driving penalties - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Can a Person Refuse a Breathalyser Test? And Other Questions Related to Drink Driving". Findlaw.com.au. Retrieved 2014-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Zero alcohol laws" (PDF). ACT Government. December 1, 2010. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
Jump up ^ Wales, Transport for New South. "Blood alcohol limits". roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Alcohol limits". Queensland Government. Queensland Government.
^ Jump up to: a b "Drink Driving Lawyers Brisbane". Harper Finch Lawyers. Harper Finch Lawyers.
Jump up ^ "Alcohol and drugs limits". Wellington: New Zealand Transport Authority. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Drinking & driving, New Zealand drink drive legal alcohol limit". Alcohol.org.nz. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Land Transport Amendment Act (no 2) 2014". Ministry of Transport. 15 April 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
External links[edit]
Map of Drink-driving laws by country/area in 2013
roadsafety.qld.gov.au
thinkroadsafety.gov.uk
ltsa.govt.nz
Information on Drink Driving Limit UK and Motoring Offences such as speeding, drink driving and drug driving
Break the Law, Pay the Price, Ontario Ministry of Transportation website educating drivers on the consequences of being caught driving impaired in the province
Campaign Against Drinking and Driving
Impaired Driving, MedlinePlus
Drink Driving Limits in Europe Safe Travel UK
Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) Limits Worldwide // IARD.org
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text:
Climate of Europe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Europe map of Köppen climate classification.
Biomes of Europe and surrounding regions:
tundra alpine tundra taiga montane forest
temperate broadleaf forest mediterranean forest temperate steppe dry steppe
Western Europe has an Oceanic climate, far southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate, and eastern Europe is classified as having a Continental climate. The climate of western Europe is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which keeps mild air (for the latitude) over Northwestern Europe in the winter months, especially in Ireland, the UK and coastal Norway. Parts of the central European plains have a hybrid oceanic/continental climate. Four seasons occur in Eastern Europe, while southern Europe experiences distinct wet season and dry seasons, with prevailing hot and dry conditions during the summer months.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Gulf Stream
3 Precipitation
4 Temperature
5 Tornadoes
6 See also
7 References
Overview[edit]
Spring in Szczecin, under the influence of Baltic Sea on the climate in the city and all western parts of Poland
The Prevailing westerlies create the basic climate across much of Europe. The Siberian High brings colder, drier weather from the east. Away from the sea, parts of Central and Eastern Europe have a borderline Oceanic/Continental Climate as they are milder than they would otherwise be due to the open ice-free waters of the North/Baltic Seas and lack of mountain barriers, but are not as mild as the Western coasts, and are subject to more frequent snowfalls. The Danube region through the Balkans, Ukraine and Southern Russia have a continental climate with cold winters and hotter summers, some areas bordering on a dry steppe climate with only certain months of higher precipitation, often due to thunderstorms.
A narrow strip along the eastern side of the Black Sea has a modified version of a humid subtropical climate, for example in Sochi, Russia. On the plains of Northern European Russia up to the Ural Mountains, the winter climate is much harsher than elsewhere in Europe with many months of below freezing average temperatures but with periods of hot summer weather. Nevertheless, year-to-year variations can produce different climates such as temperate in the winter, and tropical in the summer.
Gulf Stream[edit]
Image of the Gulf Stream's path and its related branches
Average number of days per year with precipitation
Average amount of sunshine yearly (hours)
Main article: Gulf Stream
See also: North Atlantic Drift
The climate of Western Europe is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The Mediterranean’s waters are not as deep as the large oceans, allowing it to become a heat store tempering winters along its coastlines.[1] The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation also play large roles in determining the amount of Arctic air that penetrates southward diminishing the Gulf stream’s warming effects during winter.[2]
Compared to areas located in the higher middle latitudes, parts of western Europe have mild winters and higher annual temperatures(though summers are cooler than locations at the same latitude). Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in the Asian part of Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (15 °F) higher than those in Calgary (although Calgary sits 1200m higher in altitude), and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.[1] This difference is even larger on the northern part of the continent; the January average in Brønnøysund, Norway,[3] is almost 15 °C warmer than the January average in Nome, Alaska,[4] both towns are situated upwind on the west coast of the continents at 65°N, and as much as 42 °C warmer than the January average in Yakutsk which is actually slightly further south. Further south the oceanic climate of Europe compares thermally to North America, at around 48°N Rennes, France has about an equal average temperature throughout the year to Seattle, Washington, although the latter has drier summers with much wetter winters.[5]
Precipitation[edit]
See also: Earth rainfall climatology, Monsoon, and Wet season
Clouds over Europe in September 2012
[6] The downpour of precipitation found along the eastern coasts of Europe is due to the westerly wind flow which dominates across the continent. A bulk of the precipitation across the Alps falls between March and December. The wet season in lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea lasts from October through March, with November and December typically the wettest months.[6] For example, the monthly rainfall at Athens ranges from 6 mm (July) during their dry season to 71 mm (December) during their wet season.[7] Summer rainfall across the continent evaporates completely into the warm atmosphere, leaving winter precipitation to be the source of groundwater for Europe.[8] Places with significant impact by acid rain across the continent include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia.[9]
The European Monsoon (more commonly known as the Return of the Westerlies) is the result of a resurgence of westerly winds from the Atlantic, where they become loaded with wind and rain. Rather than a traditional monsoon, where warm seas fuel precipitation and storms, they are more cyclonic low-pressure systems that travel along the section of the gulfstream.[10] These Westerly winds are a common phenomenon during the European winter, but they ease as Spring approaches in late March and through April and May. The winds pick up again in June, which is why this phenomenon is also known as "the return of the westerlies".[11]
The rain usually arrives in two waves, at the beginning of June and again in mid to late June. These storms generally feature significantly lower than average temperatures, fierce rain or hail, thunder and strong winds.[12] The Return of the Westerlies affects Europe's Northern Atlantic coastline, such as Ireland, Great Britain, the Benelux countries, Western Germany, Northern France and parts of Scandinavia.
There are cycles seen within the rainfall data from Northern Europe between Great Britain and Germany, which are seen at 16 years. Southern Europe experiences a 22-year cycle in rainfall variation. Other smaller term cycles are seen at 10-12 year and 6-7 year periods within the rainfall record.[13] Long term trends suggest rainfall within Greece has been decreasing since 1981.[14]
Rainfall averages between 36 mm (March) to 54 mm (November) in London and from 36 mm (March) to 88 mm (July) in Moscow.[15][16][17]
Temperature[edit]
Most of Europe sees seasonal temperatures consistent with temperate climates in other parts of the world, though summers north of the Mediterranean Sea are cooler than most temperate climates experience in summer. Among the cities with a population over 100,000 people in Europe, the coldest winters are mostly found in Russia, with daily highs in winter averaging 0 C (32 F), while the mildest winters in the continent are in coastal southern Spain and the southernmost coast of Crete. Almería, Málaga, Cádiz, Algeciras and Ierapetra average over 12 °C (54 °F) in January with 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) during the day. The hottest summers of the continent occur in cities and towns of the hinterland of southern Spain: July average highs in this region are 36.2 °C (97.2 °F) in Seville and 36.9 °C (98.4 °F) in Cordoba.
Average daytime temperature (°C)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Helsinki[17] -1.3 -1.9 1.6 7.6 14.4 18.5 21.5 19.8 14.6 9.0 3.7 0.5 9.0
Minsk[18] -2.1 -1.4 3.8 12.2 18.7 21.5 23.6 22.8 16.7 10.2 2.9 -1.2 10.8
Budapest[19] 1.2 4.5 10.2 16.3 21.4 24.4 26.5 26.0 22.1 16.1 8.1 3.1 15.0
London[20] 8.1 8.6 11.6 14.6 18.1 21.0 23.4 23.1 20.0 15.5 11.3 8.4 15.3
Paris[21] 6.9 8.2 11.8 14.7 19.0 21.8 24.4 24.6 20.8 15.8 10.4 7.8 15.5
Bucharest[22] 1.5 4.1 10.2 18.0 23.3 26.8 28.8 28.5 24.6 18.0 10.0 3.8 16.5
Rome[23] 14.0 15.1 18.3 21.1 25.9 29.6 32.3 32.5 27.2 23.0 18.1 15.3 22.4
Barcelona[24][25] 13.9 14.3 16.4 18.9 22.5 26.1 28.6 29.0 26.0 22.5 17.1 14.5 20.6
Lisbon[26] 14.8 16.2 18.8 19.8 22.1 25.7 27.9 28.3 26.5 22.5 18.2 15.3 21.5
Athens[27] 12.9 13.6 16.0 20.3 25.1 29.8 32.6 32.3 28.9 23.1 18.6 14.7 22.3
Malta[28] 15.6 15.6 17.3 19.8 24.1 28.6 31.5 31.8 28.5 25.0 20.7 17.1 23.0
Málaga[29] 16.8 17.7 19.6 21.4 24.3 28.1 30.5 30.8 28.2 24.1 20.1 17.5 23.3
Average sea temperature (°C)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Gdańsk [1] 4 3 3 4 8 13 16 18 15 12 9 6
Brighton [2] 9 8 8 9 11 13 15 17 17 16 13 11
Marseille [3] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14
Lisbon [4] 15 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 19 18 17
Barcelona [5] 13 13 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15
Rome [6] 16 15 16 17 20 22 26 27 25 21 19 16
Athens [7] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 17
Naples [8] 16 15 16 18 20 23 27 28 26 23 20 17
Valencia [9] 14 14 14 16 19 23 25 26 25 22 19 16
Málaga [10] 16 16 16 17 18 21 23 24 22 20 18 17
Malta [11] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18
Tornadoes[edit]
The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country in the world (more than 20, or 0.0013 per sq mi (0.00048 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.00035 per sq mi (0.00013 per km2), per year),[30][31] but most are small and cause minor damage. In absolute number of events, ignoring area, the UK experiences more tornadoes than any other European country, excluding waterspouts.[32] Europe uses its own tornado scale, known as the TORRO scale, which ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[33]
See also[edit]
Arctic oscillation
North Atlantic oscillation
2003 European heat wave
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "European Climate". World Book. World Book, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2011-02-15.
Jump up ^ Seager, Richard (July–August 2006). "The Source of Europe's Mild Climate". American Scientist Online. Retrieved 2008-09-23.
Jump up ^ Brønnøysund
Jump up ^ Nome
Jump up ^ Yakutsk
^ Jump up to: a b A. V. Mehta and S. Yang (2008-12-22). "Precipitation climatology over Mediterranean Basin from ten years of TRMM measurements" (PDF). Advances in Geosciences. Copernicus Publications. 17: 87–91. Bibcode:2008AdG....17...87M. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
Jump up ^ Athens, Greece(retrieved 9 January 2010)
Jump up ^ Richard Thornsen (1990). "Effect of Climate Variability and Change in Groundwater in Europe" (PDF). Nordic Hydrology. 21: 187. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
Jump up ^ Ed. Hatier (1993). "Acid Rain in Europe". United Nations Environment Programme GRID Arendal. Archived from the original on 2009-08-22. Retrieved 2010-01-31.
Jump up ^ Visser, S.W. (1953). Some remarks on the European monsoon. Birkhäuser: Basel.
Jump up ^ Leo Hickman (2008-07-09). "The Question: What is the European monsoon?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
Jump up ^ Paul Simons (2009-06-07). "'European Monsoon' to blame for cold and rainy start to June". The Times. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
Jump up ^ R. G. Vines (1985-03-25). "European Rainfall Patterns". International Journal of Climatology. 5 (6): 607–616. Bibcode:1985IJCli...5..607V. doi:10.1002/joc.3370050603. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
Jump up ^ J. D. Pnevmatikos and B. D. Katsoulis (2006-05-31). "The changing rainfall regime in Greece and its impact on climatological means". Meteorological Applications. Cambridge University Press. 13 (4): 331–345. Bibcode:2006MeApp..13..331P. doi:10.1017/S1350482706002350.
Jump up ^ Average conditions: London, United Kingdom(retrieved 9 January 2010)
Jump up ^ Average conditions: Moscow, Russian Federation(retrieved 9 January 2010)
^ Jump up to: a b Helsinki
Jump up ^ "Pogoda.ru.net" (in Russian). Retrieved 8 September 2007.
Jump up ^ http://met.hu/
Jump up ^ http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcpuzu47t
Jump up ^ http://france.meteofrance.com/france/climat_france?CLIMAT_PORTLET.path=climatstationn%2F75114001
Jump up ^ "Bucuresti Baneasa Climate Normals 1961-1990". www.NOAA.gov. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ http://clima.meteoam.it/AtlanteClimatico/pdf/%28239%29Roma%20Ciampino.pdf
Jump up ^ "Weather Information for Barcelona - World Meteorological Organization (United Nations)".
Jump up ^ "Valores Climatológicos Normales. Barcelona / Aeropuerto - Agencia Estatal de Meteorología". Archived from the original on 2011-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Monthly Averages for Lisbon, Portugal". Instituto de Meteorologia. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
Jump up ^ http://www.yr.no/place/Greece/Attica/Athens/statistics.html
Jump up ^ "Average temperatures in Malta 1981-2010". Retrieved 2017-01-24.
Jump up ^ "Valores climatológicos normales. Málaga - Agencia Estatal de Meteorología". Retrieved 2018-01-24.
Jump up ^ J Holden, A Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society. Royal Meteorological Society. 130: 1009–1021. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe" (PDF). Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
Jump up ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
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