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Human migration
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For specific types of migration, see Immigration and Emigration.
It has been suggested that International migration be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since February 2018.
Net Migration Rate
Net migration by Nation (2008 -2012)
Human migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily in a new location. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups.[1] A person who moves from their home to another place because of natural disaster or civil disturbance may be described as a refugee or, especially within the same country, a displaced person. A person seeking refuge from political, religious, or other forms of persecution is usually described as an asylum seeker.
Nomadic movements are normally not regarded as migrations as there is no intention to settle in the new place and because the movement is generally seasonal. Only a few nomadic people have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. Also, the temporary movement of people for the purpose of travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the commute is not regarded as migration, in the absence of an intention to live and settle in the visited places.
Contents
1 Migration statistics
2 Labor migration theories in the 21st century
2.1 Overview
2.2 Neoclassical economic theory
2.3 Dual labor market theory
2.4 New economics of labor migration
2.5 Relative deprivation theory
2.6 World systems theory
2.7 Osmosis: the unifying theory of human migration
3 Sociological and Political Science theories
3.1 Sociology
3.2 Political Science
4 Historical theories
4.1 Ravenstein
4.2 Lee
4.3 Climate cycles
4.4 Other models
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 References
8 Sources
8.1 Books
8.2 Journals
8.3 Websites
8.4 Films
9 External links
Migration statistics[edit]
The share of migrants in each country of the world in 2015.[2]
The number of migrants in the world 1960–2015.[3]
Many estimates of statistics in worldwide migration patterns exist.
The World Bank has published its Migration and Remittances Factbook annually since 2008.[4] The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has published a yearly World Migration Report since 1999. The United Nations Statistics Division also keeps a database on worldwide migration.[5] Recent advances in research on migration via the Internet promise better understanding of migration patterns and migration motives.[6][7]
Substantial internal migration can also take place within a country, either seasonal human migration (mainly related to agriculture and to tourism to urban places), or shifts of population into cities (urbanisation) or out of cities (suburbanisation). Studies of worldwide migration patterns, however, tend to limit their scope to international migration.
The World Bank's Migration and Remittances Factbook of 2011 lists the following estimates for the year 2010: total number of immigrants: 215.8 million or 3.2% of world population. In 2013, the percentage of international migrants worldwide increased by 33% with 59% of migrants targeting developed regions.[8] Almost half of these migrants are women, which is one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in the last half century.[8] Women migrate alone or with their family members and community. Even though female migration is largely viewed as associations rather than independent migration, emerging studies argue complex and manifold reasons for this.[9]
Often[quantify] a distinction is made[by whom?] between voluntary and involuntary migration, or between refugees fleeing political conflict or natural disaster vs. economic or labor migration, but these distinctions are difficult to make and partially subjective, as the motivators for migration are often correlated. The World Bank's report estimates that, as of 2010, 16.3 million or 7.6% of migrants qualified as refugees. At the end of 2012, approximately 15.4 million people were refugees and persons in refugee-like situations - 87% of them found asylum in developing countries.[8]
Structurally, there is substantial South-South and North-North migration, i.e., most emigrants from high-income O.E.C.D. countries migrate to other high-income countries, and a substantial part (estimated at 43%) of emigrants from developing countries migrate to other developing countries. The United Nations Population Fund says that "[while the North has experienced a higher absolute increase in the migrant stock since 2000 (32 million) compared to the South (25 million), the South recorded a higher growth rate.[8] Between 2000 and 2013 the average annual rate of change of the migrant population in the developing regions (2.3%) slightly exceeded that of the developed regions (2.1%).[8]
The top ten immigration countries are[when?]:
the United States
the Russian Federation
Germany
Saudi Arabia
Canada
the UK
France
Australia
India
The top ten countries of origin are:
Mexico
Spain
China
Ukraine
Bangladesh
Pakistan
the UK
the Philippines
Turkey[10][citation needed]
The top ten migration corridors worldwide are[when?]: 1. Libya–European Union 2. Mexico–United States; 3. Russia–Ukraine; 4. Ukraine–Russia; 5. Bangladesh–India; 6. Turkey–Germany; 7. Kazakhstan–Russia; 8. Russia–Kazakhstan; 9. China mainland–Hong Kong; 10. China–United States.[citation needed]
Remittances, i.e., funds transferred by migrant workers to their home country, form a substantial part of the economy of some countries. The top ten remittance recipients in 2010 were (estimates in billion US dollar) 1. India (55; 2.7% of GDP), 2. China (51; 0.5% of GNP), Mexico (22.6; 1.8% of GDP), Philippines (21.3; 7.8% of GDP), France (15.9; 0.5% of GDP), Germany (11.6; 0.2% of GDP), Bangladesh (11.1; 7.2% of GDP), Belgium (10.4; 1.9% of GDP), Spain (10.2; 0.7% of GDP), Nigeria (10.0; 1.9% of GDP).[citation needed]
The Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM), launched in 2003, published a report in 2005.[11] International migration challenges at the global level are addressed through the Global Forum on Migration and Development and the Global Migration Group, both established in 2006.
The United Nations reported that 2014 had the highest level of forced migration on record: 59.5 million individuals, caused by "persecution, conflict, generalized violence, or human rights violations", as compared with 51.2 million in 2013 (an increase of 8.3 million) and with 37.5 million a decade prior. As of 2015[update] one of every 122 humans is a refugee, internally displaced, or seeking asylum.[12] National Geographic has published 5 maps showing human migrations in progress in 2015 based on the UN report.[13]
Labor migration theories in the 21st century[edit]
Overview[edit]
There are countless of reasons why immigrants choose to migrate to another country. For instance, globalization has increased the demand for workers from other countries in order to sustain national economies. Known as "economic migrants," these individuals are generally from impoverished developing countries migrating to obtain sufficient income for survival.[14] This income is usually sent home to family members in the form of economic remittances and has become an economic staple in a number of developing countries.[15] People also move or are forced to move as a result of conflict, human rights violations, violence, or to escape persecution. In 2013, it was estimated that around 51.2 million people fell into this category.[14] Another reason people move is to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather. This type of movement is usually from rural to urban areas and is known as "internal migration." [14] Socio-cultural and geo-historical factors also play a major role. In North Africa, for example, being an immigrant in Europe is considered a sign of social prestige. Moreover, there are many countries which were former European colonies. This means that many have relatives that live legally in Europe, who often constitute an important help for immigrants who have just arrived in a European country. Relatives might help with job research and accommodation. The geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and the long historical ties between Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate.[16]
There are a number of theories to explain the international flow of capital and people from one country to another.[17]
Neoclassical economic theory[edit]
Main article: Neoclassical economics
This theory of migration states that the main reason for labor migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic labor demand and supply. It can be said that areas with a shortage of labor but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labor supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labor tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labor comes changes in the sending as well as the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory is best used to describe transnational migration, because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations.[17]
Dual labor market theory[edit]
Dual labor market theory states that migration is mainly caused by pull factors in more developed countries. This theory assumes that the labor markets in these developed countries consist of two segments: the primary market, which requires high-skilled labor, and the secondary market, which is very labor-intensive requiring low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for labor in the developed countries in their secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labor market because the native laborers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labor pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing.[17]
New economics of labor migration[edit]
This theory states that migration flows and patterns can't be explained solely at the level of individual workers and their economic incentives, but that wider social entities must be considered as well. One such social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion on the part of a household that has insufficient income. The household, in this case, is in need of extra capital that can be achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labor abroad. These remittances can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital.[17] Recent research has examined a decline in U.S. interstate migration from 1991 to 2011, theorizing that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of occupations and an increase in workers’ ability to learn about other locations before moving there, through both information technology and inexpensive travel.[18] Other researchers find that the location-specific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labour reallocation.[19]
Relative deprivation theory[edit]
Main article: Relative deprivation
Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between neighbors or other households in the migrant-sending community is an important factor in migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas that have a high level of economic inequality. In the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may actually decrease it. There are two stages of migration for a worker: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to capitalize on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide for better schooling for their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbors and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success.[17]
World systems theory[edit]
World systems theory looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change within societies. Trade with one country, which causes economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonization, the economic dependence of former colonies still remains on mother countries. This view of international trade is controversial, however, and some argue that free trade can actually reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the developed countries import labor-intensive goods, which causes an increase in employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers. The export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries also equalizes income and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart.[17]
Osmosis: the unifying theory of human migration[edit]
Old migration theories are generally embedded in geography, sociology or economics. They explain migration in specific periods and spaces. In fact, Osmosis theory explains the whole phenomenon of human migration. Based on the history of human migration, Djelti (2017a)[20] studies the evolution of its natural determinants. According to him, human migration is divided into two main types: the simple migration and the complicated one. The simple migration is divided, in its turn, into diffusion, stabilisation and concentration periods. During these periods, water availability, adequate climate, security and population density represent the natural determinants of human migration. For the complicated migration, it is characterised by the speedy evolution and the emergence of new sub-determinants notably earning, unemployment, networks and migration policies. Osmosis theory (Djelti, 2017b)[21] explains analogically human migration by the biophysical phenomenon of osmosis. In this respect, the countries are represented by animal cells, the borders by the semipermeable membranes and the humans by ions of water. As to osmosis phenomenon, according to the theory, humans migrate from countries with less migration pressure to countries with high migration pressure. In order to measure the latter, the natural determinants of human migration replace the variables of the second principle of thermodynamics used to measure the osmotic pressure.
Sociological and Political Science theories[edit]
Sociology[edit]
Main article: Sociology of immigration
A number of social scientists have examined immigration from a sociological perspective, paying particular attention to how immigration affects, and is affected by, matters of race and ethnicity, as well as social structure. They have produced three main sociological perspectives: symbolic interactionism, which aims to understand migration via face-to-face interactions on a micro-level; social conflict theory examines migration through the prism of competition for power and resources; structural functionalism, based on the ideas of Émile Durkheim, examines the role of migration in fulfilling certain functions within each society, such as the decrease of despair and aimlessness and the consolidation of social networks.
More recently, as attention shifted away from countries of destination, sociologists have attempted to understand how transnationalism allows us to understand the interplay between migrants, their countries of destination, and their countries of origins.[22] In this framework, work on social remittances by Peggy Levitt and others has led to a stronger conceptualisation of how migrants affect socio-political processes in their countries of origin.[23]
Political Science[edit]
Political scientists have put forth a number of theoretical frameworks on migration, offering different perspectives on processes of security,[24][25] citizenship,[26] and international relations.[27] The political importance of diasporas has also become a growing field of interest, as scholars examine questions of diaspora activism,[28] state-diaspora relations,[29] out-of-country voting processes,[30] and states' soft power strategies.[31] In this field, the majority of work has focused on immigration politics, viewing migration from the perspective of the country of destination.[32] With regard to emigration processes, political scientists have expanded on Albert Hirschman's framework on 'voice' vs. 'exit' to discuss how emigration affects the politics within the countries of origin.[33][34]
Historical theories[edit]
Ravenstein[edit]
Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was a standard list after Ravenstein's (1834–1913) proposal in the 1880s. The laws are as follows:
every migration flow generates a return or counter migration.
the majority of migrants move a short distance.
migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations.
urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas.
families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.
most migrants are adults.
large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase.
migration stage by stage.
urban rural difference.
migration and technology.
economic condition.
Lee[edit]
Lee's laws divide factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull factors. Push factors are things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in, and pull factors are things that attract one to another area.[35]
Push factors
Not enough jobs
Few opportunities
Inadequate conditions
Desertification
Famine or drought
Political fear or persecution
Slavery or forced labor
Poor medical care
Loss of wealth
Natural disasters
Death threats
Desire for more political or religious freedom
Pollution
Poor housing
Landlord/tenant issues
Bullying
Mentallity
Discrimination
Poor chances of marrying
Condemned housing (radon gas, etc.)
War
Pull factors
Job opportunities
Better living conditions
The feeling of having more political or religious freedom
Enjoyment
Education
Better medical care
Attractive climates
Security
Family links
Industry
Better chances of marrying
See also article by Gürkan Çelik, in Turkish Review: Turkey Pulls, The Netherlands Pushes? An increasing number of Turks, the Netherlands’ largest ethnic minority, are beginning to return to Turkey, taking with them the education and skills they have acquired abroad, as the Netherlands faces challenges from economic difficulties, social tension and increasingly powerful far-right parties. At the same time Turkey’s political, social and economic conditions have been improving, making returning home all the more appealing for Turks at large. (pp. 94–99)
Climate cycles[edit]
The modern field of climate history suggests that the successive waves of Eurasian nomadic movement throughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contracted pastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and to its west the Altai. People were displaced from their home ground by other tribes trying to find land that could be grazed by essential flocks, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the Pannonian Plain, into Mesopotamia, or southwards, into the rich pastures of China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term "migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the context of Sea People invasion.[36]
Other models[edit]
Migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation.[37] Idyorough is of the view that towns and cities are a creation of the human struggle to obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and reproduction, human beings must, out of necessity, move out of their usual habitation and enter into indispensable social relationships that are cooperative or antagonistic. Human beings also develop the tools and equipment to enable them to interact with nature to produce the desired food and security. The improved relationship (cooperative relationships) among human beings and improved technology further conditioned by the push and pull factors all interact together to cause or bring about migration and higher concentration of individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technology of production of food and security and the higher the cooperative relationship among human beings in the production of food and security and in the reproduction of the human species, the higher would be the push and pull factors in the migration and concentration of human beings in towns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist but they do so to meet the human basic needs of food, security and the reproduction of the human species. Therefore, migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation. Social services in the towns and cities are provided to meet these basic needs for human survival and pleasure.
Zipf's inverse distance law (1956)
Gravity model of migration and the friction of distance
Radiation law for human mobility
Buffer theory
Stouffer's theory of intervening opportunities (1940)
Zelinsky's Mobility Transition Model (1971)
Bauder's regulation of labour markets (2006) "suggests that the international migration of workers is necessary for the survival of industrialised economies...[It] turns the conventional view of international migration on its head: it investigates how migration regulates labour markets, rather than labour markets shaping migration flows."[38]
See also[edit]
Colonization
Diaspora
Early human migrations
Environmental migrant
Existential migration
Expatriate
Feminisation of migration
Genographic Project
Geographic mobility
Globalization
Humanitarian crisis
Illegal immigration
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time
Immigration to Europe
List of diasporas
Jewish diaspora
Migrant literature
Migration in China
Most recent common ancestor
Offshoring
People flow
Political demography
Queer migration
Refugee roulette
Religion and human migration
Replacement migration
Separation barrier
Settler colonialism
Snowbird (person)
Space colonization
Further reading[edit]
Reich, David (2018). Who We Are And How We Got Here - Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-1101870327. [39]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "International migrant stock (% of population)". The World Bank Data.
Jump up ^ "International migrant stock, total". The World Bank Data.
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Jump up ^ Oiarzabal, P. J.; Reips, U.-D. (2012). "Migration and diaspora in the age of information and communication technologies". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 38 (9): 1333–1338. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698202.
Jump up ^ Reips, U.-D., & Buffardi, L. (2012). Studying migrants with the help of the Internet: Methods from psychology, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9), 1405–1424. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698208 http://www.uni-konstanz.de/iscience/reips/pubs/papers/2012ReipsBuffardi_JEMS.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "International Migration 2013 (wall chart)". UNFPA. 2013.
Jump up ^ Thapan, M. (2008). Series Introduction in Palriwala and Uberoi (Eds.), Women and Migration in Asia (p. 359). New Delhi: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-3675-6 (Pb)
Jump up ^ India, Russia and the UK figure in both lists, as they have substantial immigration and substantial emigration, but also because the ranking reflects absolute numbers and thus favours large countries.
Jump up ^ The 90-page report, along with supporting evidence, is available on the GCIM website gcim.org
Jump up ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Worldwide displacement hits all-time high as war and persecution increase". Retrieved 2015-09-21.
Jump up ^ Chwastyk, Matthew; Williams, Ryan. "The World's Congested Human Migration Routes in 5 Maps". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2015-09-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c http://www.unfpa.org/migration
Jump up ^ Jason de Parle, "A Good Provider is One Who Leaves" New York Times, April 22, 2007.
Jump up ^ Fanack. "The Key Drivers of North African Illegal Migration to Europe". Fanack.com. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Jennissen, R. 2007. "Causality Chains in the International Migration Systems Approach." Population Research and Policy Review 26(4). 411 – 36.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Understanding the Long-Run Decline in Interstate Migration, April 2012
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, The Role of Housing in Labour Reallocation, November 2010
Jump up ^ Djelti S, "The Evolution of the Human Migration Determinants" draft paper présented in the international conference on “Crossing Boundaries: Youth, Migration, and Development”, At Alakhawayn university in Ifran, Morocco – March 2–4, 2017 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320427737_The_Evolution_of_the_Human_Migration_Determinants_1_Draft_paper
Jump up ^ Djelti S, "Osmosis: the Unifying Theory of Human Migration" Revue Algérienne d’Economie et du Management Vol. 08, N°: 02(2017) http://www.asjp.cerist.dz/raem[permanent dead link] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320427688_Osmosis_the_unifying_theory_of_human_migration
Jump up ^ Basch, Linda; Schiller, Nina Glick; Blanc, Christina Szanton (2005-09-26). Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States. Routledge. ISBN 9781135307035.
Jump up ^ Levitt, Peggy (1998). "Social Remittances: Migration Driven Local-Level Forms of Cultural Diffusion". The International Migration Review. 32 (4): 926–948. doi:10.2307/2547666. JSTOR 2547666.
Jump up ^ Faist, Thomas (2006), "The Migration-Security Nexus: International Migration and Security Before and After 9/11", Migration, Citizenship, Ethnos, Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 103–119, doi:10.1057/9781403984678_6, ISBN 9781349532650, retrieved 2018-06-17
Jump up ^ Adamson, Fiona B. (July 2006). "Crossing Borders: International Migration and National Security". International Security. 31 (1): 165–199. doi:10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.165. ISSN 0162-2889.
Jump up ^ Shachar, Ayelet; Bauboeck, Rainer; Bloemraad, Irene; Vink, Maarten, eds. (2017-08-03). The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship. Oxford Handbooks in Law. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198805854.
Jump up ^ Brettell, Caroline B.; Hollifield, James F. (2014-08-25). Migration Theory: Talking across Disciplines. Routledge. ISBN 9781317805984.
Jump up ^ Bauböck, Rainer (2006-02-23). "Towards a Political Theory of Migrant Transnationalism". International Migration Review. 37 (3): 700–723. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x. ISSN 0197-9183.
Jump up ^ Délano, Alexandra; Gamlen, Alan (July 2014). "Comparing and theorizing state–diaspora relations". Political Geography. 41: 43–53. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.05.005. ISSN 0962-6298.
Jump up ^ Lafleur, Jean-Michel (2014). "The enfranchisement of citizens abroad: variations and explanations". Democratization. 22 (5).
Jump up ^ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2018). "Authoritarian emigration states: Soft power and cross-border mobility in the Middle East". International Political Science Review. 39 (3): 400–416.
Jump up ^ Hollifield, James; Martin, Philip L.; Orrenius, Pia (2014-07-30). Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804787352.
Jump up ^ Hirschman, Albert O. (January 1993). "Exit, Voice, and the Fate of the German Democratic Republic: An Essay in Conceptual History". World Politics. 45 (2): 173–202. doi:10.2307/2950657. ISSN 1086-3338.
Jump up ^ Brubacker, Rogers (1990). "Frontier theses: Exit, voice, and loyalty in East Germany" (PDF). Migration World.
Jump up ^ Everett S. Lee (1966). "A Theory of Migration". 3. University of Pennsylvania: 47–57. JSTOR 2060063.
Jump up ^ Terminski, Bogumil. Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges. CEDEM, Université de Liège, 2012
Jump up ^ Idyorough, 2008
Jump up ^ Bauder, Harald. Labour Movement: How Migration Regulates Labour Markets. Oxford University Press, 1st edition, February 2006, English, 288 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-518088-6
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared (April 20, 2018). A Brand-New Version of Our Origin Story. The New York Times. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
Sources[edit]
Books[edit]
Bauder, Harald. Labour Movement: How Migration Regulates Labour Markets, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Behdad, Ali. A Forgetful Nation: On Immigration and Cultural Density in the United States, Duke UP, 2005.
Chaichian, Mohammad. Empires and Walls: Globalisation, Migration, and Colonial Control, Leiden: Brill, 2014.
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997.
De La Torre, Miguel A., Trails of Terror: Testimonies on the Current Immigration Debate, Orbis Books, 2009.
Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. What are they doing here? A critical guide to asylum and immigration, Birmingham (UK): Venture Press, 2007.
Hanlon, Bernadette and Vicino, Thomas J. Global Migration: The Basics, New York and London: Routledge, 2014.
Hoerder, Dirk. Cultures in Contact. World Migrations in the Second Millennium, Duke University Press, 2002
Idyorough, Alamveabee E. "Sociological Analysis of Social Change in Contemporary Africa", Makurdi: Aboki Publishers, 2015.
Kleiner-Liebau, Désirée. Migration and the Construction of National Identity in Spain, Madrid / Frankfurt, Iberoamericana / Vervuert, Ediciones de Iberoamericana, 2009. ISBN 978-84-8489-476-6.
Knörr, Jacqueline. Women and Migration. Anthropological Perspectives, Frankfurt & New York: Campus Verlag & St. Martin's Press, 2000.
Knörr, Jacqueline. Childhood and Migration. From Experience to Agency, Bielefeld: Transcript, 2005.
Manning, Patrick. Migration in World History, New York and London: Routledge, 2005.
Migration for Employment, Paris: OECD Publications, 2004.
OECD International Migration Outlook 2007, Paris: OECD Publications, 2007.
Pécoud, Antoine and Paul de Guchteneire (Eds): Migration without Borders, Essays on the Free Movement of People (Berghahn Books, 2007)
Abdelmalek Sayad. The Suffering of the Immigrant, Preface by Pierre Bourdieu, Polity Press, 2004.
Stalker, Peter. No-Nonsense Guide to International Migration, New Internationalist, second edition, 2008.
The Philosophy of Evolution (A.K. Purohit, ed.), Yash Publishing House, Bikaner, 2010. ISBN 81-86882-35-9.
Journals[edit]
International Migration Review
Migration Letters
International Migration
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
Review of Economics of the Household
Websites[edit]
OECD International Migration Outlook 2007 (subscription service)
Migration Policy Centre
Films[edit]
El Inmigrante, Directors: David Eckenrode, John Sheedy, John Eckenrode. 2005. 90 min. (U.S./Mexico)
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Human migration
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human migration.
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article
iom.int International Organisation for Migration
CIA World Factbook, up-to-date statistics on net immigration by country
Western Sahara and Migration
Stalker's Guide to International Migration, a comprehensive interactive guide to modern migration issues, with maps and statistics
Integration: Building Inclusive Societies (IBIS), a UN Alliance of Civilisations online community on good practices of integration of migrants across the world
Migrations in history
The importance of migrants in the modern world
Mass migration as a travel business
Migration, refugees and displacement (UNDP), provides background and statistics on human migration.
Online-Dossier on Flight and Migration by the German Institute for Global and Area Studies
Authority control
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text:
John Hanson
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other people named John Hanson, see John Hanson (disambiguation).
John Hanson
Portrait of Hanson attributed to John Hesselius, c. late 1760s
9th President of the
Continental Congress
In office
November 5, 1781 – November 3, 1782
Preceded by
Thomas McKean
Succeeded by
Elias Boudinot
Personal details
Born
(1721-10-06)October 6, 1721
near Port Tobacco, Province of Maryland
Died
November 15, 1783(1783-11-15) (aged 62)
Oxon Hill, Prince George's County, Maryland
Spouse(s)
Jane Contee
Children
8, including Alexander
Parents
Samuel Hanson
Elizabeth Pearl
Occupation
Merchant, politician
Signature
John Hanson (April 14 [O.S. April 3] 1721 – November 15, 1783) was a merchant and public official from Maryland during the era of the American Revolution. In 1779, Hanson was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress after serving in a variety of roles for the Patriot cause in Maryland. He signed the Articles of Confederation in 1781 after Maryland finally joined the other states in ratifying them.
In November 1781, he was elected as President of the United States in Congress Assembled, and became the first president (third overall) to serve a one-year term under the provisions of the Articles of Confederation. While George Washington is recognized by historians as the first President of the United States, since he began serving when the current United States Constitution went into effect in 1789, some biographies of Hanson have made arguments that Hanson was actually the first holder of the office of president since he began serving following the first election for a full one-year presidential term once the Articles of Confederation was ratified in 1781.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Political career
2.1 President of Congress
2.2 Later life
3 Personal life
3.1 Legacy
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 Further reading
7 External links
Early life[edit]
John Hanson was born in Port Tobacco Parish in Charles County in the Province of Maryland on April 14, 1721. Sources published prior to a 1940 genealogical study[2] sometimes listed his birth date as April 13[3] or his year of birth as 1715.[4]
Hanson was born on a plantation called "Mulberry Grove" into a wealthy and prominent Moorish family.[5] His parents were Samuel (c. 1685–1740) and Elizabeth (Storey) Hanson (c. 1688–1764).[6] Samuel Hanson was a planter who owned more than 1,000 acres (4.0 km2),[1] and held a variety of political offices, including serving two terms in the Maryland General Assembly.[3]
John Hanson was of Moorish ancestry; his grandfather, also named John, came to Charles County, Maryland, as an indentured servant around 1661.[7] In 1876, a writer named George Hanson placed John Hanson in his family tree of Swedish-Americans descended from four Swedish brothers who emigrated to New Sweden in 1642.[7][8] This story was often repeated over the next century, but scholarly research in the late 20th century showed that John Hanson was of Moorish heritage and not related to those Swedish-American Hansons.[7][9]
Little is known about Hanson's early life; he was presumably privately tutored as was customary among the gentry of his time and place.[10] He followed his father's path as a planter, slave owner, and public official. He was often referred to as John Hanson, Jr., to distinguish him from an older man of the same name.
Political career[edit]
Hanson's career in public service began in 1750, when he was appointed sheriff of Charles County.[1] In 1757 he was elected to represent Charles County in the lower house of the Maryland General Assembly, where he served over the next twelve years, sitting on many important committees.[1] Maryland was a proprietary colony, and Hanson aligned himself with the "popular" or "country" party, which opposed any expansion of the power of the proprietary governors at the expense of the popularly elected lower house. He was a leading opponent of the 1765 Stamp Act, chairing the committee that drafted the instructions for Maryland's delegates to the Stamp Act Congress. In protest of the Townshend Acts, in 1769 Hanson was one of the signers of a nonimportation resolution that boycotted British imports until the acts were repealed.[1]
Etching of Hanson based on a portrait by Charles Willson Peale that was painted from life in 1781–1782[11]
Hanson changed course in 1769, apparently to better pursue his business interests. He resigned from the General Assembly, sold his land in Charles County, and moved to Frederick County in western Maryland. There he held a variety of offices, including deputy surveyor, sheriff, and county treasurer.[1][6]
When relations between Great Britain and the colonies became a crisis in 1774, Hanson became one of Frederick County's leading Patriots. He chaired a town meeting that passed a resolution opposing the Boston Port Act.[1] In 1775, he was a delegate to the Maryland Convention, an extralegal body convened after the colonial assembly had been prorogued. With the other delegates, he signed the Association of Freemen on July 26, 1775, which expressed hope for reconciliation with Great Britain, but also called for military resistance to enforcement of the Coercive Acts.[3]
With hostilities underway, Hanson chaired the Frederick County Committee of Observation, part of the Patriot organization that assumed control of local governance. Responsible for recruiting and arming soldiers, Hanson proved to be an excellent organizer, and Frederick County sent the first southern troops to join George Washington's army.[1][12] Because funds were scarce, Hanson frequently paid soldiers and others with his own money.[13] In June 1776, Hanson chaired the Frederick County meeting that urged provincial leaders in Annapolis to instruct Maryland's delegates in the Continental Congress to declare independence from Great Britain.[14] While Congress worked on the Declaration of Independence, Hanson was in Frederick County "making gunlocks, storing powder, guarding prisoners, raising money and troops, dealing with Tories, and doing the myriad other tasks which went with being chairman of the committee of observation".[14]
Hanson was elected to the newly reformed Maryland House of Delegates in 1777, the first of five annual terms.[1] In December 1779, the House of Delegates named Hanson as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress; he began serving in Congress in Philadelphia in June 1780.[15][6] "Hanson came to Philadelphia with the reputation of having been the leading financier of the revolution in western Maryland, and soon he was a member of several committees dealing with finance."[15]
When Hanson was elected to Congress, Maryland was holding up the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. The state, which did not have any claims on western land, refused to ratify the Articles until the other states had ceded their western land claims.[16] When the other states finally did so, the Maryland legislature decided in January 1781 to ratify the Articles.[15] When Congress received notice of this, Hanson joined Daniel Carroll in signing the Articles of Confederation on behalf of Maryland on March 1, 1781. With Maryland's endorsement, the Articles officially went into effect.[15] Many years later, some Hanson biographers claimed that Hanson had been instrumental in arranging the compromise and thus securing ratification of the Articles, but, according to historian Ralph Levering, there is no documentary evidence of Hanson's opinions or actions in resolving the controversy.[15]
President of Congress[edit]
On November 5, 1781, Congress elected Hanson as president of the Continental Congress [6] (or "president of the Congress of the Confederacy"[3] or "president of Congress"[6]). Under the Articles of Confederation, the United States had no executive branch; the president of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position, but the office did require Hanson to handle a good deal of correspondence and sign official documents.[17] Hanson found the work tedious and considered resigning after just one week, citing his poor health and family responsibilities.[6] Colleagues urged him to remain because Congress at the moment lacked a quorum to choose a successor.[6] Out of a sense of duty, Hanson remained in office, [1][18] although his term as a delegate to Congress was nearly expired. The Maryland Assembly reelected him as a delegate on November 28, 1781, and so Hanson continued to serve as president until November 4, 1782.[6]
The Articles of Confederation stipulated that presidents of Congress serve one-year terms, and Hanson became the first president to do so.[1][19] [20] Contrary to the claims of some of his later advocates, however, he was not the first president to serve under the Articles, nor the first to be elected under the Articles.[21] When the Articles went into effect in March 1781, Congress did not bother to elect a new president; instead, Samuel Huntington continued serving a term that had already exceeded a year.[22] On July 9, 1781, Samuel Johnston became the first man to be elected as president of Congress after the ratification of the Articles.[23] He declined the office, however, perhaps to make himself available for North Carolina's gubernatorial election.[24] After Johnston turned down the office, Thomas McKean was elected.[25][22] McKean served just a few months, resigning in October 1781 after hearing news of the British surrender at Yorktown. Congress asked him to remain in office until November, when a new session of Congress was scheduled to begin.[19] It was in that session that Hanson began to serve his one-year term. A highlight of Hanson's term was when George Washington presented Cornwallis's sword to Congress.[26]
Later life[edit]
Hanson retired from public office after his one-year term as president of Congress. In poor health, he died on November 15, 1783,[1] while visiting Oxon Hill Manor in Prince George's County, Maryland, the plantation of his nephew Thomas Hawkins Hanson. He was buried there.[6] Hanson owned at least 223 acres of land and 11 slaves at the time of his death.[6]
Personal life[edit]
About 1744, he married Jane Contee (1728–1812), daughter of Alexander Contee (1692–1740). Together, John and Jane had eight children, including:[1][6]
Jane Contee Hanson (1747–1781), who married Philip Thomas (1747–1815)
Peter Contee Hanson (1748–1776),[6] who died in the battle of Fort Washington during the American Revolutionary War.
Alexander Contee Hanson, Sr. (1749–1806), who was a notable essayist.[27] Alexander Hanson is sometimes confused with his son, Alexander Contee Hanson, Jr. (1786–1819), who became a newspaper editor and US Senator.
Legacy[edit]
The bronze statue of Hanson in the National Statuary Hall Collection
In 1898, Douglas H. Thomas, a descendant of Hanson, wrote a biography promoting Hanson as the first true President of the United States. Thomas became the "driving force"[28] behind the selection of Hanson as one of the two people who would represent Maryland in the National Statuary Hall Collection in Washington, D.C.[28][1] Hanson was not initially on the shortlist for consideration, but he was chosen after lobbying by the Maryland Historical Society.[29] In 1903, bronze statues of Hanson and Charles Carroll by sculptor Richard E. Brooks were added to Statuary Hall; Hanson's is currently located on the 2nd floor of the Senate connecting corridor.[30] Small versions of these two statues (maquettes) sit on the president's desk in the Senate Chamber of the Maryland State House.[31]
Some historians have questioned the appropriateness of Hanson's selection for the honor of representing Maryland in Statuary Hall. According to historian Gregory Stiverson, Hanson was not one of Maryland's foremost leaders of the Revolutionary era.[1] In 1975, historian Ralph Levering said that "Hanson shouldn't have been one of the two Marylanders" chosen,[28] but he wrote that Hanson "probably contributed as much as any other Marylander to the success of the American Revolution".[32] In the 21st century, Maryland lawmakers have considered replacing Hanson's statue in Statuary Hall with one of Harriet Tubman.[29][33]
John Hanson memorial statue at Frederick, Maryland courthouse
The idea that Hanson was the forgotten first President of the United States was further promoted in a 1932 biography of Hanson by journalist Seymour Wemyss Smith.[34] Smith's book asserted that the American Revolution had two primary leaders: George Washington on the battlefield, and John Hanson in politics.[35] Smith's book, like Douglas H. Thomas's 1898 book, was one of a number of biographies written seeking to promote Hanson as the "first President of the United States".[36] Regarding the opinion, historian Ralph Levering stated: "They're not biographies by professional historians; they aren't based on research into primary sources."[28] According to historian Richard B. Morris, if a president of Congress were to be called the first President of the United States, "a stronger case could be made for Peyton Randolph of Virginia, the first President of the first and second Continental Congresses, or for John Hancock, the President of Congress when that body declared its independence."[21] The claim that Hanson was a forgotten President of the United States was revived on the Internet, sometimes with a new assertion that he was actually a black man; an anachronistic photograph of Senator John Hanson of Liberia has been used to support this claim.[37]
In 1972, Hanson was depicted on a 6-cent US postal card, which featured his name and portrait next to the word "Patriot".[38] Historian Irving Brant criticized the selection of Hanson for the card, arguing that it was a result of the "old hoax" promoting Hanson as the first president of the United States.[39] In 1981, Hanson was featured on a 20-cent US postage stamp.[40] U.S. Route 50 between Washington D.C. and Annapolis is named the John Hanson Highway in his honor. There are also middle schools located in Oxon Hill, Maryland, and Waldorf, Maryland, named after him. A former savings bank named for him was merged in the 1990s with Industrial Bank of Washington, D.C.
In the 1970s, a descendant of Hanson, John Hanson Briscoe, served as Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates, which passed "a measure establishing April 14 as John Hanson Day."[33] In 2009 the John Hanson Memorial Association was incorporated in Frederick, Maryland, to create the John Hanson National Memorial and to educate Americans about Hanson as well as to educate people about the many myths written about him. The Memorial includes a statue of President John Hanson and an interpretive setting in Frederick, Maryland, where Hanson lived between 1769 and his death in 1783. The Memorial is in the Frederick County Courthouse's courtyard at the corner of Court and West Patrick Streets. Leaders of the Memorial include President Peter Hanson Michael, Vice President Robert Hanson, and Director John C. Hanson. John Hanson Briscoe was also a Director until his death in 2014.[41]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Stiverson 2000.
Jump up ^ Newman 1970.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mereness 1932.
Jump up ^ Hanson 1876, p. 125.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 113.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Papenfuse 1979.
^ Jump up to: a b c Winquist & Rousselow-Winquist 2006, pp. 24–25.
Jump up ^ Hanson 1876, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Russel 1988.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 114.
Jump up ^ Fanelli & Diethorn 2001, p. 158.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 121.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 122.
^ Jump up to: a b Levering 1976, p. 124.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Levering 1976, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, pp. 126–27.
Jump up ^ Wilson 1994, pp. 76–80.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 130.
^ Jump up to: a b Burnett 1941, p. 524.
Jump up ^ Sanders 1930, p. 24.
^ Jump up to: a b Morris 1987, p. 677.
^ Jump up to: a b Burnett 1941, p. 503.
Jump up ^ Sanders 1930, p. 21 n73.
Jump up ^ Sanders 1930, p. 21.
Jump up ^ Sanders 1930, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, pp. 128–29.
Jump up ^ Chaney 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Emory 1975.
^ Jump up to: a b Du Lac 2011.
Jump up ^ Statuary Hall 2013.
Jump up ^ State House 2007.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 117.
^ Jump up to: a b Bykowicz 2011.
Jump up ^ "Obituary for Seymour Wemyss Smith". Time. January 18, 1932.
Jump up ^ Smith, John Hanson, Our First President, 57.
Jump up ^ Levering 1976, p. 127 n53.
Jump up ^ Peterson 2009.
Jump up ^ Lidman 1972.
Jump up ^ Brant 1972.
Jump up ^ Arago 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/john-hanson-briscoe-former-speaker-of-the-maryland-house-and-circuit-court-judge-dies/2014/01/06/1c119214-76f3-11e3-b1c5-739e63e9c9a7_story.html
Bibliography[edit]
Books, journals, and encyclopedias
Burnett, Edward Cody (1941). The Continental Congress. New York: Norton.
Chaney, Kevin R. (2000). "Hanson, Alexander Contee". American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Fanelli, Doris Devine; Diethorn, Karie (2001). History of the Portrait Collection, Independence National Historical Park. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
Hanson, George A. (1876). Old Kent: The Eastern Shore of Maryland. Baltimore: Forges.
Lee, Jean B. (1994). The Price of Nationhood: The American Revolution in Charles County. New York: W. W. Norton.
Levering, Ralph B. (1976). "John Hanson, Public Servant". Maryland Historical Magazine. 71 (Summer): 113–33.
Mereness, Newton D. (1932). "Hanson, John" (PDF). Dictionary of American Biography. VIII. New York: Scribner. pp. 231–32.
Morris, Richard B. (1987). "The Origins of the Presidency". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 17 (4 [Fall]): 673–87.
Newman, Harry Wright (1970) [First published 1940]. Charles County Gentry: A Genealogical History of Six Emigrants... Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing.
Papenfuse, Edward C.; Day, Alan F.; Jordan, David W.; Stiverson, Gregory A. (1979). "Hanson, John, Jr." (PDF). A Biographical Dictionary of the Maryland Legislature, 1635–1789. 1. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 405–06. ISBN 0-8018-1995-4. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
Russel, George Ely (October 1988). "John Hanson of Maryland: A Swedish Heritage Disproved". The American Genealogist. 63 (4), cited in Elisabeth Thorsell (December 30, 2002). "Was the First President of the United States a Swede?". The Federation of Swedish Genealogical Societies. Retrieved October 10, 2007.
Sanders, Jennings B. (1930). The Presidency of the Continental Congress, 1774–89. Chicago.
Stiverson, Gregory A. (2000). "Hanson, John, Jr.". American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Wilson, Rick K. (1994). Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789. Stanford University Press.
Winquist, Alan H.; Rousselow-Winquist, Jessica (2006). Touring Swedish America. Minnesota Historical Society.
Newspapers and online sources
Brant, Irving (December 9, 1972). "President Whatsizname". The New York Times. Retrieved January 14, 2013. (subscription required)
Bykowicz, Julie (February 22, 2011). "A historical battle over Maryland statues". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
Du Lac, J. Freedom (March 16, 2011). "Harriet Tubman vs. John Hanson: Statuary Hall smackdown". Washington Post. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
Emory, Thomas J., Jr. (December 31, 1975). "Hanson Claim Disputed; He Is Given War Credit". The Evening Sun (Baltimore). p. B1; interview with Professor Ralph Levering
Lidman, David (July 30, 1972). "John Hanson, Patriot and President". The New York Times. Retrieved January 14, 2013. (subscription required)
Peterson, Audrey (March 6, 2009). "Black History Urban Legends". American Legacy. Archived from the original on March 31, 2009.
"Arago: John Hanson Issue". National Postal Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
"John Hanson". The National Statuary Hall Collection. Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
"The New Senate Chamber". The Maryland State House. Maryland State Archives. 2007. Retrieved January 17, 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Kremer, J. Bruce. John Hanson of Mulberry Grove. New York: A. & C. Boni, 1938.
Nelson, Jacob A. John Hanson and the inseparable union: an authentic biography of a revolutionary leader, patriot and statesman. Boston: Meador Publishing Company, 1939.
Smith, Seymour Wemyss. John Hanson, our first president. New York: Brewer, Warren & Putnam, 1932.
Thomas, Douglas H. John Hanson, President of the United States in Congress Assembled, 1781–1782. 1898. According to the American National Biography, the biographies of Hanson are not "adequate", though this is one, written by Hanson's grandson, is "perhaps the most satisfactory" of the lot.
External links[edit]
Biography portal
Government of the United States portal
Maryland portal
Politics portal
United States Congress. "John Hanson (id: H000177)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
John Hanson at the Maryland State Archives
John Hanson at Snopes.com
John Hanson at Find a Grave
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