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Great Plague of London
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Collecting the dead for burial during the Great Plague
The Great Plague, lasting from 1665 to 1666, was the last major epidemic of the bubonic plague to occur in England. It happened within the centuries-long time period of the Second Pandemic, an extended period of intermittent bubonic plague epidemics which began in Europe in 1347, the first year of the Black Death, an outbreak which included other forms such as pneumonic plague, and lasted until 1750.[1]
The Great Plague killed an estimated 100,000 people—almost a quarter of London's population—in 18 months.[2][3] The plague was caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium,[4] which is usually transmitted through the bite of an infected rat flea.[5]
The 1665–66 epidemic was on a far smaller scale than the earlier Black Death pandemic; it was remembered afterwards as the "great" plague mainly because it was the last widespread outbreak of bubonic plague in England during the 400-year timespan of the Second Pandemic.[6][7]
Contents
[hide]
1 London in 1665
2 The recording of deaths
3 Preventative measures
4 Outbreak
4.1 Early days
4.2 Exodus from the city
4.3 Height of the epidemic
5 Aftermath
6 Impact
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
London in 1665[edit]
Map of London by Wenceslas Hollar, c.1665
As in other European cities of the period, the plague was endemic in 17th century London.[8] The disease periodically erupted into massive epidemics. There were 30,000 deaths due to the plague in 1603, 35,000 in 1625, and 10,000 in 1636, as well as smaller numbers in other years.[9][10]
During the winter of 1664, a bright comet was to be seen in the sky[11] and the people of London were fearful, wondering what evil event it portended. London at that time consisted of a city of about 448 acres surrounded by a city wall, which had originally been built to keep out raiding bands. There were gates at Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Moorgate and Bishopsgate and to the south lay the River Thames and London Bridge.[12] In the poorer parts of the city, hygiene was impossible to maintain in the overcrowded tenements and garrets. There was no sanitation, and open drains flowed along the centre of winding streets. The cobbles were slippery with animal dung, rubbish and the slops thrown out of the houses, muddy and buzzing with flies in summer and awash with sewage in winter. The City Corporation employed "rakers" to remove the worst of the filth and it was transported to mounds outside the walls where it accumulated and continued to decompose. The stench was overwhelming and people walked around with handkerchiefs or nosegays pressed against their nostrils.[13]
Some of the city's necessities such as coal arrived by barge, but most came by road. Carts, carriages, horses and pedestrians were crowded together and the gateways in the wall formed bottlenecks through which it was difficult to progress. The nineteen-arch London Bridge was even more congested. The better-off used hackney carriages and sedan chairs to get to their destinations without getting filthy. The poor walked, and might be splashed by the wheeled vehicles and drenched by slops being thrown out and water falling from the overhanging roofs. Another hazard was the choking black smoke belching forth from factories which made soap, from breweries and iron smelters and from about 15,000 houses burning coal.[14]
Outside the city walls, suburbs had sprung up providing homes for the craftsmen and tradespeople who flocked to the already overcrowded city. These were shanty towns with wooden shacks and no sanitation. The government had tried to control this development but had failed and over a quarter of a million people lived here.[15] Other immigrants had taken over fine town houses, vacated by Royalists who had fled the country during the Commonwealth, converting them into tenements with different families in every room. These properties were soon vandalised and became rat-infested slums.[15]
Administration of the City of London was organised by the Lord Mayor, Aldermen and common councillors, but not all of the inhabited area generally comprising London was legally part of the City. Both inside the City and outside its boundaries there were also Liberties, which were areas of varying sizes which historically had been granted rights to self-government. Many had been associated with religious institutions, and when these were abolished in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, their historic rights were transferred along with their property to new owners. The walled City was surrounded by a ring of Liberties which had come under its authority, contemporarily called 'the City and Liberties', but these were surrounded by further suburbs with varying administrations. Westminster was an independent town with its own liberties, although it was joined to London by urban development. The Tower of London was an independent liberty, as were others. Areas north of the river not part of one of these administrations came under the authority of the county of Middlesex, and south of the river under Surrey.[16]
The "Woodcut" map of London, dating from the 1560s
At that time, bubonic plague was a much feared disease but its cause was not understood. The credulous blamed emanations from the earth, "pestilential effluviums", unusual weather, sickness in livestock, abnormal behaviour of animals or an increase in the numbers of moles, frogs, mice or flies.[17] It was not until 1894 that the identification by Alexandre Yersin of its causal agent Yersinia pestis was made and the transmission of the bacterium by rat fleas became known.[18] Although the Great Plague in London had long been believed to be bubonic plague caused by Yersinia pestis, this was only definitively confirmed by DNA analysis in 2016.[19]
The recording of deaths[edit]
In order to judge the severity of an epidemic, it is first necessary to know how big the population was in which it occurred. There was no official census of the population to provide this figure, and the best contemporary count comes from the work of John Graunt (1620–1674), who was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society and one of the first demographers, bringing a scientific approach to the collection of statistics. In 1662, he estimated that 384,000 people lived in the City of London, the Liberties, Westminster and the out-parishes, based on figures in the bills of mortality published each week in the capital. These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognised extent of London as a whole. In 1665, he revised his estimate to 'not above 460,000'. Other contemporaries put the figure higher, (the French Ambassador, for example, suggested 600,000) but with no mathematical basis to support their estimates. The next largest city in the kingdom was Norwich, with a population of 30,000.[15][20]
Infected Oriental rat flea. Yersinia pestis bacteria appear as a dark mass in the gut. The bacteria block the flea's digestive system, leaving it hungry but unable to eat. Instead, when it tries to feed, it regurgitates Yersinia into the wound.
There was no duty to report a death to anyone in authority. Instead, each parish appointed two or more 'searchers of the dead', whose duty was to inspect a corpse and determine the cause of death. A searcher was entitled to charge a small fee from relatives for each death they reported, and so habitually the parish would appoint someone to the post who would otherwise be destitute and would be receiving support from the parish poor rate. Typically, this meant searchers would be old women who were illiterate, might know little about identifying diseases and who would be open to dishonesty.[21] Searchers would typically learn about a death either from the local sexton who had been asked to dig a grave, or from the tolling of a church bell. Anyone who did not report a death to their local church, such as Quakers, Anabaptists, other non-Anglican Christians or Jews, frequently did not get included in the official records. Searchers during times of plague were required to live apart from the community and stay indoors except when performing their duties, for fear of spreading the diseases. Outside they should avoid other people and always carry a white stick to warn of their occupation. Searchers reported to the Parish Clerk, who made a return each week to the Company of Parish Clerks in Brode Lane. Figures were then passed to the Lord Mayor and then to the Minister of State once plague became a matter of national concern.[22] The reported figures were used to compile the Bills of Mortality, which listed total deaths in each parish and whether by plague. The system of Searchers to report the cause of death continued until 1836.[23]
Graunt recorded the incompetence of the Searchers at identifying true causes of death, remarking on the frequent recording of 'consumption' rather than other diseases which were recognised then by physicians. He suggested a cup of ale and a doubling of their fee to two groats rather than one was sufficient for Searchers to change the cause of death to one more convenient for the householders. No one wished to be known as having had a death by plague in their household, and Parish Clerks, too, connived in covering up cases of plague in their official returns. Analysis of the Bills of Mortality during the months plague took hold shows a rise in deaths other than by plague well above the average death rate, which has been attributed to misrepresentation of the true cause of death.[23] As plague spread, a system of quarantine was introduced, whereby any house where someone had died from plague would be locked up and no one allowed to enter or leave for 40 days. This frequently led to the deaths of the other inhabitants, by neglect if not from plague, and provided ample incentive not to report the disease. The official returns record 68,596 cases of plague, but a reasonable estimate suggests this figure is 30,000 short of the true total.[24] A plague house was marked with a red cross on the door with the words "Lord have mercy upon us", and a watchman stood guard outside.[15]
Preventative measures[edit]
Reports of plague around Europe began to reach England in the 1660s, causing the Privy Council to consider what steps might be taken to prevent it crossing to England. Quarantining of ships had been used during previous outbreaks and was again introduced for ships coming to London in November 1663, following outbreaks in Amsterdam and Hamburg. Two naval ships were assigned to intercept any vessels entering the Thames estuary. Ships from infected ports were required to moor at Hole Haven on Canvey Island for a period of 30 days before being allowed to travel upriver. Ships from ports free of plague or completing their quarantine were given a certificate of health and allowed to travel on. A second inspection line was established between the forts on opposite banks of the Thames at Tilbury and Gravesend with instructions only to pass ships with a certificate.[25]
The duration of quarantine was increased to forty days in May 1664 as the continental plague worsened, and the areas subject to quarantine changed with the news of the spread of plague to include all of Holland, Zeeland and Friesland (all regions of the Dutch Republic), although restrictions on Hamburg were removed in November. Quarantine measures against ships coming from the Dutch Republic were put in place in 29 other ports from May, commencing with Great Yarmouth. The Dutch ambassador objected at the constraint of trade with his country, but England responded that it had been one of the last countries introducing such restrictions. Regulations were enforced quite strictly, so that people or houses where voyagers had come ashore without serving their quarantine were also subjected to 40 days quarantine.[26]
Outbreak[edit]
Plague was one of the hazards of life in Britain from its dramatic appearance in 1347 with the Black Death. The Bills of Mortality began to be published regularly in 1603, in which year 33,347 deaths were recorded from plague. Between then and 1665, only four years had no recorded cases. In 1563, a thousand people were reportedly dying in London each week. In 1593, there were 15,003 deaths, 1625 saw 41,313 dead, between 1640 and 1646 came 11,000 deaths, culminating in 3,597 for 1647. The 1625 outbreak was recorded at the time as the 'Great Plague', until 1665 surpassed it. These official figures are likely to under-report actual numbers.[27]
Early days[edit]
Rattus rattus, the Black Rat. Smaller than the Norwegian rat, which later supplanted it, it is also keener to live near to humankind. Timber houses and overcrowded slums provided great homes. The link between the rat as reservoir of infection and host to fleas which could transfer to man was not understood. Efforts were made to eliminate cats and dogs but not rats. If anything, this encouraged the rats.
Although plague was known, it was still sufficiently uncommon that medical practitioners might have had no personal experience of seeing the disease; medical training varied from those who had attended the college of physicians, to apothecaries who also acted as modern doctors, to simple charlatans. Other diseases abounded, such as an outbreak of smallpox the year before, and these uncertainties all added to difficulties identifying the true start of the epidemic.[28] Contemporary accounts suggest cases of plague occurred through the winter of 1664/5, some of which were fatal but a number of which did not display the virulence of the later epidemic. The winter was cold, the ground frozen from December to March, river traffic on the Thames twice blocked by ice, and it may be that the cold weather held back its spread.[29]
This outbreak of bubonic plague in England is thought to have spread from the Netherlands, where the disease had been occurring intermittently since 1599. It is unclear exactly where the disease first struck but the initial contagion may have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of cotton from Amsterdam, which was ravaged by the disease in 1663–1664, with a mortality given of 50,000.[30] The first areas to be struck are believed to be the dock areas just outside London, and the parish of St Giles in the Fields. In both of these localities, poor workers were crowded into ill-kept structures. Two suspicious deaths were recorded in St. Giles parish in December 1664 and another in February 1665. These did not appear as plague deaths on the Bills of Mortality, so no control measures were taken by the authorities, but the total number of people dying in London during the first four months of 1665 showed a marked increase. By the end of April, only four plague deaths had been recorded, two in the parish of St. Giles, but total deaths per week had risen from around 290 to 398.[31]
Although there had been only three official cases in April, which level of plague in earlier years had not induced any official response, the Privy Council now acted to introduce household quarantine. Justices of the Peace in Middlesex were instructed to investigate any suspected cases and to shut up the house if it was confirmed. Shortly after, a similar order was issued by the King's Bench to the City and Liberties. A riot broke out in St. Giles when the first house was sealed up; the crowd broke down the door and released the inhabitants. Rioters caught were punished severely. Instructions were given to build pest-houses, which were essentially isolation hospitals built away from other people where the sick could be cared for (or stay until they died). This official activity suggests that despite the few recorded cases, the government was already aware that this was a serious outbreak of plague.[32]
With the arrival of warmer weather, the disease began to take a firmer hold. In the week 2–9 May, there were three recorded deaths in the parish of St Giles, four in neighbouring St Clement Danes and one each in St Andrew, Holborn and St Mary Woolchurch Haw.[24] Only the last was actually inside the city walls. A Privy Council committee was formed to investigate methods to best prevent the spread of plague, and measures were introduced to close some of the ale houses in affected areas and limit the number of lodgers allowed in a household. In the city, the Lord Mayor issued a proclamation that all householders must diligently clean the streets outside their property, which was a householder's responsibility, not a state one (the city employed scavengers and rakers to remove the worst of the mess). Matters just became worse, and Aldermen were instructed to find and punish those failing their duty.[33] As cases in St. Giles began to rise, an attempt was made to quarantine the area and constables were instructed to inspect everyone wishing to travel and contain inside vagrants or suspect persons.[34]
People began to be alarmed. Samuel Pepys, who had an important position at the Admiralty, stayed in London and provided a contemporary account of the plague through his diary.[35] On 30 April he wrote: "Great fears of the sickness here in the City it being said that two or three houses are already shut up. God preserve us all!"[36] Another source of information on the time is a fictional account, A Journal of the Plague Year, which was written by Daniel Defoe and published in 1722. He had been only six when the plague struck but made use of his family's recollections (his uncle was a saddler in East London and his father a butcher in Cripplegate), interviews with survivors and sight of such official records as were available.[37]
Exodus from the city[edit]
By July 1665, plague was rampant in the City of London. King Charles II of England, his family and his court left the city for Salisbury, moving on to Oxford in September when some cases of plague occurred in Salisbury.[38] The aldermen and most of the other city authorities opted to stay at their posts. The Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Lawrence, also decided to stay in the city. Businesses were closed when merchants and professionals fled. Defoe wrote "Nothing was to be seen but wagons and carts, with goods, women, servants, children, coaches filled with people of the better sort, and horsemen attending them, and all hurrying away".[35] As the plague raged throughout the summer, only a small number of clergymen, physicians and apothecaries remained to cope with an increasingly large number of victims. Edward Cotes, author of London's Dreadful Visitation, expressed the hope that "Neither the Physicians of our Souls or Bodies may hereafter in such great numbers forsake us".[35]
The poorer people were also alarmed by the contagion and some left the city, but it was not easy for them to abandon their accommodation and livelihoods for an uncertain future elsewhere. Before exiting through the city gates, they were required to possess a certificate of good health signed by the Lord Mayor and these became increasingly difficult to obtain. As time went by and the numbers of plague victims rose, people living in the villages outside London began to resent this exodus and were no longer prepared to accept townsfolk from London, with or without a certificate. The refugees were turned back, were not allowed to pass through towns and had to travel across country, and were forced to live rough on what they could steal or scavenge from the fields. Many died in wretched circumstances of starvation and thirst in the hot summer that was to follow.[39]
Height of the epidemic[edit]
A bill of mortality for the plague in 1665
In the last week of July, the London Bill of Mortality showed 3,014 deaths, of which 2,020 had died from the plague. The number of deaths as a result of plague may have been underestimated, as deaths in other years in the same period were much lower, at around 300. As the number of victims affected mounted up, burial grounds became overfull, and pits were dug to accommodate the dead. Drivers of dead-carts travelled the streets calling "Bring out your dead" and carted away piles of bodies. The authorities became concerned that the number of deaths might cause public alarm and ordered that body removal and interment should take place only at night.[40] As time went on, there were too many victims, and too few drivers, to remove the bodies which began to be stacked up against the walls of houses. Daytime collection was resumed and the plague pits became mounds of decomposing corpses. In the parish of Aldgate, a great hole was dug near the churchyard, fifty feet long and twenty feet wide. Digging was continued by labourers at one end while the dead-carts tipped in corpses at the other. When there was no room for further extension it was dug deeper until ground water was reached at twenty feet. When finally covered with earth it housed 1,114 corpses.[41]
Plague doctors traversed the streets diagnosing victims, although many of them had no formal medical training. Several public health efforts were attempted. Physicians were hired by city officials and burial details were carefully organized, but panic spread through the city and, out of the fear of contagion, people were hastily buried in overcrowded pits. The means of transmission of the disease were not known but thinking they might be linked to the animals, the City Corporation ordered a cull of dogs and cats.[42] This decision may have affected the length of the epidemic since those animals could have helped keep in check the rat population carrying the fleas which transmitted the disease. Thinking bad air was involved in transmission, the authorities ordered giant bonfires to be burned in the streets and house fires to be kept burning night and day, in hopes that the air would be cleansed.[43] Tobacco was thought to be a prophylactic and it was later said that no London tobacconist had died from the plague during the epidemic.[44]
Trade and business had completely dried up, and the streets were empty of people except for the dead-carts and the desperate dying victims, as witnessed and recorded by Samuel Pepys in his diary: " Lord! How empty the streets are and how melancholy, so many poor sick people in the streets full of sores… in Westminster, there is never a physician and but one apothecary left, all being dead." [45] That people did not starve was down to the foresight of Sir John Lawrence and the Corporation of London who arranged for a commission of one farthing to be paid above the normal price for every quarter of corn landed in the Port of London.[46] Another food source was the villages around London which, denied of their usual sales in the capital, left vegetables in specified market areas, negotiated their sale by shouting, and collected their payment after the money had been left submerged in a bucket of water to "disinfect" the coins.[46]
Records state that plague deaths in London and the suburbs crept up over the summer from 2,000 people per week to over 7,000 per week in September. These figures are likely to be a considerable underestimate. Many of the sextons and parish clerks who kept the records themselves died. Quakers refused to co-operate and many of the poor were just dumped into mass graves unrecorded. It is not clear how many people caught the disease and made a recovery because only deaths were recorded and many records were destroyed in the Great Fire of London the following year. In the few districts where intact records remain, plague deaths varied between 30% and over 50% of the total population.[47]
Though concentrated in London, the outbreak affected other areas of the country as well. Perhaps the most famous example was the village of Eyam in Derbyshire. The plague allegedly arrived with a merchant carrying a parcel of cloth sent from London, although this is a disputed point. The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease. This prevented the disease from moving into surrounding areas but the cost to the village was the death of around 80% of its inhabitants over a period of fourteen months.[48]
Aftermath[edit]
See also: Great Fire of London
By late autumn, the death toll in London and the suburbs began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to come back to the city. With the return of the monarch, others began to return: The gentry returned in their carriages accompanied by carts piled high with their belongings. The judges moved back from Windsor to sit in Westminster Hall, although Parliament, which had been prorogued in April 1665, did not reconvene until September 1666. Trade recommenced and businesses and workshops opened up. London was the goal of a new wave of people who flocked to the city in expectation of making their fortunes. Writing at the end of March 1666, Lord Clarendon, the Lord Chancellor, stated "... the streets were as full, the Exchange as much crowded, the people in all places as numerous as they had ever been seen ...".[49]
Plague cases continued to occur sporadically at a modest rate until the summer of 1666. On the second and third of September that year, the Great Fire of London destroyed much of the City of London, and some people believed that the fire put an end to the epidemic. However, it is now thought that the plague had largely subsided before the fire took place. In fact, most of the later cases of plague were found in the suburbs,[49] and it was the City of London itself that was destroyed by the Fire.[50]
According to the Bills of Mortality, there were in total 68,596 deaths in London from the plague in 1665. Lord Clarendon estimated that the true number of mortalities was probably twice that figure. The next year, 1666, saw further deaths in other cities but on a lesser scale. Dr Thomas Gumble, chaplain to the Duke of Albermarle, both of whom had stayed in London for the whole of the epidemic, estimated that the total death count for the country from plague during 1665 and 1666 was about 200,000.[49]
The Great Plague of 1665/1666 was the last major outbreak of bubonic plague in Great Britain. The last recorded death from plague came in 1679, and it was removed as a specific category in the Bills of Mortality after 1703. It spread to other towns in East Anglia and the southeast of England but fewer than ten percent of parishes outside London had a higher than average death rate during those years. Urban areas were more affected than rural ones; Norwich, Ipswich, Colchester, Southampton and Winchester were badly affected, while the West of England and areas of the Midlands escaped altogether.[51]
The population of England in 1650 was approximately 5.25 million, which declined to about 4.9 million by 1680, recovering to just over 5 million by 1700. Other diseases, such as smallpox, took a high toll on the population even without the contribution by plague. The higher death rate in cities, both generally and specifically from the plague, was made up by continuous immigration, from small towns to larger ones and from the countryside to the town.[52]
There were no contemporary censuses of London's population, but available records suggest that the population returned to its previous level within a couple of years. Burials in 1667 had returned to 1663 levels, Hearth Tax returns had recovered, John Graunt contemporarily analysed baptism records and concluded they represented a recovered population. Part of this could be accounted for by the return of wealthy households, merchants and manufacturing industries, all of which needed to replace losses amongst their staff and took steps to bring in necessary people. Colchester had suffered more severe depopulation, but manufacturing records for cloth suggested that production had recovered or even increased by 1669, and the total population had nearly returned to pre-plague levels by 1674. Other towns did less well: Ipswich was affected less than Colchester, but in 1674, its population had dropped by 18%, more than could be accounted for by the plague deaths alone.[53]
As a proportion of the population who died, the London death toll was less severe than in a number of other towns. The total of deaths in London was greater than in any previous outbreak for 100 years, though as a proportion of the population, the epidemics in 1563, 1603 and 1625 were comparable or greater. Perhaps around 2.5% of the English population died.[54]
Impact[edit]
The plague in London largely affected the poor, as the rich were able to leave the city by either retiring to their country estates or residing with kin in other parts of the country. The subsequent Great Fire of London, however, ruined many city merchants and property owners.[49] As a result of these events, London was largely rebuilt and Parliament enacted the Rebuilding of London Act 1666.[55] Although the street plan of the capital remained relatively unchanged, some improvements were made: streets were widened, pavements were created, open sewers abolished, wooden buildings and overhanging gables forbidden, and the design and construction of buildings controlled. The use of brick or stone was mandatory and many gracious buildings were constructed. Not only was the capital rejuvenated, but it became a healthier environment in which to live. Londoners had a greater sense of community after they had overcome the great adversities of 1665 and 1666.[56]
Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London.[57] The architect Sir Christopher Wren was involved in the rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral and more than fifty London churches.[58] King Charles ll did much to foster the rebuilding work. He was a patron of the arts and sciences and founded the Royal Observatory and supported the Royal Society, a scientific group whose early members included Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton. In fact, out of the fire and pestilence flowed a renaissance in the arts and sciences in England.[56]
Plague pits have been archaeologically excavated during underground construction work. Between 2011 and 2015, some 3,500 burials from the 'New Churchyard' or 'Bethlam burial ground' were discovered during the construction of the Crossrail railway at Liverpool Street.[19] Yersinia pestis DNA was found in the teeth of individuals found buried in pits at the site, confirming they had died of bubonic plague.[3]
See also[edit]
Loimologia, a first-hand account of the 1665 plague by Dr. Nathaniel Hodges
Plague doctor costume
Black Death in England
Derby plague of 1665
Great Plague of Vienna of 1679
Plague doctor contract
Old St. Paul's, A Tale of the Plague and the Fire, novel by Harrison Ainsworth
Plague! The Musical, a musical loosely based on the 1665 plague
Ring a Ring o' Roses, a nursery rhyme, commonly believed to have arisen at this time
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Jump up ^ "An Act for rebuilding the City of London". Statutes of the Realm: volume 5 - 1628-80, pp.603–612. Retrieved 2013-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Leasor (1962) pp. 269–271
Jump up ^ The Rebuilding of London After the Great Fire. Thomas Fiddian. 1940. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
Jump up ^ Hart, Vaughan (2002). Nicholas Hawksmoor: Rebuilding Ancient Wonders. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09699-6.
Bibliography[edit]
Arnold, Catherine (2006). Necropolis: London and its dead. London: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-0248-7.
Bell, Walter George (1924). The Great Plague in London in 1665. Michigan: AMS Press. ISBN 978-1-85891-218-9.
Bell, Walter George (1951). Belinda Hollyer, ed. The great Plague in London (folio society ed.). Folio society by arrangement with Random House.
Leasor, James (1962). The Plague and the Fire. London: George Allen and Unwin. ISBN 978-0-7551-0040-8.
Moote, A. Lloyd (2008). The Great Plague: The Story of London's Most Deadly Year. London: JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9230-1.
Porter, Stephen (2012). The Great Plague of London. Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4456-0773-3.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Death.
History of the Plague in London by Daniel Defoe
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Greyhound
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the breed of dog. For other uses, see Greyhound (disambiguation).
Greyhound
Other names
English Greyhound,
Origin
Europe[1]
[hide]Traits
Weight
Male 27 to 40 kilograms (60 to 88 lb)
Female 27 to 34 kilograms (60 to 75 lb)
Height
Male 71 to 76 centimetres (28 to 30 in)
Female 68 to 71 centimetres (27 to 28 in)
Litter size
1–12 pups
Life span
9–11 years
[hide]Classification / standards
FCI
Group 10, Section 3 Short-haired Sighthounds #158 standard
AKC
Hound standard
ANKC
Group 4 (Hounds) standard
CKC
Group 2 – Hounds standard
KC (UK)
Hound standard
NZKC
Hounds standard
UKC
Sighthound & Pariah standard
Domestic dog (''Canis lupus familiaris)
The Greyhound is a breed of dog; a sighthound which has been bred for coursing game and Greyhound racing. Since the rise in large-scale adoption of retired racing Greyhounds, the breed has seen a resurgence in popularity as a family pet.
According to Merriam-Webster, a Greyhound is "any of a breed of tall slender graceful smooth-coated dogs characterized by swiftness and keen sight", as well as "any of several related dogs," such as the Italian Greyhound.[2]
It is a gentle and intelligent breed whose combination of long, powerful legs, deep chest, flexible spine and slim build allows it to reach average race speeds exceeding 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph).[3][4][5] The Greyhound can reach a full speed of 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph) within 30 metres (98 ft), or six strides from the boxes, traveling at almost 20 metres per second (66 ft/s) for the first 250 metres (820 ft) of a race.[6][7]
"Gray-Hound" in a 1658 English woodcut
Margaret Gorman with her pet Greyhound, "Long Goodie", in April 1925
A racing Greyhound at full extension
Greyhound in double suspension
Retired racing greyhound adjusted to companionship
A retired racing dog with a brindle pattern.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearance
2 Temperament
3 Pets
4 Abilities
4.1 Coursing
4.2 Racing
4.3 Other
5 Companion
6 Health and physiology
7 History
8 In popular culture
8.1 Sport
8.2 College
8.3 Other
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Appearance[edit]
Males are usually 71 to 76 centimetres (28 to 30 in) tall at the withers, and weigh around 27 to 40 kilograms (60 to 88 lb). Females tend to be smaller, with shoulder heights ranging from 68 to 71 centimetres (27 to 28 in) and weights from less than 27 to 34 kilograms (60 to 75 lb). Greyhounds have very short fur, which is easy to maintain. There are approximately thirty recognized color forms, of which variations of white, brindle, fawn, black, red and blue (gray) can appear uniquely or in combination.[8] Greyhounds are dolichocephalic, with a skull which is relatively long in comparison to its breadth, and an elongated muzzle.
Temperament[edit]
Greyhounds can be aloof and indifferent to strangers, but are affectionate with their own pack. They are generally docile, lazy, easy-going, and calm.
Greyhounds wear muzzles during racing, which can lead some to believe they are aggressive dogs, but this is not true. Muzzles are worn to prevent injuries resulting from dogs nipping one another during or immediately after a race, when the 'hare' has disappeared out of sight and the dogs are no longer racing but remain excited.
Contrary to popular belief, adult Greyhounds do not need extended periods of daily exercise, as they are bred for sprinting rather than endurance. Greyhound puppies that have not been taught how to utilize their energy, however, can be hyperactive and destructive if not given an outlet, and therefore require more experienced handlers.[9]
Pets[edit]
Greyhound owners and adoption groups consider Greyhounds wonderful pets.[10] Greyhounds are quiet, gentle and loyal to owners. They are very loving, and enjoy the company of their humans and other dogs. Whether a Greyhound will enjoy the company of other small animals, such as cats, depends on the individual dog's personality. Greyhounds will typically chase small animals; those lacking a high 'prey drive' will be able to coexist happily with toy dog breeds and/or cats. Many owners describe their Greyhounds as "45-mile-per-hour couch potatoes".[11]
Greyhounds live most happily as pets in quiet environments.[12] They do well in families with children, as long as the children are taught to treat the dog properly with politeness and appropriate respect.[13] Greyhounds have a sensitive nature, and gentle commands work best as training methods.[14]
Occasionally, a Greyhound may bark; however, Greyhounds are generally not barkers, which is beneficial in suburban environments, and are usually as friendly to strangers as they are with their own families.[15]
A very common misconception regarding Greyhounds is that they are hyperactive. This is usually not the case with retired racing Greyhounds.[16] Greyhounds can live comfortably as apartment dogs, as they do not require much space and sleep almost 18 hours per day. Due to their calm temperament, Greyhounds can make better "apartment dogs" than smaller, more active breeds.
At most race tracks, Greyhounds are housed in crates. Most such animals know nothing other than being in a crate for the majority of the day. Therefore, crate training a retired Greyhound in a home is generally easy.
Many Greyhound adoption groups recommend that owners keep their Greyhounds on a leash whenever outdoors, except in fully enclosed areas.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] This is due to their prey-drive, their speed, and the assertion that Greyhounds have no road sense.[25] In some jurisdictions, it is illegal for Greyhounds to be allowed off-lead[26] even in off-lead dog parks. Due to their size and strength, adoption groups recommend that fences be between 4 and 6 feet tall, to prevent Greyhounds from jumping over them.[17]
Abilities[edit]
Coursing[edit]
Main article: Hare coursing
The original primary use of Greyhounds, both in the British Isles and on the Continent of Europe, was in the coursing of deer. Later, they specialized in competition hare coursing.[27] Some Greyhounds are still used for coursing, although artificial lure sports like lure coursing and racing are far more common and popular. Many leading 300- to 550-yard sprinters have bloodlines traceable back through Irish sires, within a few generations of racers that won events such as the Irish Coursing Derby or the Irish Cup.[28][29]
Racing[edit]
Main article: Greyhound racing
Until the early twentieth century, Greyhounds were principally bred and trained for hunting and coursing. During the 1920s, modern greyhound racing was introduced into the United States and England (Belle Vue Stadium, Manchester, July 1926), as well as Northern Ireland (Celtic Park (Belfast), April 1927) and the Republic of Ireland (Shelbourne Park, Dublin).[citation needed]
Australia also has a significant racing culture.[30][31][32] However, the 2015 live baiting scandal and adverse media coverage led to a Special Commission of Inquiry into the Greyhound Racing Industry in NSW.[33] On 7 July 2016, New South Wales Premier Mike Baird announced that greyhound racing was to be banned in the state from 1 July 2017 after the inquiry found evidence of systemic animal cruelty, including mass greyhound killings and live baiting,[33][34][35] however the plan for the ban was later reversed before it was implemented.[36][37][38] After the NSW announcement to ban racing, Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Chief Minister Andrew Barr stated that greyhound racing would be banned in the ACT.[39]
Aside from professional racing, many Greyhounds enjoy success on the amateur race track. Organizations like the Large Gazehound Racing Association (LGRA) and the National Oval Track Racing Association (NOTRA) provide opportunities for Greyhounds and other sighthound breeds to compete in amateur racing events all over the United States.[40][41]
Other[edit]
Greyhounds can squeeze into very narrow spaces[42] and are strong jumpers.[43]
Greyhounds cope well as three-legged dogs.[44]
Companion[edit]
A blue female greyhound
Historically, the Greyhound has, since its first appearance as a hunting type and breed, enjoyed a specific degree of fame and definition in Western literature, heraldry and art as the most elegant or noble companion and hunter of the canine world. In modern times, the professional racing industry, with its large numbers of track-bred Greyhounds, as well as international adoption programs aimed at rescuing and re-homing dogs that were at a surplus to the industry. They have redefined the breed in their almost mutually dependent pursuit of its welfare- as a sporting dog that will supply friendly companionship in its retirement.[45] Outside the racing industry and coursing community, the Kennel Clubs' registered breed still enjoys a modest following as a show dog and pet. There is an emerging pattern visible in recent years (2009–2010) of a significant decline in track betting and multiple track closures in the US, which will have consequences for the origin of future companion Greyhounds and the re-homing of current ex-racers.[46][47]
Health and physiology[edit]
Illustration of the Greyhound skeleton
Greyhounds are typically a healthy and long-lived breed, and hereditary illness is rare. Some Greyhounds have been known to develop esophageal achalasia, gastric dilatation volvulus (also known as bloat), and osteosarcoma. If exposed to E. coli, they may develop Alabama rot. Because the Greyhound's lean physique makes it ill-suited to sleeping on hard surfaces, owners of both racing and companion Greyhounds generally provide soft bedding; without bedding, Greyhounds are prone to develop painful skin sores. The average lifespan of a Greyhound is 9 to 11 years.[48][49]
Due to the Greyhound's unique physiology and anatomy, a veterinarian who understands the issues relevant to the breed is generally needed when the dogs need treatment, particularly when anesthesia is required. Greyhounds cannot metabolize barbiturate-based anesthesia in the same way that other breeds can because their livers have lower amounts of oxidative enzymes.[50] Greyhounds demonstrate unusual blood chemistry [1], which can be misread by veterinarians not familiar with the breed and can result in an incorrect diagnosis.[51]
Greyhounds are very sensitive to insecticides.[52] Many vets do not recommend the use of flea collars or flea spray on Greyhounds if the product is a pyrethrin-based. Products like Advantage, Frontline, Lufenuron, and Amitraz are safe for use on Greyhounds, however, and are very effective in controlling fleas and ticks.[53]
Greyhounds have higher levels of red blood cells than other breeds. Since red blood cells carry oxygen to the muscles, this higher level allows the hound to move larger quantities of oxygen faster from the lungs to the muscles.[54] Conversely, Greyhounds have lower levels of platelets than other breeds.[55] Veterinary blood services often use Greyhounds as universal blood donors.[56]
Greyhounds do not have undercoats and thus are less likely to trigger dog allergies in humans (they are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "hypoallergenic"). The lack of an undercoat, coupled with a general lack of body fat, also makes Greyhounds more susceptible to extreme temperatures (both hot and cold); because of this, they must be housed inside.[57]
The key to the speed of a Greyhound can be found in its light but muscular build, large heart, highest percentage of fast-twitch muscle of any breed,[58][59] double suspension gallop, and extreme flexibility of its spine. "Double suspension rotary gallop" describes the fastest running gait of the Greyhound in which all four feet are free from the ground in two phases, contracted and extended, during each full stride.[60]
History[edit]
Sighthounds unleashed in Paolo Uccello's Night Hunt (Ashmolean Museum)
The breed's origin has in popular literature often been romantically connected to Ancient Egypt, in which it is believed "that the breed dates back about 4,000 years;"[61][62] a belief for which there is no scientific evidence. While similar in appearance to Saluki (Persian Greyhound) or Sloughi (tombs at Beni Hassan c. 2000 BC), analyses of DNA reported in 2004 suggest that the Greyhound may not be closely related to these breeds, but is a close relative of herding dogs.[63][64] Historical literature on the first sighthound in Europe (Arrian), the vertragus, probable antecedent of the Greyhound, suggests that its origin lies with the ancient Celts from Eastern Europe or Eurasia. Greyhound-type dogs of small, medium, and large size, appear to have been bred across Europe since that time. All modern, pure-bred pedigree Greyhounds derive from the Greyhound stock recorded and registered first in private studbooks in the 18th century, then in public studbooks in the 19th century, which ultimately were registered with coursing, racing, and kennel club authorities of the United Kingdom.
Historically, these sighthounds were used primarily for hunting in the open where their keen eyesight was valuable. It is believed that they (or at least similarly named dogs) were introduced to the British Isles in the 5th and 6th century BC from Celtic mainland Europe, although the Picts and other peoples of the northern British Isles (modern Scotland) were believed to have had large hounds similar to that of the deerhound before the 6th century BC.[citation needed]
The name "Greyhound" is generally believed to come from the Old English grighund. "Hund" is the antecedent of the modern "hound", but the meaning of "grig" is undetermined, other than in reference to dogs in Old English and Old Norse. Its origin does not appear to have any common root with the modern word "grey"[65] for color, and indeed the Greyhound is seen with a wide variety of coat colors. The lighter colors, patch-like markings and white appeared in the breed that was once ordinarily grey in color. The Greyhound is the only dog mentioned by name in the Bible; many versions, including the King James version, name the Greyhound as one of the "four things stately" in the Proverbs.[66] However, some newer biblical translations, including The New International Version, have changed this to strutting rooster, which appears to be an alternative translation of the Hebrew term mothen zarzir. However, the Douay–Rheims Bible translation from the late 4th-century Latin Vulgate into English translates this term as "a cock."
According to Pokorny[67] the English name "Greyhound" does not mean "grey dog/hound", but simply "fair dog". Subsequent words have been derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *g'her- "shine, twinkle": English grey, Old High German gris "grey, old," Old Icelandic griss "piglet, pig," Old Icelandic gryja "to dawn," gryjandi "morning twilight," Old Irish grian "sun," Old Church Slavonic zorja "morning twilight, brightness." The common sense of these words is "to shine; bright."
In 1928, the first winner of Best in Show at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a Greyhound owned by H. Whitley.[68]
In popular culture[edit]
Sport[edit]
Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds (Ontario Hockey League)cC
Ohio Valley Greyhounds (United Indoor Football)
College[edit]
Assumption College (in Worcester, Massachusetts)
University of Indianapolis
Loyola University Maryland
Eastern New Mexico University
Moberly Area Community College (in Moberly, Missouri)
Moravian College in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Yankton College (Yankton, South Dakota)
Athol Murray College of Notre Dame (Wilcox, Saskatchewan)
Mid-South Community College (West Memphis, Ark.)
Fort Scott Community College (Fort Scott Kansas.)
Kearsney College (Botha's Hill, KwaZulu-Natal)
Foundation University (Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines)
Other[edit]
Greyhound Bus Lines bus company occasionally airs television commercials starring a talking computer-generated Greyhound.
The Andhra Pradesh, India, police force has a special ops unit named Greyhounds.
"Greyhound" was the name of several roller coasters in the United States and Canada. None of these rides operate today.
In Australia, racing Greyhounds are commonly known in slang terminology as "dish lickers" (e.g., "I just won 50 bucks at the dish lickers").
The Who's 1968 non-album singles "Dogs" and "Dogs (Part II)" are humorous references to Greyhound racing and the associated betting.
The main-character family of the animated television series The Simpsons have a Greyhound named Santa's Little Helper, a retired racing greyhound who was adopted by the family at the conclusion of the pilot episode.
1 Factory Radio, a car radio remanufacturer based out of Richmond, VA, prominently features a greyhound in their logo based on the real-life retired racer "mascots", Star Terrific and Bob's Logo.
The cover art of the 1994 Britpop album "Parklife" by Blur features Greyhounds.
The M8 Light Armored Car, a US military vehicle, was nicknamed "Greyhound" by British armed forces during the Second World War.
Kite, a character from the anime/manga series Ginga Densetsu Weed is supposedly a Greyhound mix.
In French, the sexual position known as doggy style is known as Position de la levrette (Position of the (female) Greyhound).
Greyhounds are the main characters of Swedish House Mafia's official music video for their track Greyhound.
In the Tess Monaghan book series by Laura Lippman, Tess has a greyhound named Esskay that is somewhat jokingly referred to as her sidekick for her private investigation work.
See also[edit]
Afghan Hound
Azawakh
Borzoi (Russian wolfhound)
Combai
Chippiparai
Coursing
Greyhound racing
Greyhound adoption
Fastest animal
Galgo Español (Spanish Greyhound)
Hortaya borzaya (Russian shorthaired sighthound)
Italian Greyhound
Kanni
Lure coursing
Lurcher (Not a breed, but a type of dog with sighthound ancestry)
Magyar agár (Hungarian Greyhound)
Mudhol Hound
Polish Greyhound
Rajapalayam (dog) (India)
Rampur Greyhound
Saluki (Persian Greyhound)
Sighthound
Sloughi
Whippet
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History - All About Greyhounds".
Jump up ^ "Definition of GREYHOUND".
Jump up ^ Gunnar von Boehn. "Shepparton (VIC) Track Records". Greyhound-data.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ Gunnar von Boehn. "Singleton (NSW) Track Records". Greyhound-data.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ Gunnar von Boehn. "Capalaba (QLD) Track Records". Greyhound-data.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ Kohnke, John. BVSc RDA. "GREYHOUND ATHLETE". Greyhound Racing Betting. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
Jump up ^ Sharp, N.C. Craig. Animal athletes: a performance review. Veterinary Record Vol 171 (4) 87-94 2012
Jump up ^ "American Kennel Club – Breed Colors and Markings". Akc.org. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound Rescue and Greyhound Adoption in South Florida FAQ". Friends of Greyhounds. Accessed Nov 5, 2014
Jump up ^ "Breed Standard – Greyhound – Hound". NZKC. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Chuckster's Greyhounds".
Jump up ^ Livinggood, Lee (2000). Retired Racing Greyhounds for Dummies, p. 31. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., Foster City, CA. ISBN 0-7645-5276-7
Jump up ^ Livinggood 2000, p. 55-56
Jump up ^ Livinggood, Lee (2000). Retired Racing Greyhounds for Dummies. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., Foster City, CA. ISBN 0-7645-5276-7
Jump up ^ Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 17-18. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 0-87605-193-X.
Jump up ^ "The Greyhound Adoption Program (GAP) in Australia and New Zealand: A survey of owners' experiences with their greyhounds one month after adoption" Applied Animal Behaviour Science Elliott, 2010 vol:124 iss:3-4 pg:121 -135.
^ Jump up to: a b "Greyhound Adoption League of Texas, Inc. - About the Athletes". Greyhoundadoptiontx.org. Archived from the original on 27 January 2007. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "SEGA_Foster_Manual_V7_FINAL_JUne_2006.doc" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "FAQ". Psgreyhounds.org. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound Adoption Program – Is a Greyhound Right for You?"
Jump up ^ How Safe is an Off-Lead Run?, Adopt a Greyhound
Jump up ^ Peanut. "View topic – Leash Rules". CompassionforGreyhounds.org. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound Angels Adoption". Greyhound Angels Adoption. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "StartLogic".
Jump up ^ "GRV Clubs – GAP". Gap.grv.org.au. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "DOMESTIC ANIMALS ACT 1994 – SECT 27 Restraint of greyhounds". www.austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 2015-12-13.
Jump up ^ see p.246 Turbervile: A short observation … concerning coursing https://archive.org/details/turbervilesbooke00turb
Jump up ^ Irish Greyhound Stud Book
Jump up ^ Gunnar von Boehn. "The Greyhound Breeding and Racing Database". Greyhound-data.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound racing". Animals Australia. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Tribute to Chief Havoc -- Australian Greyhound Racing Association".
Jump up ^ "GREY2K USA: Greyhound Racing in Australia".
^ Jump up to: a b "Special Commission of Inquiry into the Greyhound Racing Industry in NSW". www.greyhoundracinginquiry.justice.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound racing to be banned in New South Wales, Baird Government announces". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 7 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Greyhound Racing Regulation 2016, available at: http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/regulations/2016-436.pdf
Jump up ^ "NSW greyhound ban reversal: Regional dog community reacts to Mike Baird's backflip". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mike Baird's NSW greyhound racing ban backdown confirmed after cabinet meeting". The Sydney Morning Herald. 11 October 2016. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Clive (11 October 2017). "New South Wales overturns greyhound ban: a win for the industry, but a massive loss for the dogs". The Conversation (website). Retrieved 10 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Belot, Henry (11 July 2016). "ACT government says it can no longer support greyhound racing after NSW decision". Canberra Times. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Large Gazehound Racing Association". Lgra.org. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "National Oval Track Racing Association". Notra.org. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Greyhound Welfare - a greyhound rescue and placement group".
Jump up ^ "Highest Jumping Dogs - Cuteness.com".
Jump up ^ Livinggood 2000, p. 143-144
Jump up ^ Madden, Raymond (2010) 'Imagining the greyhound: 'Racing' and 'rescue' narratives in a human and dog relationship', Continuum, 24: 4, 503 — 515 .
Jump up ^ Flaim, Denise (2010) 'Forward Thinking', Sighthound Review, Vol 1 Issue 1.
Jump up ^ "As Dog Racetracks Close, Where Do All the Greyhounds Go?". BlogHer. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Summary results of the Purebred Dog Health Survey for Greyhounds" (PDF). The Kennel Club. Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee. Retrieved 6 June 2014. n=69, median 9 years 1 month
Jump up ^ O’Neill, D. G.; Church, D. B.; McGreevy, P. D.; Thomson, P. C.; Brodbelt, D. C. (2013). "Longevity and mortality of owned dogs in England". The Veterinary Journal. 198: 638–43. PMID 24206631. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.020. "n=88 median=10.8 IQR=8.1-12.0"
Jump up ^ Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 416. American Greyhound Council, Inc., Kansas. ISBN 0-9641456-3-4.
Jump up ^ Veterinary Consultants Are Sighthounds Really Dogs?, 2017
Jump up ^ Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 99-101. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 0-87605-193-X.
Jump up ^ Branigan, Cynthia A. (1998). Adopting the Racing Greyhound, p. 101-103. Howell Book House, New York. ISBN 0-87605-193-X.
Jump up ^ Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 82. American Greyhound Council, Inc., Kansas. ISBN 0-9641456-3-4.
Jump up ^ "Making Sense of Blood Work in Greyhounds" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 5 Nov 2014.
Jump up ^ United Blood Services article about Greyhounds as blood donors.
Jump up ^ Blythe, Linda, Gannon, James, Craig, A. Morrie, and Fegan, Desmond P. (2007). Care of the Racing and Retired Greyhound, p. 394. American Greyhound Council, Kansas. ISBN 0-9641456-3-4.
Jump up ^ Snow, D.H. and Harris R.C. "Thoroughbreds and Greyhounds: Biochemical Adaptations in Creatures of Nature and of Man" Circulation, Respiration, and Metabolism Berlin: Springer Verlag 1985
Jump up ^ Snow, D.H. "The horse and dog, elite athletes – why and how?" Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 44 267 1985
Jump up ^ Curtis M Brown. Dog Locomotion and Gait Analysis. Wheat Ridge, Colorado: Hoflin 1986 ISBN 0-86667-061-0
Jump up ^ "History of the Greyhound Dog Breed".
Jump up ^ "A history of the Greyhound (much abbreviated)".
Jump up ^ Mark Derr (May 21, 2004). "Collie or Pug? Study Finds the Genetic Code". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Parker; et al. (May 2004). "(May 21, 2004). "Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog"". Science. 304: 1160–1164. PMID 15155949. doi:10.1126/science.1097406.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Charles (1839). A New Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford University. p. 357.
Jump up ^ Proverbs 30:29–31 King James version.
Jump up ^ Pokorny, Indogermanisches Woerterbuch, pp. 441–442.
Jump up ^ "Besti hundur sýningar á Crufts, frá árunum 1928–2002" (in Icelandic). Hvuttar.net. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
Further reading[edit]
"The Greyhound in 1864: ..." Walsh 1864
"The Greyhound, ..." Dalziel 1887
Of Greyhounds and of Their Nature, Chapter XV: "The Master of Game" Edward of York circa 1406
"The Greyhound" Roger D. Williams, in The American Book of the Dog Editor George O. Shields. Chicago: Rand Mcnally 1891
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greyhound.
Martin Roper: Everything You Know Is Wrong 2008
Greyhound at DMOZ
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Cabinet of Nigeria
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The Cabinet of Nigeria is the Executive Branch of the Government of Nigeria. The Cabinet members are appointed by the President and report to the President. The Cabinet currently oversees 24[1] Federal Ministries, each responsible for some aspect of providing government services, as well as a number of parastatals (government-owned corporations).
Contents
[hide]
1 Relationship to Civil Service
2 Ministers and Ministers of State
3 Current cabinet
4 See also
5 References
Relationship to Civil Service[edit]
The ministries and parastatals are staffed by career civil servants. Each is headed by a Permanent Secretary, a senior civil servant appointed by the Head of the Civil Service. The Permanent Secretary is accountable to a Minister, who sits in the Cabinet and reports to the President. The Minister is appointed by the President subject to approval by the Senate and is responsible for policy, while the Permanent Secretary is responsible for implementation of policy.[2]
Ministers and Ministers of State[edit]
By convention, there must be one Cabinet member from each of the 36 states in Nigeria, although there are only 19 ministries and at times a Federal minister is responsible for more than one ministry (e.g. Environment and Housing), or the President takes direct control of a key ministry such as Petroleum Resources. To ensure representation from each state, a Minister is often assisted by one or more Ministers of State.[3]
Current cabinet[edit]
Cabinet of Nigeria: 11 November 2015 – Present[4]
Portrait
Portfolio
Incumbent
Term
President
Commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces
Minister of Petroleum Muhammadu Buhari 2015–
Vice President Yemi Osinbajo 2015–
Minister of Justice
Attorney General[5] Abubakar Malami 2015–
Minister of Foreign Affairs Geoffrey Onyeama 2015–
Minister of Finance Folake Adeosun 2015–
Minister of Defence Mansur Dan Ali 2015–
Minister of Education Adamu Adamu 2015–
Minister of Industry, Trade and Investment[6] Okechukwu Enelamah 2015–
Minister of Labour and Employment Chris Ngige 2015–
Minister of Federal Capital Territory Mohammed Musa Bello 2015–
Minister of Science and Technology Ogbonnaya Onu 2015–
Minister of Solid Minerals John Kayode Fayemi 2015–
Minister of Interior Abdulrahman Bello Dambazau 2015–
Minister of Budget and National Planning Udoma Udo Udoma 2015–
Minister of Power, Works and Housing Babatunde Fashola 2015–
Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development Audu Ogbeh 2015–
Minister of Transportation Rotimi Amaechi 2015–
Minister of Health Isaac Adewole 2015–
Minister of Women Affairs Aisha Alhassan 2015–
Minister of Niger Delta Usani Uguru Usani 2015–
Minister of Information Lai Mohammed 2015–
Minister of Environment Amina J. Mohammed 2015–2016
Minister of Water Resources Suleiman Adamu Kazaure 2015–
Minister of Youth and Sports Solomon Dalong 2015–
Minister of State for Aviation Sirika Hadi 2015–
Minister of State for Environment Ibrahim Jibrin 2015–
Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Khadija Bukar Abba Ibrahim 2015–
Minister of State for Solid Minerals Bawa Bwari Abubakar 2015–
Minister of State for Health Osagie Ehanire 2015–
Minister of State for Niger Delta Omole Daramola 2015–
Minister of State for Power, Works and Housing Mustapha Baba Shauri 2015–
Minister of State for Power, Works and Housing Suleiman Hassan 2017–
Minister of State for Education Anthony Onwuka 2015–
Minister of State for Agriculture and Rural Development Heineken Lokpobiri 2015–
Minister of State for Labour and Employment Stephen Ocheni 2017– **
Minister of State for Budget and National Planning Zainab Ahmed 2015–
Minister for Communication Adebayo Shittu 2015–
Minister of State for Industry, Trade and Investment Aisha Abubakar 2015–
Minister of State for Petroleum Emmanuel Ibe Kachikwu 2015–
Predecessor, James Ocholi Died in Office

See also[edit]
Nigerian Civil Service
Federal Ministries of Nigeria
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "List of Federal Ministers of Nigeria, Permanent Secretaries & Their Ministries". STATE HOUSE Office of the President, Federal Republic of Nigeria. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Permanent Secretaries". Office of the Head of Service of the Federation. Archived from the original on 2010-08-10. Retrieved 2009-12-20.
Jump up ^ "Government Ministries in Nigeria". Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
Jump up ^ http://www.leadership.ng/news/473836/buhari-inaugurates-cabinet-assigns-portfolios
Jump up ^ http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/finally-buhari-appoints-ministers-appoints-self-in-charge-of-petroleum/225328/
Jump up ^ http://in.reuters.com/article/2015/11/11/nigeria-politics-cabinet-idINL8N1362TP20151111
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