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The Football Association
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This article is about the English Football Association. For the term Football Association, see Football association. For more detail on the sport, see Association football.
The Football Association
UEFA
Founded
26 October 1863; 153 years ago (1863-10-26)
FIFA affiliation
1905–1920
1924–1928
1946–
UEFA affiliation
1954
IFAB affiliation
1886
President
HRH Prince William, Duke of Cambridge
Chairman
Greg Clarke
Website
www.thefa.com
The Football Association, also known simply as the FA, is the governing body of association football in England, and the Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey, and the Isle of Man. Formed in 1863, it is the oldest football association in the world and is responsible for overseeing all aspects of the amateur and professional game in its territory.
The FA sanctions all competitive football matches within its remit at national level, and indirectly at local level through the County Football Associations. It runs numerous competitions, the most famous of which is the FA Cup. It is also responsible for appointing the management of the men's, women's, and youth national football teams.
The FA is a member of both UEFA and FIFA and holds a permanent seat on the International Football Association Board (IFAB) which is responsible for the laws of the game. As the first football association, it does not use the national name "English" in its title. The FA is based at Wembley Stadium, London. The FA is a member of the British Olympic Association, meaning that the FA has control over the men's and women's Great Britain Olympic football team.[1]
All of England's professional football teams are members of the Football Association. Although it does not run the day-to-day operations of the Premier League, it has veto power over the appointment of the League Chairman and Chief Executive and over any changes to league rules.[2] The English Football League, made up of the three fully professional divisions below the Premier League, is self-governing, subject to the FA's sanctions.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Women's football
1.2 UK football sexual abuse scandal
1.3 FA 2017 reform
2 Crown dependencies
3 Relationship with FIFA
4 Finances
5 Competitions
6 Principals
7 Board of directors
8 Note
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
For centuries before the first meeting of the Football Association in The Freemasons' Tavern on Great Queen Street, London on 26 October 1863, there were no universally accepted rules for playing football.[3][4] In each public school the game was formalised according to local conditions; but when the schoolboys reached university, chaos ensued when the players used different rules, so members of the University of Cambridge devised and published a set of Cambridge Rules in 1848 which was widely adopted.[3] Another set of rules, the Sheffield Rules, was used by a number of clubs in the North of England from the 1850s.
Eleven London football clubs and schools representatives met on 26 October 1863 to agree on common rules.[3][4] The founding clubs present at the first meeting were Barnes, Civil Service, Crusaders, Forest of Leytonstone (later to become Wanderers), N.N. (No Names) Club (Kilburn), the original Crystal Palace, Blackheath, Kensington School, Perceval House (Blackheath), Surbiton and Blackheath Proprietary School; Charterhouse sent their captain, B.F. Hartshorne, but declined the offer to join.[5] Many of these clubs are now defunct or play rugby union. Civil Service FC, who now plays in the Southern Amateur League, is the only one of the original eleven football clubs still in existence.[4] There are only three institutions which have been continuous members of the F.A. since 1863, those being Civil Service, Forest School and King's College, Wimbledon.
Central to the creation of the Football Association and modern football was Ebenezer Cobb Morley. He was a founding member of the Football Association in 1863. In 1862, as captain of Barnes, he wrote to Bell's Life newspaper proposing a governing body for the sport that led to the first meeting at The Freemasons' Tavern that created the FA.[4] He was the FA's first secretary (1863–66) and its second president (1867–74) and drafted the Laws of the Game generally called the "London Rules" at his home in Barnes, London. As a player, he played in the first ever match in 1863.
Photo of the original hand written 'Laws of the game' for association Football drafted for and behalf of The Football Association by Ebenezer Cobb Morley in 1863 on display at the National Football Museum, Manchester.
The first version of the rules for the modern game was drawn up over a series of six meetings held in The Freemasons' Tavern from October till December.[4] Of the clubs at the first meeting, Crusaders, Surbiton and Charterhouse did not attend the subsequent meetings, replaced instead by the Royal Navy School, Wimbledon School and Forest School.[6] At the final meeting, F. M. Campbell, the first FA treasurer and the Blackheath representative, withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting, the first which allowed for the running with the ball in hand and the second, obstructing such a run by hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding. Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA but instead in 1871 formed the Rugby Football Union.[3] The term "soccer" dates back to this split to refer to football played under the "association" rules.
An inaugural game using the new FA rules was initially scheduled for Battersea Park on 2 January 1864, but enthusiastic members of the FA could not wait for the new year and an experimental game was played at Mortlake on 19 December 1863 between Morley's Barnes team and their neighbours Richmond (who were not members of the FA), ending in a goalless draw. The Richmond side were obviously unimpressed by the new rules in practice because they subsequently helped form the Rugby Football Union in 1871. The Battersea Park game was postponed for a week, and the first exhibition game using FA rules was played there on Saturday 9 January 1864. The members of the opposing teams for this game were chosen by the President of the FA (A. Pember) and the Secretary (E. C. Morley) and included many well-known footballers of the day.
After the first match according to the new FA rules a toast was given "Success to football, irrespective of class or creed".[7]
Charles Alcock (of Harrow School) of the Wanderers was elected to the committee of the FA in 1866, becoming its first full-time secretary and treasurer in 1870. He masterminded the creation of the Football Association Cup[8]—the longest-running association football competition in the world—in 1871. Fifteen participating clubs subscribed to purchase a trophy. The very first Cup Final was held at The Oval on 16 March 1872, fought between the Wanderers and the Royal Engineers (RE), watched by 2,000 spectators.[4]
This competition was initially contested by mostly amateur teams but by the end of the 19th century it was dominated by professional teams that were mostly members of the Football League that had been founded in 1888 and expanded during the 1890s.
After many years of wrangling between the London Association and the Sheffield Football Association, the FA Cup brought the acceptance that one undisputed set of laws was required. The two associations had played 16 inter-association matches under differing rules; the Sheffield Rules, the London Rules and Mixed Rules. In April 1877, those laws were set with a number of Sheffield Rules being incorporated.
In 1992, the Football Association took control of the newly created Premier League which consisted of 22 clubs who had broken away from the First Division of the Football League. The Premier League reduced to 20 clubs in 1995 and is one of the richest football leagues in the world.[9]
The Football Association celebrated their 150th year by changing their logo. The new logo has retained the current logo's three lions but it would be in golden colour and also have "The FA" written above and also have "1863 150 years 2013" written below. It also has some writings of the laws of the game penned at the first meeting held at The Freemasons' Tavern.[10]
Women's football[edit]
By 1921 women's football had become increasingly popular through the charitable games played by women's teams during and after the First World War. In a move that was widely seen as caused by jealousy of the crowds' interest in women's games which frequently exceeded that of the top men's teams, the Football Association banned all women's teams from playing on grounds affiliated to the FA because football damaged women's bodies.[11][12]
For several decades this decision meant that women's football virtually ceased to exist. It only reversed from 1969 when, after the increased interest in football caused by England's 1966 World Cup triumph, the Women's Football Association was founded,[13] although it would take a further two years - and an order from UEFA - to force the (men's) Football Association to remove its restrictions on the playing rights of women's teams.[14] It was not until 1983 that the WFA was able to affiliate to the FA as a "County Association" and only in 1993 did the FA found the "Women's Football Committee" to run women's football in England.[15]
UK football sexual abuse scandal[edit]
Main article: United Kingdom football sexual abuse scandal
In mid-November 2016, allegations of widespread historical sexual abuse at football clubs dating back to the 1970s began to emerge. On 21 November, the Football Association said it would set up a helpline;[16] this was established with the NSPCC and opened on 24 November,[17] reportedly receiving over 50 calls within the first two hours,[18] over 100 by 27 November,[19] and 860 ("more than three times as many referrals as in the first three days of the Jimmy Savile scandal") by 1 December[20] with 350 individuals alleging abuse.[21] The FA and NSPCC also collaborated to produce a film about how to keep children safe in the sport, featuring the captains of England's men's, women's and cerebral palsy football teams (Wayne Rooney, Steph Houghton and Jack Rutter).[22]
On 27 November, the FA announced it was to set up an internal review, led by independent counsel Kate Gallafent QC, into what Crewe and Manchester City knew about convicted paedophile Barry Bennell and allegations of child sexual abuse in football, and investigate what information it was aware of at the time of the alleged offences.[23]
The FA was criticised by Conservative MP Damian Collins, chair of the House of Commons' Culture, Media and Sport Committee, for being too slow in reacting and not instigating a wider review.[24] Former sport minister Gerry Sutcliffe talked of previous concern about how the FA dealt with governance of the sport and with youth development (in the 1990s, the FA was said to have reacted "dismissively" to worries about sexual abuse in the game, and too slow to implement criminal record checks;[25] in 2003, the FA had scrapped a project meant to ensure children were being protected from sexual abuse;[26] and FA officials had been uncooperative with the review project, with ten of 14 FA staff not replying to interview requests and a report by the researchers of others being "prevented/bullied" from talking).[27] Sutcliffe said an independent body, such as the Department for Culture, Media and Sport should look at the issue rather than the FA investigating itself: "What I've seen in football over the years is that they're very narrow, very insular, and may not do a proper job even though with the right intentions."[28]
On 6 December 2016, the FA announced that, due to "the increased scope of the review since it was announced"[29] and Gallafent's other professional commitments, the review would be conducted by Clive Sheldon QC.[30] On 11 January 2017, it was reported that the Sheldon review had made its first call for evidence, writing to all football clubs in England and Wales, amateur and professional, asking for information by 15 March about allegations of child sexual abuse between 1970 and 2005.[31]
FA 2017 reform[edit]
Also in December 2016, five former FA executives - David Bernstein, David Davies, Greg Dyke, Alex Horne and David Triesman - called on Parliament's Culture, Media and Sport Committee to propose legislation to reform the FA, saying it was outdated, held back by "elderly white men", and unable to counter the power of the Premier League or "to reform and modernise in a fast-changing world".[32]
In April 2017, it was announced that some reforms, including reducing the size of the FA's board and increasing the number of women, would be submitted for approval to the FA's annual general meeting on 18 May. However, the proposed changes were criticised by some for not going far enough, particularly to improve minority representation.[33] The proposals were approved at the AGM and include:[34]
Establishing three positions on the FA board for female members by 2018
Reducing the size of the board to 10 members
Adding 11 new members to the FA Council to "better reflects the inclusive and diverse nature of English football"
Limiting board membership to three terms of three years
Introducing term limits for FA Council members
Crown dependencies[edit]
The Football Associations within the Crown dependencies Jersey (Jersey Football Association), Guernsey (Guernsey Football Association) and the Isle of Man (Isle of Man Football Association) are affiliated to the FA despite having a separate identity from that of the United Kingdom and by extension England.[35] They are considered County Football Associations by the FA. Matt Le Tissier and Graeme Le Saux have represented the FA's full national representative team and were born in Guernsey and Jersey respectively.[36]
The Guernsey Football Association, Isle of Man Football Association and Jersey Football Association have been affiliated with the FA since 1903, 1908 and 1905 respectively.[37][38][39]
The British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar's Gibraltar Football Association was affiliated to the FA from 1911 until it opted to become a fully recognised member of UEFA, a feat achieved after a 14-year legal battle. Joseph Nunez, the Gibraltar FA President claimed they were "unilaterally thrown out" of the FA following an intervention from Geoff Thompson.[37]
A loophole was closed in May 2008 by FIFA which allowed players born in the Channel Islands to choose which nation belonging to the United Kingdom to represent at international level. During the 1990s, Trevor Wood (Jersey) and Chris Tardif (Guernsey) represented Northern Ireland.
Relationship with FIFA[edit]
The Football Association first joined FIFA in 1905. The British Associations (England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales) opted to leave FIFA after World War I when FIFA chose not to exclude those who were part of the Central Powers from the organisation. The British Associations' stance had changed by 1922 and in 1924 they had rejoined FIFA.[note 1]
The British Olympic Association had fought against 'broken time' - monetary compensation for athletes' earnings when competing in the Olympic games. At the 1925 Olympic Congress in Prague, the British had made an amendment that concluded governing federations should define amateur status for their sports but only in accordance with the definition of amateurism accepted by the Olympic Congress. In 1928, Switzerland proposed to FIFA that in certain circumstances, 'broken time' payments should be allowed and FIFA accepted. The FA resigned from FIFA in protest against the proposal. As a result of the FA's resignation, England did not participate in the 1930, 1934 or 1938 FIFA World Cup.
At the 1930 Olympic Congress in Berlin, Belgian delegates proposed that for each sport the definition of amateur status be left to its international federation. The BOA argued for a common definition of amateurism and argued that 'broken time' payments were against the Olympic ideal.
The FA rejoined FIFA in 1946 and participated in their first World Cup in 1950. One of the first actions of the Football Association was to request the expulsion of the German and Japanese national football associations for their countries' role in World War II. Germany and Japan were prevented from qualifying for the 1950 FIFA World Cup as a consequence. They were re-acquainted with FIFA in 1950 following a second request from Switzerland who had a previous request rejected in 1948.
Finances[edit]
The FA's main commercial asset is its ownership of the rights to England internationals and the FA Cup. Broadcasting income remains the FA's largest revenue stream with both domestic and international broadcasting rights for England fixtures and the FA Cup tied up until at least 2021.
For the four seasons from 2008 to 2012, the FA secured £425 million from ITV and Setanta for England and FA Cup games domestic television rights, a 42% increase over the previous contract, and £145 million for overseas television rights, up 272% on the £39 million received for the previous four-year period.[40] However, during 2008–09 Setanta UK went into administration, which weakened the FA's cashflow position.
Turnover for the year ending 31 July 2016 was £370 million on which it made a profit after tax of £7 million. It has also made an investment of £125 million back into every level of Football in 2016. In July 2015 the FA announced plans to carry out a significant organisational restructure, in order to deliver considerable cost savings to invest in elite England teams, facilities and grassroots coaching.[41]
The FA's income does not include the turnover of English football clubs, which are independent businesses. As well as running its own operations the FA chooses five charities each year to which it gives financial support.[42][43]
During the last three years, the FA received £350,000 in fines from players over comments made on Twitter, the most recent fine being a £25,000 to Rio Ferdinand. The highest fine given during the last three years was a £90,000 fine to Ashley Cole in 2012 after calling the FA "a bunch of twats." The FA has been more and more strict on comments made by players on Twitter, as the FA has disciplined 121 players overall in the last three years.[44]
Competitions[edit]
The FA Cup trophy used from 1992 to 2013
The FA also runs several competitions:
FA Cup
FA Trophy
FA Vase
FA Women's Cup
FA Women's Premier League Cup
FA Youth Cup
FA Sunday Cup
FA County Youth Cup
FA Community Shield
FA Inter-League Cup
FA Umbro Fives
FA Futsal Cup
FA People's Cup[45]
Principals[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Prince William is the current President of the FA
The FA has a figurehead President, since 1939, who is always a member of the British Royal Family. The Chairman of the FA has overall responsibility for policy. Traditionally this person rose through the ranks of the FA's committee structure (e.g. by holding posts such the chairmanship of a county football association). In 2008 politician David Triesman was appointed as the FA's first "independent chairman", the first from outside the football hierarchy. The day to day head of the FA was known as the Secretary until 1989, when the job title was changed to Chief Executive.
Office-holders
Office
Name
Tenure
President Arthur Pember 1863–1867
E.C. Morley 1867–1874
Francis Marindin 1874–1890
Lord Kinnaird 1890–1923
Sir Charles Clegg 1923–1937
William Pickford 1937–1939
The Earl of Athlone 1939–1955
HRH the Duke of Edinburgh 1955–1957
HRH the Duke of Gloucester 1957–1963
Earl of Harewood 1963–1971
HRH the Duke of Kent 1971–2000
HRH the Duke of York 2000–2006
HRH the Duke of Cambridge 2006–present
Chairman Charles Clegg 1890–1937
A. G. Hines 1938
M. Frowde 1939–1941
Amos Brook Hirst 1941–1955
Arthur Drewry 1955–1961
Graham Doggart 1961–1963
Joe Mears 1963–1966
Andrew Stephen 1967–1976
Harold Thompson 1976–1981
Bert Millichip 1981–1996
Keith Wiseman 1996–1999
Geoff Thompson 1999–2008
David Triesman 2008–2010
David Bernstein 2011–2013
Greg Dyke 2013-2016
Greg Clarke 2016–present
Secretary E.C. Morley 1863–1866
R. W. Willis 1866–1868
R. G. Graham 1868–1870
Charles Alcock 1870–1895
Frederick Wall 1895–1934
Stanley Rous 1934–1962
Denis Follows 1962–1973
Ted Croker 1973–1989
Chief executive Graham Kelly 1989–1998
Adam Crozier 2000–2002
David Davies 2002–2003 (acting)
Mark Palios 2003–2004
David Davies 2004–2005 (acting)
Brian Barwick 2005–2008
Ian Watmore 2009–2010
Alex Horne 2010–2010 (acting)
Martin Glenn 2015–present
General Secretary Alex Horne 2010–present
Executive Director David Davies 1998–2000
Board of directors[edit]
None of the FA board of directors has ever played football professionally.[46]
Greg Dyke was The Football Association chairman between 2013 and 2016
Taken from thefa.com website on 2014-08-06[46]
Chairman: Greg Clarke.
Chief Executive: Martin Glenn
Vice-Chairman: Roger Burden[47] (Gloucestershire FA)†
Other Members:
Barry Bright (Kent FA)†
Mervyn Leggett (Worcestershire FA)†
Michael Game (Essex FA)†
David Gill[47] (Manchester United Chief Executive)‡
Keith Lamb (Middlesbrough Non-Executive Director)*
John Nixon
Paul Falkner
Non-executive directors:
Heather Rabbatts CBE (First female FA Board member[48])
Roger Devlin
Key: † = National Game Representative ‡ = Premier League Representative * = English Football League Representative
Note[edit]
Jump up ^ Ireland had since been partitioned. Northern Ireland remained British, the Irish Free State was independent of Britain. The latter is now Republic of Ireland.
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "The History of the FA". The Football Association. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Adrian (2005). Football, the First Hundred Years: The Untold Story of the People's Game. Routledge. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-415-35018-1.
Jump up ^ Scottish Sports History|url=http://www.scottishsporthistory.com/uploads/3/3/6/0/3360867/meeting_attendees.pdf
Jump up ^ Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, 16 January 1864; pg. 3, New Readerships
Jump up ^ Friends of West Norwood Cemetery. "FOWNC Newsletters - Friends of West Norwood Cemetery".
Jump up ^ "Premier League wages keep on rising, Deloitte says". BBC News. 9 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "A link to the past". www.thefa.com. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Brennan, Patrick. "Women's Football". Retrieved 11 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "The rebirth of women’s football: more than a century on, it’s a game worth watching". New Statesman. 17 October 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "History of Women's Football". Women's Sport and Fitness Foundation. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Women's Football" (PDF). London: Department for Culture, Media and Sport. 2006-07-18. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Women and Football". Spartacus Educational. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Daniel (21 November 2016). "Six come forward after Andy Woodward’s allegations of abuse at Crewe". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Press Association (24 November 2016). "NSPCC launches hotline for sexually abused footballers". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Cacciottolo, Mario (25 November 2016). "Football sex abuse claims: Two more ex-players speak out". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sex abuse: Football Association to investigate allegations". BBC. BBC. 27 November 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Football abuse hotline receives 'staggering surge' in calls". BBC News. BBC. 1 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Dodd, Vikram (1 December 2016). "Police say 350 people have come forward to report child sex abuse in football". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Football sex abuse: England captains make child safety film". BBC News. BBC. 3 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "FA sets up review into child sex abuse in football after Barry Bennell claims". The Guardian. 27 November 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Football Association child sex abuse review 'not enough'". BBC. 28 November 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, Jim; Ray, Louis Lee (8 December 2016). "Football abuse: FA reacted 'dismissively' to protection calls". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, Jim (30 November 2016). "FA 'pulled all funding' from child protection project". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Daniel (1 April 2017). "Police receive reports that child abuse is still happening in football". The Observer. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Southampton 'abuser' still working in football". BBC News. BBC. 3 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Terms of reference for review into alleged non-recent child sexual abuse in football". Football Association. FA. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Harry Redknapp criticises FA over coach claims". BBC News. BBC. 6 December 2016. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Review into child abuse in football makes first call for evidence". The Guardian. 11 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "FA reform: Former chiefs say 'elderly white men' block change". BBC News. BBC. 12 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "FA council votes unanimously to accept reforms". BBC Sport. BBC. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Diving bans: Football Association approves retrospective action". BBC. 18 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "FA Handbook 2013-14" (pdf). TheFA.com. p. 621. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Islands lack competition — Pitman". BBC News. 25 March 2009. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Menary, Steve (2007). Outcasts! : the lands that FIFA forgot. Studley: Know the Score!. ISBN 978-1905449316.
Jump up ^ "Anti-discrimination policy". GuernseyFA.com. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Junttila, Jukka. "Jersey" (pdf). junttila.net. p. 4. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Jump up ^ New Deals Sweet for FA, football365.com, 31 October 2007
Jump up ^ "The Football Association 2015/16 Financial Results". The FA. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
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Jump up ^ "FA made £350,000 from Twitter fines in just three years". Retrieved 31 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The FA People's Cup launches". The FA. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Manchester United's chief executive David Gill named FA vice-chairman". The Independent. London. 18 October 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Heather Rabbatts becomes first female to join FA board".
External links[edit]
Media related to The Football Association at Wikimedia Commons
England FIFA
England UEFA
The FA official site
The Football Association companies grouped at OpenCorporates
Tom Bower Has the Blazer Brigade doomed football? The Guardian 2 July 2005
When the Royal Engineers won the FA Cup 1875 Royal Engineers Museum
The FA at 150: A history in pictures The Guardian 15 January 2015
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Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about a famous phrase. For other uses, see The Pursuit of Happiness.
Office for Emergency Management. Office of War Information war poster 1941–1945
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" is a well-known phrase in the United States Declaration of Independence.[1] The phrase gives three examples of the "unalienable rights" which the Declaration says have been given to all human beings by their Creator, and which governments are created to protect.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and phrasing
1.1 Meaning of "happiness"
1.2 Lockean roots hypothesis
1.3 Virginia Declaration of Rights
1.4 Alternative hypotheses
2 Comparable mottos worldwide
3 References
Origin and phrasing[edit]
The United States Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and then edited by the Committee of Five, which consisted of Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. It was then further edited and adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.[2][3] The second paragraph of the first article in the Declaration of Independence contains the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness".
Jefferson's "original Rough draught" is on exhibit in the Library of Congress.[4] This version was used by Julian Boyd to create a transcript of Jefferson's draft,[5] which reads:
We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness; ...
The Committee of Five edited Jefferson's draft. Their version survived further edits by the whole Congress intact, and reads:[6]
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ——
A number of possible sources or inspirations for Jefferson's use of the phrase in the Declaration of Independence have been identified, although scholars debate the extent to which any one of them actually influenced Jefferson. Jefferson declared himself an Epicurean during his lifetime: this is a philosophical doctrine that teaches the pursuit of happiness and proposes autarchy, which translates as self-rule, self-sufficiency or freedom. The greatest disagreement comes between those who suggest the phrase was drawn from John Locke and those who identify some other source.[citation needed]
Meaning of "happiness"[edit]
There is debate about what the word "happiness" may have meant in 1776. Current usage focuses on pleasant, positive emotions and having needs satisfied,[7][8] whereas in 1776 the common meaning may have been "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing".[9][10]
Lockean roots hypothesis[edit]
In 1689, Locke argued in his Two Treatises of Government that political society existed for the sake of protecting "property", which he defined as a person's "life, liberty, and estate".[11] In A Letter Concerning Toleration, he wrote that the magistrate's power was limited to preserving a person's "civil interest", which he described as "life, liberty, health, and indolency of body; and the possession of outward things".[12] He declared in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that "the highest perfection of intellectual nature lies in a careful and constant pursuit of true and solid happiness".[13]
According to those scholars who saw the root of Jefferson's thought in Locke's doctrine, Jefferson replaced "estate" with "the pursuit of happiness", although this does not mean that Jefferson meant the "pursuit of happiness" to refer primarily or exclusively to property. Under such an assumption, the Declaration of Independence would declare that government existed primarily for the reasons Locke gave, and some have extended that line of thinking to support a conception of limited government.[14][15][16][17][18]
Virginia Declaration of Rights[edit]
The first and second article of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason and adopted unanimously by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, speaks of happiness in the context of recognizably Lockean rights and is paradigmatic of the way in which "the fundamental natural rights of mankind" were expressed at the time.[19][20]
That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
—  Virginia Declaration of Rights[21]
Benjamin Franklin was in agreement with Thomas Jefferson in downplaying protection of "property" as a goal of government. It is noted that Franklin found property to be a "creature of society" and thus, he believed that it should be taxed as a way to finance civil society.[22]
Alternative hypotheses[edit]
In 1628, Sir Edward Coke wrote in The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England, his commentary on Thomas de Littleton, that "It is commonly said that three things be favoured in Law, Life, Liberty, Dower."[23] At common law, dower was closely guarded as a means by which the widow and orphan of a deceased landowner could keep their real property.[24]
Garry Wills has argued that Jefferson did not take the phrase from Locke and that it was indeed meant to be a standard by which governments should be judged.[25] Wills suggests Adam Ferguson as a good guide to what Jefferson had in mind:
If, in reality, courage and a heart devoted to the good of mankind are the constituents of human felicity, the kindness which is done infers a happiness in the person from whom it proceeds, not in him on whom it is bestowed; and the greatest good which men possessed of fortitude and generosity can procure to their fellow creatures is a participation of this happy character. If this be the good of the individual, it is likewise that of mankind; and virtue no longer imposes a task by which we are obliged to bestow upon others that good from which we ourselves refrain; but supposes, in the highest degree, as possessed by ourselves, that state of felicity which we are required to promote in the world.
—  Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society[26]
The 17th-century cleric and philosopher Richard Cumberland wrote that promoting the well-being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own happiness".[27] Locke never associated natural rights with happiness, but his philosophical opponent Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made such an association in the introduction to his Codex Iuris Gentium.[28] William Wollaston's The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest definition" of "natural religion" as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth".[29] An English translation of Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui's Principles of Natural and Politic Law prepared in 1763 extolled the "noble pursuit" of "true and solid happiness" in the opening chapter discussing natural rights.[30] Historian Jack Rakove posits Burlamaqui as the inspiration for Jefferson's phrase.[31]
Comparable mottos worldwide[edit]
Other tripartite mottos include "liberté, égalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity) in France; "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (unity, justice and liberty) in Germany and "peace, order, and good government" in Canada.[32] It is also similar to a line in the Canadian Charter of Rights: "life, liberty, security of the person" (this line was also in the older Canadian Bill of rights, which added "enjoyment of property" to the list).
The phrase can also be found in Chapter III, Article 13 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan, and in President Ho Chi Minh's 1945 declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. An alternative phrase "life, liberty, and property", is found in the Declaration of Colonial Rights, a resolution of the First Continental Congress. The Fifth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution declare that governments cannot deprive any person of "life, liberty, or property" without due process of law. Also, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Declaration of Independence: Rough Draft". USHistory.org. Archived from the original on March 30, 2014. Retrieved May 18, 2014. Scanned image of the Jefferson's "original Rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence, written in June 1776, including all the changes made later by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and other members of the committee, and by Congress.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2009). The Annotated U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 7–22. ISBN 0674036069.
Jump up ^ Dube, Ann Marie (May 1996). "The Declaration of Independence". A Multitude of Amendments, Alterations and Additions. Pennsylvania: U.S. National Park Service. OCLC 44638441.
Jump up ^ "We Hold These Truths To Be Self Evident..." U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Julian P., ed. (1950). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Volume 1: 1760–1776. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 243–47. OCLC 16353926.
Jump up ^ "Declaration of Independence". U.S. National Archives. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Khoddam, Rubin (June 16, 2015). "What's Your Definition of Happiness?". Psychology Today. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Scott Barry (January 30, 2016). "The Differences between Happiness and Meaning in Life". Scientific American. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fountain, Ben (September 17, 2016). "Two American Dreams: how a dumbed-down nation lost sight of a great idea". The Guardian. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Shannon, Timothy J. (July 4, 2016). "What About That Pursuit of Happiness?". Philly.com via Gettysburg College. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1988) [1689]. Laslett, Peter, ed. Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Sec. 87, 123, 209, 222. ISBN 052135448X.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1983) [1689]. Tully, James H., ed. A Letter Concerning Toleration. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 091514560X.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1975) [1689]. Nidditch, Peter H., ed. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Book 2, Chapter 21, Section 51. ISBN 0198245955.
Jump up ^ Zuckert, Michael P. (1996). The Natural Rights Republic. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 73–85. ISBN 0268014809.
Jump up ^ Corbett, Ross J. (2009). The Lockean Commonwealth. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 1438427948.
Jump up ^ Pangle, Thomas L. (1988). The Spirit of Modern Republicanism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226645401.
Jump up ^ Gibson, Alan (2009). Interpreting the Founding (2nd ed.). Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700617051.
Jump up ^ Rahe, Paul A. (1994) [1992]. Republics Ancient & Modern, Volume 3; Inventions of Prudence: Constituting the American Regime. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 13–19. ISBN 080784473X.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2009). The Annotated U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0674036069.
Jump up ^ Banning, Lance (1995). Jefferson & Madison. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 17, 103–04. ISBN 0945612486. Lance Banning notes that the Virginia Declaration of Rights was the inspiration for the phrase in the Declaration of Independence, but does not trace it back to Locke, and in general downplays Jefferson's debts to Locke.
Jump up ^ "The Virginia Declaration of Rights". U.S. National Archives. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Franklin, Benjamin (2006). Skousen, Mark, ed. The Compleated Autobiography. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 413. ISBN 0-89526-033-6.
Jump up ^ Coke, Edward (1628). The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England. London: Adam Islip. Section 193. OCLC 84760833.
Jump up ^ Whitehead, Edward Jenkins (1922). The Law of Real Property in Illinois. 1. Chicago: Burdette J. Smith & Company. p. 178. OCLC 60731472.
Jump up ^ Wills, Gary (2002) [1978]. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. New York, NY: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-618-25776-8.
Jump up ^ Ferguson, Adam (1995) [1767]. Oz-Salzberger, Fania, ed. An Essay on the History of Civil Society. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 052144215X.
Jump up ^ Cumberland, Richard (2005) [1727]. A Treatise of the Laws of Nature. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund. pp. 523–24. ISBN 0865974721.
Jump up ^ Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1988). Riley, Patrick, ed. Leibniz: Political Writings (2nd ed.). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0521353807.
Jump up ^ Wollaston, William (1759) [1722]. The Religion of Nature Delineated (8th ed.). London: Samuel Palmer. p. 90. OCLC 2200588.
Jump up ^ Burlamaqui, Jean-Jacques (2006) [1747]. The Principles of Natural and Politic Law. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund. p. 31. ISBN 0865974969.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2010). Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 300. ISBN 0618267468. ...arguably owed more to Jefferson's reading of the Swiss jurist Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui than it did to his manifest debt to John Locke.
Jump up ^ Dyck, Perry Rand (2000). Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches (3rd ed.). Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-616792-9.
[show]
v
t
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Historical documents of the United States
[show]
Constitution
Preamble
& Articles
Preamble
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Amendments
Ratified
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Pending
Congressional Apportionment
Titles of Nobility
Corwin (State Domestic Institutions)
Child Labor
Unsuccessful
Equal Rights
District of Columbia Voting Rights
See also
List of Constitutional Amendments
Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10)
Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15)
Amendment proposals in Congress
Conventions to propose amendments
State ratifying conventions
Formation
History
Articles of Confederation
Mount Vernon Conference
Annapolis Convention
Philadelphia Convention
Virginia Plan
New Jersey Plan
Connecticut Compromise
Three-Fifths Compromise
Committee of Detail
Signing
Independence Hall
Syng inkstand
The Federalist Papers
Anti-Federalist Papers
Massachusetts Compromise
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Hillsborough Convention
Drafting and ratification timeline
Clauses
Appointments
Appropriations
Assistance of Counsel
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Natural-born citizen
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New States
No Religious Test
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Origination
Petition
Postal
Presentment
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Signatories
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New Hampshire
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Massachusetts
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Rufus King
Connecticut
William Samuel Johnson
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New York
Alexander Hamilton
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David Brearley
William Paterson
Jonathan Dayton
Pennsylvania
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robert Morris
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Thomas Fitzsimons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson
Gouverneur Morris
Delaware
George Read
Gunning Bedford Jr.
John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jacob Broom
Maryland
James McHenry
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
Daniel Carroll
Virginia
John Blair
James Madison
North Carolina
William Blount
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Hugh Williamson
South Carolina
John Rutledge
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler
Georgia
William Few
Abraham Baldwin
Convention Secretary
William Jackson
Display
and legacy
National Archives
Charters of Freedom Rotunda
Independence Mall
Constitution Day
Constitution Gardens
National Constitution Center
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting)
A More Perfect Union (film)
Worldwide influence
[show]
Declaration of Independence
Primary author
Thomas Jefferson
Signatories
President of Congress
John Hancock (Massachusetts)
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
William Whipple
Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts
Samuel Adams
John Adams
Robert Treat Paine
Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island
Stephen Hopkins
William Ellery
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
William Williams
Oliver Wolcott
New York
William Floyd
Philip Livingston
Francis Lewis
Lewis Morris
New Jersey
Richard Stockton
John Witherspoon
Francis Hopkinson
John Hart
Abraham Clark
Pennsylvania
Robert Morris
Benjamin Rush
Benjamin Franklin
John Morton
George Clymer
James Smith
George Taylor
James Wilson
George Ross
Delaware
George Read
Caesar Rodney
Thomas McKean
Maryland
Samuel Chase
William Paca
Thomas Stone
Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Virginia
George Wythe
Richard Henry Lee
Thomas Jefferson
Benjamin Harrison
Thomas Nelson Jr.
Francis Lightfoot Lee
Carter Braxton
North Carolina
William Hooper
Joseph Hewes
John Penn
South Carolina
Edward Rutledge
Thomas Heyward Jr.
Thomas Lynch Jr.
Arthur Middleton
Georgia
Button Gwinett
Lyman Hall
George Walton
See also
Virginia Declaration of Rights
Lee Resolution
Committee of Five
Document's history
signing
portrait
Second Continental Congress
"All men are created equal"
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness"
"Consent of the governed"
Independence Hall
Syng inkstand
American Revolution
[show]
Articles of Confederation
Signatories
Primary drafter
John Dickinson
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
John Wentworth Jr.
Massachusetts
John Hancock
Samuel Adams
Elbridge Gerry
Francis Dana
James Lovell
Samuel Holten
Rhode Island
William Ellery
Henry Marchant
John Collins
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
Oliver Wolcott
Titus Hosmer
Andrew Adams
New York
James Duane
Francis Lewis
William Duer
Gouverneur Morris
New Jersey
John Witherspoon
Nathaniel Scudder
Pennsylvania
Robert Morris
Daniel Roberdeau
Jonathan Bayard Smith
William Clingan
Joseph Reed
Delaware
Thomas McKean
John Dickinson
Nicholas Van Dyke
Maryland
John Hanson
Daniel Carroll
Virginia
Richard Henry Lee
John Banister
Thomas Adams
John Harvie
Francis Lightfoot Lee
North Carolina
John Penn
Cornelius Harnett
John Williams
South Carolina
Henry Laurens
William Henry Drayton
John Mathews
Richard Hutson
Thomas Heyward Jr.
Georgia
John Walton
Edward Telfair
Edward Langworthy
See also
Continental Congress
Congress of the Confederation
American Revolution
Perpetual Union
[show]
Continental Association
Signatories
President of Congress
Peyton Randolph
New Hampshire
John Sullivan
Nathaniel Folsom
Massachusetts Bay
Thomas Cushing
Samuel Adams
John Adams
Robert Treat Paine
Rhode Island
Stephen Hopkins
Samuel Ward
Connecticut
Eliphalet Dyer
Roger Sherman
Silas Deane
New York
Isaac Low
John Alsop
John Jay
James Duane
Philip Livingston
William Floyd
Henry Wisner
Simon Boerum
New Jersey
James Kinsey
William Livingston
Stephen Crane
Richard Smith
John De Hart
Pennsylvania
Joseph Galloway
John Dickinson
Charles Humphreys
Thomas Mifflin
Edward Biddle
John Morton
George Ross
The Lower Counties
Caesar Rodney
Thomas McKean
George Read
Maryland
Matthew Tilghman
Thomas Johnson, Junr
William Paca
Samuel Chase
Virginia
Richard Henry Lee
George Washington
Patrick Henry, Junr
Richard Bland
Benjamin Harrison
Edmund Pendleton
North Carolina
William Hooper
Joseph Hewes
Richard Caswell
South Carolina
Henry Middleton
Thomas Lynch
Christopher Gadsden
John Rutledge
Edward Rutledge
See also
Virginia Association
First Continental Congress
Carpenters' Hall
Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress
[show]
v
t
e
Thomas Jefferson
3rd President of the United States (1801–1809)
2nd U.S. Vice President (1797–1801)
1st U.S. Secretary of State (1790–1793)
U.S. Minister to France (1785–1789)
2nd Governor of Virginia (1779–1781)
Delegate, Second Continental Congress (1775–1776)
Founding
documents of
the United States
A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774)
Initial draft, Olive Branch Petition (1775)
Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
1776 Declaration of Independence
Committee of Five
authored
physical history
"All men are created equal"
"Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness"
"Consent of the governed"
1786 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
freedom of religion
French Revolution
Co-author, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
Presidency
Inaugural Address (1801
1805)
Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves
Louisiana Purchase
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Corps of Discovery
timeline
Empire of Liberty
Red River Expedition
Pike Expedition
Cumberland Road
Embargo Act of 1807
Chesapeake–Leopard affair
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
First Barbary War
Native American policy
Marbury v. Madison
West Point Military Academy
State of the Union Addresses (texts
1801
1802
1805)
Cabinet
Federal judicial appointments
Other noted
accomplishments
Early life and career
Founder, University of Virginia
history
Land Ordinance of 1784
Northwest Ordinance 1787
Anti-Administration party
Democratic-Republican Party
Jeffersonian democracy
First Party System
republicanism
Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measure of the United States (1790)
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
A Manual of Parliamentary Practice (1801)
Jeffersonian
architecture
Barboursville
Farmington
Monticello
gardens
Poplar Forest
University of Virginia
The Rotunda
The Lawn
Virginia State Capitol
White House Colonnades
Other writings
Notes on the State of Virginia (1785)
1787 European journey memorandums
Indian removal letters
Jefferson Bible (1895)
Jefferson manuscript collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society
The Papers of Thomas Jefferson
Related
Age of Enlightenment
American Enlightenment
American Philosophical Society
American Revolution
patriots
Member, Virginia Committee of Correspondence
Committee of the States
Founding Fathers of the United States
Franco-American alliance
Jefferson and education
Religious views
Jefferson and slavery
Jefferson and the Library of Congress
Jefferson disk
Jefferson Pier
Pet mockingbird
National Gazette
Residence Act
Compromise of 1790
Sally Hemings
Jefferson–Hemings controversy
Betty Hemings
Separation of church and state
Swivel chair
The American Museum magazine
Virginia dynasty
Elections
United States Presidential election 1796
1800
1804
Legacy
Bibliography
Jefferson Memorial
Mount Rushmore
Birthday
Thomas Jefferson Building
Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression
Jefferson Lecture
Jefferson National Expansion Memorial
Thomas Jefferson Star for Foreign Service
Jefferson Lab
Monticello Association
Jefferson City, Missouri
Jefferson College
Thomas Jefferson School of Law
Thomas Jefferson University
Washington and Jefferson National Forests
Other placenames
Currency depictions
Jefferson nickel
Two-dollar bill
U.S. postage stamps
Popular culture
Ben and Me (1953 short)
1776 (1969 musical
1972 film)
Jefferson in Paris (1995 film)
Thomas Jefferson (1997 film)
Liberty! (1997 documentary series)
Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series)
John Adams (2008 miniseries)
Jefferson's Garden (2015 play)
Hamilton (2015 musical)
Jefferson–Eppes Trophy
Wine bottles controversy
Family
Peter Jefferson (father)
Jane Randolph Jefferson (mother)
Lucy Jefferson Lewis (sister)
Randolph Jefferson (brother)
Isham Randolph (grandfather)
William Randolph (great-grandfather)
Martha Jefferson (wife)
Martha Jefferson Randolph (daughter)
Mary Jefferson Eppes (daughter)
Harriet Hemings (daughter)
Madison Hemings (son)
Eston Hemings (son)
Thomas J. Randolph (grandson)
Francis Eppes (grandson)
George W. Randolph (grandson)
John Wayles Jefferson (grandson)
Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. (son-in-law)
John Wayles Eppes (son-in-law)
John Wayles (father-in-law)
Dabney Carr (brother-in-law)
Dabney Carr (nephew)
← John Adams
James Madison →
Category
[show]
v
t
e
George Mason
United States
Founding events
Drafted, 1769 Virginia Association resolutions
Primary author, 1774 Fairfax Resolves
Primary author, 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights
"All men are created equal"
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
Freedom of the press
Freedom of religion
Consent of the governed
Baseless search and seizure
Cruel and unusual punishment
Speedy trial
1776 Virginia Constitution
1785 Mount Vernon Conference
1787 Constitutional Convention
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Co-father, United States Bill of Rights
history
Founding Father
Writings inspired
1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France)
1789 United States Bill of Rights
Life
Chopawamsic plantation
Gunston Hall
On slavery
Ohio Company
Legacy
George Mason Memorial
George Mason University
George Mason Stadium
George Mason Memorial Bridge
George Mason High School
18-cent postage stamp
Related
Age of Enlightenment
American Enlightenment
American Revolution
patriots
Wilson v. Mason
Hollin Hall
Woodbridge plantation
Mason's Island
Family
George Mason V (son)
William Mason (son)
Thomson Mason (son)
John Mason (son)
Thomas Mason (son)
George Mason III (father)
Thomson Mason (brother)
George Mason II (grandfather)
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values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

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values: الحياة والحرية والسعي لتحقيق السعادة – Arabic

values: 행복추구권 – Korean

values: Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness – Swedish

values: ชีวิต เสรีภาพ และการเสาะแสวงหาความสุข – Thai

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