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Formic acid
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Formic acid
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
Formic acid[1]
Systematic IUPAC name
Methanoic acid[1]
Other names
Carbonous acid; Formylic acid; Hydrogen carboxylic acid; Hydroxy(oxo)methane; Metacarbonoic acid; Oxocarbinic acid; Oxomethanol
Identifiers
CAS Number
64-18-6 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:30751 Y
ChEMBL
ChEMBL116736 Y
ChemSpider
278 Y
DrugBank
DB01942 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.527
EC Number 200-579-1
E number E236 (preservatives)
KEGG
C00058 Y
PubChem CID
284
RTECS number LQ4900000
UNII
0YIW783RG1 Y
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/HCOOH/c2-1-3/h1H,(H,2,3)
Key: BDAGIHXWWSANSR-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
InChI=1/HCOOH/c2-1-3/h1H,(H,2,3)
Key: BDAGIHXWWSANSR-UHFFFAOYAT
SMILES[show]
O=CO
Properties
Chemical formula
CH2O2
Molar mass 46.03 g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless fuming liquid
Odor Pungent, penetrating
Density 1.220 g/mL
Melting point 8.4 °C (47.1 °F; 281.5 K)
Boiling point 100.8 °C (213.4 °F; 373.9 K)
Solubility in water
Miscible
Solubility Miscible with ether, acetone, ethyl acetate, glycerol, methanol, ethanol
Partially soluble in benzene, toluene, xylenes
log P −0.54
Vapor pressure 35 mmHg (20 °C)[2]
Acidity (pKa) 3.77[3]
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
-19.90·10−6 cm3/mol
Refractive index (nD)
1.3714 (20 °C)
Viscosity 1.57 cP at 268 °C
Structure
Molecular shape
Planar
Dipole moment
1.41 D (gas)
Thermochemistry
Std molar
entropy (So298)
131.8 J/mol K
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
−425.0 kJ/mol
Std enthalpy of
combustion (ΔcHo298)
−254.6 kJ/mol
Pharmacology
ATCvet code
QP53AG01 (WHO)
Hazards
Main hazards Corrosive; irritant;
sensitizer
Safety data sheet See: data page
JT Baker
R-phrases (outdated) R10 R35
S-phrases (outdated) (S1/2) S23 S26 S45
NFPA 704
2
3
1
Flash point 69 °C (156 °F; 342 K)
Autoignition
temperature
601 °C (1,114 °F; 874 K)
Explosive limits 14–34%[citation needed]
18%–57% (90% solution)[2]
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
700 mg/kg (mouse, oral), 1100 mg/kg (rat, oral), 4000 mg/kg (dog, oral)[4]
LC50 (median concentration)
7853 ppm (rat, 15 min)
3246 ppm (mouse, 15 min)[4]
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 5 ppm (9 mg/m3)[2]
REL (Recommended)
TWA 5 ppm (9 mg/m3)[2]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
30 ppm[2]
Related compounds
Related carboxylic acids
Acetic acid
Propionic acid
Related compounds
Formaldehyde
Methanol
Supplementary data page
Structure and
properties
Refractive index (n),
Dielectric constant (εr), etc.
Thermodynamic
data
Phase behaviour
solid–liquid–gas
Spectral data
UV, IR, NMR, MS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
verify (what is Y ?)
Infobox references
Formic acid, systematically named methanoic acid, is the simplest carboxylic acid. The chemical formula is HCOOH or HCO2H. It is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in some ants. The word "formic" comes from the Latin word for ant, formica, referring to its early isolation by the distillation of ant bodies. Esters, salts, and the anion derived from formic acid are called formates.
Contents
[hide]
1 Properties
2 Natural occurrence
3 Production
3.1 From methyl formate and formamide
3.2 Niche chemical routes
3.2.1 By-product of acetic acid production
3.2.2 Hydrogenation of carbon dioxide
3.2.3 Oxidation of biomass
3.2.4 Laboratory methods
3.3 Biosynthesis
4 Uses
5 Chemical reactions
6 Reactions
6.1 Decomposition
6.2 Addition to alkenes
6.3 Formic acid anhydride
7 History
8 Safety
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Properties[edit]
Cyclic dimer of formic acid; dashed green lines represent hydrogen bonds
Formic acid is a colorless liquid having a pungent, penetrating odor[5] at room temperature. It is miscible with water and most polar organic solvents, and is somewhat soluble in hydrocarbons. In hydrocarbons and in the vapor phase, it consists of hydrogen-bonded dimers rather than individual molecules.[6][7] Owing to its tendency to hydrogen-bond, gaseous formic acid does not obey the ideal gas law.[7] Solid formic acid (two polymorphs) consists of an effectively endless network of hydrogen-bonded formic acid molecules. This relatively complicated compound also forms a low-boiling azeotrope with water (22.4%) and liquid formic acid also tends to supercool.
Natural occurrence[edit]
See also: Insect defenses
In nature, formic acid is found in most ants and in stingless bees of the Oxytrigona genus.[8][9] The wood ants from the genus Formica can spray formic acid on their prey or to defend the nest. It is also found in the trichomes of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica). Formic acid is a naturally occurring component of the atmosphere due primarily to forest emissions.[10]
Production[edit]
In 2009, the worldwide capacity for producing formic acid was 720,000 tonnes/annum, roughly equally divided between Europe (350,000, mainly in Germany) and Asia (370,000, mainly in China) while production was below 1000 tonnes/annum in all other continents.[11] It is commercially available in solutions of various concentrations between 85 and 99 w/w %.[6] As of 2009[update], the largest producers are BASF, Eastman Chemical Company, LC Industrial, and Feicheng Acid Chemicals, with the largest production facilities in Ludwigshafen (200,000 tonnes/annum, BASF, Germany), Oulu (105,000, Eastman, Finland), Nakhon Pathom (n/a, LC Industrial) and Feicheng (100,000, Feicheng, China). 2010 prices ranged from around €650/tonne (equivalent to around $800/tonne) in Western Europe to $1250/tonne in the United States.[11]
From methyl formate and formamide[edit]
When methanol and carbon monoxide are combined in the presence of a strong base, the result is methyl formate, according to the chemical equation:[6]
CH3OH + CO → HCO2CH3
In industry, this reaction is performed in the liquid phase at elevated pressure. Typical reaction conditions are 80 °C and 40 atm. The most widely used base is sodium methoxide. Hydrolysis of the methyl formate produces formic acid:
HCO2CH3 + H2O → HCO2H + CH3OH
Efficient hydrolysis of methyl formate requires a large excess of water. Some routes proceed indirectly by first treating the methyl formate with ammonia to give formamide, which is then hydrolyzed with sulfuric acid:
HCO2CH3 + NH3 → HC(O)NH2 + CH3OH
2 HC(O)NH2 + 2H2O + H2SO4 → 2HCO2H + (NH4)2SO4
A disadvantage of this approach is the need to dispose of the ammonium sulfate byproduct. This problem has led some manufacturers to develop energy-efficient methods of separating formic acid from the excess water used in direct hydrolysis. In one of these processes (used by BASF) the formic acid is removed from the water by liquid-liquid extraction with an organic base.[citation needed]
Niche chemical routes[edit]
By-product of acetic acid production[edit]
A significant amount of formic acid is produced as a byproduct in the manufacture of other chemicals. At one time, acetic acid was produced on a large scale by oxidation of alkanes, by a process that cogenerates significant formic acid. This oxidative route to acetic acid is declining in importance, so that the aforementioned dedicated routes to formic acid have become more important.
Hydrogenation of carbon dioxide[edit]
The catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid has long been studied. This reaction can be conducted homogeneously.[12][13]
Oxidation of biomass[edit]
Formic acid can also be obtained by aqueous catalytic partial oxidation of wet biomass (OxFA process).[14][15] A Keggin-type polyoxometalate (H5PV2Mo10O40) is used as the homogeneous catalyst to convert sugars, wood, waste paper or cyanobacteria to formic acid and CO2 as the sole byproduct. Yields of up to 53% formic acid can be achieved.
Laboratory methods[edit]
In the laboratory, formic acid can be obtained by heating oxalic acid in glycerol and extraction by steam distillation.[16] Glycerol acts as a catalyst, as the reaction proceeds through a glyceryl oxalate intermediary. If the reaction mixture is heated to higher temperatures, allyl alcohol results. The net reaction is thus:
C2O4H2 → CO2H2 + CO2
Another illustrative method involves the reaction between lead formate and hydrogen sulfide, driven by the formation of lead sulfide.[17]
Pb(HCOO)2 + H2S → 2HCOOH + PbS
Biosynthesis[edit]
Formic acid is named after ants which have high concentrations of the compound in their venom. In ants formic acid is derived from serine through a 5,10-Methenyltetrahydrofolate intermediate.[18] The conjugate base of formic acid, formate, also occurs widely in nature. An assay for formic acid in body fluids, designed for determination of formate after methanol poisoning, is based on the reaction of formate with bacterial formate dehydrogenase.[19]
Uses[edit]
A major use of formic acid is as a preservative and antibacterial agent in livestock feed. In Europe, it is applied on silage (including fresh hay) to promote the fermentation of lactic acid and to suppress the formation of butyric acid; it also allows fermentation to occur quickly, and at a lower temperature, reducing the loss of nutritional value.[6] Formic acid arrests certain decay processes and causes the feed to retain its nutritive value longer, and so it is widely used to preserve winter feed for cattle.[20] In the poultry industry, it is sometimes added to feed to kill E. coli bacteria.[21][22] Use as preservative for silage and (other) animal feed constituted 30% of the global consumption in 2009.[11]
Formic acid is also significantly used in the production of leather, including tanning (23% of the global consumption in 2009[11]), and in dyeing and finishing textiles (9% of the global consumption in 2009[11]) because of its acidic nature. Use as a coagulant in the production of rubber[6] consumed 6% of the global production in 2009.[11]
Formic acid is also used in place of mineral acids for various cleaning products,[6] such as limescale remover and toilet bowl cleaner. Some formate esters are artificial flavorings or perfumes.
Beekeepers use formic acid as a miticide against the tracheal mite (Acarapis woodi) and the Varroa destructor mite and Varroa jacobsoni mite.[23]
Formic acid application has been reported to be an effective treatment for warts.[24]
Formic acid is being investigated for use in fuel cells.[25][26]
Formic acid is often used as a component of mobile phase in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromotagraphy (RP-HPLC) analysis and separation techniques for the separation of hydrophobic macromolecules, such as peptides, proteins and more complex structures including intact viruses. Especially when paired with mass spectrometry detection, formic acid offers several advantages over the more traditionally used phosphoric acid.[27][28]
Chemical reactions[edit]
Formic acid is about ten times stronger than acetic acid. It is used as a volatile pH modifier in HPLC and capillary electrophoresis.
Formic acid is a source for a formyl group for example in the formylation of methylaniline to N-methylformanilide in toluene.[29]
In synthetic organic chemistry, formic acid is often used as a source of hydride ion. The Eschweiler-Clarke reaction and the Leuckart-Wallach reaction are examples of this application. It, or more commonly its azeotrope with triethylamine, is also used as a source of hydrogen in transfer hydrogenation.
As mentioned below, formic acid readily decomposes with concentrated sulfuric acid to form carbon monoxide.
CH2O2 + H2SO4 → H2SO4< + H2O + CO
Reactions[edit]
Formic acid shares most of the chemical properties of other carboxylic acids. Because of its high acidity, solutions in alcohols form esters spontaneously. Formic acid shares some of the reducing properties of aldehydes, reducing solutions of gold, silver, and platinum to the metals.[citation needed]
Decomposition[edit]
Heat and especially acids cause formic acid to decompose to carbon monoxide (CO) and water (dehydration). Treatment of formic acid with sulfuric acid is a convenient laboratory source of CO.[30][31]
In the presence of platinum, it decomposes with a release of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
CH2O2 → H2 + CO2
Soluble ruthenium catalysts are also effective.[32][33] Carbon monoxide free hydrogen has been generated in a very wide pressure range (1–600 bar).[32] Formic acid has been considered as a means of hydrogen storage.[34] The co-product of this decomposition, carbon dioxide, can be rehydrogenated back to formic acid in a second step. Formic acid contains 53 g L−1 hydrogen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, which is three and a half times as much as compressed hydrogen gas can attain at 350 bar pressure (14.7 g L−1). Pure formic acid is a liquid with a flash point of +69 °C, much higher than that of gasoline (−40 °C) or ethanol (+13 °C).[citation needed]
Addition to alkenes[edit]
Formic acid is unique among the carboxylic acids in its ability to participate in addition reactions with alkenes. Formic acids and alkenes readily react to form formate esters. In the presence of certain acids, including sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids, however, a variant of the Koch reaction occurs instead, and formic acid adds to the alkene to produce a larger carboxylic acid.[35]
Formic acid anhydride[edit]
An unstable formic anhydride, H(C=O)−O−(C=O)H, can be obtained by dehydration of formic acid with N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in ether at low temperature.[36]
History[edit]
Some alchemists and naturalists were aware that ant hills give off an acidic vapor as early as the 15th century. The first person to describe the isolation of this substance (by the distillation of large numbers of ants) was the English naturalist John Ray, in 1671.[37][38] Ants secrete the formic acid for attack and defense purposes. Formic acid was first synthesized from hydrocyanic acid by the French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac. In 1855, another French chemist, Marcellin Berthelot, developed a synthesis from carbon monoxide similar to the process used today.
Formic acid was long considered a chemical compound of only minor interest in the chemical industry. In the late 1960s, however, significant quantities became available as a byproduct of acetic acid production. It now finds increasing use as a preservative and antibacterial in livestock feed.
Safety[edit]
Formic acid has low toxicity (hence its use as a food additive), with an LD50 of 1.8 g/kg (tested orally on mice). The concentrated acid is corrosive to the skin.[6]
Formic acid is readily metabolized and eliminated by the body. Nonetheless, it has specific toxic effects; the formic acid and formaldehyde produced as metabolites of methanol are responsible for the optic nerve damage, causing blindness seen in methanol poisoning.[39] Some chronic effects of formic acid exposure have been documented. Some experiments on bacterial species have demonstrated it to be a mutagen.[40] Chronic exposure in humans may cause kidney damage.[40] Another possible effect of chronic exposure is development of a skin allergy that manifests upon re-exposure to the chemical.
Concentrated formic acid slowly decomposes to carbon monoxide and water, leading to pressure buildup in the containing vessel. For this reason, 98% formic acid is shipped in plastic bottles with self-venting caps.
The hazards of solutions of formic acid depend on the concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of formic acid solutions:
Concentration (weight percent)
Classification
R-Phrases
2%–10% Irritant (Xi) R36/38
10%–90% Corrosive (C) R34
>90% Corrosive (C) R35
Formic acid in 85% concentration is flammable, and diluted formic acid is on the U.S. Food and Drug Administration list of food additives.[41] The principal danger from formic acid is from skin or eye contact with the concentrated liquid or vapors. The U.S. OSHA Permissible Exposure Level (PEL) of formic acid vapor in the work environment is 5 parts per million parts of air (ppm).
See also[edit]
Orthoformic acid
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Formic acid.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Formic Acid.
Carbon monoxide as reagent in the formylation of aromatic compounds.
International Chemical Safety Card 0485.
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards.
ChemSub Online (Formic acid).
Formic Acid Use in Beekeeping: Handbook and Manual of Treatments.
Formic Acid Use by ants: topical application on the cuticle.
[show]
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Molecules detected in outer space
Molecules
Diatomic
Aluminium monochloride
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Carbon monosulfide
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Carborundum
Cyanogen radical
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Triatomic
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Amino radical
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Methylene radical
N2H+
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Ketenyl
Methylene amidogen
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Thiocyanic acid
Five
atoms
Ammonium ion
Butadiynyl
Carbodiimide
Cyanamide
Cyanoacetylene
Cyanoformaldehyde
Cyanomethyl
Cyclopropenylidene
Formic acid
Isocyanoacetylene
Ketene
Methane
Methoxy radical
Methylenimine
Propadienylidene
Protonated formaldehyde
Protonated formaldehyde
Silane
Silicon-carbide cluster
Six
atoms
Acetonitrile
Cyanobutadiynyl radical
E-Cyanomethanimine
Cyclopropenone
Diacetylene
Ethylene
Formamide
HC4N
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GND: 4261520-3
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Skeletal structure of formic acid

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Pledge of Allegiance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the U.S. oath of allegiance. For the general topic of oaths of allegiance, see Oath of allegiance. For other uses, see Pledge of Allegiance (disambiguation).
Pledge of Allegiance
(Bellamy versions)
(changes are bolded and underlined)
1892
(first version)[1]
"I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1892 to 1923
(early revision by Bellamy)[2]
"I pledge allegiance to my Flag and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1923 to 1924[3]
"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1924 to 1954[3]
"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1954
(current version, per 4 U.S.C. §4)[4]
"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools.[5][6] The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942.[7] The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words "under God" were added.[8]
Contents
1 Recital
2 Origins
2.1 Balch and Bellamy pledges
2.2 Francis Bellamy's account
3 Changes
3.1 Addition of "under God"
4 Salute
5 Music
6 Controversy
6.1 Legal challenges
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Recital[edit]
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students cannot be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so.[9] In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.[10]
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag—"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."[11]—should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.[4]
Origins[edit]
Balch and Bellamy pledges[edit]
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist,[12][13] and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850–1898). There did exist a previous version created by Captain George T. Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later became auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school.[14] Balch's pledge, which predates Bellamy's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge.[15] Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[16] The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance" was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children's magazine The Youth's Companion as part of the National Public-School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to encourage children to raise flags above their schools.[17] According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: 'Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain.'"[18]
Bellamy's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.[1][19]
Students reciting a pledge on Flag Day in 1899
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity[17] but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.[20]
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World's Fair), Illinois.[21]
Francis Bellamy's account[edit]
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story ... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools."[16] James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse,"[16] so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892–93).[16]
As the World's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land ... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions."[16] Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but [he] also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States."[16] The publication's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools."[16] Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity."[16]
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation."[16] Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison."[16] He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag," seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[16] After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word 'allegiance'. ... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that 'pledge' was a better school word than 'vow' or 'swear'; and that the first person singular should be used, and that 'my' flag was preferable to 'the.'"[16] Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic," choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands."[16] Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible."[16]
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity"), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and … [that] equality was a dubious word."[16] Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. They involved the spirit of equality and fraternity."[16]
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that "in later years the words 'to my flag' were changed to 'to the flag of the United States of America' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools."[16] Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition."[16]
Changes[edit]
A plaque in Lansing, Michigan, dated 1918, listing the Balch Pledge, which was used parallel to the Bellamy Pledge until the National Flag Conference in 1923.
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance" as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:[15]
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915's "Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution" and 1916's annual "National Report," the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge" with Bellamy's version under the heading "New Pledge."[22][23] However, the "Old Pledge" continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag" to be changed to "the Flag of the United States," so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America" were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:[24]
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Addition of "under God"[edit]
"Under God" redirects here. For the book, see Under God (book).
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God" to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea.[25][26] He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948,[25] he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God" added. He said that the words came from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God", all the reporters' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom." Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.[25]
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance.[27] In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God" after the words "one nation." Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.[28]
At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D-Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God" to the Pledge in 1953.[29]
George MacPherson Docherty (left) and President Eisenhower (second from left) on the morning of February 7, 1954, at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln's pew, the church's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom." He argued that the nation's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life." He cited Lincoln's words "under God" as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.[citation needed]
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R-Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[30] Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.[31]
The phrase "under God" was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.[30]
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.[28]
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God" into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, historian Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push-back against Russian atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.[32]
Salute[edit]
Children performing the Bellamy salute to the flag of the United States, 1941.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942.[33] Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301(b)(1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.[34]
Music[edit]
Musical setting by Irving Caesar
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag" was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God" was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[35]
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.[36][37]
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants". A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.[38]
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).[39]
Controversy[edit]
Main article: Criticism of the Pledge of Allegiance
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case—Jehovah's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry—could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.[40]
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.[41]
First graders of Japanese ancestry pledging allegiance to the American flag (1942, photo by Dorothea Lange).
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance.[42][41] Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, cannot really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making.[43] Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God" violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.[44]
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God" meant "God willing", so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.[45][46]
Legal challenges[edit]
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag.[47] They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[48][49]
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God" an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school-sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God."[50]
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.[51] As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic" by a teacher.[52]
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13-year-old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.[53]
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District.[54][55] In a 2–1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature" and did not constitute an establishment of religion.[54] Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state-directed, teacher-led daily recitation in public schools of the amended 'under God' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution."[56]
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary.[57][58] A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.[59][60]
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts.[61] In May 2014, Massachusetts' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God" represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.[62]
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "… the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who don't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message."[63] The case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God" in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens." In a twenty-one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under [the association members'] reasoning, the very constitution under which [the members] seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which [association members] do not and cannot advance here."[63] Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples" that do not allow it.[64][65] He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787.”
See also[edit]
Australian citizenship affirmation, a similar concept
Ceremonial deism
Flag Salute
Loyalty oaths in the United States
Youth's Companion Building, where the Pledge of Allegiance was written and published
Separation of church and state, which provides more information surrounding "under God" in the pledge
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Jump up ^ "Frazier v. Alexandre, No. 05-81142 (S.D. Fla. May 31, 2006)". National School Boards Association. March 15, 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Jenna (February 24, 2010). "Pledge of Allegiance dispute results in Md. teacher having to apologize". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 25, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Chea, Terence (March 12, 2010). "Fed. appeals court upholds 'under God' in pledge". Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 15, 2010. Retrieved March 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Newdow vs. Rio Linda Union School District (9th Cir. March 12, 2010). Text
Jump up ^ "Pledge of Allegiance's God reference now upheld by court". LA Times. March 12, 2010. Retrieved January 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ Freedom from Religion Foundation v. Hanover School District (1st Cir. November 12, 2010). Text
Jump up ^ Lavoie, Denise (November 15, 2010). "Court OKs NH law allowing 'God' pledge in schools". The Boston Globe. Boston, MA: Christopher M. Mayer. Retrieved November 16, 2010. The constitutionality of a New Hampshire law...
Jump up ^ Egelko, Bob (June 15, 2011). "High court spurns atheist's 'under God' challenge". San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco, CA: Hearst Corporation. A Sacramento atheist's challenge to the addition of "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance...
Jump up ^ Supreme Court of the United States (June 13, 2011). "Freedom From Religion Foundation, Petitioner v. United States, et al". Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved June 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ "'Under God' part of Pledge of Allegiance under review in Massachusetts". CNN.com. September 4, 2013. Retrieved October 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Massachusetts court rules 'under God' in pledge does not discriminate against atheists". The Washington Post. May 9, 2014. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved February 13, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Under God' is not discriminatory and will stay in pledge, judge says". NJ.com. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Salvador Rizzo. "Hearing 'Under God' in Pledge of Allegiance does not violate rights of atheist students, NJ judge rules". NorthJersey.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2016. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Judge Refuses To Kick God Out Of Public Schools". Forbes. February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Martin, Leisa A. (May–June 2008). "Examining the Pledge of Allegiance". Social Studies. 99 (3): 127–131. doi:10.3200/tsss.99.3.127-131.
John W. Baer (2007). The Pledge of Allegiance: A Revised History and Analysis, 1892–2007 (Free State Press, Inc.) ISBN 978-0-9650620-2-2 Excerpt, Chapter Eight: "Under God" and Other Questions About the Pledge.
Richard J. Ellis (2005). To the Flag: The Unlikely History of the Pledge of Allegiance (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press) ISBN 0-7006-1372-2
Marc Leepson (2005). Flag: An American Biography (Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press) ISBN 0-312-32308-5
Kevin M. Kruse (2015). One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America, Basic Books, ISBN 0465049494.
External links[edit]
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4 U.S.C. § 4
Docherty's Sermon Manuscript, Feb. 7, 1954[dead link]
Minister Reprises "Under God" Sermon
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