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Roman gardens
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Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Painters in Pompeii
Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Vettii in Pompeii
Museum model of Fishbourne Roman Palace with the gardens enclosed by buildings. Archaeologists have been able to recreate the layout and analyse the plants used in the garden.
Roman gardens and ornamental horticulture became highly developed under Roman civilization. The Gardens of Lucullus (Horti Lucullani), on the Pincian Hill at the edge of Rome, introduced the Persian garden to Europe around 60 BC. It was seen as a place of peace and tranquility, a refuge from urban life, and a place filled with religious and symbolic meaning. As Roman culture developed and became increasingly influenced by foreign civilizations, the use of gardens expanded.
Contents
1 Influences
2 Uses
3 Places for a garden
4 Elements of a garden
5 Legacy
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Influences[edit]
Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardening techniques.
Formal gardens had existed in Egypt as early as 2800 BC. At the time of the 18th dynasty of Egypt, gardening techniques, used to beautify the homes of the wealthy, were fully developed. Porticos (porches) served to connect the home with the outdoors, creating outdoor living spaces.
Persian gardens developed in accordance with an arid climate. Gardens were enclosed to protect them from drought, and became rich and fertile in contrast to the barren Persian terrain. When Alexander the Great conquered parts of Western Asia, he brought back with him new varieties of fruits and plants that prompted a renewed interest in horticulture.[1]
Even before Alexander, Cimon of Athens is said to have torn down the walls of his garden to transform it into a public space.[2] Roman Pleasure gardens were adapted from the Greek model, where such a garden also served the purpose of growing fruit. The Roman Peristyle garden, adapted from the Greeks, was used to beautify temple groves and create recreational spaces. Open peristyle courts were designed to connect homes to the outside world.
Uses[edit]
Roman gardens were built to suit a range of activities. Initially, lower class Romans used gardens as a source of food to provide for their families and mainly grew herbs and vegetables. In Ancient Latium, a garden was a part of every farm. According to Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees.
Later, the different influences of Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardens became a part of Roman horticulture, producing villa and palatial pleasure gardens,[3] along with public parks and gardens meant for enjoyment or to exercise in. No type of garden was specifically reserved for wealthy Romans; all a civilian needed was to have their own land or home. Excavations in Pompeii show that gardens attached to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman.
Horace wrote that during his time, flower gardens became a national indulgence.[4] Augustus constructed the Porticus Liviae, a public garden on the Oppian Hill in Rome. Outside Rome, gardens tended to proliferate at centers of wealth. Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul and Britannia. As townhouses were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof gardens.[5]
Places for a garden[edit]
Gardens were usually built in one of six structures:[6]
Domus (townhouse)—This free-standing structure was usually one story, containing multiple rooms for everyday activities and an atrium toward the front of the house to collect rainwater and illuminate the area surrounding it.[citation needed] Toward the back of the house was often a hortus or peristylium (an open courtyard).[7]
Villa rustica (farmhouse)—A large farmhouse used when the landowner came to visit.[8]
Villa urbana (suburban townhouse)—These villas were where Roman citizens would go on holiday excursion or would stop and rest at night when traveling.[8]
Villa suburbana (country house)—A Roman take on the country home, used specifically for recreational use.
Palace villa—Reserved for imperial families alone, very large and extravagant.
Non-residential gardens—These would be the public parks, pleasure gardens, temple gardens, tombs, etc.
Elements of a garden[edit]
All Roman gardens were generally made up of the same basic elements. Depending on the style or type of garden, elements may be added or embellished more, or may be omitted altogether.[6] Even though an atrium is found inside the house, it is considered part of the garden because it is the opening that would allow Romans to collect rain water used to irrigate the plants and gardens located on the property.
Pleasure gardens would incorporate different designs according to the taste of their builders. All gardens of this type have the same basic parts to them: a patio at the entrance, a terrace, an orchard or vineyard, several water features, a kitchen garden, shrines or grottoes and other decorations that would personalize the garden tour. The patio would normally be decorated with outside garden furniture, a water basin or fountain, and be the starting point of a walk that would show off all the features of the garden.[3]
Peristyle—from a Greek word, where "peri" means "around" and "style" means "column"—denotes a type of open courtyard,[9] which is surrounded by walls of columns supporting a portico (porch).[10]
The xystus (garden walk or terrace) was a core element of Roman gardens. The xystus often overlooked a lower garden, or ambulation. The ambulation bordered a variety of flowers, trees, and other foliage, and it served as an ideal place for a leisurely stroll after a meal, conversation, or other recreational activities.
The gestation was a shaded avenue where the master of the house could ride horseback or be carried by his slaves. It generally encircled the ambulation or was constructed as a separate oval-shaped space. Paths or walkways were often constructed through the garden. These were made with loose stone, gravel, sand, or packed earth. Gardens featured many ornamental objects, from sculpture to frescoes to sundials. These depicted nature scenes or were put in place as a shrine (aedicula) to the gods or otherworldly creatures.[11]
The plants that were grown ranged from flowering plants to herbs and vegetables for everyday use, as well as trees. The most popular plants found in a typical Roman family's garden were roses, cypress, rosemary, and mulberry trees. Also possibly included were a variety of dwarf trees, tall trees, marigolds, hyacinths, narcissi, violets, saffron, cassia, and thyme.[3]
Legacy[edit]
Roman garden designs led to the Italian garden, elements of which were adopted by Renaissance, Baroque, Neoclassical, and even 20th century landscape architects.
See also[edit]
Gardens of Sallust
Giardino all'italiana
Landscape design history
Roman Agriculture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Semple, Ellen Churchill (1929-01-01). "Ancient Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens". Geographical Review. 19 (3): 435. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149.
Jump up ^ Semple, Ellen Churchill (1929-01-01). "Ancient Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens". Geographical Review. 19 (3): 431. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Garden | Italy". www.lifeinitaly.com. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
Jump up ^ Semple, Ellen Churchill (1929-01-01). "Ancient Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens". Geographical Review. 19 (3): 436. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149.
Jump up ^ "ancient roman homes, houses, villas and apartments". www.mariamilani.com. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
^ Jump up to: a b Turner, Tom. Garden History Reference Encyclopedia: Historic books etc on garden design and landscape architecture. Gardenvisit.com.
Jump up ^ "Peristylium". www.vroma.org. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Classics Pages: Antony Kamm's 'The Romans': 6.4 Domestic architecture". www.the-romans.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
Jump up ^ "The Roman House". www.roman-empire.net. Archived from the original on 2016-11-19. Retrieved 2016-12-08.
Jump up ^ "What is a Peristyle? Definition of a Peristyle – Quatr.us". quatr.us. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
Jump up ^ "LacusCurtius • The Greek and Roman Garden (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Further reading[edit]
Bowe, Patrick (2004). Gardens of the Roman World. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 0-89236-740-7.
Ciarallo, Annamaria. Gardens of Pompeii. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001.
Gagarin, Michael, and Elaine Fantham. "Gardens." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Vol. 7. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. 271–76. Print.
Giesecke, Annette and Naomi Jacobs. Earth Perfect? : Nature, Utopia and the Garden. London: Black Dog Pub., 2012.
Henderson, John (2004). Roman Book of Gardening. New York: Routlage.
Jones, F. M. A. "Roman Gardens, Imagination, and Cognitive Structure." Mnemosyne, vol. 67, no. 5, Dec. 2014, pp. 781–812.
MacDougall, Elisabeth Blair and Wilhelmina F. Jashemski, eds. (1981). Ancient Roman Gardens (Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture, VII). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
MacDougall, Elisabeth B. Ancient Roman Villa Gardens. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1987. 200-06. Print.
Spencer, Diana. Roman Landscape: Culture and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010.
von Stackelberg, Katharine T. The Roman Garden: Space, Sense, and Society. London: Routledge, 2009.
Turner, Tom, and Marie Luise Schroeter Gothein. "Ancient Rome." Garden History Reference Encyclopedia. London: Gardenvisit. Com, 2004. N. pag. Print.
External links[edit]
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Manuscript
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Manuscript (disambiguation).
Christ Pantocrator seated in a capital "U" in an illuminated manuscript from the Badische Landesbibliothek, Germany.
10th-century minuscule manuscript of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand -- or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten -- as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way.[1] More recently, the term has come to be understood to further include any written, typed, or word-processed copy of an author's work, as distinguished from its rendition as a printed version of the same.[2] Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts. Manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in book form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations.
Contents
1 Cultural background
2 Modern variations
3 European manuscript history
4 A sample of common genres of manuscripts
4.1 Bibles
4.2 Book of hours
4.3 Liturgical books and calendars
5 Scripts
6 Parts
7 Major U.S. repositories of medieval manuscripts
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Cultural background[edit]
Armenian Manuscript
The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts,[3][4] while the forms MS., ms or ms. for singular, and MSS., mss or mss. for plural (with or without the full stop, all uppercase or all lowercase) are also accepted.[5][6][7][8] The second s is not simply the plural; by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means "pages".
Before the invention of woodblock printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe, all written documents had to be both produced and reproduced by hand. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls (volumen in Latin) or books (codex, plural codices). Manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived. In India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, and by the late 15th century had largely replaced parchment for many purposes.
When Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud.
The oldest written manuscripts have been preserved by the perfect dryness of their Middle Eastern resting places, whether placed within sarcophagi in Egyptian tombs, or reused as mummy-wrappings, discarded in the middens of Oxyrhynchus or secreted for safe-keeping in jars and buried (Nag Hammadi library) or stored in dry caves (Dead Sea scrolls). Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on palm leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum.
Gharib al-Hadith, by Abu `Ubayd al-Qasim b. Sallam al-Harawi (d. 223/837). The oldest known dated Arabic manuscript on paper in Leiden University Library, (dated 319 (931 AD))
Lectionary 183
Inside the letter is a picture of a master in cathedra expounding on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates. Initial "V" rendered as "U" of "Vita brevis, ars vero longa", or "Life is short, but the art is long". "Isagoge", fol. 15b. HMD Collection, MS E 78.
Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of "Isagoge", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter "D" - initial of "De urinarum differencia negocium" (The matter of the differences of urines). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the "Book on urines" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter "U" - initial of "Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis" (Urine is the filtrate of the blood). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78.
Ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Papyrus has a life of at most a century or two in relatively moist Italian or Greek conditions; only those works copied onto parchment, usually after the general conversion to Christianity, have survived, and by no means all of those.
Originally, all books were in manuscript form. In China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868. In the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive. Private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. Because of the likelihood of errors being introduced each time a manuscript was copied, the filiation of different versions of the same text is a fundamental part of the study and criticism of all texts that have been transmitted in manuscript.
In Southeast Asia, in the first millennium, documents of sufficiently great importance were inscribed on soft metallic sheets such as copperplate, softened by refiner's fire and inscribed with a metal stylus. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus, but were punched much like the style of today's dot-matrix printers. This type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the metal document in the hot, humid climate. In Burma, the kammavaca, Buddhist manuscripts, were inscribed on brass, copper or ivory sheets, and even on discarded monk robes folded and lacquered. In Italy some important Etruscan texts were similarly inscribed on thin gold plates: similar sheets have been discovered in Bulgaria. Technically, these are all inscriptions rather than manuscripts.
The study of the writing, or "hand" in surviving manuscripts is termed palaeography. In the Western world, from the classical period through the early centuries of the Christian era, manuscripts were written without spaces between the words (scriptio continua), which makes them especially hard for the untrained to read. Extant copies of these early manuscripts written in Greek or Latin and usually dating from the 4th century to the 8th century, are classified according to their use of either all upper case or all lower case letters. Hebrew manuscripts, such as the Dead Sea scrolls make no such differentiation. Manuscripts using all upper case letters are called majuscule, those using all lower case are called minuscule. Usually, the majuscule scripts such as uncial are written with much more care. The scribe lifted his pen between each stroke, producing an unmistakable effect of regularity and formality. On the other hand, while minuscule scripts can be written with pen-lift, they may also be cursive, that is, use little or no pen-lift.
Modern variations[edit]
In the context of library science, a manuscript is defined as any hand-written item in the collections of a library or an archive. For example, a library's collection of hand-written letters or diaries is considered a manuscript collection. Such manuscript collections are described in finding aids, similar to an index or table of contents to the collection, in accordance with national and international content standards such as DACS and ISAD(G).
In other contexts, however, the use of the term "manuscript" no longer necessarily means something that is hand-written. By analogy a typescript has been produced on a typewriter.[9]
In book, magazine, and music publishing, a manuscript is an original copy of a work written by an author or composer, which generally follows standardized typographic and formatting rules. (The staff paper commonly used for handwritten music is, for this reason, often called "manuscript paper"). In film and theatre, a manuscript, or script for short, is an author's or dramatist's text, used by a theatre company or film crew during the production of the work's performance or filming. More specifically, a motion picture manuscript is called a screenplay; a television manuscript, a teleplay; a manuscript for the theatre, a stage play; and a manuscript for audio-only performance is often called a radio play, even when the recorded performance is disseminated via non-radio means.
In insurance, a manuscript policy is one that is negotiated between the insurer and the policyholder, as opposed to an off-the-shelf form supplied by the insurer.
European manuscript history[edit]
Main article: Illuminated manuscript
After plummeting in the Early Middle Ages, the high and late medieval period witnessed a sharp increase of manuscript production.[10]
Most surviving pre-modern manuscripts use the codex format (as in a modern book), which had replaced the scroll by Late Antiquity. Parchment or vellum, as the best type of parchment is known, had also replaced papyrus, which was not nearly so long lived and has survived to the present only in the extremely dry conditions of Egypt, although it was widely used across the Roman world. Parchment is made of animal skin, normally calf, sheep, and/or goat, but also other animals. With all skins, the quality of the finished product is based on how much preparation and skill was put into turning the skin into parchment. Parchment made from calf or sheep was the most common in Northern Europe, while civilizations in Southern Europe preferred goatskin.[11] Often, if the parchment is white or cream in color and veins from the animal can still be seen, it is calfskin. If it is yellow, greasy or in some cases shiny, then it was made from sheepskin.[11]
Vellum comes from the Latin word vitulinum which means “of calf”/ “made from calf”. For modern parchment makers and calligraphers, and apparently often in the past, the terms parchment and vellum are used based on the different degrees of quality, preparation and thickness, and not according to which animal the skin came from, and because of this, the more neutral term "membrane" is often used by modern academics, especially where the animal has not been established by testing.[11]
Because they are books, pre-modern manuscripts are best described using bibliographic rather than archival standards. The standard endorsed by the American Library Association is known as AMREMM.[12] A growing digital catalog of pre-modern manuscripts is Digital Scriptorium, hosted by the University of California at Berkeley.
A sample of common genres of manuscripts[edit]
From ancient texts to medieval maps, anything written down for study would have been done with manuscripts. Some of the most common genres were bibles, religious commentaries, philosophy, law and government texts.
Bibles[edit]
“The Bible was the most studied book of the Middle Ages.”[13] The Bible was the center of medieval religious life. Along with the Bible came scores of commentaries. Commentaries were written in volumes, with some focusing on just single pages of scripture. Across Europe, there were universities that prided themselves on their biblical knowledge. Along with universities, certain cities also had their own celebrities of biblical knowledge during the medieval period.
Book of hours[edit]
The Pentecost, from an illuminated Catholic liturgical manuscript, c.1310-1320
A book of hours is a type of devotional text which was widely popular during the Middle Ages. They are the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscripts. Each book of hours contain a similar collection of texts, prayers, and psalms but decoration can vary between each and each example. Many have minimal illumination, often restricted to ornamented initials, but books of hours made for wealthier patrons can be extremely extravagant with full-page miniatures. These books were used for owners to recite prayers privately eight different times, or hours, of the day.[14]
Liturgical books and calendars[edit]
Along with Bibles, large numbers of manuscripts made in the Middle Ages were revieved in Church[clarification needed]. Due to the complex church system of rituals and worship these books were the most elegantly written and finely decorated of all medieval manuscripts. Liturgical books usually came in two varieties. Those used during mass and those for divine office.[11]
Most liturgical books came with a calendar in the front. This served as a quick reference point for important dates in Jesus' life and to tell church officials which saints were to be honored and on what day. The format of the liturgical calendar was as follows:
an example of a medieval liturgical calendar
January, August, December
March, May, July, October
April, June, September, November
February
Kal. (1) Kal. (1) Kal. (1) Kal. (1)
IV Non. (2) VI Non. (2) IV Non. (2) IV Non. (2)
III Non. (3) V Non. (3) III Non. (3) III Non. (3)
II Non. (4) IV Non. (4) II Non. (4) II Non. (4)
Non. (5) III Non. (5) Non. (5) Non. (5)
VIII Id. (6) II Non. (6) VIII Id. (6) VIII Id. (6)
VII Id. (7) Non. (7) VII Id. (7) VII Id. (7)
VI Id. (8) VIII Id. (8) VI Id. (8) VI Id. (8)
V Id. (9) VII Id. (9) V Id. (9) V Id. (9)
IV Id. (10) VII Id. (10) IV Id. (10) IV Id. (10)
III Id. (11) V Id. (11) III Id. (11) III Id. (11)
II Id. (12) IV Id. (12) II Id. (12) II Id. (12)
Id (13) III Id. (13) Id. (13) Id. (13)
XIX Kal. (14) II Id. (14) XVIII Kal. (14) XVI Kal. (14)
XVIII Kal. (15) Id. (15) XVII Kal. (15) XV Kal. (15)
XVII Kal. (16) XVII Kal. (16) XVI Kal. (16) XIV Kal. (16)
XVI Kal. (17) XVI Kal. (17) XV Kal. (17) XIII Kal. (17)
XV Kal. (18) XV Kal. (18) XIV Kal. (18) XII Kal. (18)
XIV Kal. (19) XIV Kal. (19) XIII Kal. (19) XI Kal. (19)
XIII Kal. (20) XIII Kal. (20 XII Kal. (20) X Kal. (20)
XII Kal. (21) XII Kal. (21) XI Kal. (21) IX Kal. (21)
XI Kal. (22) XI Kal. (22) X Kal. (22) VIII Kal. (22)
X Kal. (23) X Kal. (23) IX Kal. (23) VII Kal. (23)
IX Kal. (24) IX Kal. (24) VIII Kal. (24) VI Kal (the extra day in a leap year)
VIII Kal. (25) VIII Kal. (25) VII Kal. (25) VI Kal. (24/25)
VII Kal. (26) VII Kal. (26) VI Kal. (26) V Kal. (25/26)
VI Kal. (27) VI Kal. (27) V Kal. (28) V Kal. (26/27)
V Kal. (28) V Kal. (28) V Kal. (28) V Kal. (27/28)
IV Kal. (29) IV Kal. (29) III Kal. (29) III Kal. (28/29)
III Kal. (30) III Kal. (30) II Kal. (30)
II Kal. (31) II Kal. (31)
Almost all medieval calendars give each day's date according to the Roman method of reckoning time. In the Roman system, each month had three fixed points known as Kalends (Kal), the Nons and the Ides. The Nones fell on the fifth of the month in January, February, April, June, August, September, November and December, but on the seventh of the month in March, May, July and October. The Ides fell on the thirteenth in those months in which the Nones fell on the fifth, and the fifteenth in the other four months. All other days were dated by the number of days by which they preceded one of those fixed points.[11][15]
Scripts[edit]
Manuscript, Codex Manesse Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered.
Merovingian script, or "Luxeuil minuscule", is named after an abbey in Western France, the Luxeuil Abbey, founded by the Irish missionary St Columba ca. 590.[16][17] Caroline minuscule is a calligraphic script developed as a writing standard in Europe so that the Latin alphabet could be easily recognized by the literate class from different regions. It was used in the Holy Roman Empire between approximately 800 and 1200. Codices, classical and Christian texts, and educational material were written in Carolingian minuscule throughout the Carolingian Renaissance. The script developed into blackletter and became obsolete, though its revival in the Italian renaissance forms the basis of more recent scripts.[11] In Introduction to Manuscript Studies, Clemens and Graham associate the beginning of this text coming from the Abby of Saint-Martin at Tours.[11]
Caroline Minuscule arrived in England in the second half of the 10th century. Its adoption there, replacing Insular script, was encouraged by the importation of continental European manuscripts by Saints Dunstan, Aethelwold, and Oswald. This script spread quite rapidly, being employed in many English centres for copying Latin texts. English scribes adapted the Carolingian script, giving it proportion and legibility. This new revision of the Caroline Minuscule was called English Protogothic Bookhand. Another script that is derived from the Caroline Minuscule was the German Protogothic Bookhand. It originated in southern Germany during the second half of the 12th century.[18] All the individual letters are Caroline; but just as with English Protogothic Bookhand it evolved. This can be seen most notably in the arm of the letter h. It has a hairline that tapers out by curving to the left. When first read the German Protogothic h looks like the German Protogothic b.[19] Many more scripts sprang out of the German Protogothic Bookhand. After those came Bastard Anglicana, which is best described as: lipi = pandu lipi pura lipi vignayani
The coexistence in the Gothic period of formal hands employed for the copying of books and cursive scripts used for documentary purposes eventually resulted in cross-fertilization between these two fundamentally different writing styles. Notably, scribes began to upgrade some of the cursive scripts. A script that has been thus formalized is known as a bastard script (whereas a bookhand that has had cursive elements fused onto it is known as a hybrid script). The advantage of such a script was that it could be written more quickly than a pure bookhand; it thus recommended itself to scribes in a period when demand for books was increasing and authors were tending to write longer texts. In England during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, many books were written in the script known as Bastard Anglicana.
[11]
Parts[edit]
Cover
Flyleaf
Colophon
incipit
decoration; illustrations
dimensions
Shelfmark or Signature in holding library
(as opposed to printed Catalog number)
works/compositions included in same ms
codicological elements:
deletions method: erasure? overstrike? dots above letters?
headers/footers
page format/layout: columns? text and surrounding commentary/additions/glosses?
interpolations
owners' marginal notations/corrections
owner signatures
dedication/inscription
censor signatures
collation (quires)
foliation
Binding
materials: paper/vellum/papyrus/uncials
Ink
writing implement used
pastedown
page numeration
paleographic elements:
script (one or more?)
dating
line fillers
rubrication
ruled lines
leading word at bottom corner of page to indicate what first word on next page is [=catchwords?]
historical elements of ms: blood, wine etc. stains
condition: (e.g. smokiness/evidence of fire)
mold
wormed
Major U.S. repositories of medieval manuscripts[edit]
The Morgan Library & Museum = 1,300 (including papyri)
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale = 1,100
Walters Art Museum = 1,000
Houghton Library, Harvard = 850
Huntington Library = 400
Newberry Library = 260
Cornell University Library = 150
See also[edit]
Look up manuscript or handwrit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Armenian Illuminated manuscript
Asemic writing
Dead Sea Scrolls
Digital Scriptorium
Genkō yōshi
Gospel Book
List of Glagolitic manuscripts
List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts
Manuscript culture
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
Music manuscript
Palm-leaf manuscript
Preservation of Illuminated Manuscripts
Printing press
Voynich manuscript
Woodblock printing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of MANUSCRIPT". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "manuscript". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "Manuscript." Online Etymology Dictionary. November 2001. Accessed 10-11-2007.
Jump up ^ "Medieval English Literary Manuscripts Archived 9 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine.." www.Library.Rtruuochester.Edu. 22 June 2004. University of Rochester Libraries. Accessed 10-11-2007.
Jump up ^ "Manuscript" (abbreviated ms. and mss.) in British Library Glossaries, The British Library. Accessed 12 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "ms", "ms." and "MS" in The Free Dictionary (American Heritage 2011 and Random House Kernerman Webster's 2010). Accessed 12 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "MSS", "mss" and "mss." in The Free Dictionary (American Heritage 2011, Collins 2014 and Random House Kernerman Webster's 2010). Accessed 12 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "MSS" (MS. and ms., MSS. and mss.) in Dictionary.com LLC(Random House 2014 and Collins 2012). Accessed 12 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.
Jump up ^ Buringh, Eltjo; Van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009). "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries". The Journal of Economic History. 69 (2): 409–445. doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837. (see p. 416, table 1)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Clemens, Raymond, and Timothy Graham. Introduction to Manuscript Studies. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008.
Jump up ^ Pass, Gregory. Descriptive Cataloging of Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance, and Early Modern Manuscripts. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries, 2002.
Jump up ^ Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages. 3rd ed. (Oxford, 1983), xxvii
Jump up ^ "Book of Hours Tutorial". Les Enluminures.
Jump up ^ F.P. Pickering, The Calendar Pages of Medieval Service Books: An Introductory Note for Art Historians (Reading, UK., 1980.
Jump up ^ Brown, Michelle P. Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts. Toronto, 1991.
Jump up ^ Brown, Michelle P. A Guide to Western Historical Scripts from Antiquity to 1600. Toronto,1990.
Jump up ^ Clemens, Raymond, and Timothy Graham. "English Protogothic Bookhand." In Introduction to Manuscript Studies. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008. 146-147.
Jump up ^ Clemens, Raymond, and Timothy Graham. "German Protogothic Bookhand." In Introduction to Manuscript Studies. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008. 149-150.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manuscripts.
British Library Glossary of manuscript terms, mostly relating to Western medieval manuscripts
Centre for the Studies of Manuscript Cultures, Hamburg
Centre for the History of the Book, University of Edinburgh
Chinese Codicology
Digital Scriptorium
Shapell Manuscript Foundation
Manuscripts Department, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
The Sarasvati Mahal Library, has the richest collection of manuscripts in Sanskrit, Tamil, Marathi and Telugu
The Schøyen Collection – the world's largest private collection of manuscripts of all types, with many descriptions and images
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Manuscripts". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Newberry Library Manuscript Search
Getty Exhibitions
Polish manuscripts in Sweden
Medieval Manuscript Leaves, University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral - Digital facsimile of the 8th-century St Chad Gospels and Cathedral's 15th-century Wycliffe New Testament, 2010. Includes the ability to overlay images captured with 13 different bands of light, historical images (starting in 1887), and multispectral visualizations. Also includes sixteen interactive 3D renderings. College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky
Historical Image Overlays - See how an early medieval manuscript is aging
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Donkey Kong (character)
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Donkey Kong
Donkey Kong and Mario character
Donkey Kong, as seen in promotional artwork for Donkey Kong Country Returns.
First appearance
Donkey Kong (1981)
First game
Donkey Kong (1981)
Created by
Shigeru Miyamoto
Voiced by
Grant Kirkhope (1999; 2003–2010)
Takashi Nagasako (2004–present)
Soupy Sales (Saturday Supercade)
Garry Chalk (Captain N: The Game Master)
Richard Yearwood (Donkey Kong Country)
Sterling Jarvis (Donkey Kong Country, singing voice)
Kōichi Yamadera (Japanese dub of Donkey Kong Country cartoon)
Donkey Kong (ドンキーコング, Donkī Kongu) (sometimes known as DK or D. Kong) is an ape-like character who appears in games belonging to the Donkey Kong and Mario video game franchises. A popular character, he has appeared in many video games. Donkey Kong was Mario's first opponent in the game of the same name, Nintendo's popular 1981 arcade game, Donkey Kong. Since then he has starred in his own series of games, starting with 1994's Donkey Kong Country for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and remains an important character in the spin-off games of the Mario series, such as Mario Kart.
DK debuted at the same time as Mario, and he still appears with Mario on occasion, appearing as a playable character in the Mario Kart and Super Smash Bros. series, and is the primary antagonist in the Mario vs. Donkey Kong games.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Concept and creation
2 Characteristics
3 Appearances
3.1 Early history
3.2 Rare era
3.3 Post-Rare era
3.4 Other appearances
4 Reception and legacy
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Concept and creation[edit]
In 1981, Nintendo was pursuing a license to make a game based on the Popeye comic strip. When this fell through, Nintendo decided that it would take the opportunity to create new characters that could then be marketed and used in later games.[2][3] Shigeru Miyamoto came up with many characters and plot concepts, but he eventually settled on a gorilla/carpenter/girlfriend love triangle that mirrored the rivalry between Bluto and Popeye for Olive Oyl.[4]
Bluto was replaced by an ape, which Miyamoto said was "nothing too evil or repulsive", and the pet of the main character.[5] Miyamoto has also named "Beauty and the Beast" and the 1933 film King Kong as influences for the character.[6]
Miyamoto used "donkey" to convey "stubborn" in English; the name Donkey Kong was intended to convey "stubborn ape" to the American audience.[7][8][9] When he suggested this name to Nintendo of America, he was laughed at, but the name stuck.
Donkey Kong was redesigned for the Super NES in 1994 by former Rare character artist Kevin Bayliss. He presented the modern look to Nintendo and was immediately approved. Although the character design has been tweaked over the years, Donkey Kong's appearance remains consistent to this day when Bayliss last modified him.
"Today it makes me smile to see so many products with DK on the front, and that he's pretty much still the same as he looked when I gave him a once-over. So that's good enough for me – I must have done something right!"
—  Kevin Bayliss[10]
Characteristics[edit]
The Donkey Kong Country series introduced the setting Donkey Kong Island and a backstory for the character. The series also introduced Diddy Kong as Donkey's nephew and sidekick, and King K. Rool, king of the Kremlings, as his nemesis who steals his banana hoard. While retaining the red necktie he's had since the Game Boy game, Donkey Kong, he also donned a distinct physical appearance featuring heavy brows and a peaked lock of hair on top of his head. This would become the standard look for Donkey Kong still used over two decades later. The modern Donkey Kong is portrayed as a powerful yet laid-back ape, who is interested mainly in his banana hoard and his girlfriend, Candy Kong.
The new Donkey Kong introduced in Donkey Kong Country was initially characterized as the grandson of the original Donkey Kong,[11] who appears in the game as an elderly ape named Cranky Kong,[12][13] however Donkey Kong 64 states that the current Donkey Kong was actually meant to be Cranky Kong's son,[14][15] with one source implying that he is a grown-up version of Donkey Kong Jr.[16] However, in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Donkey Kong Country Returns, the current Donkey Kong is referred to as Cranky's grandson.[17] The story designs of the present DK series, which began with Donkey Kong Country, are clearly different, which Nintendo uses alteration of generations to explain.
Donkey Kong's personality is similar to a typical gorilla's; DK shows pride in his strength, enjoys eating and hoarding bananas, and is occasionally depicted as an idiot or dopey. He is a hero to the Kongs but a rival to Mario; occasionally this rivalry erupts especially when DK kidnaps Pauline, whom he finds attractive.
Appearances[edit]
The Original Donkey Kong game, with Donkey Kong (top) (NES version)
Early history[edit]
The original Donkey Kong (later established to be Cranky Kong from the Donkey Kong Country series)[12] made his first appearance as the titular antagonist of the 1981 arcade game Donkey Kong alongside protagonist Mario (then known as "Jumpman") and damsel in distress, the Lady (later renamed Pauline). As Jumpman, the player must reach Donkey Kong at the top of each stage, where he is holding the Lady captive. Donkey Kong attempts to hinder the player's progress by throwing barrels, springs, and other objects towards Jumpman. The ape reappeared the following year in the sequel Donkey Kong Jr., where Donkey Kong is taken captive and locked in a cage by the renamed Mario, while Donkey Kong Junior sets out to rescue him. Donkey Kong resumed his antagonistic role in Donkey Kong 3, this time the character Stanley the Bugman taking Mario's place as the protagonist. Stanley fights Donkey Kong's attempts to invade a greenhouse along with a horde of killer bees.
Donkey Kong was also antagonist of a very unsuccessful 3 episode anime series, which was aimed at children and ran from June 2 to August 19, 1985.
After Donkey Kong, Mario went on to become Nintendo's primary mascot, while Donkey Kong and his son were relegated to supporting roles and cameos. The 1994 Game Boy version of Donkey Kong marked his re-emergence as a major character. He was redesigned, appearing with a red necktie, which sometimes bears his initials, "DK".
A screenshot from the game, Donkey Kong Country. Donkey Kong is at the far left, following Diddy Kong as the player controls him.
Rare era[edit]
The 1994 Super Nintendo Entertainment System game Donkey Kong Country, developed by British game developer Rare was the beginning of a series. Despite his name being in the titles of both games, DK is the damsel-in-distress in the sequels Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, where he is captured by K. Rool. In these games, the player controls Dixie Kong and one of her fellow Kongs as they set out to rescue him. The Donkey Kong Country series also inspired the Donkey Kong Land series and a television series. In Donkey Kong 64, King K. Rool has driven a mechanical Crocodile Isle in front of DK Island after stealing all of Donkey Kong's bananas and friends.
Post-Rare era[edit]
Following Rare's departure from the series, Nintendo co-produced a trilogy of rhythm games with Namco for the Nintendo GameCube known as the Donkey Konga series, which were based on Namco's own Taiko: Drum Master, though only two of the series' games made it to America. Donkey Kong Jungle Beat was released on March 14, 2005 in North America for the GameCube. It depicted DK as being more violent than his original image and also used the bongo controllers. In October 2007, Donkey Kong Barrel Blast was released in North America for the Wii.
On handheld consoles, Donkey Kong was reunited with his former rival Mario in the 2004 Game Boy Advance game, Mario vs. Donkey Kong. A throwback to the Donkey Kong game for the Game Boy, Donkey Kong resumed his antagonist role from his earlier games by taking over the Mario Toy Company, upset over the lack of Mini-Mario toys available for purchase. The game was followed by a 2006 sequel titled Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, where Donkey Kong, who is infatuated with Pauline, kidnaps her and takes her to the roof of the Super Mini-Mario World amusement park when she ignores a Mini Donkey Kong toy in favor of a Mini-Mario. He also once again appeared as the antagonist in Mario vs. Donkey Kong: Minis March Again! and Mario vs. Donkey Kong: Mini-Land Mayhem!. Aside from those, Donkey Kong appeared in DK King of Swing on the GBA around the time of Jungle Beat, and in its sequel, DK Jungle Climber, for the Nintendo DS. In the 2010 Wii game, Donkey Kong Country Returns, Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong get rid of the Tiki Tak Tribe, who appears on Donkey Kong Island and hypnotizes various creatures. In the 2014 Wii U game, Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze, Donkey Kong sets out to get his home back from evil Vikings known as the Snowmads.
Other appearances[edit]
Every Mario Kart game has featured a version of Donkey Kong as a playable character. Super Mario Kart featured Donkey Kong Junior as a playable character. The adult Donkey Kong made his first appearance in the series with Mario Kart 64, and been in every game to date since.
In the Mario Party series, he was a playable character in all three titles released for the N64, and also Mario Party 4 for the GameCube, this one being his last playable appearance in the series. He eventually became an "event character" in the later games, making appearances as an incidental character on the game board. He made an appearance within Mario Party 8, once again as an incidental character on the game board. Donkey Kong also appears in Mario Party DS and in Mario Party 9 as a non-player character, though he came back as playable in Mario Party 10 and in Mario Party: Star Rush (along with Diddy Kong).
Donkey Kong and his nephew have had supporting roles in various Mario sports games. He appeared in the Virtual Boy game Mario's Tennis. Donkey Kong was also a selectable character in Mario Tennis, Mario Power Tennis, Mario Tennis: Power Tour and Mario Tennis Open. Donkey Kong is playable in Mario Golf, Mario Golf: Toadstool Tour and Mario Golf: World Tour but not Mario Golf: Advance Tour. Donkey Kong featured in Super Mario Strikers for the GameCube and made his first appearance on the Wii within the title Mario Strikers Charged as a playable soccer captain. In Mario Super Sluggers, he appears as a captain again. Donkey Kong also appears in Mario Superstar Baseball. He made a playable appearance in Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games, Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games and Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games. He also appears in Mario Hoops 3-on-3 and Mario Sports Mix.
He is also playable in each Super Smash Bros. game. Donkey Kong appeared in Super Smash Bros. as the first character from the Donkey Kong series and had a stage called "Kongo Jungle", which was based on Donkey Kong Country. Both he and Kongo Jungle returned for the series second game, Super Smash Bros. Melee. In this game, he had two new stages called "Jungle Japes" and "Kongo Jungle", and a version of the "DK Rap" from Donkey Kong 64 serves as stage music for Kongo Jungle (the one difference in the lyrics being the word "heck" substituted from the word "hell"). He appeared once more in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, this time being joined by his sidekick Diddy Kong and three stages – "Jungle Japes" from Melee, "Rumble Falls" from Donkey Kong Jungle Beat,[18] and "75m" from the original Donkey Kong game from 1981. Both Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong returned to the series in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, with Donkey Kong being among the first wave of amiibo released for the games. Jungle Japes from Melee returns in the 3DS version, and both Kongo Jungle from the original Super Smash Bros. and 75m from Brawl return in the Wii U version, along with a new stage called Jungle Hijinxs from Donkey Kong Country Returns. Along with Bowser, he is also a playable guest character in the Nintendo versions of Skylanders: SuperChargers. Super Mario Maker features Donkey Kong as a Mystery Mushroom costume.
The character has also made more incidental appearances. Two minor enemies in Super Mario RPG bear a striking resemblance to Donkey Kong. One of the enemies, named "Guerrilla", says "Don't confuse me with someone else," referring to DK. Both Donkey Kong and Donkey Kong, Jr. appear as minor antagonists in the Super Mario Bros.-based adventure book Doors to Doom. Donkey Kong was also featured on the Game & Watch Gallery handheld series and Tetris DS. In Yoshi's Island DS, Donkey Kong appears as "Baby DK", a younger version of himself, similar to Baby Mario. First appearing in World 2–1, most of his gameplay reflects Donkey Kong Jr., even featuring the Snapjaw enemies from the game. He has been seen in the audience of some games in the Punch-Out!! series. He also serves as the hidden opponent in 2009's Punch-Out!! on the Wii. During Rare's time, references were seen throughout Rare's games. In Banjo-Tooie, Bottle's daughter, Goggles, is seen holding a Donkey Kong plush doll. Also in the worker's quarters in Grunty's Industries, the DK logo is seen on the fridge.
Reception and legacy[edit]
Donkey Kong has been described as one of the most iconic mascots for Nintendo.[19][20] In their 250th issue in January 2010, Nintendo Power ranked him as their eighth-favorite Nintendo hero, stating that while he is a somewhat goofy hero, he is decently good overall and an entertaining one. They also ranked him as their eighth-favorite Nintendo villain, joking that one should avoid him if he isn't wearing a tie.[21] IGN criticized his tie, stating "DK needs a fashion makeover". They said that while he "used to be a working icon", "his status is starting to show signs of rust".[22] 1UP.com listed him as the most "Gracelessly Aging Character", citing the fact that the original Donkey Kong from the arcade game eventually became Cranky Kong.[23] IGN ranked him 5th in their "Top 100 Videogames Villains" list for his earlier appearances.[24] UGO.com listed Donkey Kong seventh on their list of "The 25 Awesomest Hidden Characters" for his cameo appearance in Punch-Out!!.[25] Empire also included him on their list of the 50 greatest video game characters, adding that he is "the worst named character in the history of gaming".[26] The 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition lists Donkey Kong as the 33rd-most popular video game character.[27] In 2012, GamesRadar ranked him as the 25th-best hero in video games.[28]
See also[edit]
Book: Mario franchise characters
Mario portal
Fictional characters portal
Nintendo portal
List of Donkey Kong video games
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Now You're Playing With Power: Top 25 Nintendo Characters of All Time". GameDaily. Archived from the original on September 12, 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
Jump up ^ De Maria, Rusel; Johnny L. Wilson (2004). High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Osborne. p. 238.
Jump up ^ East, Tom (November 25, 2009). "Donkey Kong Was Originally A Popeye Game". Official Nintendo Magazine. Official Nintendo Magazine. Archived from the original on November 10, 2014. Retrieved February 28, 2013. Miyamoto says Nintendo's main monkey might not have existed.
Jump up ^ Kohler, Chris (2005). Power-up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis, Indiana: BradyGAMES. p. 39.
Jump up ^ Sheff, David (1999). Game Over: Press Start to Continue: The Maturing of Mario. Wilton, Connecticut: GamePress. p. 47.
Jump up ^ Kohler, Chris (2005). Power-up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis, Indiana: BradyGAMES. p. 36.
Jump up ^ "Nintendo Online Magazine". Nintendo Online Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-08-17.
Jump up ^ "Miyamoto interview, E3 2001". Quarter To Three. 2001-05-16. Archived from the original on November 18, 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-31.
Jump up ^ Fact-checking website Snopes determines that "The bottom line is that no evidence backs up any of the explanations that the name 'Donkey Kong' came about because of a misread fax, mispronunciation, or mistranslation. Shigeru Miyamoto, the game's inventor and the one person who unquestionably knows the origins of the name he chose, has repeatedly affirmed that he used the word 'donkey' to convey a sense of stubbornness and the name 'Kong' to invoke the image of a gorilla." "Donkey Wrong". Snopes.com. 2007-02-19. Retrieved 2008-04-22.
Jump up ^ Playtonic Games. "MEN AT WORK". Playtonic Games. Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "One swift blow was all that was needed to leave him sprawled on the floor, face down! he groggily rolled over to see the familiar wrinkled, white-bearded, grouchy face of his old granddad 'punky Kong' peering down at him." – Donkey Kong Country instruction manual, pg. 5–6
^ Jump up to: a b "In his heyday, Cranky was the original Donkey Kong who battled Mario in several of his own games." – Donkey Kong Country instruction manual, pg. 6
Jump up ^ "なかまたちのプロフィール大紹介　page1" (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2016-02-08.
Jump up ^ "Well, if it isn't my lazy, good-for-nothing son." – Cranky Kong, to Donkey Kong; Donkey Kong 64 in-game dialogue
Jump up ^ "That darn Donkey has all the luck! His girl Candy waits around in her hut, always willing to offer musical help to that undeserving son of mine and his fancy polygonal friends. Pah!" – Donkey Kong 64 instruction manual (UK), pg. 8
Jump up ^ "Rare.com Scribes – August 25, 1999 (Waybacked)". Archived from the original on 2002-08-05. As far as I know, 'our' DK is the son of Cranky, which does indeed make him the original DK Jr. all grown up: so if you see Cranky referred to as DK's granddad anywhere, just cover your eyes and hum loudly until it goes away.)
Jump up ^ Nintendo. Super Smash Bros. Brawl. Level/area: Codec conversation between Snake and Otacon. Otacon: "The Donkey Kong who fought that epic battle with Mario was this guy's grandfather."
Jump up ^ "Rumble Falls". Smash Bros. DOJO!!. Smashbros.com. 2007-07-23. Archived from the original on 2013-12-13. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
Jump up ^ The 12 greatest arcade machines of all time | GamesRadar
Jump up ^ Complete Digital Illustration: A ... – Google Books
Jump up ^ Our Favorite Villains (PDF). 250. South San Francisco, California: Future US. January 2010. p. 42. Archived from the original (Magazine) on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
Jump up ^ Jesse Schedeen (April 24, 2009). "Top 10 Most Overrated Videogame Characters – Stars Feature at IGN". IGN. Archived from the original on April 30, 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
Jump up ^ Scott Sharkey (2009-10-12). "Top 5 Gracelessly Aging Characters from 1UP.com". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
Jump up ^ "Donkey Kong is number 5 – IGN". Archived from the original on 2012-11-11. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
Jump up ^ K. Thor Jensen (December 7, 2010). "The 25 Awesomest Hidden Characters". UGO.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-10. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
Jump up ^ "The 50 Greatest Video Game Characters". Empire. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Top 50 video game characters of all time announced in Guinness World Records 2011 Gamer's Edition". Gamasutra. Think Services. February 16, 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-12-07. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "100 best heroes in video games". GamesRadar. Archived from the original on December 7, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
External links[edit]
Donkey Kong – Play Nintendo
DK Vine
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