text:
Minimum wage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Part of a series on
Organized labor
Labor movement[show]
Timeline
New Unionism
Proletariat
Social Movement Unionism
Socialism
Syndicalism
Anarcho-syndicalism
Labor rights[hide]
Child labor
Eight-hour day
Five-day work week#Length
Collective bargaining
Minimum wage
Occupational safety and health
Trade unions[show]
Trade unions by country
Trade union federations
International comparisons
ITUC
IWA
WFTU
Strike action[show]
Chronological list of strikes
General strike
Secondary action
Sitdown strike
Work-to-rule
Labor parties[show]
Australian
British
Dutch
Irish
Israeli
New Zealand
Norwegian
List of Labor parties
Academic disciplines[show]
Industrial relations
Labor economics
Labor history
Labor law
v
t
e
A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their workers. Equivalently, it is the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage. Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, and boosts morale.[1] In contrast, opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty, increases unemployment (particularly among unskilled or inexperienced workers) and is damaging to businesses, because excessively high minimum wages require businesses to raise the prices of their product or service to accommodate the extra expense of paying a higher wage.[2][3][4]
Simple supply demand models point to welfare and employment losses from minimum wages. However, if the labor market is not perfectly competitive, minimum wages can increase the efficiency of the market. For example, in a monopsony labor market, a minimum wage set modestly above equilibrium wages can increase wages, employment, and economic efficiency. Considerable debate stills exists among economists about the real-world effect of minimum wages.
Modern national laws enforcing compulsory union membership which proscribed minimum wages for their members were first passed in New Zealand and Australia in the 1890s. The movement for minimum wages was first motivated as a way to stop the exploitation of workers in sweatshops, by employers who were thought to have unfair bargaining power over them. Over time, minimum wages came to be seen as a way to help lower-income families. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Minimum wage laws
2.1 Informal minimum wages
2.2 Setting minimum wage
3 Economic models
3.1 Supply and demand model
3.2 Monopsony
3.3 Criticisms of the supply and demand model
4 Empirical studies
4.1 Card and Krueger
4.2 Research subsequent to Card and Krueger's work
4.3 Statistical meta-analyses
5 Debate over consequences
6 Surveys of economists
7 Alternatives
7.1 Basic income
7.2 Guaranteed minimum income
7.3 Refundable tax credit
7.4 Collective bargaining
7.5 Wage subsidies
8 US movement
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
"It is a serious national evil that any class of His Majesty's subjects should receive less than a living wage in return for their utmost exertions. It was formerly supposed that the working of the laws of supply and demand would naturally regulate or eliminate that evil [...and...] ultimately produce a fair price. Where... you have a powerful organisation on both sides... there you have a healthy bargaining.... But where you have what we call sweated trades, you have no organisation, no parity of bargaining, the good employer is undercut by the bad, and the bad employer is undercut by the worst... where those conditions prevail you have not a condition of progress, but a condition of progressive degeneration."
Winston Churchill MP, Trade Boards Bill, Hansard House of Commons (28 April 1909) vol 4, col 388
Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers (1349), which was a decree by King Edward III that set a maximum wage for laborers in medieval England.[6][7] King Edward III, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land. In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England and decimated the population.[8] The severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling. Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers (1351), increased the penalties for paying a wage above the set rates.[6]
While the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage. An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food. As time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages. The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry.[6]
By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as increasingly capitalistic England embraced laissez-faire policies which disfavored regulations of wages (whether upper or lower limits).[6] The subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations. As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made. However, this meant that a uniform minimum wage was not possible. In Principles of Political Economy in 1848, John Stuart Mill argued that because of the collective action problems that workers faced in organisation, it was a justified departure from laissez-faire policies (or freedom of contract) to regulate people's wages and hours by law.
It was not until the 1890s that the first modern legislative attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand and Australia.[9] The movement for a minimum wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor and controlling the proliferation of sweatshops in manufacturing industries.[10] The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages. The sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly. Over time, the focus changed to helping people, especially families, become more self-sufficient.[11]
Minimum wage laws[edit]
Hourly minimum wages in select developed economies in 2013. For a complete list of global wages see: List of minimum wages by country. Wages are given in US$ exchange rates.[12]
Main articles: Minimum wage law and List of minimum wages by country
The first modern national minimum wages were enacted by the government recognition of unions which in turn established minimum wage policy among their members, as in New Zealand in 1894, followed by Australia in 1896 and the United Kingdom in 1909.[9] In the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938,[13] and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998.[14] There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries.[15][5] In the European Union, 22 member states out of 28 currently have national minimum wages.[16] Other countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, have no minimum wage laws, but rely on employer groups and trade unions to set minimum earnings through collective bargaining.[17][18]
Minimum wage rates vary greatly across many different jurisdictions, not only in setting a particular amount of money—for example $7.25 per hour ($14,500 per year) under certain US state laws (or $2.13 for employees who receive tips, which is known as the tipped minimum wage), $11.00 in the US state of Washington,[19] or £7.50 (for those aged 25+) in the United Kingdom[20]—but also in terms of which pay period (for example Russia and China set monthly minimum wages) or the scope of coverage. Currently the American federal minimum wage rests at seven dollars, twenty-five cents ($7.25) per hour. However, some states do not recognize the minimum wage law such as Louisiana and Tennessee.[21] Other states operate below the federal minimum wage such as Georgia and Wyoming. Some jurisdictions even allow employers to count tips given to their workers as credit towards the minimum wage levels. India was one of the first developing countries to introduce minimum wage policy. It also has one of the most complicated systems with more than 1,200 minimum wage rates.[22]
Informal minimum wages[edit]
Customs and extra-legal pressures from governments or labor unions can produce a de facto minimum wage. So can international public opinion, by pressuring multinational companies to pay Third World workers wages usually found in more industrialized countries. The latter situation in Southeast Asia and Latin America was publicized in the 2000s, but it existed with companies in West Africa in the middle of the twentieth century.[23]
Setting minimum wage[edit]
Among the indicators that might be used to establish an initial minimum wage rate are ones that minimize the loss of jobs while preserving international competitiveness.[24] Among these are general economic conditions as measured by real and nominal gross domestic product; inflation; labor supply and demand; wage levels, distribution and differentials; employment terms; productivity growth; labor costs; business operating costs; the number and trend of bankruptcies; economic freedom rankings; standards of living and the prevailing average wage rate.
In the business sector, concerns include the expected increased cost of doing business, threats to profitability, rising levels of unemployment (and subsequent higher government expenditure on welfare benefits raising tax rates), and the possible knock-on effects to the wages of more experienced workers who might already be earning the new statutory minimum wage, or slightly more.[25] Among workers and their representatives, political consideration weigh in as labor leaders seek to win support by demanding the highest possible rate.[26] Other concerns include purchasing power, inflation indexing and standardized working hours.
In the United States, the minimum wage promulgated by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. According to the Economic Policy Institute, the minimum wage in the United States would have been $18.28 in 2013 if the minimum wage had kept pace with labor productivity.[27] To adjust for increased rates of worker productivity in the United States, raising the minimum wage to $22 (or more) an hour has been presented.[28][29][30][31]
Economic models[edit]
See also: Labour economics
Supply and demand model[edit]
Graph showing the basic supply and demand model of the minimum wage in the labor market.
Main article: Supply and demand
According to the supply and demand model of the labor market shown in many economics textbooks, increasing the minimum wage decreases the employment of minimum-wage workers.[32] One such textbook states:[33]
If a higher minimum wage increases the wage rates of unskilled workers above the level that would be established by market forces, the quantity of unskilled workers employed will fall. The minimum wage will price the services of the least productive (and therefore lowest-wage) workers out of the market. … the direct results of minimum wage legislation are clearly mixed. Some workers, most likely those whose previous wages were closest to the minimum, will enjoy higher wages. Others, particularly those with the lowest prelegislation wage rates, will be unable to find work. They will be pushed into the ranks of the unemployed.
A firm's cost is an increasing function of the wage rate, the higher the wage rate, the fewer hours an employer will demand of employees. This is because, as the wage rate rises, it becomes more expensive for firms to hire workers and so firms hire fewer workers (or hire them for fewer hours). The demand of labor curve is therefore shown as a line moving down and to the right.[34] Since higher wages increase the quantity supplied, the supply of labor curve is upward sloping, and is shown as a line moving up and to the right.[34] If no minimum wage is in place, wages will adjust until quantity of labor demanded is equal to quantity supplied, reaching equilibrium, where the supply and demand curves intersect. Minimum wage behaves as a classical price floor on labor. Standard theory says that, if set above the equilibrium price, more labor will be willing to be provided by workers than will be demanded by employers, creating a surplus of labor, i.e. unemployment.[34] The basic economic model of markets predicts the same of other commodities (like milk and wheat, for example): Artificially raising the price of the commodity tends to cause the supply of it to increase and the demand for it to lessen. The result is a surplus of the commodity. When there is a wheat surplus, the government buys it. Since the government does not hire surplus labor, the labor surplus takes the form of unemployment, which tends to be higher with minimum wage laws than without them.[23]
The basic supply and demand model implies that by mandating a price floor above the equilibrium wage, minimum wage laws should cause unemployment.[35][36] This is because a greater number of people are willing to work at the higher wage while a smaller number of jobs will be available at the higher wage. Companies can be more selective in those whom they employ thus the least skilled and least experienced will typically be excluded. An imposition or increase of a minimum wage will generally only affect employment in the low-skill labor market, as the equilibrium wage is already at or below the minimum wage, whereas in higher skill labor markets the equilibrium wage is too high for a change in minimum wage to affect employment.[37]
Monopsony[edit]
Modern economics suggests that a moderate minimum wage may increase employment as labor markets are monopsonistic and workers lack bargaining power.
Main article: Monopsony
The basic supply and demand theory predicts that raising the minimum wage helps workers whose wages are raised, and hurts people who are not hired (or lose their jobs) when companies cut back on employment. But proponents of the minimum wage hold that the situation is much more complicated than the basic theory can account for. One complicating factor is possible monopsony in the labor market, whereby the individual employer has some market power in determining wages paid. Thus it is at least theoretically possible that the minimum wage may boost employment when affected employees spend more in other sectors of the economy. Though single employer market power is unlikely to exist in most labor markets in the sense of the traditional 'company town,' asymmetric information, imperfect mobility, and the personal element of the labor transaction give some degree of wage-setting power to most firms.[38]
Modern economic theory predicts that although an excessive minimum wage may raise unemployment as it fixes a price above most demand for labor, a minimum wage at a more reasonable level can increase employment, and enhance growth and efficiency. This is because labor markets are monopsonistic and workers persistently lack bargaining power. When poorer workers have more to spend it stimulates effective aggregate demand for goods and services.[39][40]
Criticisms of the supply and demand model[edit]
The argument that a minimum wage decreases employment is based on a simple supply and demand model of the labor market. A number of economists (for example Pierangelo Garegnani,[41] Robert L. Vienneau,[42] and Arrigo Opocher & Ian Steedman[43]), building on the work of Piero Sraffa, argue that that model, even given all its assumptions, is logically incoherent. Michael Anyadike-Danes and Wynne Godley[44] argue, based on simulation results, that little of the empirical work done with the textbook model constitutes a potentially falsifiable theory, and consequently empirical evidence hardly exists for that model. Graham White[45] argues, partially on the basis of Sraffianism, that the policy of increased labor market flexibility, including the reduction of minimum wages, does not have an "intellectually coherent" argument in economic theory.
Minimum wage levels in OECD countries as a share of average full-time wage, 2013.[46]
Gary Fields, Professor of Labor Economics and Economics at Cornell University, argues that the standard textbook model for the minimum wage is ambiguous, and that the standard theoretical arguments incorrectly measure only a one-sector market. Fields says a two-sector market, where "the self-employed, service workers, and farm workers are typically excluded from minimum-wage coverage... [and with] one sector with minimum-wage coverage and the other without it [and possible mobility between the two]," is the basis for better analysis. Through this model, Fields shows the typical theoretical argument to be ambiguous and says "the predictions derived from the textbook model definitely do not carry over to the two-sector case. Therefore, since a non-covered sector exists nearly everywhere, the predictions of the textbook model simply cannot be relied on."[47]
An alternate view of the labor market has low-wage labor markets characterized as monopsonistic competition wherein buyers (employers) have significantly more market power than do sellers (workers). This monopsony could be a result of intentional collusion between employers, or naturalistic factors such as segmented markets, search costs, information costs, imperfect mobility and the personal element of labor markets.[citation needed] In such a case a simple supply and demand graph would not yield the quantity of labor clearing and the wage rate. This is because while the upward sloping aggregate labor supply would remain unchanged, instead of using the upward labor supply curve shown in a supply and demand diagram, monopsonistic employers would use a steeper upward sloping curve corresponding to marginal expenditures to yield the intersection with the supply curve resulting in a wage rate lower than would be the case under competition. Also, the amount of labor sold would also be lower than the competitive optimal allocation.
Such a case is a type of market failure and results in workers being paid less than their marginal value. Under the monopsonistic assumption, an appropriately set minimum wage could increase both wages and employment, with the optimal level being equal to the marginal product of labor.[48] This view emphasizes the role of minimum wages as a market regulation policy akin to antitrust policies, as opposed to an illusory "free lunch" for low-wage workers.
Another reason minimum wage may not affect employment in certain industries is that the demand for the product the employees produce is highly inelastic.[49] For example, if management is forced to increase wages, management can pass on the increase in wage to consumers in the form of higher prices. Since demand for the product is highly inelastic, consumers continue to buy the product at the higher price and so the manager is not forced to lay off workers. Economist Paul Krugman argues this explanation neglects to explain why the firm was not charging this higher price absent the minimum wage.[50]
Three other possible reasons minimum wages do not affect employment were suggested by Alan Blinder: higher wages may reduce turnover, and hence training costs; raising the minimum wage may "render moot" the potential problem of recruiting workers at a higher wage than current workers; and minimum wage workers might represent such a small proportion of a business's cost that the increase is too small to matter. He admits that he does not know if these are correct, but argues that "the list demonstrates that one can accept the new empirical findings and still be a card-carrying economist."[51]
Empirical studies[edit]
Estimated minimum wage effects on employment from a meta-study of 64 other studies showed insignificant employment effect (both practically and statistically) from minimum-wage raises. The most precise estimates were heavily clustered at or near zero employment effects (elasticity = 0).[52]
Economists disagree as to the measurable impact of minimum wages in practice. This disagreement usually takes the form of competing empirical tests of the elasticities of supply and demand in labor markets and the degree to which markets differ from the efficiency that models of perfect competition predict.
Economists have done empirical studies on different aspects of the minimum wage, including:[11]
Employment effects, the most frequently studied aspect
Effects on the distribution of wages and earnings among low-paid and higher-paid workers
Effects on the distribution of incomes among low-income and higher-income families
Effects on the skills of workers through job training and the deferring of work to acquire education
Effects on prices and profits
Effects on on-the-job training
Until the mid-1990s, a general consensus existed among economists, both conservative and liberal, that the minimum wage reduced employment, especially among younger and low-skill workers.[32] In addition to the basic supply-demand intuition, there were a number of empirical studies that supported this view. For example, Gramlich (1976) found that many of the benefits went to higher income families, and that teenagers were made worse off by the unemployment associated with the minimum wage.[53]
Brown et al. (1983) noted that time series studies to that point had found that for a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage, there was a decrease in teenage employment of 1–3 percent. However, the studies found wider variation, from 0 to over 3 percent, in their estimates for the effect on teenage unemployment (teenagers without a job and looking for one). In contrast to the simple supply and demand diagram, it was commonly found that teenagers withdrew from the labor force in response to the minimum wage, which produced the possibility of equal reductions in the supply as well as the demand for labor at a higher minimum wage and hence no impact on the unemployment rate. Using a variety of specifications of the employment and unemployment equations (using ordinary least squares vs. generalized least squares regression procedures, and linear vs. logarithmic specifications), they found that a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage caused a 1 percent decrease in teenage employment, and no change in the teenage unemployment rate. The study also found a small, but statistically significant, increase in unemployment for adults aged 20–24.[54]
CBO table illustrating projections of the effects of minimum wage increases on employment and income, under two scenarios
Wellington (1991) updated Brown et al.'s research with data through 1986 to provide new estimates encompassing a period when the real (i.e., inflation-adjusted) value of the minimum wage was declining, because it had not increased since 1981. She found that a 10% increase in the minimum wage decreased the absolute teenage employment by 0.6%, with no effect on the teen or young adult unemployment rates.[55]
Some research suggests that the unemployment effects of small minimum wage increases are dominated by other factors.[56] In Florida, where voters approved an increase in 2004, a follow-up comprehensive study after the increase confirmed a strong economy with increased employment above previous years in Florida and better than in the US as a whole.[57] When it comes to on-the-job training, some believe the increase in wages is taken out of training expenses. A 2001 empirical study found that there is "no evidence that minimum wages reduce training, and little evidence that they tend to increase training."[58]
Some empirical studies have tried to ascertain the benefits of a minimum wage beyond employment effects. In an analysis of census data, Joseph Sabia and Robert Nielson found no statistically significant evidence that minimum wage increases helped reduce financial, housing, health, or food insecurity.[59] This study was undertaken by the Employment Policies Institute, a think tank funded by the food, beverage and hospitality industries. In 2012, Michael Reich published an economic analysis that suggested that a proposed minimum wage hike in San Diego might stimulate the city's economy by about $190 million.[60]
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs....America's federal minimum wage, at 38% of median income, is one of the rich world's lowest. Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage. ... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world’s highest wage floor, at more than 60% of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26% for 15- to 24-year-olds."[61]
Card and Krueger[edit]
In 1992, the minimum wage in New Jersey increased from $4.25 to $5.05 per hour (an 18.8% increase), while in the adjacent state of Pennsylvania it remained at $4.25. David Card and Alan Krueger gathered information on fast food restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania in an attempt to see what effect this increase had on employment within New Jersey. A basic supply and demand model predicts that relative employment should have decreased in New Jersey. Card and Krueger surveyed employers before the April 1992 New Jersey increase, and again in November–December 1992, asking managers for data on the full-time equivalent staff level of their restaurants both times.[62] Based on data from the employers' responses, the authors concluded that the increase in the minimum wage slightly increased employment in the New Jersey restaurants.[62]
Card and Krueger expanded on this initial article in their 1995 book Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage.[63] They argued that the negative employment effects of minimum wage laws are minimal if not non-existent. For example, they look at the 1992 increase in New Jersey's minimum wage, the 1988 rise in California's minimum wage, and the 1990–91 increases in the federal minimum wage. In addition to their own findings, they reanalyzed earlier studies with updated data, generally finding that the older results of a negative employment effect did not hold up in the larger datasets.[64]
Research subsequent to Card and Krueger's work[edit]
A 2010 study published in the Review of Economics and Statistics compared 288 pairs of contiguous U.S. counties with minimum wage differentials from 1990 to 2006 and found no adverse employment effects from a minimum wage increase. Contiguous counties with different minimum wages are in purple. All other counties are in white.[65]
In 1996, David Neumark and William Wascher reexamined Card and Krueger's result using administrative payroll records from a sample of large fast food restaurant chains, and reported that minimum wage increases were followed by decreases in employment. An assessment of data collected and analyzed by Neumark and Wascher did not initially contradict the Card and Krueger results,[66] but in a later edited version they found a four percent decrease in employment, and reported that "the estimated disemployment effects in the payroll data are often statistically significant at the 5- or 10-percent level although there are some estimators and subsamples that yield insignificant—although almost always negative" employment effects.[67][68] Neumark and Wascher's conclusions were subsequently rebutted in a 2000 paper by Card and Krueger.[69] A 2011 paper has reconciled the difference between Card and Krueger's survey data and Neumark and Wascher's payroll-based data. The paper shows that both datasets evidence conditional employment effects that are positive for small restaurants, but are negative for large fast-food restaurants.[70] A 2014 analysis based on panel data found that the minimum wage reduces employment among teenagers.[71]
In 1996 and 1997, the federal minimum wage was increased from $4.25 to $5.15, thereby increasing the minimum wage by $0.90 in Pennsylvania but by just $0.10 in New Jersey; this allowed for an examination of the effects of minimum wage increases in the same area, subsequent to the 1992 change studied by Card and Krueger. A study by Hoffman and Trace found the result anticipated by traditional theory: a detrimental effect on employment.[72]
Further application of the methodology used by Card and Krueger by other researchers yielded results similar to their original findings, across additional data sets.[73] A 2010 study by three economists (Arindrajit Dube of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, William Lester of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Michael Reich of the University of California, Berkeley), compared adjacent counties in different states where the minimum wage had been raised in one of the states. They analyzed employment trends for several categories of low-wage workers from 1990 to 2006 and found that increases in minimum wages had no negative effects on low-wage employment and successfully increased the income of workers in food services and retail employment, as well as the narrower category of workers in restaurants.[73][74]
However, a 2011 study by Baskaya and Rubinstein of Brown University found that at the federal level, "a rise in minimum wage have [sic] an instantaneous impact on wage rates and a corresponding negative impact on employment", stating, "Minimum wage increases boost teenage wage rates and reduce teenage employment."[75] Another 2011 study by Sen, Rybczynski, and Van De Waal found that "a 10% increase in the minimum wage is significantly correlated with a 3−5% drop in teen employment."[76] A 2012 study by Sabia, Hansen, and Burkhauser found that "minimum wage increases can have substantial adverse labor demand effects for low-skilled individuals", with the largest effects on those aged 16 to 24.[77]
A 2013 study by Meer and West concluded that "the minimum wage reduces net job growth, primarily through its effect on job creation by expanding establishments ... most pronounced for younger workers and in industries with a higher proportion of low-wage workers."[78] This study by Meer and West was later critiqued for its trends of assumption in the context of narrowly defined low-wage groups.[79] The authors replied to the critiques and released additional data which addressed the criticism of their methodology, but did not resolve the issue of whether their data showed a causal relationship.[80][81] Another 2013 study by Suzana Laporšek of the University of Primorska, on youth unemployment in Europe claimed there was "a negative, statistically significant impact of minimum wage on youth employment."[82] A 2013 study by labor economists Tony Fang and Carl Lin which studied minimum wages and employment in China, found that "minimum wage changes have significant adverse effects on employment in the Eastern and Central regions of China, and result in disemployment for females, young adults, and low-skilled workers".[83][84]
Statistical meta-analyses[edit]
Several researchers have conducted statistical meta-analyses of the employment effects of the minimum wage. In 1995, Card and Krueger analyzed 14 earlier time-series studies on minimum wages and concluded that there was clear evidence of publication bias (in favor of studies that found a statistically significant negative employment effect). They point out that later studies, which had more data and lower standard errors, did not show the expected increase in t-statistic (almost all the studies had a t-statistic of about two, just above the level of statistical significance at the .05 level).[85] Though a serious methodological indictment, opponents of the minimum wage largely ignored this issue; as Thomas Leonard noted, "The silence is fairly deafening."[86]
In 2005, T.D. Stanley showed that Card and Krueger's results could signify either publication bias or the absence of a minimum wage effect. However, using a different methodology, Stanley concluded that there is evidence of publication bias and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment.[87] In 2008, Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D. Stanley conducted a similar meta-analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger's initial claim of publication bias is still correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains."[88] In 2013, a meta-analysis of 16 UK studies found that the minimum wage has no significant effects on employment.[89]
Debate over consequences[edit]
Minimum wage laws affect workers in most low-paid fields of employment[11] and have usually been judged against the criterion of reducing poverty.[90] Minimum wage laws receive less support from economists than from the general public. Despite decades of experience and economic research, debates about the costs and benefits of minimum wages continue today.[11]
Various groups have great ideological, political, financial, and emotional investments in issues surrounding minimum wage laws. For example, agencies that administer the laws have a vested interest in showing that "their" laws do not create unemployment, as do labor unions whose members' finances are protected by minimum wage laws. On the other side of the issue, low-wage employers such as restaurants finance the Employment Policies Institute, which has released numerous studies opposing the minimum wage.[91][92] The presence of these powerful groups and factors means that the debate on the issue is not always based on dispassionate analysis. Additionally, it is extraordinarily difficult to separate the effects of minimum wage from all the other variables that affect employment.[23]
The following table summarizes the arguments made by those for and against minimum wage laws:
Arguments in favor of minimum wage laws
Arguments against minimum wage laws
Supporters of the minimum wage claim it has these effects:
Positive impact on small business owners and industry.[93]
Removes financial stress[94] and encourages education,[95] resulting in better paying jobs.
Increased job growth and creation.[96][97]
Increases the standard of living for the poorest and most vulnerable class in society and raises average.[98]
Increases incentives to take jobs, as opposed to other methods of transferring income to the poor that are not tied to employment (such as food subsidies for the poor or welfare payments for the unemployed).[99]
Stimulates consumption, by putting more money in the hands of low-income people who spend their entire paychecks. Hence increases circulation of money through the economy.[98]
Encourages efficiency and automation of industry.[100]
Removes low paying jobs, forcing workers to train for, and move to, higher paying jobs.[101][102]
Increases technological development. Costly technology that increases business efficiency is more appealing as the price of labor increases.[103]
Increases the work ethic of those who earn very little, as employers demand more return from the higher cost of hiring these employees.[98]
Decreases the cost of government social welfare programs by increasing incomes for the lowest-paid.[98]
Encourages people to join the workforce rather than pursuing money through illegal means, e.g., selling illegal drugs[104][105]
Opponents of the minimum wage claim it has these effects:
Minimum wage alone is not effective at alleviating poverty, and in fact produces a net increase in poverty due to disemployment effects.[106]
As a labor market analogue of political-economic protectionism, it excludes low cost competitors from labor markets and hampers firms in reducing wage costs during trade downturns. This generates various industrial-economic inefficiencies.[107]
Hurts small business more than large business.[108]
Reduces quantity demanded of workers, either through a reduction in the number of hours worked by individuals, or through a reduction in the number of jobs.[109][110]
May cause price inflation as businesses try to compensate by raising the prices of the goods being sold.[111][112]
Benefits some workers at the expense of the poorest and least productive.[113]
Encourages employers to replace low-skilled workers with computers, such as self-checkout machines.[114]
Increases property crime and misery in poor communities by decreasing legal markets of production and consumption in those communities;[115]
Can result in the exclusion of certain groups (ethnic, gender etc.) from the labor force.[116]
Small firms with limited payroll budgets cannot offer their most valuable employees fair and attractive wages above unskilled workers paid the artificially high minimum, and see a rising hurdle-cost of adding workers.[108]
Is less effective than other methods (e.g. the Earned Income Tax Credit) at reducing poverty, and is more damaging to businesses than those other methods.[117]
Discourages further education among the poor by enticing people to enter the job market.[117]
Discriminates against, through pricing out, less qualified workers (including newcomers to the labor market, e.g. young workers) by keeping them from accumulating work experience and qualifications, hence potentially graduating to higher wages later.[3]
Slows growth in the creation of low-skilled jobs[78]
Results in jobs moving to other areas or countries which allow lower-cost labor.[citation needed]
Results in higher long-term unemployment.[118]
Results in higher prices for consumers, where products and services are produced by minimum-wage workers[119] (though non-labor costs represent a greater proportion of costs to consumers in industries like fast food and discount retail)[120][121]
A widely circulated argument that the minimum wage was ineffective at reducing poverty was provided by George Stigler in 1949:
Employment may fall more than in proportion to the wage increase, thereby reducing overall earnings;
As uncovered sectors of the economy absorb workers released from the covered sectors, the decrease in wages in the uncovered sectors may exceed the increase in wages in the covered ones;
The impact of the minimum wage on family income distribution may be negative unless the fewer but better jobs are allocated to members of needy families rather than to, for example, teenagers from families not in poverty;
Forbidding employers to pay less than a legal minimum is equivalent to forbidding workers to sell their labor for less than the minimum wage. The legal restriction that employers cannot pay less than a legislated wage is equivalent to the legal restriction that workers cannot work at all in the protected sector unless they can find employers willing to hire them at that wage.[90]
In 2006, the International Labour Organization (ILO) argued that the minimum wage could not be directly linked to unemployment in countries that have suffered job losses.[5] In April 2010, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) released a report arguing that countries could alleviate teen unemployment by "lowering the cost of employing low-skilled youth" through a sub-minimum training wage.[122] A study of U.S. states showed that businesses' annual and average payrolls grow faster and employment grew at a faster rate in states with a minimum wage.[123] The study showed a correlation, but did not claim to prove causation.
Although strongly opposed by both the business community and the Conservative Party when introduced in the UK in 1999, the Conservatives reversed their opposition in 2000.[124] Accounts differ as to the effects of the minimum wage. The Centre for Economic Performance found no discernible impact on employment levels from the wage increases,[125] while the Low Pay Commission found that employers had reduced their rate of hiring and employee hours employed, and found ways to cause current workers to be more productive (especially service companies).[126] The Institute for the Study of Labor found prices in the minimum wage sector rose significantly faster than prices in non-minimum wage sectors, in the four years following the implementation of the minimum wage.[127] Neither trade unions nor employer organizations contest the minimum wage, although the latter had especially done so heavily until 1999.
In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited a study that found that job creation within the United States is faster in states that raised their minimum wages.[96][128][129] In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited news organizations who reported the state with the highest minimum-wage garnered more job creation than the rest of the United States.[96][97][130][131][132][133][134]
In 2014, in Seattle, Washington, liberal and progressive business owners who had supported the city's new $15 minimum wage said they might hold off on expanding their businesses and thus creating new jobs, due to the uncertain timescale of the wage increase implementation.[135] However, subsequently at least two of the business owners quoted did expand.[136][137]
The dollar value of the minimum wage loses purchasing power over time due to inflation. Minimum wage laws, for instance proposals to index the minimum wage to average wages, have the potential to keep the dollar value of the minimum wage relevant and predictable.[138]
With regard to the economic effects of introducing minimum wage legislation in Germany in January 2015, recent developments have shown that the feared increase in unemployment has not materialized, however, in some economic sectors and regions of the country, it came to a decline in job opportunities particularly for temporary and part-time workers, and some low-wage jobs have disappeared entirely.[139] Because of this overall positive development, the Deutsche Bundesbank revised its opinion, and ascertained that “the impact of the introduction of the minimum wage on the total volume of work appears to be very limited in the present business cycle”.[140]
Surveys of economists[edit]
According to a 1978 article in the American Economic Review, 90% of the economists surveyed agreed that the minimum wage increases unemployment among low-skilled workers.[141] By 1992 the survey found 79% of economists in agreement with that statement,[142] and by 2000, 46% were in full agreement with the statement and 28% agreed with provisos (74% total).[143][144] The authors of the 2000 study also reweighted data from a 1990 sample to show that at that time 62% of academic economists agreed with the statement above, while 20% agreed with provisos and 18% disagreed. They state that the reduction on consensus on this question is "likely" due to the Card and Krueger research and subsequent debate.[145]
A similar survey in 2006 by Robert Whaples polled PhD members of the American Economic Association (AEA). Whaples found that 47% respondents wanted the minimum wage eliminated, 38% supported an increase, 14% wanted it kept at the current level, and 1% wanted it decreased.[146] Another survey in 2007 conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that 73% of labor economists surveyed in the United States believed 150% of the then-current minimum wage would result in employment losses and 68% believed a mandated minimum wage would cause an increase in hiring of workers with greater skills. 31% felt that no hiring changes would result.[147]
Surveys of labor economists have found a sharp split on the minimum wage. Fuchs et al. (1998) polled labor economists at the top 40 research universities in the United States on a variety of questions in the summer of 1996. Their 65 respondents were nearly evenly divided when asked if the minimum wage should be increased. They argued that the different policy views were not related to views on whether raising the minimum wage would reduce teen employment (the median economist said there would be a reduction of 1%), but on value differences such as income redistribution.[148] Daniel B. Klein and Stewart Dompe conclude, on the basis of previous surveys, "the average level of support for the minimum wage is somewhat higher among labor economists than among AEA members."[149]
In 2007, Klein and Dompe conducted a non-anonymous survey of supporters of the minimum wage who had signed the "Raise the Minimum Wage" statement published by the Economic Policy Institute. 95 of the 605 signatories responded. They found that a majority signed on the grounds that it transferred income from employers to workers, or equalized bargaining power between them in the labor market. In addition, a majority considered disemployment to be a moderate potential drawback to the increase they supported.[149]
In 2013, a diverse group of 37 economics professors was surveyed on their view of the minimum wage's impact on employment. 34% of respondents agreed with the statement, "Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low-skilled workers to find employment." 32% disagreed and the remaining respondents were uncertain or had no opinion on the question. 47% agreed with the statement, "The distortionary costs of raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation are sufficiently small compared with the benefits to low-skilled workers who can find employment that this would be a desirable policy", while 11% disagreed.[150]
Alternatives[edit]
Economists and other political commentators have proposed alternatives to the minimum wage. They argue that these alternatives may address the issue of poverty better than a minimum wage, as it would benefit a broader population of low wage earners, not cause any unemployment, and distribute the costs widely rather than concentrating it on employers of low wage workers.
Basic income[edit]
Main article: Basic Income
A basic income (or negative income tax) is a system of social security that periodically provides each citizen with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on frugally. It is argued that recipients of the basic income would have considerably more bargaining power when negotiating a wage with an employer as there would be no risk of destitution for not taking the employment. As a result, the jobseeker could spend more time looking for a more appropriate or satisfying job, or they could wait until a higher-paying job appeared. Alternatively, they could spend more time increasing their skills in university, which would make them more suitable for higher-paying jobs, as well as provide numerous other benefits. Experiments on Basic Income and NIT in Canada and the USA show that people spent more time studying while the program was running.[151]
Proponents argue that a basic income that is based on a broad tax base would be more economically efficient, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency.[citation needed]
Guaranteed minimum income[edit]
A guaranteed minimum income is another proposed system of social welfare provision. It is similar to a basic income or negative income tax system, except that it is normally conditional and subject to a means test. Some proposals also stipulate a willingness to participate in the labor market, or a willingness to perform community services.[152]
Refundable tax credit[edit]
A refundable tax credit is a mechanism whereby the tax system can reduce the tax owed by a household to below zero, and result in a net payment to the taxpayer beyond their own payments into the tax system. Examples of refundable tax credits include the earned income tax credit and the additional child tax credit in the US, and working tax credits and child tax credits in the UK. Such a system is slightly different from a negative income tax, in that the refundable tax credit is usually only paid to households that have earned at least some income. This policy is more targeted against poverty than the minimum wage, because it avoids subsidizing low-income workers who are supported by high-income households (for example, teenagers still living with their parents).[153]
In the United States, earned income tax credit rates, also known as EITC or EIC, vary by state—some are refundable while other states do not allow a refundable tax credit.[154] The federal EITC program has been expanded by a number of presidents including Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and Bill Clinton.[155] In 1986, President Reagan described the EITC as "the best anti poverty, the best pro-family, the best job creation measure to come out of Congress."[156] The ability of the earned income tax credit to deliver larger monetary benefits to the poor workers than an increase in the minimum wage and at a lower cost to society was documented in a 2007 report by the Congressional Budget Office.[157]
The Adam Smith Institute prefers cutting taxes on the poor and middle class instead of raising wages as an alternative to the minimum wage.[158]
Collective bargaining[edit]
Italy, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark are examples of developed nations where there is no minimum wage that is required by legislation.[16][18] Such nations, particularly the Nordics, have very high union participation rates.[159] Instead, minimum wage standards in different sectors are set by collective bargaining.[160]
Wage subsidies[edit]
Some economists such as Scott Sumner[161] and Edmund Phelps[162] advocate a wage subsidy program. A wage subsidy is a payment made by a government for work people do. It is based either on an hourly basis or by income earned. Advocates argue that the primary deficiencies of the EITC and the minimum wage are best avoided by a wage subsidy.[163][164] However, the wage subsidy in the United States suffers from a lack of political support from either major political party.[165][166]
US movement[edit]
Main article: Minimum wage in the United States
In January 2014, seven Nobel economists—Kenneth Arrow, Peter Diamond, Eric Maskin, Thomas Schelling, Robert Solow, Michael Spence, and Joseph Stiglitz—and 600 other economists wrote a letter to the US Congress and the US President urging that, by 2016, the US government should raise the minimum wage to $10.10. They endorsed the Minimum Wage Fairness Act which was introduced by US Senator Tom Harkin in 2013.[167][168] U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders introduced a bill in 2015 that would raise the minimum wage to $15, and in his 2016 campaign for president ran on a platform of increasing it.[169][170] Although Sanders did not become the nominee, the Democratic National Committee adopted his $15 minimum wage push in their 2016 party platform.[171]
Reactions from former McDonald's USA Ed Rensi about raising minimum wage to $15 is to completely push humans out of the picture when it comes to labor if they are to pay minimum wage at $15 they would look into replacing humans with machines as that would be the more cost-effective than having employees that are ineffective. During an interview on FOX Business Network’s Mornings with Maria, he stated that he believes an increase to $15 an hour would cause job loss at an extraordinary level. Rensi also believes it does not only affect the fast food industry, franchising he sees as the best business model in the United States, it is dependent on people that have low job skills that have to grow and if you cannot pay them a reasonable wage then they are going to be replaced with machines[172]
In late March 2016, Governor of California Jerry Brown reached a deal to raise the minimum wage to $15 by 2022 for big businesses and 2023 for smaller businesses.[173]
In contrast, the relatively high minimum wage in Puerto Rico has been blamed by various politicians and commentators as a highly significant factor in the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis.[174][175][176] One study concluded that "Employers are disinclined to hire workers because the US federal minimum wage is very high relative to the local average".[177]
As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland.[178]
See also[edit]
Business and Economics portal
Capitalism portal
Average worker's wage
Economic inequality
Employee benefits
Family wage
Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority
Labor law
List of minimum wages by country
Minimum Wage Fixing Convention 1970
Moonlight clan
Negative and positive rights
Nickel and Dimed
Price controls
Scratch Beginnings
Wage slavery
Working poor
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Should We Raise The Minimum Wage?". The Perspective. 30 August 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wages. by David Neumark and William L. Wascher". Archived from the original on 2013-10-09.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Young and the Jobless". The Wall Street Journal. 2009-10-03. Archived from the original on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-01-11.
Jump up ^ Black, John (September 18, 2003). Oxford Dictionary of Economics. Oxford University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-19-860767-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c "ILO 2006: Minimum wages policy (PDF)" (PDF). Ilo.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 29, 2009. Retrieved March 1, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mihm, Stephen (5 September 2013). "How the Black Death Spawned the Minimum Wage". Bloomberg View. Archived from the original on 18 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-04-19. Retrieved 2014-04-17.
Jump up ^ Thorpe, Vanessa (29 March 2014). "Black death was not spread by rat fleas, say researchers". theguardian.com. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Starr, Gerald (1993). Minimum wage fixing : an international review of practices and problems (2nd impression (with corrections) ed.). Geneva: International Labour Office. p. 1. ISBN 9789221025115.
Jump up ^ Nordlund, Willis J. (1997). The quest for a living wage : the history of the federal minimum wage program. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. xv. ISBN 9780313264122.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Neumark, David; William L. Wascher (2008). Minimum Wages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-14102-4. Archived from the original on 2016-04-28.
Jump up ^ "OECD Statistics (GDP, unemployment, income, population, labour, education, trade, finance, prices...)". Stats.oecd.org. Archived from the original on 2013-04-21. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
Jump up ^ Grossman, Jonathan. "Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938: Maximum Struggle for a Minimum Wage". Department of Labor. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Stone, Jon (1 October 2010). "History of the UK's minimum wage". Total Politics. Archived from the original on 14 January 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Williams, Walter E. (June 2009). "The Best Anti-Poverty Program We Have?". Regulation. 32 (2): 62.
^ Jump up to: a b "Minimum wage statistics – Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2016-02-07. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
Jump up ^ Ehrenberg, Ronald G. Labor Markets and Integrating National Economies, Brookings Institution Press (1994), p. 41
^ Jump up to: a b Alderman, Liz; Greenhouse, Steven (October 27, 2014). "Fast Food in Denmark Serves Something Atypical: Living Wages". New York Times. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wage". Washington State Dept. of Labor & Industries. Archived from the original on 2015-01-12. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
Jump up ^ "British Government website". Archived from the original on 2013-08-17. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
Jump up ^ "Wage and Hour Division" United States Department of Labor. January 2016. Website. 13 July 2016.<https://www.dol/gov/whd/minwage/america.htm[permanent dead link]>
Jump up ^ "Most Asked Questions about Minimum Wages in India". PayCheck.in. 2013-02-22. Archived from the original on 2013-04-03. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sowell, Thomas (2004). "Minimum Wage Laws". Basic Economics: A Citizen's Guide to the Economy. New York: Basic Books. pp. 163–69. ISBN 978-0-465-08145-5. Archived from the original on 2016-06-03.
Jump up ^ Provisional Minimum Wage Commission: Preliminary Views on a Bask of Indicators, Other Relevant Considerations and Impact Assessment, Provisional Minimum Wage Commission, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2012-02-19.
Jump up ^ Setting the Initial Statutory Minimum Wage Rate, submission to government by the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce.
Jump up ^ Li, Joseph, "Minimum wage legislation for all sectors," China Daily October 16, 2008 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-05-03. Retrieved 2012-02-19. , "Hong Kong sets Minimum Wage – What one Singaporean thinks," Speaker's Corner, SG Forums, November 5, 2010 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2010-11-21.
Jump up ^ Editorial Board (February 9, 2014). "The Case for a Higher Minimum Wage". New York Times. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chumley, Cheryl K. (March 18, 2013). "Take it to the bank: Sen. Elizabeth Warren wants to raise minimum wage to $22 per hour". Washington Times. Archived from the original on February 23, 2014. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wing, Nick (March 18, 2013). "Elizabeth Warren: Minimum Wage Would Be $22 An Hour If It Had Kept Up With Productivity". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Hart-Landsberg, Ph.D., Martin (December 19, 2013). "$22.62/HR: The Minimum Wage If It Had Risen Like The Incomes Of The 1%". thesocietypages.org. Archived from the original on January 16, 2014. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rmusemore (December 3, 2013). "Stop Complaining Republicans, the Minimum Wage Should be $22.62 an Hour". policususa.com. Archived from the original on December 4, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Card, David; Krueger, Alan B. (1995). Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage. Princeton University Press. pp. 1, 6–7.
Jump up ^ Gwartney, James David; Clark, J. R.; Stroup, Richard L. (1985). Essentials of Economics. New York: Harcourt College Pub; 2 edition. p. 405. ISBN 978-0123110350.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ehrenberg, R. and Smith, R. "Modern labor economics: theory and public policy", HarperCollins, 1994, 5th ed.[page needed]
Jump up ^ McConnell, C. R.; Brue, S. L. (1999). Economics (14th ed.). Irwin-McGraw Hill. p. 594.
Jump up ^ Gwartney, J. D.; Stroup, R. L.; Sobel, R. S.; Macpherson, D. A. (2003). Economics: Private and Public Choice (10th ed.). Thomson South-Western. p. 97.
Jump up ^ Mankiw, N. Gregory (2011). Principles of Macroeconomics (6th ed.). South-Western Pub. p. 311.
Jump up ^ Boal, William M.; Ransom, Michael R (March 1997). "Monopsony in the Labor Market". Journal of Economic Literature. 35 (1): 86–112. JSTOR 2729694.
Jump up ^ e.g. DE Card and AB Krueger, Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage (1995) and S Machin and A Manning, ‘Minimum wages and economic outcomes in Europe’ (1997) 41 European Economic Review 733
Jump up ^ Rittenberg, Timothy Tregarthen, Libby (1999). Economics (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 290. ISBN 9781572594180. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Garegnani, P. (July 1970). "Heterogeneous Capital, the Production Function and the Theory of Distribution". The Review of Economic Studies. 37 (3): 407–36. doi:10.2307/2296729. JSTOR 2296729.
Jump up ^ Vienneau, Robert L. (2005). "On Labour Demand and Equilibria of the Firm". The Manchester School. 73 (5): 612–19. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9957.2005.00467.x.
Jump up ^ Opocher, A.; Steedman, I. (2009). "Input price-input quantity relations and the numeraire". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 33 (5): 937–48. doi:10.1093/cje/bep005.
Jump up ^ Anyadike-Danes, Michael; Godley, Wynne (1989). "Real Wages and Employment: A Sceptical View of Some Recent Empirical Work". The Manchester School. 57 (2): 172–87. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9957.1989.tb00809.x.
Jump up ^ White, Graham (November 2001). "The Poverty of Conventional Economic Wisdom and the Search for Alternative Economic and Social Policies". The Drawing Board: an Australian Review of Public Affairs. 2 (2): 67–87. Archived from the original on 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ OECD. "Minimum relative to average wages of full-time workers". Archived from the original on 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Fields, Gary S. (1994). "The Unemployment Effects of Minimum Wages". International Journal of Manpower. 15 (2): 74–81. doi:10.1108/01437729410059323.
Jump up ^ Manning, Alan (2003). Monopsony in motion: Imperfect Competition in Labor Markets. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11312-2. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Gillespie, Andrew (2007). Foundations of Economics. Oxford University Press. p. 240.
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (2013). Economics. Worth Publishers. p. 385.
Jump up ^ Blinder, Alan S. (May 23, 1996). "The $5.15 Question". The New York Times. p. A29. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Schmitt, John (February 2013). "Why Does the Minimum Wage Have No Discernible Effect on Employment?" (PDF). Center for Economic and Policy Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013. Lay summary – The Washington Post (February 14, 2013).
Jump up ^ Gramlich, Edward M.; Flanagan, Robert J.; Wachter, Michael L. (1976). "Impact of Minimum Wages on Other Wages, Employment, and Family Incomes". Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. 1976 (2): 409–61. doi:10.2307/2534380.
Jump up ^ Brown, Charles; Gilroy, Curtis; Kohen, Andrew (Winter 1983). "Time-Series Evidence of the Effect of the Minimum Wage on Youth Employment and Unemployment". The Journal of Human Resources. 18 (1): 3–31. doi:10.2307/145654. JSTOR 145654.
Jump up ^ Wellington, Alison J. (Winter 1991). "Effects of the Minimum Wage on the Employment Status of Youths: An Update". The Journal of Human Resources. 26 (1): 27–46. doi:10.2307/145715. JSTOR 145715.
Jump up ^ Fox, Liana (October 24, 2006). "Minimum wage trends: Understanding past and contemporary research". Economic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on December 16, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Florida Minimum Wage: Good for Workers, Good for the Economy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Pischke, Jörn-Steffen (November 2001). "Minimum Wages and On-the-Job Training" (PDF). Institute for the Study of Labor. SSRN 288292  . Archived (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved December 6, 2013. Also published as Acemoglu, Daron; Pischke, Jörn-Steffen (2003). "Minimum Wages and On-the-job Training". In Polachek, Solomon W. Worker Well-Being and Public Policy. Research in Labor Economics. 22. pp. 159–202. doi:10.1016/S0147-9121(03)22005-7. ISBN 978-0-76231-026-5.
Jump up ^ Sabia, Joseph J.; Nielsen, Robert B. (2012). Can Raising the Minimum Wage Reduce Poverty and Hardship? (PDF). Employment Policies Institute. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-08.
Jump up ^ Michael Reich. "Increasing the Minimum Wage in San Jose: Benefits and Costs- White Paper" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-04. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
Jump up ^ "The logical floor". 14 December 2013. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017 – via The Economist.
^ Jump up to: a b Card, David; Krueger, Alan B. (September 1994). "Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania". The American Economic Review. 84 (4): 772–93. JSTOR 2118030.
Jump up ^ ISBN 0-691-04823-1[full citation needed][page needed]
Jump up ^ Card; Krueger (2000). "Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: Reply". American Economic Review. 90 (5): 1397–420. doi:10.1257/aer.90.5.1397.
Jump up ^ Dube, Arindrajit; Lester, T. William; Reich, Michael (November 2010). "Minimum Wage Effects Across State Borders: Estimates Using Contiguous Counties". Review of Economics and Statistics. 92 (4): 945–64. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00039. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Schmitt, John (January 1, 1996). "The Minimum Wage and Job Loss". Economic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on March 29, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Neumark, David; Wascher, William (December 2000). "Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: Comment". The American Economic Review. 90 (5): 1362–96. doi:10.1257/aer.90.5.1362. JSTOR 2677855.
Jump up ^ http://www.davidson.edu/academic/economics/foley/eco324_s06/Neumark_Wascher%20AER%20(2000).pdf[full citation needed][dead link]
Jump up ^ Card and Krueger (2000) "Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: Reply" American Economic Review, Volume 90 No. 5. pg 1397-1420
Jump up ^ Ropponen, Olli (2011). "Reconciling the evidence of Card and Krueger (1994) and Neumark and Wascher (2000)". Journal of Applied Econometrics. 26 (6): 1051–57. doi:10.1002/jae.1258.
Jump up ^ "Revisiting the Minimum Wage—Employment Debate: Throwing Out the Baby with the Bathwater?" by David Neumark, J. M. Ian Salas, William Wascher. Published in ILR Review. Vol 67, Issue 3_suppl, 2014. URL: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-03-07. Retrieved 2017-08-02. .
Jump up ^ Hoffman, Saul D; Trace, Diane M (2009). "NJ and PA Once Again: What Happened to Employment when the PA–NJ Minimum Wage Differential Disappeared?". Eastern Economic Journal. 35 (1): 115–28. doi:10.1057/eej.2008.1.
^ Jump up to: a b Dube, Arindrajit; Lester, T. William; Reich, Michael (November 2010). "Minimum Wage Effects Across State Borders: Estimates Using Contiguous Counties" (PDF). The Review of Economics and Statistics. 92 (4): 945–64. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00039. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-01-12.
Jump up ^ Folbre, Nancy (November 1, 2010). "Along the Minimum-Wage Battle Front". New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Using Federal Minimum Wages to Identify the Impact of Minimum Wages on Employment and Earnings Across the U.S. States" (PDF). 1 Oct 2011.
Jump up ^ "Teen employment, poverty, and the minimum wage: Evidence from Canada". 1 Jan 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-16.
Jump up ^ "Are the Effects of Minimum Wage Increases Always Small? New Evidence from a Case Study of New York State". 2 Apr 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-09-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Meer, Jonathan; West, Jeremy (2013). "Effects of the Minimum Wage on Employment Dynamics". NBER Working Paper No. 19262. hdl:10419/126285. Archived from the original on 2014-01-05.
Jump up ^ Dube, Arindrajit (2013-10-26). "Minimum Wages and Aggregate Job Growth: Causal Effect or Statistical Artifact?". Rochester, NY.
Jump up ^ Schmitt, John. "More on Meer and West's Minimum Wage Study". Archived from the original on 2014-10-26.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2014-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Minimum wage effects on youth employment in the European Union". 14 Sep 2013. Archived from the original on 2015-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wages and Employment in China". 14 Dec 2013. Archived from the original on 2015-09-18.
Jump up ^ Fang, Tony; Lin, Carl (2015-11-27). "Minimum wages and employment in China". IZA Journal of Labor Policy. 4 (1): 22. doi:10.1186/s40173-015-0050-9. ISSN 2193-9004. Archived from the original on 2015-12-10.
Jump up ^ Card, David; Krueger, Alan B. (May 1995). "Time-Series Minimum-Wage Studies: A Meta-analysis". The American Economic Review. 85 (2): 238–43. JSTOR 2117925.
Jump up ^ Leonard, T. C. (2000). "The Very Idea of Applying Economics: The Modern Minimum-Wage Controversy and Its Antecedents" (PDF). History of Political Economy. 32: 117. doi:10.1215/00182702-32-Suppl_1-117. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-11-17.
Jump up ^ Stanley, T. D. (2005). "Beyond Publication Bias". Journal of Economic Surveys. 19 (3): 309. doi:10.1111/j.0950-0804.2005.00250.x.
Jump up ^ Doucouliagos, Hristos; Stanley, T. D. (2009). "Publication Selection Bias in Minimum-Wage Research? A Meta-Regression Analysis". British Journal of Industrial Relations. 47 (2): 406–28. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8543.2009.00723.x.
Jump up ^ "Does the UK Minimum Wage Reduce Employment? A Meta-Regression Analysis" Archived 2017-08-02 at the Wayback Machine..y Megan de Linde Leonard, T. D. Stanley, and Hristos Doucouliagos. BJIR. vol. 52, iss. 3, September 2014, pp. 499–520. doi:10.1111/bjir.12031.
^ Jump up to: a b Eatwell, John, Ed.; Murray Milgate; Peter Newman (1987). The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. London: The Macmillan Press Limited. pp. 476–78. ISBN 0-333-37235-2.
Jump up ^ Bernstein, Harry (September 15, 1992). "Troubling Facts on Employment". Los Angeles Times. p. D3. Archived from the original on December 17, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Engquist, Erik (May 2006). "Health bill fight nears showdown". Crain's New York Business. 22 (20): 1.
Jump up ^ "Holly Sklar, Small Businesses Want Minimum Wage Increase – Business For a Fair Minimum Wage". St. Louis Post Dispatch. Archived from the original on 2015-01-17.
Jump up ^ "Raising the minimum wage could improve public health". Archived from the original on 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ Sutch, Richard (1 September 2010). "The Unexpected Long-Run Impact of the Minimum Wage: An Educational Cascade". Archived from the original on 20 May 2016 – via National Bureau of Economic Research.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wolcott, Ben. "2014 Job Creation Faster in States that Raised the Minimum Wage". Archived from the original on 2014-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Stilwell, Victoria (March 8, 2014). "Highest Minimum-Wage State Washington Beats U.S. in Job Creation". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on January 10, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Real Value of the Minimum Wage". Epi.org. Archived from the original on 2013-02-19. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
Jump up ^ Freeman, Richard B. (1994). "Minimum Wages – Again!". International Journal of Manpower. 15 (2): 8–25. doi:10.1108/01437729410059305.
Jump up ^ Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought 1895–1914 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1960), p. 63.
Jump up ^ "ITIF Report Shows Self-service Technology a New Force in Economic Life". The Information Technology & Innovation Foundation. April 14, 2010. Archived from the original on January 19, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alesina, Alberto F.; Zeira, Joseph (2006). "Technology and Labor Regulations". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.936346.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wages in canada : theory, evidence and policy". Hrsdc.gc.ca. March 7, 2008. Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kallem, Andrew (2004). "Youth Crime and the Minimum Wage". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.545382.
Jump up ^ "Crime and work: What we can learn from the low-wage labor market | Economic Policy Institute". Epi.org. July 1, 2000. Archived from the original on July 1, 2011. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kosteas, Vasilios D. "Minimum Wage." Encyclopedia of World Poverty. Ed. M. Odekon.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 2006. 719-21. SAGE knowledge. Web.
Jump up ^ Abbott, Lewis F. Statutory Minimum Wage Controls: A Critical Review of their Effects on Labour Markets, Employment, and Incomes. ISR Publications, Manchester UK, 2nd. edn. 2000. ISBN 978-0-906321-22-5. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2018-01-30. Retrieved 2017-11-07. [page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Llewellyn H. Rockwell Jr. (October 28, 2005). "Wal-Mart Warms to the State". Mises.org. Mises Institute. Archived from the original on May 8, 2009. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Tupy, Marian L. Minimum Interference Archived 2009-02-18 at the Wayback Machine., National Review Online, May 14, 2004
Jump up ^ "The Wages of Politics". Wall Street Journal. November 11, 2006. Archived from the original on December 10, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Messmore, Ryan. "Increasing the Mandated Minimum Wage: Who Pays the Price?". Heritage.org. Archived from the original on November 28, 2009. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Art Carden. "Why Wal-Mart Matters". Mises.org. Mises Institute. Archived from the original on April 11, 2009. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Will have only negative effects on the distribution of economic justice. Minimum-wage legislation, by its very nature, benefits some at the expense of the least experienced, least productive, and poorest workers." (Cato) Archived 2007-02-12 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Belvedere, Matthew (20 May 2016). "Worker pay vs automation tipping point may be coming, says this fast-food CEO". CNBC. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
Jump up ^ The Minimum Wage Law and Youth Crimes: Time-Series Evidence, Chicago: Hashimoto. 1987 Archived 2017-02-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Williams, Walter (1989). South Africa's War Against Capitalism. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93179-X.
^ Jump up to: a b A blunt instrument Archived 2008-05-20 at the Wayback Machine., The Economist, October 26, 2006 (in English)
Jump up ^ Partridge, M. D.; Partridge, J. S. (1999). "Do minimum wage hikes reduce employment? State-level evidence from the low-wage retail sector". Journal of Labor Research. 20 (3): 393. doi:10.1007/s12122-999-1007-9.
Jump up ^ "The Effects of a Minimum-Wage Increase on Employment and Family Income". February 18, 2014. Archived from the original on July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Covert, Bryce (21 February 2014). "A $10.10 Minimum Wage Would Make A DVD At Walmart Cost One Cent More". Archived from the original on 29 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Hoium, Travis (19 October 2016). "What Will a Minimum Wage Increase Cost You at McDonald's?". The Motley Fool. Archived from the original on 23 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Scarpetta, Stephano, Anne Sonnet and Thomas Manfredi,Rising Youth Unemployment During The Crisis: How To Prevent Negative Long-Term Consequences on a Generation?, April 14, 2010 (read-only PDF) Archived 2010-11-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Fiscal Policy Institute, "States with Minimum Wages Above the Federal Level have had Faster Small Business and Retail Job Growth," March 30, 2006.
Jump up ^ "National Minimum Wage". politics.co.uk. Archived from the original on December 1, 2007. Retrieved December 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, David (April 2007). "Why Has the British National Minimum Wage Had Little or No Impact on Employment?". Archived from the original on 2015-09-21.
Jump up ^ Low Pay Commission (2005). National Minimum Wage – Low Pay Commission Report 2005 Archived 2013-01-16 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Wadsworth, Jonathan (September 2009). "Did the National Minimum Wage Affect UK Prices" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "States That Raised Minimum Wage See Faster Job Growth, Report Says". Archived from the original on 2014-10-25.
Jump up ^ Rugaber, Christopher S. (July 19, 2014). "States with higher minimum wage gain more jobs". USA Today. Archived from the original on July 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lobosco, Katie (May 14, 2014). "Washington state defies minimum wage logic". CNN. Archived from the original on October 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Did Washington State's Minimum Wage Bet Pay Off?". 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 20 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Meyerson, Harold (May 21, 2014). "Harold Meyerson: A higher minimum wage may actually boost job creation". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Covert, Bryce (3 July 2014). "States That Raised Their Minimum Wages Are Experiencing Faster Job Growth". Archived from the original on 25 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Nellis, Mike. "Minimum Wage Question and Answer". Archived from the original on 2014-10-25.
Jump up ^ Minimum Wage Limbo Keeps Small Business Owners Up At Night Archived 2015-02-09 at the Wayback Machine., kuow.org, May 22, 2014
Jump up ^ Seattle Magazine, March 23, 2015[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ $15 minimum wage a surprising success for Seattle restaurant Archived 2016-07-26 at the Wayback Machine., KOMO News, July 31, 2015
Jump up ^ http://www.epi.org/files/page/-/pdf/bp251.pdf
Jump up ^ C. Eisenring (Dec 2015). Gefährliche Mindestlohn-Euphorie Archived 2016-01-01 at the Wayback Machine. (in German). Neue Zürcher Zeitung. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
Jump up ^ R. Janssen (Sept 2015). The German Minimum Wage Is Not A Job Killer Archived 2015-11-09 at the Wayback Machine.. Social Europe. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Kearl, J. R.; Pope, Clayne L.; Whiting, Gordon C.; Wimmer, Larry T. (May 1979). "A Confusion of Economists?". The American Economic Review. 69 (2): 28–37. JSTOR 1801612.
Jump up ^ Alston, Richard M.; Kearl, J. R.; Vaughan, Michael B. (May 1992). "Is There a Consensus Among Economists in 1990s?". The American Economic Review. 82 (2): 203–09. JSTOR 2117401.
Jump up ^ survey by Dan Fuller and Doris Geide-Stevenson using a sample of 308 economists surveyed by the American Economic Association
Jump up ^ Hall, Robert Ernest (2007). Economics: Principles and Applications. Centage Learning. ISBN 1111798206.
Jump up ^ Fuller, Dan; Geide-Stevenson, Doris (2003). "Consensus Among Economists: Revisited". Journal of Economic Education. 34 (4): 369–87. doi:10.1080/00220480309595230.
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (2006). "Do Economists Agree on Anything? Yes!". The Economists' Voice. 3 (9): 1–6. doi:10.2202/1553-3832.1156.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-11-08. Retrieved 2012-08-16. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Fuchs, Victor R.; Krueger, Alan B.; Poterba, James M. (September 1998). "Economists' Views about Parameters, Values, and Policies: Survey Results in Labor and Public Economics". Journal of Economic Literature. 36 (3): 1387–425. JSTOR 2564804.
^ Jump up to: a b Klein, Daniel; Dompe, Stewart (January 2007). "Reasons for Supporting the Minimum Wage: Asking Signatories of the 'Raise the Minimum Wage' Statement". Economics in Practice. 4 (1): 125–67. Archived from the original on 2011-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wage". IGM Forum. February 26, 2013. Archived from the original on August 21, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ http://monkeydo.biz, Designed & Developed by Monkey Do, LLC ::. "EconoMonitor". Archived from the original on 2014-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Suggestion: Raise welfare children in institutions". Star-News. Jan 28, 1972. Retrieved November 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ David Scharfenberg (April 28, 2014). "What The Research Says In The Minimum Wage Debate". WBUR.
Jump up ^ "50 State Resources Map on State EITCs". The Hatcher Group. Archived from the original on April 23, 2009. Retrieved June 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ "New Research Findings on the Effects of the Earned Income Tax Credit". Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Archived from the original on June 17, 2010. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ Furman, Jason (April 10, 2006). "Tax Reform and Poverty". Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Response to a Request by Senator Grassley About the Effects of Increasing the Federal Minimum Wage Versus Expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit" (PDF). Congressional Budget Office. January 9, 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 31, 2008. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-03-19.
Jump up ^ Olson, Parmy (9/01/2009). The Best Minimum Wages In Europe Archived 2017-07-29 at the Wayback Machine.. Forbes. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Labor Criticizes". Lewiston Morning Tribune. Associated Press. March 2, 1933. pp. 1, 6.
Jump up ^ Sumner, Scott. "TheMoneyIllusion » You can't redistribute income . ." www.themoneyillusion.com. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ Phelps, Edmund S. "Low-wage employment subsidies versus the welfare state." The American Economic Review 84.2 (1994): 54-58.
Jump up ^ "The Wage Subsidy: A Better Way to Help the Poor | Manhattan Institute". Manhattan Institute. 2015-09-25. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ Cass, Oren (19 August 2015). "A Better Wage Hike". US NEWS. Archived from the original on 2015-08-20. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Smith, Noah (2013-12-07). "Noahpinion: Wage subsidies". Noahpinion. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ Drum, Kevin (3 December 2013). "Wage subsidies might be a good idea, but Republicans will never support it". Mother Jones. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ 75 economists back minimum wage hike Archived 2015-03-01 at the Wayback Machine. CNN Money, January 14, 2014
Jump up ^ Over 600 Economists Sign Letter In Support of $10.10 Minimum Wage Archived 2017-10-09 at the Wayback Machine. Economist Statement on the Federal Minimum Wage, Economic Policy Institute
Jump up ^ "Sanders Introduces Bill for $15-an-Hour Minimum Wage". Sen. Bernie Sanders. Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2015-09-15.
Jump up ^ The rapid success of Fight for $15: 'This is a trend that cannot be stopped' Archived 2016-12-01 at the Wayback Machine. S. Greenhouse, The Guardian, US-News, 24 Jul 2015
Jump up ^ Alex Seitz-Wald, Democrats Advance Most Progressive Platform in Party History Archived 2016-08-01 at the Wayback Machine., NBC News (July 10, 2016).
Jump up ^ Limitone, Julia (24 May 2016). "Fmr. Mcdonald's Usa Ceo: $35k Robots Cheaper Than Hiring At $15 Per Hour". Archived from the original on 13 July 2016.
Jump up ^ California Reaches Deal For $15 Minimum Wage Archived 2016-03-31 at the Wayback Machine. S. Bernstein, The Huffington Post, 28 Mar 2016
Jump up ^ When the Minimum Wage Really Bites: The Effect of the U.S.-Level Minimum on Puerto Rico Archived 2016-06-07 at the Wayback Machine. Alida Castillo-Freeman, Richard B. Freeman (1992) in Immigration and the Workforce: Economic Consequences for the United States and Source Areas
Jump up ^ Puerto Rico’s crisis illustrates the risks of minimum wage hikes Archived 2016-03-18 at the Wayback Machine. C. Lane, The Washington Post, July 8, 2015
Jump up ^ Memo to the Fight for $15: Puerto Rico Happens with a Too High Minimum Wage Archived 2017-11-07 at the Wayback Machine. Tim Worstall, Forbes.com, July 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Puerto Rico – A Way Forward Archived 2016-04-05 at the Wayback Machine. by A. Krueger, R. Teja and A. Wolfe, June 29, 2015
Jump up ^ "Minimum wage loophole written to help labor unions" Archived 2015-09-06 at the Wayback Machine., Washington Examiner, December 24, 2014
Further reading[edit]
Burkhauser, R. V. (2014). Why minimum wage increases are a poor way to help the working poor (No. 86). IZA Policy Paper, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Minimum wage
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minimum wage.
Library resources about
Minimum wage
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Minimum wage at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Resource Guide on Minimum Wages from the International Labour Organization (a UN agency)
The National Minimum Wage (U.K.) from official UK government website
Find It! By Topic: Wages: Minimum Wage U.S. Department of Labor
Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers: 2009 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
History of Changes to the Minimum Wage Law U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division
The Effects of a Minimum-wage Increase on Employment and Family Income Congressional Budget Office
Inflation and the Real Minimum Wage: A Fact Sheet Congressional Research Service
Minimum Wages in Central and Eastern Europe Database Central Europe
Prices and Wages – research guide at the University of Missouri libraries
Support
Issues about Minimum Wage from the AFL-CIO
Issue Guide on the Minimum Wage from the Economic Policy Institute
A $15 U.S. Minimum Wage: How the Fast-Food Industry Could Adjust Without Shedding Jobs from the Political Economy Research Institute, January 2015.
Opposed
Reporting the Minimum Wage from The Cato Institute
The Economic Effects of Minimum Wages from Show-Me Institute
Economics in One Lesson: The Lesson Applied, Chapter 19: Minimum Wage Laws by Henry Hazlitt
[show]
v
t
e
Employment
Classifications
Casual
Contingent
Full-time
Part-time
Self-employed
Skilled
Independent contractor
Temporary
Tenure
Unskilled
Wage labour
Hiring
Application
Background check
Business networking
Contract
Cover letter
Curriculum Vitae (CV)
Drug testing
e-recruitment
Employment counsellor
Executive search
Induction programme
Job fair
Job fraud
Job hunting
Job interview
Labour brokering
Overqualification
Onboarding
Personality-job fit theory
Person-environment fit
Probation
Reference
Résumé
Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates
Underemployment
Work-at-home scheme
Roles
Co-op
Employee
Employer
Internship
Job
Permanent
Permatemp
Supervisor
Volunteer
Worker class
Blue-collar
Gold-collar
Green-collar
Grey-collar
Pink-collar
White-collar
Career and training
Apprenticeship
Avocation
Career assessment
Career counseling
Career development
Coaching
Creative class
Education
Continuing education
Continuing professional development
E-learning
Employability
Further education
Graduate school
Induction training
Initial Professional Development
Knowledge worker
Licensure
Lifelong learning
Practice-based professional learning
Professional association
Professional certification
Professional development
Professional school
Reflective practice
Retraining
Vocational education
Vocational school
Vocational university
Mentorship
Occupational Outlook Handbook
Practice firm
Profession
Tradesman
Vocation
Attendance
Break
Career break
Furlough
Gap year
Leave of absence
Long service leave
No call, no show
Sabbatical
Sick leave
Time clock
Schedules
Four-day week
Eight-hour day
Flextime
Overtime
Retroactive overtime
Shift work
Telecommuting
Working time
Workweek and weekend
Wages and salaries
Income bracket
Income tax
Living wage
Maximum wage
National average salary
World
Europe
Minimum wage
Canada
Hong Kong
Europe
United States
Progressive wage
Singapore
Overtime rate
Paid time off
Performance-related pay
Salary
Salary cap
Working poor
Benefits
Annual leave
Casual Friday
Day care
Disability insurance
Health insurance
Life insurance
Parental leave
Pension
Sick leave
Take-home vehicle
Safety and health
Epilepsy and employment
Human factors and ergonomics
Industrial noise
Karōshi
Protective clothing
Occupational burnout
Occupational disease
Occupational exposure limit
Occupational health psychology
Occupational injury
Occupational stress
Repetitive strain injury
Sick building syndrome
Work accident
Occupational fatality
Workers' compensation
Workplace phobia
Workplace wellness
Equality
Affirmative action
Equal pay for women
Gender pay gap
Glass ceiling
Infractions
Corporate abuse
Accounting scandals
Corporate behaviour
Corporate crime
Control fraud
Corporate scandals
Discrimination
Dress code
Employee handbook
Employee monitoring
Evaluation
Labour law
Sexual harassment
Sleeping while on duty
Wage theft
Whistleblower
Workplace bullying
Workplace harassment
Workplace incivility
Willingness
Boreout
Civil conscription
Conscription
Dead-end job
Extreme careerism
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment
McJob
Refusal of work
Slavery
Bonded labour
Human trafficking
Labour camp
Penal labour
Peonage
Truck system
Unfree labour
Wage slavery
Workaholic
Work aversion
Work ethic
Work–life balance
Downshifting (lifestyle)
Slow living
Termination
At-will employment
Dismissal
Banishment room
Constructive dismissal
Wrongful dismissal
Employee exit management
Exit interview
Layoff
Notice period
Pink slip
Resignation
Letter of resignation
Restructuring
Retirement
Mandatory retirement
Retirement age
Severance package
Golden handshake
Golden parachute
Turnover
Unemployment
Barriers to Employment
Depression
Great Depression
Long Depression
Discouraged worker
Frictional unemployment
Full employment
Graduate unemployment
Involuntary unemployment
Jobless recovery
Phillips curve
Recession
Great Recession
Great Recession job losses
List of recessions
Recession-proof job
Reserve army of labour
Types of unemployment
Unemployment Convention
Unemployment benefits
Unemployment extension
Unemployment insurance
Unemployment rates
Employment rates
Employment-to-population ratio
Structural unemployment
Technological unemployment
Wage curve
Youth unemployment
See also templates
Aspects of corporations
Aspects of jobs
Aspects of occupations
Aspects of organizations
Aspects of workplaces
Corporate titles
Organized labor
Authority control
GND: 4170008-9
BNF: cb11967391r (data)
NDL: 00570035
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minimum_wage&oldid=834236778"
Categories:
Minimum wage
Income distribution
Labour law
Labour relations
Personal taxes
Socialism
Law and economics
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from July 2017
Articles with permanently dead external links
Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013
Articles needing more detailed references
Articles with dead external links from June 2016
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with dead external links from March 2018
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013
Pages using div col with deprecated parameters
Articles with Curlie links
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
Frysk
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Қазақша
Latina
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Magyar
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
中文
38 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 April 2018, at 17:04.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: span

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Portal:Organized_Labor
mw-redirect
Portal:Organized Labor

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Labor_movement
mw-redirect
Labor movement

attrs: class id href style

values:
NavToggle
NavToggle1
#
color: white;

values:
/wiki/New_Unionism
mw-redirect
New Unionism

values:
/wiki/Social_Movement_Unionism
mw-redirect
Social Movement Unionism

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Child_labor
mw-redirect
Child labor

values:
/wiki/Five-day_work_week#Length
mw-redirect
Five-day work week

values: International comparisons of trade unions

values:
/wiki/Secondary_action
mw-redirect
Secondary action

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:18.0em;border-spacing:0.2em 0;

values:
/wiki/Member_of_Parliament
mw-redirect
Member of Parliament

values:
/wiki/Trade_Boards_Bill
mw-redirect
Trade Boards Bill

values: float: right; clear: right; margin: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; width:22em; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa; font-size: 88%; background-color: #c6dbf7;

values:
/wiki/Medieval_England
mw-redirect
Medieval England

values:
/wiki/Black_Plague
mw-redirect
Black Plague

values:
/wiki/Justice_of_the_Peace
mw-redirect
Justice of the Peace

values:
/wiki/King_James_I
mw-redirect
King James I

values:
/wiki/Trade_unions
mw-redirect
Trade unions

values:
/wiki/Collective_action_problems
mw-redirect
Collective action problems

values: Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894

values:
/wiki/British_pound
mw-redirect
British pound

values:
/wiki/Multinational_companies
mw-redirect
Multinational companies

values:
/wiki/Knock-on_effect
mw-redirect
Knock-on effect

values:
/wiki/Labor_productivity
mw-redirect
Labor productivity

values:
/wiki/Labour_demand
mw-redirect
Labour demand

values:
/wiki/Effective_aggregate_demand
mw-redirect
Effective aggregate demand

values: Edit section: Criticisms of the supply and demand model

values:
/wiki/Labor_market_flexibility
mw-redirect
Labor market flexibility

values:
/wiki/Monopsonistic_competition
mw-redirect
Monopsonistic competition

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Marginal_product_of_labour
mw-redirect
Marginal product of labour

values:
/wiki/Alan_B._Krueger
mw-redirect
Alan B. Krueger

values: Edit section: Research subsequent to Card and Krueger's work

values:
/wiki/Earned_Income_Tax_Credit
mw-redirect
Earned Income Tax Credit

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2013)

values: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

values:
/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Labor
mw-redirect
Institute for the Study of Labor

values:
/wiki/American_Economic_Review
mw-redirect
American Economic Review

values:
/wiki/Basic_Income
mw-redirect
Basic Income

values:
/wiki/Social_welfare_provision
mw-redirect
Social welfare provision

values:
/wiki/Labor_market
mw-redirect
Labor market

values:
/wiki/Community_services
mw-redirect
Community services

values:
/wiki/Refundable_tax_credit
mw-redirect
Refundable tax credit

values:
/wiki/Working_tax_credit
mw-redirect
Working tax credit

values: Bernie Sanders presidential campaign, 2016

values:
/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois
mw-redirect
Chicago, Illinois

values:
/wiki/Portal:Business_and_Economics
mw-redirect
Portal:Business and Economics

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
/wiki/Washington_Times
mw-redirect
Washington Times

values:
/wiki/Huffington_Post
mw-redirect
Huffington Post

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2013)

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2729694

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2296729

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2296729

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fcje%2Fbep005

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2534380

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F145654

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/145654

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F145715

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/145715

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/bp178

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ftp.iza.org/dp384.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//ssrn.com/abstract=288292

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2118030

values: A more detailed citation is required. (December 2013)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.90.5.1397

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1162%2FREST_a_00039

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.90.5.1362

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2677855

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjae.1258

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1057%2Feej.2008.1

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nber.org/papers/w19262

values:
nofollow
external text
//hdl.handle.net/10419%2F126285

values:
nofollow
external text
http://repec.iza.org/dp7674.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/2193-9004

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2117925

values:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbjir.12031

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nber.org/papers/w16355

values:
nofollow
http://www.epi.org/publication/bp178/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.936346

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.545382

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.mises.org/story/1950

values:
/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal
mw-redirect
Wall Street Journal

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.mises.org/story/2377

values:
/wiki/Economic_justice
mw-redirect
Economic justice

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa106.html

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/725504

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cbo.gov/publication/44995

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1801612

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2117401

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2202%2F1553-3832.1156

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2564804

values:
nofollow
external free
http://monkeydo.biz

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.stateeitc.com/map/index.asp

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.nber.org/chapters/c6909.pdf

values:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bls.gov/cps/minwage2009.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo46157

values:
nofollow
external text
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42973.pdf

values:
/wiki/The_Cato_Institute
mw-redirect
The Cato Institute

values:
/wiki/Personality-job_fit_theory
mw-redirect
Personality-job fit theory

values:
/wiki/Person-environment_fit
mw-redirect
Person-environment fit

values: Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates

values:
/wiki/Initial_Professional_Development
mw-redirect
Initial Professional Development

values: List of countries in Europe by monthly average wage

values:
/wiki/List_of_minimum_wages_in_Canada
mw-redirect
List of minimum wages in Canada

values: List of sovereign states in Europe by minimum wage

values:
/wiki/List_of_U.S._minimum_wages
mw-redirect
List of U.S. minimum wages

values:
/wiki/Industrial_noise
mw-redirect
Industrial noise

values:
/wiki/Protective_clothing
mw-redirect
Protective clothing

values:
/wiki/Equal_pay_for_women
mw-redirect
Equal pay for women

values:
/wiki/Corporate_abuse
mw-redirect
Corporate abuse

values:
/wiki/List_of_corporate_scandals
mw-redirect
List of corporate scandals

values:
/wiki/Employee_exit_management
mw-redirect
Employee exit management

values:
/wiki/Pink_slip_(employment)
mw-redirect
Pink slip (employment)

values: Job losses caused by the Great Recession

values:
/wiki/List_of_recessions
mw-redirect
List of recessions

values:
/wiki/Types_of_unemployment
mw-redirect
Types of unemployment

values:
/wiki/Unemployment_Convention
mw-redirect
Unemployment Convention

values:
/wiki/Unemployment_insurance
mw-redirect
Unemployment insurance

values:
/wiki/Template:Organized_labor_navbox
mw-redirect
Template:Organized labor navbox

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: navigation navbox Employment padding:3px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4170008-9

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from July 2017

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013

values: Category:Articles needing more detailed references

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from June 2016

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from March 2018

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013

values: Category:Pages using div col with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Minimum_wage
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: حد أدنى للأجور – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: Минимална работна заплата – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alampalk
Alampalk – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Κατώτατος μισθός – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: حداقل دستمزد – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: שכר מינימום – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Ең төмен жалақы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: किमान वेतन – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Минимальный размер оплаты труда – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Минимални приход – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: ค่าจ้างขั้นต่ำ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Мінімальна заробітна плата – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Minimum_wage rootpage-Minimum_wage skin-vector action-view