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Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution
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For modern textile manufacturing, see Textile manufacturing. For hand techniques, and those used before 1750, see Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods.
Early industrialised region at Barmen in the Wupper Valley, 1870 - painting by August von Wille
Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution in Britain was centred in south Lancashire and the towns on both sides of the Pennines. In Germany it was concentrated in the Wupper Valley, Ruhr Region and Upper Silesia, while in the United States it was in New England. The four key drivers of the Industrial Revolution were textile manufacturing, iron founding, steam power and cheap labour.

Before the 18th century, the manufacture of cloth was performed by individual workers, in the premises in which they lived and goods were transported around the country by packhorses or by river navigations and contour-following canals that had been constructed in the early 18th century. In the mid-18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk, wool, and fustian fabrics were being eclipsed by cotton which became the most important textile.
Innovations in carding and spinning enabled by advances in cast iron technology resulted in the creation of larger spinning mules and water frames. The machinery was housed in water-powered mills on streams. The need for more power stimulated the production of steam-powered beam engines, and rotative mill engines transmitting the power to line shafts on each floor of the mill. Surplus power capacity encouraged the construction of more sophisticated power looms working in weaving sheds. The scale of production in the mill towns round Manchester created a need for a commercial structure; for a cotton exchange and warehousing. The technology was used in woollen and worsted mills in the West Riding of Yorkshire and elsewhere.

Contents
[hide]
1 Elements of the Industrial Revolution
2 Processing of cotton
3 Industry and Invention
4 Early Inventions
4.1 East India Company
4.2 Britain
4.3 Timeline of inventions
4.4 Start of the Revolution
4.5 Later developments
4.5.1 Robert's power loom
4.5.2 Robert's self acting mule
5 Working practices
6 A representative early spinning mill 1771
7 A representative mid-century spinning mill 1840
8 Export of technology
9 Art and literature
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Elements of the Industrial Revolution[edit]
The only surviving example of a Spinning Mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,[1] made in the second half of the 18th century:
Textiles – Cotton spinning using Richard Arkwright's water frame, James Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (a combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in 1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidly followed by the erection of many cotton mills. Similar technology was subsequently applied to spinning worsted yarn for various textiles and flax for linen.
Steam power – The improved steam engine invented by James Watt and patented in 1775 was initially mainly used for pumping out mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available.
Iron founding – In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of iron smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier for lead and copper as well as for producing pig iron in a blast furnace, but the second stage in the production of bar iron depended on the use of potting and stamping (for which a patent expired in 1786) or puddling (patented by Henry Cort in 1783 and 1784).
These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. This is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in the textile industry. Without earlier ones, such as the spinning jenny and flying shuttle in the textile industry and the smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been impossible. Later inventions such as the power loom and Richard Trevithick's high pressure steam engine were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills and ironworks enabled these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there was water to power a watermill.
Processing of cotton[edit]
Cotton Manufacturing Processes[hide]
Bale Breaker Blowing Room
Willowing
Breaker Scutcher Batting
Finishing Scutcher Lapping
Carding Carding Room
Sliver Lap
Combing
Drawing
Slubbing
Intermediate
Roving Fine Roving
Mule Spinning - Ring Spinning Spinning
Reeling Doubling
Winding Bundling Bleaching
Weaving shed Winding
Beaming Cabling
Warping Gassing
Sizing/Slashing/Dressing Spooling
Weaving
Cloth Yarn (Cheese)- - Bundle Sewing Thread
Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries.[2]
There are five stages[3]
Cultivating and Harvesting
Preparatory Processes
Spinning
Weaving
Finishing
Industry and Invention[edit]
Before the 1760s, textile production was a cottage industry using mainly flax and wool. A typical weaving family would own one hand loom, which would be operated by the man with help of a boy; the wife, girls and other women could make sufficient yarn for that loom. The knowledge of textile production had existed for centuries, and the manual methods had adequately provided enough cloth for the needs of that society.
India had a textile industry that used cotton, from which it manufactured cotton textiles. When raw cotton was exported to Europe it could be used to make fustian.[4]
Two systems had developed for spinning: the simple wheel, which used an intermittent process and the more refined, Saxony wheel which drove a differential spindle and flyer with a heck that guided the thread onto the bobbin, as a continuous process. This was satisfactory for use on hand looms, but neither of these wheels could produce enough thread for the looms after the invention by John Kay in 1734 of the flying shuttle, which made the loom twice as productive.
Cloth production moved away from the cottage into manufactories. The first moves towards manufactories called mills were made in the spinning sector. The move in the weaving sector was later. By the 1820s, all cotton, wool and worsted was spun in mills; but this yarn went to outworking weavers who continued to work in their own homes. A mill that specialised in weaving fabric was called a weaving shed.
Early Inventions[edit]
East India Company[edit]
Prior to the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, Mughal India was the most important manufacturing center in world trade,[5] producing about 25% of the world's industrial output,[6] with the Mughal Bengal province dominant in the textile manufacturing industry.[7][8][9] Real wages in 18th century southern India were also comparable to those in southern England at the time.[6] In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for textiles from Mughal India, including cotton textiles and silk products.[10] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia.[11]
During the second half of the 17th century, the newly establishmed factories of the East India Company (EIC) in South Asia started to produce finished cotton goods in quantity for the UK market. The imported Calico and chintz garments competed with, and acted as a substitute for indigenous wool and the linen produce, resulting in local weavers, spinners, dyers, shepherds and farmers petitioning their MP's and in turn the United Kingdom government for a ban on the importation, and later the sale of woven cotton goods. Which they eventually achieved via the 1700 and 1721 Calico Acts. The acts banned the importation and later the sale of finished pure cotton produce, but did not restrict the importation of raw cotton, or sale or production of Fustian.
The exemption of raw cotton saw two thousand bales of cotton being imported annually, from Asia and the Americas, and forming the basis of a new indigenous industry, initially producing Fustian for the domestic market, though more importantly triggering the development of a series of mechanised spinning and weaving technologies, to process the material. This mechanised production was concentrated in new cotton mills, which slowly expanded till by the beginning of the 1770s seven thousand bales of cotton were imported annually, and pressure was put on Parliament, by the new mill owners, to remove the prohibition on the production and sale of pure cotton cloth, as they wished to compete with the EIC imports.[4]
Indian cotton textiles, particularly those from Bengal, continued to maintain a competitive advantage up until the 19th century. In order to compete with India, Britain invested in labour-saving technical progress, while implementing protectionist policies such as bans and tariffs to restrict Indian imports.[4] At the same time, the EIC's rule in India contributed to its deindustrialization, opening up a new market for British goods,[4] while the capital amassed from Bengal after its 1757 conquest was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacturing and greatly increase British wealth, contributing to Britain's Industrial Revolution.[7][8][9] Britain eventually surpassed India as the world's leading cotton textile manufacturer in the 19th century.[4]
Britain[edit]
During the 18th and 19th centuries, much of the imported cotton came from slave plantations in the Southern United States. In periods of political uncertainty in North America, during the Revolutionary War and later American Civil War, however, Britain relied more heavily on imports from the colonial Indian British Raj to feed its cotton manufacturing industry. Ports on the west coast of Britain, such as Liverpool, Bristol, and Glasgow, became important in determining the sites of the cotton industry.
Lancashire became a centre for the nascent cotton industry because the damp climate was better for spinning the yarn. As the cotton thread was not strong enough to use as warp, wool or linen or fustian had to be used. Lancashire was an existing wool centre. Likewise, Glasgow benefited from the same damp climate.
The early advances in weaving had been halted by the lack of thread. The spinning process was slow and the weavers needed more cotton and wool thread than their families could produce. In the 1760s, James Hargreaves improved thread production when he invented the Spinning Jenny. By the end of the decade, Richard Arkwright had developed the water frame. This invention had two important consequences: it improved the quality of the thread, which meant that the cotton industry was no longer dependent on wool or linen to make the warp, and it took spinning away from the artisans' homes to specific locations where fast-flowing streams could provide the water power needed to drive the larger machines. The Western Pennines of Lancashire became the centre for the cotton industry. Not long after the invention of the water frame, Samuel Crompton combined the principals of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame to produce his Spinning Mule. This provided even tougher and finer cotton thread.
The textile industry was also to benefit from other developments of the period. As early as 1691, Thomas Savery had made a vacuum steam engine. His design, which was unsafe, was improved by Thomas Newcomen in 1698. In 1765, James Watt further modified Newcomen's engine to design an external condenser steam engine. Watt continued to make improvements on his design, producing a separate condenser engine in 1774 and a rotating separate condensing engine in 1781. Watt formed a partnership with a businessman called Matthew Boulton, and together they manufactured steam engines which could be used by industry.
Prior to the 1780s, most of the fine quality cotton muslin in circulation in Britain had been manufactured in India. Due to advances in technique, British "mull muslin" was able to compete in quality with Indian muslin by the end of the 18th century.[12]
Timeline of inventions[edit]
In 1734 in Bury, Lancashire, John Kay invented the flying shuttle — one of the first of a series of inventions associated with the cotton industry. The flying shuttle increased the width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom.[13] Resistance by workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this technology, even though the higher rate of production generated an increased demand for spun cotton.
Shuttles
In 1738, Lewis Paul (one of the community of Huguenot weavers that had been driven out of France in a wave of religious persecution) settled in Birmingham and with John Wyatt, of that town, they patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. This was later used in the first cotton spinning mill during the Industrial Revolution.
1742: Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by donkey; this was not profitable and was soon closed.
1743: A factory opened in Northampton, fifty spindles turned on five of Paul and Wyatt's machines proving more successful than their first mill. This operated until 1764.
1748: Lewis Paul invented the hand driven carding machine. A coat of wire slips were placed around a card which was then wrapped around a cylinder. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton, although this came about under great suspicion after a fire at Daniel Bourn's factory in Leominster which specifically used Paul and Wyatt's spindles. Bourn produced a similar patent in the same year.
1758: Paul and Wyatt based in Birmingham improved their roller spinning machine and took out a second patent. Richard Arkwright later used this as the model for his water frame.
Start of the Revolution[edit]
The Duke of Bridgewater's canal connected Manchester to the coal fields of Worsley. It was opened in July 1761. Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth, Birmingham in 1762. These were both events that enabled cotton mill construction and the move away from home-based production. In 1764, Thorp Mill, the first water-powered cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton, Lancashire, England. It was used for carding cotton.[14]
The multiple spindle spinning jenny was invented in 1764. James Hargreaves is credited as the inventor. This machine increased the thread production capacity of a single worker — initially eightfold and subsequently much further. Others[15] credit the original invention to Thomas Highs. Industrial unrest forced Hargreaves to leave Blackburn, but more importantly for him, his unpatented idea was exploited by others. He finally patented it in 1770. As a result, there were over 20,000 spinning jennies in use (mainly unlicensed) by the time of his death.
Arkwright's Cromford Mill.
Richard Arkwright first spinning mill, Cromford Mill, Derbyshire, was built in 1771. It contained his invention the water frame. The water frame was developed from the spinning frame that Arkwright had developed with (a different) John Kay, from Warrington. The original design was again claimed by Thomas Highs: which he purposed he had patented in 1769.[16] Arkwright used waterwheels to power the textile machinery. His initial attempts at driving the frame had used horse power, but a mill needed far more power. Using a waterwheel demanded a location with a ready supply of water, hence the mill at Cromford. This mill is preserved as part of the Derwent Valley Mills Arkwright generated jobs and constructed accommodation for his workers which he moved into the area. This led to a sizeable industrial community. Arkwright protected his investment from industrial rivals and potentially disruptive workers. This model worked and he expanded his operations to other parts of the country.
Matthew Boulton partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt resulted, in 1775, in the commercial production of the more efficient Watt steam engine which used a separate condensor.
Samuel Crompton of Bolton combined elements of the spinning jenny and water frame in 1779, creating the spinning mule. This mule produced a stronger thread than the water frame could. Thus in 1780, there were two viable hand operated spinning system that could be easily adapted to run by power of water.[17] As early mules were suitable for producing yarn for use in the manufacture of muslin, and which were known as the muslin wheel or the Hall i' th' Wood (pronounced Hall-ith-wood) wheel. As with Kay and Hargreaves, Crompton was not able to exploit his invention for his own profit, and died a pauper.
In 1783 a mill was built in Manchester at Shudehill, at the highest point in the city away from the river. Shudehill Mill was powered by a 30 ft diameter waterwheel. Two storage ponds were built, and the water from one passed from one to the other turning the wheel. A steam driven pump returned the water to the higher reservoir. The steam engine was of the atmospheric type.[17] An improvement devised by Joshua Wrigley, trialled in Chorlton-upon-Medlock used two Savery engines to supplement the river in driving on overshot waterwheel.[18]
In 1784, Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom,[13] and produced a prototype in the following year. His initial venture to exploit this technology failed, although his advances were recognised by others in the industry. Others such as Robert Grimshaw (whose factory was destroyed in 1790 as part of the growing reaction against the mechanization of the industry) and Austin[19] – developed the ideas further.
In the 1790s industrialists, such as John Marshall at Marshall's Mill in Leeds, started to work on ways to apply some of the techniques which had proved so successful in cotton to other materials, such as flax.
In 1803, William Radcliffe invented the dressing frame which was patented under the name of Thomas Johnson which enabled power looms to operate continuously.
Later developments[edit]
For further details of the operation and history of looms, see Power loom.
For further details of the operation and history of spinning mules, see Spinning mule.
With the Cartwright Loom, the Spinning Mule and the Boulton & Watt steam engine, the pieces were in place to build a mechanised textile industry. From this point there were no new inventions, but a continuous improvement in technology as the mill-owner strove to reduce cost and improve quality. Developments in the transport infrastructure - the canals and, after 1831, the railways - facilitated the import of raw materials and export of finished cloth.
The use of water power to drive mills was supplemented by steam driven water pumps, and then superseded completely by the steam engines. For example, Samuel Greg joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on taking over the company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill. Quarry Bank Mill was built on the River Bollin at Styal in Cheshire. It was initially powered by a water wheel, but installed steam engines in 1810.[a] In 1830, the average power of a mill engine was 48 hp, but Quarry Bank mill installed a new 100 hp water wheel.[20] This was to change in 1836, when Horrocks & Nuttall, Preston took delivery of 160 hp double engine. William Fairbairn addressed the problem of line-shafting and was responsible for improving the efficiency of the mill. In 1815 he replaced the wooden turning shafts that drove the machines at 50rpm, to wrought iron shafting working at 250 rpm, these were a third of the weight of the previous ones and absorbed less power.[20] The mill operated until 1959.
Robert's power loom[edit]
A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Note the wrought iron shafting, fixed to the cast iron columns
In 1830, using an 1822 patent, Richard Roberts manufactured the first loom with a cast-iron frame, the Roberts Loom.[13] In 1842 James Bullough and William Kenworthy, made the Lancashire Loom. It is a semiautomatic power loom. Although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century, when the Northrop Loom invented in 1894 with an automatic weft replenishment function gained ascendancy.
Number of Looms in UK[21]
Year 1803 1820 1829 1833 1857
Looms 2,400 14,650 55,500 100,000 250,000
Robert's self acting mule[edit]
Roberts self-acting mule with quadrant gearing
Also in 1830, Richard Roberts patented the first self-acting mule. The Stalybridge mule spinners strike was in 1824, this stimulated research into the problem of applying power to the winding stroke of the mule.[22][23] The draw while spinning had been assisted by power, but the push of the wind had been done manually by the spinner, the mule could be operated by semiskilled labour. Before 1830, the spinner would operate a partially powered mule with a maximum of 400 spindles after, self-acting mules with up to 1,300 spindles could be built.[24]
The savings that could be made with this technology were considerable. A worker spinning cotton at a hand-powered spinning wheel in the 18th century would take more than 50,000 hours to spin 100 lb of cotton; by the 1790s, the same quantity could be spun in 300 hours by mule, and with a self-acting mule it could be spun by one worker in just 135 hours.[25]
Working practices[edit]
The nature of work changed during industrialisation from a craft production model to a factory-centric model. It was during the years 1761 to 1850 that these changes happened. Textile factories organized workers' lives much differently from craft production. Handloom weavers worked at their own pace, with their own tools, and within their own cottages. Factories set hours of work, and the machinery within them shaped the pace of work. Factories brought workers together within one building to work on machinery that they did not own. Factories also increased the division of labour. They narrowed the number and scope of tasks. They included children and women within a common production process. As Manchester mill owner Friedrich Engels decried, the family structure itself was "turned upside down" as women's wages undercut men's, forcing men to "sit at home" and care for children while the wife worked long hours.[26] Factories flourished over manual craftsmanship because they had more efficient production output per worker, keeping prices down for the public, and they had much more consistent quality of product. The work-discipline was forcefully instilled upon the workforce by the factory owners, and he found that the working conditions were poor, and poverty levels were at an unprecedented high. Engels was appalled, and his research in Derby played a large role in his and Marx's book 'Das Kapital'. At times, the workers rebelled against poor wages. The first major industrial action in Scotland was that of the Calton weavers in Glasgow, who went on strike for higher wages in the summer of 1787. In the ensuing disturbances, troops were called in to keep the peace and three of the weavers were killed.[27] There was continued unrest. In Manchester in May 1808, 15,000 protesters gathered on St George's Fields and were fired on by dragoons, with one man dying. A strike followed, but was eventually settled by a small wage increase.[28] In the general strike of 1842, half a million workers demanded the Charter and an end to pay cuts. Again, troops were called in to keep the peace, and the strike leaders were arrested, but some of the worker demands were met.[29]
The early textile factories employed a large share of children, but the share declined over time. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. Sir Robert Peel, a mill owner turned reformer, promoted the 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act, which was intended to prevent pauper children from working more than 12 hours a day in mills. Children had started in the mills at around the age of four, working as mule scavengers under the working machinery until they were eight, they progressed to working as little piecers which they did until they were 15. During this time they worked 14 to 16 hours a day, being beaten if they fell asleep.[30] The children were sent to the mills of Derbyshire, Yorkshire and Lancashire from the workhouses in London and other towns in the south of England. A well-documented example was that of Litton Mill. Further legislation followed. By 1835, the share of the workforce under 18 years of age in cotton mills in England and Scotland had fallen to 43%. About half of workers in Manchester and Stockport cotton factories surveyed in 1818 and 1819 had begun work at under ten years of age.[31] Most of the adult workers in cotton factories in mid-19th-century Britain were workers who had begun work as child labourers. The growth of this experienced adult factory workforce helps to account for the shift away from child labour in textile factories.
A representative early spinning mill 1771[edit]
Gateway to Arkwright's Mill
Cromford Mill was an early Arkwright mill and was the model for future mills. The site at Cromford had year-round supply of warm water from the sough which drained water from nearby lead mines, together with another brook. It was a five storey mill. Starting in 1772, the mills ran day and night with two 12-hour shifts.
It started with 200 workers, more than the locality could provide so Arkwright built housing for them nearby, one of the first manufacturers to do so. Most of the employees were women and children, the youngest being only 7 years old. Later, the minimum age was raised to 10 and the children were given 6 hours of education a week, so that they could do the record keeping their illiterate parents could not.
The first stage of the spinning process is carding, initially this was done by hand, but in 1775 he took out a second patent for a water-powered carding machine and this led to increased output. He was soon building further mills on this site and eventually employed 1,000 workers at Cromford. By the time of his death in 1792, he was the wealthiest untitled person in Britain.[32] The gate to Cromford Mill was shut at precisely 6am and 6pm every day and any worker who failed to get through it not only lost a day's pay but was fined another day's pay. In 1779, Arkwright installed a cannon, loaded with grapeshot, just inside the factory gate,[33] as a warning to would-be rioting textile workers, who had burned down another of his mills in Birkacre, Lancashire. The cannon was never used.
The mill structure is classified as a Grade I listed building, it was first classified in June 1950.[34]
A representative mid-century spinning mill 1840[edit]
Brunswick Mill, Bradford Road in 1951
Brunswick Mill, Ancoats is a cotton spinning mill in Ancoats, Manchester, Greater Manchester. It was built around 1840, part of a group of mills built along the Ashton Canal, and at that time it was one of the country's largest mill. It was built round a quadrangle, a seven storey block faced the canal.[35] It was taken over by the Lancashire Cotton Corporation in the 1930s and passed to Courtaulds in 1964. Production finished in 1967.
The Brunswick mill was built around 1840 in one phase.[35] The main seven storey block that faces the Ashton Canal was used for spinning. The preparation was done on the second floor and the self-acting mules with 400 spindles were arranged transversely on the floors above. The wings contained the blowing rooms, some spinning and ancillary processes like winding. The four storey range facing Bradford Road was used for warehousing and offices. The mill was built by David Bellhouse, but it is suspected that William Fairbairn was involved in the design. It is built from brick, and has slate roofs. Fireproof internal construction was now standard. Brunswick was built using cast iron columns and beams, each floor was vaulted with transverse brick arches.[36] There was no wood in the structure. It was powered by a large double beam engine.[35]
In 1850 the mill had some 276 carding machines, and 77,000 mule spindles,[37] 20 drawing frames, fifty slubbing frames and eighty one roving frames.[38]
The structure was good and it successfully converted to ring spinning in 1920- and was the first mill to adopt mains electricity as its principal source of power. The mill structure was classified as a Grade II listed building in June 1994.[36]
Export of technology[edit]
While profiting from expertise arriving from overseas (e.g. Lewis Paul), Britain was very protective of home-grown technology. In particular, engineers with skills in constructing the textile mills and machinery were not permitted to emigrate — particularly to the fledgeling America.
Horse power (1780–1790)
The earliest cotton mills in the United States were horse-powered. The first mill to use this method was the Beverly Cotton Manufactory, built in Beverly, Massachusetts. It was started on 18 August 1788 by entrepreneur John Cabot and brothers. It was operated in joint by Moses Brown, Israel Thorndike, Joshua Fisher, Henry Higginson, and Deborah Higginson Cabot. The Salem Mercury reported that in April 1788 the equipment for the mill was complete, consisting of a spinning jenny, a carding machine, warping machine, and other tools. That same year the mill's location was finalized and built in the rural outsets of North Beverly. The location had the presence of natural water, but it was cited the water was used for upkeep of the horses and cleaning of equipment, and not for mass-production.[39][40]
Much of the internal designs of the Beverly mill were hidden due to concerns of competitors stealing designs. The beginning efforts were all researched behind closed doors, even to the point that the owners of the mill set up milling equipment on their estates to experiment with the process. There were no published articles describing exactly how their process worked in detail. Additionally, the mill's horse-powered technology was quickly dwarfed by new water-powered methods.[41][42]
Slater
Following the creation of the United States, an engineer who had worked as an apprentice to Arkwright's partner Jedediah Strutt evaded the ban. In 1789, Samuel Slater took his skills in designing and constructing factories to New England, and he was soon engaged in reproducing the textile mills that helped America with its own industrial revolution.
Local inventions spurred this on, and in 1793 Eli Whitney invented and patented the cotton gin, which sped up the processing of raw cotton by over 50 times.

Art and literature[edit]
William Blake: Jerusalem - dark satanic mills (1804) and other works.
Mrs Gaskell: Mary Barton(1848), North and South (1855)
Charlotte Brontë: Shirley (1849)
Cynthia Harrod-Eagles wrote fictional accounts of the early days of factories and the events of the Industrial Revolution in The Maiden (1985), The Flood Tide (1986), The Tangled Thread (1987), The Emperor (1988), The Victory (1989), The Regency (1990), The Reckoning (1992) and The Devil's Horse (1993), Volumes 8-13, 15 and 16 of The Morland Dynasty.
See also[edit]
Cotton mill
References[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire still exists as a well-preserved museum. It illustrates how the mill owners used child labour, taking orphans from nearby Manchester; it shows working conditions and how children were housed, clothed, fed and provided with some education. This mill also shows the transition from water power to steam power; steam engines to drive the looms being installed in 1810.
Notes
Jump up ^ The Industrial Revolution – Innovations
Jump up ^ Majeed, A (January 19, 2009), Cotton and textiles — the challenges ahead, Dawn-the Internet edition, retrieved 2009-02-12
Jump up ^ "Machine processes", Spinning the Web, Manchester City Council: Libraries, retrieved 2009-01-29
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Broadberry, Stephen; Gupta, Bishnupriya. "Cotton textiles and the great divergence: Lancashire, India and shifting competitive advantage, 1600-1850" (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
^ Jump up to: a b Jeffrey G. Williamson, David Clingingsmith (August 2005). "India’s Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries" (PDF). Harvard University. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Junie T. Tong (2016), Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets, page 151, CRC Press
^ Jump up to: a b John L. Esposito (2004), The Islamic World: Past and Present 3-Volume Set, page 190, Oxford University Press
^ Jump up to: a b Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857), Routledge, ISBN 1136825525
Jump up ^ Karl J. Schmidt (2015), An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History, page 100, Routledge
Jump up ^ Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237-240, World History in Context, accessed 3 August 2017
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^ Jump up to: a b c Williams & Farnie 1992, p. 11.
Jump up ^ Mortimer, John (1897), Industrial Lancashire
Jump up ^ Grimshaw
Jump up ^ [1]: Press the 'Ingenious' button and use search key '10302171' for the patent)
^ Jump up to: a b Hills 1993, p. 43
Jump up ^ Hills 1993, p. 44
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^ Jump up to: a b Hills 1993, p. 113
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Jump up ^ Hills 1993, p. 118
Jump up ^ Williams & Farnie 1992, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Griffin, Emma (2010). A Short History of the British Industrial Revolution. Palgrave. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Cora Granata and Cheryl A. Koos, Modern Europe 1750 to the Present (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2008) 31.
Jump up ^ George MacGregor (1881). The history of Glasgow: from the earliest period to the present time. T. D. Morison. pp. 371–372.
Jump up ^ WORKERS: The long agony of the handloom weaver, Cotton Times, 2010, retrieved 2010-02-09
Jump up ^ "General Strike, 1842 Half a million workers demand the Charter and an end to pay cuts". Chartist Ancestors. Retrieved 2010-02-09.
Jump up ^ Rowland, David (1832), Children of the Revolution, Cotton Times, retrieved 2010-02-09
Jump up ^ Galbi, Douglas (1997). "Child Labor and the Division of Labor in the Early English Cotton Mills". Journal of Population Economics. 10 (4): 357–75.
Jump up ^ Thornber, Craig. "RICHARD ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792)". Cheshire Antiquities. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Cotton Times website
Jump up ^ Historic England, "Cromford Mill (1248010)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 1 February 2014
^ Jump up to: a b c Williams & Farnie 1992, pp. 154–156.
^ Jump up to: a b Historic England, "Brunswick Mill (1197807)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 12 May 2014
Jump up ^ "Graces guides, Brunswick Mill". Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ Parkinson-Bailey, John (2000). Manchester: An architectural history. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5606-2. Retrieved January 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Beverly Community History Cotton Mill, www.globalindex.com. URL accessed January 14, 2007.
Jump up ^ The Worcester (Mass.) Spy. August 31, 1897, Wednesday. Page 2
Jump up ^ The Beverly Cotton Manufactory: Or some new light on an early cotton mill. Robert W Lovett. Business Historical Society. Bulletin of the Business Historical Society pre.. Dec 1952; 26, 000004; ABI/INFORM(pg. 218)
Jump up ^ "Made In Beverly-A History of Beverly Industry", by Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Historic District Commission. 1989.
Bibliography
Copeland, Melvin Thomas. The cotton manufacturing industry of the United States (Harvard University Press, 1912) online
Cameron, Edward H. Samuel Slater, Father of American Manufactures (1960) scholarly biography
Conrad, Jr., James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History," Technology and Culture, Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 1995), pp. 1–28 in JSTOR
Griffin, Emma, A Short History of the British Industrial Revolution (Palgrave, 2010), pp. 86–104
Griffiths, T., Hunt, P.A., and O'Brien, P. K. "Inventive activity in the British textile industry", Journal of Economic History, 52 (1992), pp. 881–906.
Griffiths, Trevor; Hunt, Philip; O'Brien, Patrick. "Scottish, Irish, and imperial connections: Parliament, the three kingdoms, and the mechanization of cotton spinning in eighteenth-century Britain," Economic History Review, Aug 2008, Vol. 61 Issue 3, pp 625–650
Hills, Richard Leslie (1993), Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine (paperback ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 244, ISBN 9780521458344, retrieved January 2009 Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Miller, Ian; Wild, Chris (2007), A & G Murray and the Cotton Mills of Ancoats, Lancaster Imprints, ISBN 978-0-904220-46-9
Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857), Routledge, ISBN 1136825525.
Tucker, Barbara M. "The Merchant, the Manufacturer, and the Factory Manager: The Case of Samuel Slater," Business History Review, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 297–313 in JSTOR
Tucker, Barbara M. Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790–1860 (1984)
Williams, Mike; Farnie (1992), Cotton Mills of Greater Manchester, Carnegie Publishing
External links[edit]
University of Arizona pdf Repository of Textile books
Essay and source material on Arkwright and Cartwright
The cotton industry during the Industrial Revolution
Factory Workers in the British Industrial Revolution
Spartacus Educational(2014)
Cotton times
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That '70s Show (season 6)
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That '70s Show (season 6)
DVD cover
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
25
Release
Original network
Fox
Original release
October 29, 2003 (2003-10-29) – May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 5
Next →
Season 7
List of That '70s Show episodes
The sixth season of That '70s Show, an American television series, began October 29, 2003, and ended on May 19, 2004. It aired on Fox. The region 1 DVD was released on May 8, 2007.[1] This season is set in 1978 for the first seven episodes of the season. The series transitions to 1979 beginning with the eighth episode of the season ("I'm a Boy").
All episodes are named after songs by The Who.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Special guest
1.3 Special guest appearance
1.4 Special appearance
1.5 Recurring
1.6 Guest
2 Episodes
3 References
4 External links
Cast[edit]
Main cast[edit]
Topher Grace as Eric Forman
Mila Kunis as Jackie Burkhart
Ashton Kutcher as Michael Kelso
Danny Masterson as Steven Hyde
Laura Prepon as Donna Pinciotti
Wilmer Valderrama as Fez
Debra Jo Rupp as Kitty Forman
Kurtwood Smith as Red Forman
Don Stark as Bob Pinciotti
Special guest[edit]
Seth Green as Mitch Miller
Estella Warren as Raquel
Shannon Elizabeth as Brooke
Alyson Hannigan as Suzy Simpson
Rachel Bilson as Christy
Luke Wilson as Casey Kelso
Morgan Fairchild as Carolyn
Special guest appearance[edit]
Jim Gaffigan as Roy
Billy Dee Williams as Pastor Dan
Tanya Roberts as Midge Pinciotti
Special appearance[edit]
Brooke Shields as Pamela Burkhart
Recurring[edit]
Christina Moore as Laurie Forman
James Avery as Officer Kennedy
Jim Rash as Fenton
Guest[edit]
Dan Castellaneta as Agent Armstrong
Ashley Drane as Julie
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of That '70s Show episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
129
1 "The Kids are Alright" David Trainer Jeff Filgo & Jackie Filgo October 29, 2003 (2003-10-29) 601
After Red's heart attack, Kitty has to take extra hospital shifts to support the family, worrying Eric, which he believes is a way to guilt him into not going to Madison with Donna. Jackie finally decides on Hyde over Kelso, but finds out the one she chooses already has another girl.
130
2 "Join Together" David Trainer Dean Batali November 5, 2003 (2003-11-05) 602
Hyde is still giving Jackie the cold shoulder, so Kelso decides to help get them back together. Eric depresses Donna about the last things they can do before she goes to Madison, just to have sex, and Kitty throws away all of Red's beer as a precaution to a future heart attack.
131
3 "The Magic Bus" David Trainer Rob Deshotel November 12, 2003 (2003-11-12) 603
It's Eric's 18th birthday and Donna is ready to leave for Madison. At the same time, he wonders why his "surprise birthday party" isn't being arranged by Kitty who has other plans in mind with Red.
132
4 "The Acid Queen" David Trainer Mark Hudis November 19, 2003 (2003-11-19) 604
Kelso tries to convince the gang he did it with Brooke, a former senior in high school when the gang were sophomores, during a Molly Hatchet concert, but she denies it. Jackie becomes jealous after Hyde admits Brooke is attractive, but he doesn't know how to lie righteously to her, and Kelso finds out Brooke's pregnant.
133
5 "I'm Free" David Trainer Gregg Mettler November 26, 2003 (2003-11-26) 605
In order to get past an INS investigator (Dan Castellaneta) on Fez and Laurie's marital status, Fez must live with the Formans to avoid deportation. Meanwhile, Brooke tells Kelso he's off the hook, but Kelso feels he has a responsibility to support her.
134
6 "We're Not Gonna Take It" David Trainer Dave Schiff December 3, 2003 (2003-12-03) 606
Kelso and Eric vie for a waiter job at Hyde's workplace and Red wants Fez and Laurie to get a divorce, until mysterious gifts suddenly arrive at the Formans' door. Donna and Jackie send fudge to a depressed Bob, disguised as secret admirers, to make him happy.
135
7 "Christmas" David Trainer Philip Stark December 17, 2003 (2003-12-17) 607
Jackie brings the gang to a high school Christmas dance in order for her to get back at the cheerleading squad for kicking her out. Eric forgets to visit Donna at the radio station while he, Hyde, and Fez are treated as celebrities at the dance, while Kelso wants to spend the night with Brooke at the library. Meanwhile, Red works in the local mall as Santa Claus, but Bob wants the job too.
136
8 "I'm a Boy" David Trainer Kristin Newman January 7, 2004 (2004-01-07) 608
Eric decides to lounge around at home and become obese, never leaving the comfort of his bed again. Kelso wants to start a serious relationship with Brooke, so he invites her, Hyde, and Jackie to go on a double date. Meanwhile, Fez drives Red around because of his heart attack and gets irritated.
Note: First episode of the series where the license plate shows the year is 1979.
137
9 "Young Man Blues" David Trainer Bryan Moore & Chris Peterson January 14, 2004 (2004-01-14) 609
Kelso starts his first day as a cadet at the police academy, while Red teaches Eric to do housework, including plumbing and fixing the lawnmower. Jackie enrolls in a Big Sister program, but Donna bets she can't do a good enough job as a big sister.
138
10 "A Legal Matter" David Trainer Alan Dybner February 4, 2004 (2004-02-04) 610
Fez needs to take an exam to become an American citizen, so Red educates him about American history. Kelso thinks he is the academy's "stooge" and asks Eric and Hyde to help him break into the station to locate his file for verification.
139
11 "I Can See for Miles" David Trainer Sarah McLaughlin February 11, 2004 (2004-02-11) 611
After Kelso vandalizes one of Eric's belongings, Eric and Donna steal his van and travel to their planned wedding location. With his van gone, Kelso needs to find a way to take Brooke to a doctor's appointment, while Jackie redecorates Hyde's room, much to his discomfort, and Red is displeased when Bob gives him a pair of shoes.
140
12 "Sally Simpson" David Trainer Dean Batali February 18, 2004 (2004-02-18) 612
Fez falls for Suzy (Alyson Hannigan), one of Kelso's classmates at the police academy, however, her feelings lie on Kelso, which may cause his and Fez's friendship to break. A therapist wants to know the origin of Red's stress and Kitty believes the fault lies directly on her.
141
13 "Won't Get Fooled Again" David Trainer Rob Deshotel February 25, 2004 (2004-02-25) 613
Donna thinks she is pregnant, having missed a day from taking her birth control pills, which angers Red and Bob. After their dispute for Suzy, Kelso and Fez cease their friendship, but she tries to make amends for the both of them.
142
14 "Baby Don't You Do It" David Trainer Mark Hudis March 3, 2004 (2004-03-03) 614
Due to the false pregnancy scare, Eric and Donna are sent to attend premarital counseling at church, and a lie they tell puts them in an embarrassing situation. Kelso continues to lie to Brooke about his failing marks on his Penal Code tests and trouble comes when he accidentally sets the police academy on fire. After the premarital counseling, Donna decides she and Eric need to be celibate until they are married.
143
15 "Who are You?" David Trainer Gregg Mettler March 10, 2004 (2004-03-10) 615
Jackie's mother, Pam (Brooke Shields), returns from Acapulco and starts dating Bob and Kelso is reluctant about going to the police academy, forcing Eric, Hyde and Fez to get him back on his feet. Meanwhile, Donna's celibacy begins to drive Eric mad.
144
16 "Man with Money" David Trainer Bryan Moore & Chris Peterson March 17, 2004 (2004-03-17) 616
Red is at the mercy of a heart rate monitor, as it always goes off whenever Pam is around, making Kitty suspicious of him being attracted to her. Donna and Jackie try to split Bob and Pam up and have the idea of using Fez to seduce Pam.
145
17 "Happy Jack" David Trainer Kristin Newman March 24, 2004 (2004-03-24) 617
Donna is horrified after she finds Eric masturbating in her bathroom. Meanwhile, Hyde and Fez go to the academy to visit Kelso, but what they find is a completely straight-forward, honest person, rather than the bumbling idiot they know and love.
146
18 "Do You Think It's Alright?" David Trainer Patrick Kienlen March 31, 2004 (2004-03-31) 618
Eric and Donna have to go register for wedding gifts, but he does not like shopping with Donna. Hyde is worried all this wedding talk will make Jackie pressure him into proposing to her. Meanwhile, Red begins reading one of Kitty's erotic novels.
147
19 "Substitute" David Trainer Jennifer Keene April 21, 2004 (2004-04-21) 619
Eric feels bad after injuring Mitch (Seth Green), a former high school classmate, at a mini-golf stand and offers him to hang out in his basement. However, he begins to regret it, as Mitch starts making him look bad. Meanwhile, when Bob invites Pam to live with him, she breaks up with him, and Donna and Jackie try to get them back together.
148
20 "Squeeze Box" David Trainer Philip Stark April 28, 2004 (2004-04-28) 620
Eric's fidelity is in question, after he reveals he dated another girl when Donna and Casey were together. After Red and Hyde moved Pam's belongings into Bob's house, the two are speechless when they see Pam topless, and must try every way to hide this fact from Kitty and Jackie.
149
21 "5:15" David Trainer Gregg Mettler May 5, 2004 (2004-05-05) 621
Donna pretends to be Mitch's date for his brother's wedding, but he tells everyone she is his fiancée, proving Eric's suspicion of Mitch's growing affection for Donna. To regain his honor, Mitch challenges him to a fight. Meanwhile, Fez pretends to be rich, in order to impress a girl he meets at the wedding (Rachel Bilson). Kelso and Brooke attend parenting classes with Kitty as the instructor, and Red installs cable TV, only to have someone steal the signal.
150
22 "Sparks" David Trainer Rob Deshotel May 12, 2004 (2004-05-12) 622
Eric accidentally ruins Donna's wedding dress and must find a way to prevent her from knowing. Red, under the influence, buys a canoe at an auction with Kitty's wedding gift money and has to find another present to give to Eric, thus Hyde, Kelso and Fez try to find humorous ways of misusing the canoe.
151
23 "My Wife" David Trainer Dean Batali May 16, 2004 (2004-05-16) 623
Eric thinks he is holding Donna back on college and her dreams, after she leases a trailer for the two of them. While the guys go to Eric's bachelor party at a strip club, the girls attend Donna's bachelorette party, where they find Kelso's older brother Casey.
152
24 "Going Mobile" David Trainer Mark Hudis May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19) 624
As their wedding day approaches, Eric is having second thoughts, after a dream leaves him bewildered about his future and married life, and even Donna starts having cold feet. Hyde and Fez play their own form of rock-paper-scissors to determine who will be Eric's best man, and Kelso meets Brooke's mother (Morgan Fairchild), who wants Brooke to move to Chicago, Illinois with her. Eric disappears before the wedding rehearsal.
153
25 "The Seeker" David Trainer Jeff Filgo & Jackie Filgo May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19) 625
With the wedding called off, Donna commiserates with Hyde at the water tower. After she accidentally knocks him off, Hyde ends up in the hospital, where nurse Kitty, researching his records, finds a different man listed on Hyde's birth certificate than the man Hyde had always thought was his father. Eric eventually returns, sneaking into Donna's bedroom to explain his disappearance, and Donna agrees she, too, was not ready for marriage.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "That '70s Show – Season 6 (1998)". Amazon.com. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
That '70s Show Episode Guide at The New York Times
External links[edit]
List of That '70s Show episodes on IMDb
List of That '70s Show season 6 episodes at TV.com
That '70s Show at epguides.com
[hide]
v
t
e
That '70s Show
Characters
Teenagers
Eric Forman
Donna Pinciotti
Steven Hyde
Michael Kelso
Jackie Burkhart
Fez
Adults
Kitty Forman
Red Forman
Midge and Bob Pinciotti
Leo
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Related articles
Home video
That '80s Show
Days Like These
Point Place
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore
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Diocese of Mangalore
Dioecesis Mangalorensis
मंगलौर के सूबा
Cathedral of Our Lady of the Rosary
Location
Country
India
Territory
Karnataka
Ecclesiastical province
Bangalore
Metropolitan
Bangalore
Statistics
Area
5,924 km2 (2,287 sq mi)
Population
- Total
- Catholics
(as of 2012)
2,978,560
267,343 (9%)
Parishes
112
Information
Denomination
Roman Catholic
Rite
Latin Rite
Established
1 September 1886
Cathedral
Our Lady of Rosary of Mangalore
Patron saint
Saint Joseph
Current leadership
Pope
Francis
Bishop
Aloysius Paul D'Souza
Metropolitan Archbishop
Bernard Moras
Dean
Fr. John Baptist Crasta
Map

Map highlighting districts falling under the Mangalore Diocese
Website
dioceseofmangalore.org/
Milagres church in Hampankatta, Mangalore
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore (Latin: Diocesis Mangalorensis) is a diocese located in the city of Mangalore in the Ecclesiastical province of Bangalore in India. The diocese falls on the southwestern coast of India. At present, it comprises the whole civil districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka state. This region was collectively referred as South Canara during the British Raj and the early post-independence era, prior to the States Reorganisation Act in 1956. It was established as a separate Apostolic Vicariate from the Apostolic Vicariate of Verapoly in 1853 and was promoted to a diocese on 1 September 1886.
On Monday, July 16, 2012, it lost territory when Pope Benedict XVI erected the new Roman Catholic Diocese of Udupi (made up of the three civil districts of Udupi, Karkala, and Kundapura), which will also become part of the Province of Bangalore.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Bishops of the Diocese of Mangalore
1.1 Ordinaries
1.1.1 Vicar Apostolics of Mangalore (Latin Rite)
1.2 Auxiliaries
1.3 Deaneries
2 References
3 External links
4 See also
Bishops of the Diocese of Mangalore[edit]
Ordinaries[edit]
Bishop Aloysius Paul D’Souza (8 November 1996 – present)
Bishop Basil Salvadore D’Souza (22 March 1965 – 5 September 1996)
Bishop Raymond D’Mello (5 February 1959 – 21 April 1964)
Bishop Basil Salvador Theodore Peres (4 January 1956 – 24 April 1958)
Bishop Victor Rosario Fernandes (16 May 1931 – 4 January 1956)
Bishop Valerian Joseph D'Souza (1928 – 14 August 1930)
Bishop Paolo Charles Perini, S.J. (Apostolic Administrator 1923 – 1928)
Bishop Paolo Charles Perini, S.J. (17 August 1910 – 12 June 1923)
Bishop Abbondio Cavadini, S.J. (26 November 1895 – 26 March 1910)
Vicar Apostolics of Mangalore (Latin Rite)[edit]
Bishop Ephrem-Edouard-Lucien-Théoponte Garrelon, O.C.D. (3 June 1870 – 11 April 1873)
Auxiliaries[edit]
Bishop Aloysius Paul D’Souza (11 January 1996 – 8 November 1996)
Deaneries[edit]
Below are the Deaneries of Mangalore Diocese[2]
Bantwal Varado
Moodbidri Varado (Central Varado)
Central Varado (Cordel)
Puttur Varado (Eastern Varado)
Episcopal City Varado (Rosario Cathedral)
Belthangady Varado (Mangalore East Varado)
Kinnigoli Varado (Mangalore North Varado)
Mudipu Varado (Mangalore South Varado)
Pezar Varado
Bela Varado (Southern Varado)
St. John Paul II - New Varado
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Erection Of The Diocese Of Udupi (India) And Appoints First Bishop catholica.va.
Jump up ^ "Deaneries". www.dioceseofmangalore.com.
External links[edit]
Official website of the Mangalore Diocese
History of the Mangalore Diocese
Mangalore Diocese on Catholic Hierarchy
Mangalore Diocese on Catholic Encyclopedia
Mangalore Diocese on GCatholic.org
See also[edit]
Karnataka portal
Catholicism portal
Christianity in India portal
Apostolic vicariate
Most Holy Redeemer Church, Belthangady
Belthangady Varado
Church of Most Holy Saviour, Agrar
Monsignor Ambrose Madtha
Diocese of Belthangady
Church Of Sacred Heart Of Jesus, Madanthyar
St. Patrick Church, Siddakatte
St. John the Baptist Church, Permude
This article about a Roman Catholic diocese in India is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Coordinates: 12°51′22″N 74°50′11″E / 12.8562°N 74.8363°E / 12.8562; 74.8363
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Mangalore&oldid=802149943"
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