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Fahrenheit
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For other uses, see Fahrenheit (disambiguation).
Thermometer with Fahrenheit (marked on outer bezel) and Celsius (marked on inner dial) degree units. The Fahrenheit scale was the first standardized temperature scale to be widely used.
The Fahrenheit scale is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Dutch-German-Polish physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736).[1] It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) as the unit. Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point, 0 °F, was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice, water and salt (ammonium chloride).[2] Further limits were established as the melting point of ice (32 °F) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature (96 °F, about 2.6 °F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale).[3] The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 °F, and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 °F, a 180 °F separation, as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.[citation needed]
By the end of the 20th century, Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States (including its unincorporated territories), its freely associated states in the Western Pacific (Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands), the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands.[4] All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale, named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, defined since 1954 by absolute zero being −273.15 °C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 °C.[5] (Before 1954, the Celsius scale was based on 0 °C for the freezing point of water and 100 °C for the boiling point of water at 1 atm.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition and conversion
2 History
3 Usage
4 Unicode representation of symbol
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links
Definition and conversion[edit]
Fahrenheit temperature conversion formulae
from Fahrenheit
to Fahrenheit
Celsius
[°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32
Kelvin
[K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [K] × 9⁄5 − 459.67
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67 [°F] = [°R] − 459.67
For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,
1 °F = 1 °R = 5⁄9 °C = 5⁄9 K
Comparisons among various temperature scales
On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and the boiling point is 212 °F (at standard atmospheric pressure). This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart.[6] Therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart. A temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40° (i.e., −40 °F = −40 °C).
Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The Rankine temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.[6]
The Fahrenheit scale uses the symbol ° to denote a point on the temperature scale (as does Celsius) and the letter F to indicate the use of the Fahrenheit scale (e.g. "Gallium melts at 85.5763 °F"),[7] as well as to denote a difference between temperatures or an uncertainty in temperature (e.g. "The output of the heat exchanger experiences an increase of 72 °F" and "Our standard uncertainty is ±5 °F").
For an exact conversion, the following formulas can be applied. Here, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : (f − 32) °F × 5°C/9°F = (f − 32)/1.8 °C = c °C
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : (c °C × 9°F/5°C) + 32 °F = (c × 1.8) °F + 32 °F = f °F
This is also an exact conversion making use of the identity -40 °F = -40 °C. Again, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : ((f + 40) ÷ 1.8) − 40 = c.
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : ((c + 40) × 1.8) − 40 = f.
History[edit]
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a pioneer of exact thermometry (temperature measurement). He invented the mercury thermometer (first practical, accurate thermometer) and Fahrenheit scale (first widely used, standardized temperature scale).
Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two reference points of temperature. In his initial scale (which is not the final Fahrenheit scale), the zero point was determined by placing the thermometer in a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride (salis Armoniaci).[8] This is a frigorific mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically: that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F (−17.78 °C). The second point, 96 degrees, was approximately the human body's temperature (sanguine hominis sani, the blood of a healthy man).[9]
According to a story in Germany, Fahrenheit actually chose the lowest air temperature measured in his hometown Danzig in winter 1708/09 as 0 °F, and only later had the need to be able to make this value reproducible using brine.[10] This is one explanation given why 0 °F is −17.78 °C, but the ammonium chloride cooling temperature actually is −3 °C, whereas that of NaCl is −21.1 °C; the other explanation is that he did not have a good enough brine solution to obtain the eutectic equilibrium exactly (i.e. he might have had a mixture of salts, or it had not fully dissolved). In any case, the definition of the Fahrenheit scale has changed since.
According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave,[11] his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømer's scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, and water boils at 60 degrees. Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. He then re-calibrated his scale using the melting point of ice and normal human body temperature (which were at 30 and 90 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees and body temperature 96 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).[12][13]
Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale. The use of the freezing and boiling points of water as thermometer fixed reference points became popular following the work of Anders Celsius and these fixed points were adopted by a committee of the Royal Society led by Henry Cavendish in 1776.[14] Under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water is exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point is exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that normal human body temperature is approximately 98° (oral temperature) on the revised scale (whereas it was 90° on Fahrenheit's multiplication of Rømer, and 96° on his original scale).[15]
The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.
Usage[edit]
Countries that use Fahrenheit.
Countries that use Celsius.
The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States—typically during their metrication process.
Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands for everyday applications. For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists, such as meteorologists, use Celsius or Kelvin in all countries.[16]
Early in the 20th century, Halsey and Dale suggested that the resistance to the use of centigrade (now Celsius) system in the U.S. included the larger size of each degree Celsius and the lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system.[17]
Canada has passed legislation favoring the International System of Units, while also maintaining legal definitions for traditional Canadian imperial units.[18] Canadian weather reports are conveyed using degrees Celsius with occasional reference to Fahrenheit especially for cross-border broadcasts. Virtually all Canadian ovens make legal use of the Fahrenheit scale.[19] Thermometers, both digital and analog, sold in Canada usually employ both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.[20][21][22] Also, in some instances (swimming pool temperature, thermostats, or cooking temperatures for example), temperatures are still expressed in Fahrenheit.
European laundry symbol for "Wash at 40 °C"
Within the European Union, it is mandatory to use kelvins or degrees Celsius when quoting temperature for "economic, public health, public safety and administrative" purposes, though degrees Fahrenheit may be used alongside degrees Celsius as a supplementary unit.[23] For example, the laundry symbols used in the United Kingdom follow the recommendations of ISO 3758:2005 showing the temperature of the washing machine water in degrees Celsius only.[24] The equivalent label in North America uses one to six dots to denote temperature with an optional temperature in degrees Celsius.[25][26]
Within the unregulated sector, such as journalism, the use of Fahrenheit in the United Kingdom follows no fixed pattern with degrees Fahrenheit often appearing alongside degrees Celsius. The Daily Mail, on its daily weather page, quotes Celsius first, followed by Fahrenheit in brackets,[27] The Daily Telegraph does not mention Fahrenheit on its daily weather page[28] while The Times also has an all-metric daily weather page but has a Celsius-to-Fahrenheit conversion table.[29] When publishing news stories, much of the UK press and population have adopted a convention of using degrees Celsius in headlines and discussion relating to low temperatures and Fahrenheit for high temperatures. In February 2006, the writer of an article in The Times suggested that the rationale was one of emphasis: "−6 °C" sounds colder than "21 °F" and "94 °F" sounds more impressive than "34 °C".[30]
Unicode representation of symbol[edit]
Unicode provides the Fahrenheit symbol at codepoint U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit. However, this is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: "The sequence U+00B0 ° degree sign +U+0046 F latin capital letter f is preferred over U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit, and those two sequences should be treated as identical for searching."[31]
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Comparison of temperature scales
Degree of frost
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert T. Balmer (2010). Modern Engineering Thermodynamics. Academic Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-12-374996-3. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fahrenheit: Facts, History & Conversion Formulas". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit temperature scale, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 September 2015
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Celsius vs. Fahrenheit
^ Jump up to: a b Walt Boyes (2009). Instrumentation Reference Book. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-7506-8308-1. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Preston–Thomas, H. (1990). "The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)" (PDF). Metrologia. 27: 6. Bibcode:1990Metro..27....3P. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/27/1/002. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sal Armoniac" was an impure form of ammonium chloride. The French chemist Nicolas Lémery (1645 – 1715) discussed it in his book Cours de Chymie (A Course of Chemistry, 1675), describing where it occurs naturally and how it can be prepared artificially. It occurs naturally in the deserts of northern Africa, where it forms from puddles of animal urine. It can be prepared artificially by boiling 5 parts of urine, 1 part of sea salt, and ½ part of chimney soot until the mixture has dried. The mixture is then heated in a sublimation pot until it sublimates ; the sublimated crystals are sal Armoniac. See:
Nicolas Lémery, Cours de chymie … , 7th ed. (Paris, France: Estienne Michallet, 1688), Chapitre XVII: du Sel Armoniac, pp. 338-339.
English translation: Nicolas Lémery with James Keill, trans., A Course of Chymistry … , 3rd ed. (London, England: Walter Kettilby, 1698), Chap. XVII: of Sal Armoniack, p. 383. Available on-line at: Heinrich Heine University (Düsseldorf, Germany)
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit, Daniele Gabr. (1724) "Experimenta circa gradum caloris liquorum nonnullorum ebullientium instituta" (Experiments performed concerning the degree of heat of some boiling liquids), Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 33 : 1-3. For an English translation, see: Le Moyne College (Syracuse, New York)
Jump up ^ "Wetterlexikon - Lufttemperatur" (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Ernst Cohen and W.A.T. Cohen-De Meester. Chemisch Weekblad, volume 33 (1936), pages 374–393, cited and translated in http://www.sizes.com:80/units/temperature_Fahrenheit.htm
Jump up ^ Frautschi, Steven C.; Richard P. Olenick; Tom M. Apostol; David L. Goodstein (14 January 2008). The mechanical universe: mechanics and heat. Cambridge University Press. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-521-71590-4.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams. "On the Fahrenheit scale, do 0 and 100 have any special significance?". The Straight Dope.
Jump up ^ Hasok Chang, Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress, pp. 8-11, Oxford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0198038240.
Jump up ^ Elert, Glenn; Forsberg, C; Wahren, LK (2002). "Temperature of a Healthy Human (Body Temperature)". Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. 16 (2): 122–8. doi:10.1046/j.1471-6712.2002.00069.x. PMID 12000664. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "782 - Aerodrome reports and forecasts: A user's handbook to the codes". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Halsey, Frederick A., Dale, Samuel S. (1919). The metric fallacy (2 ed.). The American Institute of Weights and Measures. pp. 165–166, 176–177. Retrieved 19 May 2009. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Canadian Units of Measurement; Department of Justice, Weights and Measures Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. W-6)". 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Pearlstein, Steven (4 June 2000). "Did Canada go metric? Yes - and no". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of analog thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of digital thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Department of Justice (26 February 2009). "Canadian Weights and Measures Act". Federal Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Statutory Instrument 2009/3046 - Weights and Measures - The Units of Measurement Regulations 2009 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-01, "The Secretary of State, being a Minister designated(a) for the purposes of section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972(b) in relation to units of measurement to be used for economic, health, safety, or administrative purposes, in exercise of the powers conferred by that subsection, makes the following Regulations:
Jump up ^ "Home Laundering Consultative Council - What Symbols Mean". Home Laundering Consultative Council. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Common Home Laundering & Drycleaning Symbols". Textile Industry Affairs. 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Apparel and Textile Care Symbols". Office of Consumer Affairs, Government of Canada. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Mail. 3 July 2013. p. 3.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Telegraph. 3 July 2013. p. 31.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Times. 3 July 2013. p. 55.
Jump up ^ "Measure for measure". The Times. Times Newspapers. 23 February 2006.
Jump up ^ "22.2". The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. August 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Look up fahrenheit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (Polish-born Dutch physicist) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
"At Auction | One of Only Three Original Fahrenheit Thermometers" Enfilade page for 2012 Christie's sale of a Fahrenheit mercury thermometer with some nice pictures
Christie's press release
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Glass transition
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The glass–liquid transition or glass transition for short is the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased.[1] An amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved by supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification.
The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists.
Hard plastics like polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate) are used well below their glass transition temperatures, that is in their glassy state. Their Tg values are well above room temperature, both at around 100 °C (212 °F). Rubber elastomers like polyisoprene and polyisobutylene are used above their Tg, that is, in the rubbery state, where they are soft and flexible.[2]
Despite the change in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition, the transition is not considered a phase transition; rather it is a phenomenon extending over a range of temperature and defined by one of several conventions.[3][4] Such conventions include a constant cooling rate (20 kelvins per minute (36 °F/min))[1] and a viscosity threshold of 1012 Pa·s, among others. Upon cooling or heating through this glass-transition range, the material also exhibits a smooth step in the thermal-expansion coefficient and in the specific heat, with the location of these effects again being dependent on the history of the material.[5] The question of whether some phase transition underlies the glass transition is a matter of continuing research.[3][4][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Transition temperature Tg
2.1 Polymers
2.2 Silicates and other covalent network glasses
3 Kauzmann's paradox
4 The glass transition in specific materials
4.1 Silica, SiO2
4.2 Polymers
5 Mechanics of vitrification
5.1 Electronic structure
6 References
7 External links
Introduction[edit]
The glass transition of a liquid to a solid-like state may occur with either cooling or compression.[7] The transition comprises a smooth increase in the viscosity of a material by as much as 17 orders of magnitude within a temperature range of 500 K without any pronounced change in material structure.[8] The consequence of this dramatic increase is a glass exhibiting solid-like mechanical properties on the timescale of practical observation. This transition is in contrast to the freezing or crystallization transition, which is a first-order phase transition in the Ehrenfest classification and involves discontinuities in thermodynamic and dynamic properties such as volume, energy, and viscosity. In many materials that normally undergo a freezing transition, rapid cooling will avoid this phase transition and instead result in a glass transition at some lower temperature. Other materials, such as many polymers, lack a well defined crystalline state and easily form glasses, even upon very slow cooling or compression. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass forming ability. This ability depends on the composition of the material and can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[9]
Below the transition temperature range, the glassy structure does not relax in accordance with the cooling rate used. The expansion coefficient for the glassy state is roughly equivalent to that of the crystalline solid. If slower cooling rates are used, the increased time for structural relaxation (or intermolecular rearrangement) to occur may result in a higher density glass product. Similarly, by annealing (and thus allowing for slow structural relaxation) the glass structure in time approaches an equilibrium density corresponding to the supercooled liquid at this same temperature. Tg is located at the intersection between the cooling curve (volume versus temperature) for the glassy state and the supercooled liquid.[10][11][12][13][14]
The configuration of the glass in this temperature range changes slowly with time towards the equilibrium structure. The principle of the minimization of the Gibbs free energy provides the thermodynamic driving force necessary for the eventual change. It should be noted here that at somewhat higher temperatures than Tg, the structure corresponding to equilibrium at any temperature is achieved quite rapidly. In contrast, at considerably lower temperatures, the configuration of the glass remains sensibly stable over increasingly extended periods of time.
Thus, the liquid-glass transition is not a transition between states of thermodynamic equilibrium. It is widely believed that the true equilibrium state is always crystalline. Glass is believed to exist in a kinetically locked state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic phenomenon. Time and temperature are interchangeable quantities (to some extent) when dealing with glasses, a fact often expressed in the time–temperature superposition principle. On cooling a liquid, internal degrees of freedom successively fall out of equilibrium. However, there is a longstanding debate whether there is an underlying second-order phase transition in the hypothetical limit of infinitely long relaxation times.[clarification needed][5][15][16][17]
Transition temperature Tg[edit]
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Measurement of Tg (the temperature at the point A) by differential scanning calorimetry
Determination of Tg by dilatometry.
Refer to the figure on the right plotting the heat capacity as a function of temperature. In this context, Tg is the temperature corresponding to point A on the curve. The linear sections below and above Tg are colored green. Tg is the temperature at the intersection of the red regression lines.[18]
Different operational definitions of the glass transition temperature Tg are in use, and several of them are endorsed as accepted scientific standards. Nevertheless, all definitions are arbitrary, and all yield different numeric results: at best, values of Tg for a given substance agree within a few kelvins. One definition refers to the viscosity, fixing Tg at a value of 1013 poise (or 1012 Pa·s). As evidenced experimentally, this value is close to the annealing point of many glasses.[19]
In contrast to viscosity, the thermal expansion, heat capacity, shear modulus, and many other properties of inorganic glasses show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition temperature. Any such step or kink can be used to define Tg. To make this definition reproducible, the cooling or heating rate must be specified.
The most frequently used definition of Tg uses the energy release on heating in differential scanning calorimetry (DSC, see figure). Typically, the sample is first cooled with 10 K/min and then heated with that same speed.
Yet another definition of Tg uses the kink in dilatometry (a.k.a. thermal expansion). Here, heating rates of 3–5 K/min (5.4–9.0 °F/min) are common. Summarized below are Tg values characteristic of certain classes of materials.
Polymers[edit]
Material
Tg (°C)
Tg (°F)
Commercial name
Tire rubber −70 −94[20]
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) −35 −31[21]
Polypropylene (PP atactic) −20 −4[22]
Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) −20 −4[21]
Polypropylene (PP isotactic) 0 32[22]
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) 15 59[22]
Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) 30 86[22]
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) 45 113[21]
Polyamide (PA) 47–60 117–140 Nylon-6,x
Polylactic acid (PLA) 60–65 140–149
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 70 158[22]
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 80 176[22]
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) 85 185[22]
Polystyrene (PS) 95 203[22]
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA atactic) 105 221[22] Plexiglas, Perspex
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 105 221[23]
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 115 239[24] Teflon
Poly(carbonate) (PC) 145 293[22] Lexan
Polysulfone 185 365
Polynorbornene 215 419[22]
Dry nylon-6 has a glass transition temperature of 47 °C (117 °F).[25] Nylon-6,6 in the dry state has a glass transition temperature of about 70 °C (158 °F).[26][27] Whereas polyethene has a glass transition range of −130 – −80 °C (−202 – −112 °F)[28] The above are only mean values, as the glass transition temperature depends on the cooling rate and molecular weight distribution and could be influenced by additives. For a semi-crystalline material, such as polyethene that is 60–80% crystalline at room temperature, the quoted glass transition refers to what happens to the amorphous part of the material upon cooling.
Silicates and other covalent network glasses[edit]
Material
Tg (°C)
Tg (°F)
Chalcogenide GeSbTe 150 302[29]
Chalcogenide AsGeSeTe 245 473
ZBLAN fluoride glass 235 455
Tellurium dioxide 280 536
Fluoroaluminate 400 752
Soda-lime glass 520–600 968–1,112
Fused quartz (approximate) 1,200 2,200[30]
Kauzmann's paradox[edit]
Entropy difference between crystal and undercooled melt
As a liquid is supercooled, the difference in entropy between the liquid and solid phase decreases. By extrapolating the heat capacity of the supercooled liquid below its glass transition temperature, it is possible to calculate the temperature at which the difference in entropies becomes zero. This temperature has been named the Kauzmann temperature.
If a liquid could be supercooled below its Kauzmann temperature, and it did indeed display a lower entropy than the crystal phase, the consequences would be paradoxical. This Kauzmann paradox has been the subject of much debate and many publications since it was first put forward by Walter Kauzmann in 1948.[31]
One resolution of the Kauzmann paradox is to say that there must be a phase transition before the entropy of the liquid decreases. In this scenario, the transition temperature is known as the calorimetric ideal glass transition temperature T0c. In this view, the glass transition is not merely a kinetic effect, i.e. merely the result of fast cooling of a melt, but there is an underlying thermodynamic basis for glass formation. The glass transition temperature:
T g → T 0 c as d T d t → 0. {\displaystyle T_{g}\to T_{0c}{\text{ as }}{\frac {dT}{dt}}\to 0.}
There are at least three other possible resolutions to the Kauzmann paradox. It could be that the heat capacity of the supercooled liquid near the Kauzmann temperature smoothly decreases to a smaller value. It could also be that a first order phase transition to another liquid state occurs before the Kauzmann temperature with the heat capacity of this new state being less than that obtained by extrapolation from higher temperature. Finally, Kauzmann himself resolved the entropy paradox by postulating that all supercooled liquids must crystallize before the Kauzmann temperature is reached.
The glass transition in specific materials[edit]
Silica, SiO2[edit]
Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) has a number of distinct crystalline forms in addition to the quartz structure. Nearly all of the crystalline forms involve tetrahedral SiO4 units linked together by shared vertices in different arrangements. Si-O bond lengths vary between the different crystal forms. For example, in α-quartz the bond length is 161 picometres (6.3×10−9 in), whereas in α-tridymite it ranges from 154–171 pm (6.1×10−9–6.7×10−9 in). The Si-O-Si bond angle also varies from 140° in α-tridymite to 144° in α-quartz to 180° in β-tridymite. Any deviations from these standard parameters constitute microstructural differences or variations that represent an approach to an amorphous, vitreous or glassy solid. The transition temperature Tg in silicates is related to the energy required to break and re-form covalent bonds in an amorphous (or random network) lattice of covalent bonds. The Tg is clearly influenced by the chemistry of the glass. For example, addition of elements such as B, Na, K or Ca to a silica glass, which have a valency less than 4, helps in breaking up the network structure, thus reducing the Tg. Alternatively, P, which has a valency of 5, helps to reinforce an ordered lattice, and thus increases the Tg.[32]
Tg is directly proportional to bond strength, e.g. it depends on quasi-equilibrium thermodynamic parameters of the bonds e.g. on the enthalpy Hd and entropy Sd of configurons – broken bonds: Tg = Hd / [Sd + Rln[(1-fc)/ fc] where R is the gas constant and fc is the percolation threshold. For strong melts such as SiO2 the percolation threshold in the above equation is the universal Scher-Zallen critical density in the 3-D space e.g. fc = 0.15, however for fragile materials the percolation thresholds are material-dependent and fc << 1.[33] The enthalpy Hd and the entropy Sd of configurons – broken bonds can be found from available experimental data on viscosity.[34]
In ironing, a fabric is heated through the glass-rubber transition.
Polymers[edit]
In polymers the glass transition temperature, Tg, is often expressed as the temperature at which the Gibbs free energy is such that the activation energy for the cooperative movement of 50 or so elements of the polymer is exceeded[citation needed]. This allows molecular chains to slide past each other when a force is applied. From this definition, we can see that the introduction of relatively stiff chemical groups (such as benzene rings) will interfere with the flowing process and hence increase Tg.[35] The stiffness of thermoplastics decreases due to this effect (see figure.) When the glass temperature has been reached, the stiffness stays the same for a while, i.e., at or near E2, until the temperature exceeds Tm, and the material melts. This region is called the rubber plateau.
In ironing, a fabric is heated through this transition so that the polymer chains become mobile. The weight of the iron then imposes a preferred orientation. Tg can be significantly decreased by addition of plasticizers into the polymer matrix. Smaller molecules of plasticizer embed themselves between the polymer chains, increasing the spacing and free volume, and allowing them to move past one another even at lower temperatures. The "new-car smell" is due to the initial outgassing of volatile small-molecule plasticizers[citation needed] (most commonly known as phthalates) used to modify interior plastics (e.g., dashboards) to keep them from cracking in the cold of winter weather. The addition of nonreactive side groups to a polymer can also make the chains stand off from one another, reducing Tg. If a plastic with some desirable properties has a Tg that is too high, it can sometimes be combined with another in a copolymer or composite material with a Tg below the temperature of intended use. Note that some plastics are used at high temperatures, e.g., in automobile engines, and others at low temperatures.[22]
Stiffness versus temperature
In viscoelastic materials, the presence of liquid-like behavior depends on the properties of and so varies with rate of applied load, i.e., how quickly a force is applied. The silicone toy Silly Putty behaves quite differently depending on the time rate of applying a force: pull slowly and it flows, acting as a heavily viscous liquid; hit it with a hammer and it shatters, acting as a glass.
On cooling, rubber undergoes a liquid-glass transition, which has also been called a rubber-glass transition.
Mechanics of vitrification[edit]
Main article: Vitrification
Molecular motion in condensed matter can be represented by a Fourier series whose physical interpretation consists of a superposition of longitudinal and transverse waves of atomic displacement with varying directions and wavelengths. In monatomic systems, these waves are called density fluctuations. (In polyatomic systems, they may also include compositional fluctuations.)[36]
Thus, thermal motion in liquids can be decomposed into elementary longitudinal vibrations (or acoustic phonons) while transverse vibrations (or shear waves) were originally described only in elastic solids exhibiting the highly ordered crystalline state of matter. In other words, simple liquids cannot support an applied force in the form of a shearing stress, and will yield mechanically via macroscopic plastic deformation (or viscous flow). Furthermore, the fact that a solid deforms locally while retaining its rigidity – while a liquid yields to macroscopic viscous flow in response to the application of an applied shearing force – is accepted by many as the mechanical distinction between the two.[37][38]
The inadequacies of this conclusion, however, were pointed out by Frenkel in his revision of the kinetic theory of solids and the theory of elasticity in liquids. This revision follows directly from the continuous characteristic of the structural transition from the liquid state into the solid one when this transition is not accompanied by crystallization—ergo the supercooled viscous liquid. Thus we see the intimate correlation between transverse acoustic phonons (or shear waves) and the onset of rigidity upon vitrification, as described by Bartenev in his mechanical description of the vitrification process.[39][40]
The velocities of longitudinal acoustic phonons in condensed matter are directly responsible for the thermal conductivity that levels out temperature differentials between compressed and expanded volume elements. Kittel proposed that the behavior of glasses is interpreted in terms of an approximately constant "mean free path" for lattice phonons, and that the value of the mean free path is of the order of magnitude of the scale of disorder in the molecular structure of a liquid or solid. The thermal phonon mean free paths or relaxation lengths of a number of glass formers have been plotted versus the glass transition temperature, indicating a linear relationship between the two. This has suggested a new criterion for glass formation based on the value of the phonon mean free path.[41]
It has often been suggested that heat transport in dielectric solids occurs through elastic vibrations of the lattice, and that this transport is limited by elastic scattering of acoustic phonons by lattice defects (e.g. randomly spaced vacancies).[42] These predictions were confirmed by experiments on commercial glasses and glass ceramics, where mean free paths were apparently limited by "internal boundary scattering" to length scales of 10–100 micrometres (0.00039–0.00394 in).[43][44] The relationship between these transverse waves and the mechanism of vitrification has been described by several authors who proposed that the onset of correlations between such phonons results in an orientational ordering or "freezing" of local shear stresses in glass-forming liquids, thus yielding the glass transition.[45]
Electronic structure[edit]
The influence of thermal phonons and their interaction with electronic structure is a topic that was appropriately introduced in a discussion of the resistance of liquid metals. Lindemann's theory of melting is referenced, and it is suggested that the drop in conductivity in going from the crystalline to the liquid state is due to the increased scattering of conduction electrons as a result of the increased amplitude of atomic vibration. Such theories of localization have been applied to transport in metallic glasses, where the mean free path of the electrons is very small (on the order of the interatomic spacing).[46][47]
The formation of a non-crystalline form of a gold-silicon alloy by the method of splat quenching from the melt led to further considerations of the influence of electronic structure on glass forming ability, based on the properties of the metallic bond.[48][49][50][51][52]
Other work indicates that the mobility of localized electrons is enhanced by the presence of dynamic phonon modes. One claim against such a model is that if chemical bonds are important, the nearly free electron models should not be applicable. However, if the model includes the buildup of a charge distribution between all pairs of atoms just like a chemical bond (e.g., silicon, when a band is just filled with electrons) then it should apply to solids.[53]
Thus, if the electrical conductivity is low, the mean free path of the electrons is very short. The electrons will only be sensitive to the short-range order in the glass since they do not get a chance to scatter from atoms spaced at large distances. Since the short-range order is similar in glasses and crystals, the electronic energies should be similar in these two states. For alloys with lower resistivity and longer electronic mean free paths, the electrons could begin to sense that there is disorder in the glass, and this would raise their energies and destabilize the glass with respect to crystallization. Thus, the glass formation tendencies of certain alloys may therefore be due in part to the fact that the electron mean free paths are very short, so that only the short-range order is ever important for the energy of the electrons.
It has also been argued that glass formation in metallic systems is related to the "softness" of the interaction potential between unlike atoms. Some authors, emphasizing the strong similarities between the local structure of the glass and the corresponding crystal, suggest that chemical bonding helps to stabilize the amorphous structure.[54][55]
Other authors have suggested that the electronic structure yields its influence on glass formation through the directional properties of bonds. Non-crystallinity is thus favored in elements with a large number of polymorphic forms and a high degree of bonding anisotropy. Crystallization becomes more unlikely as bonding anisotropy is increased from isotropic metallic to anisotropic metallic to covalent bonding, thus suggesting a relationship between the group number in the periodic table and the glass forming ability in elemental solids.[56]
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Jump up ^ Reynolds, C. L. Jr. (1979). "Correlation between the low temperature phonon mean free path and glass transition temperature in amorphous solids". J. Non-Cryst. Sol. 30 (3): 371. Bibcode:1979JNCS...30..371R. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(79)90174-1.
Jump up ^ Rosenburg, H. M. (1963) Low Temperature Solid State Physics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Jump up ^ Kittel, C. (1946). "Ultrasonic Propagation in Liquids". J. Chem. Phys. 14 (10): 614. Bibcode:1946JChPh..14..614K. doi:10.1063/1.1724073.
Jump up ^ Kittel, C. (1949). "Interpretation of the Thermal Conductivity of Glasses". Phys. Rev. 75 (6): 972. Bibcode:1949PhRv...75..972K. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.75.972.
Jump up ^ Chen, Shao-Ping; Egami, T.; Vitek, V. (1985). "Orientational ordering of local shear stresses in liquids: A phase transition?". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 75: 449. Bibcode:1985JNCS...75..449C. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(85)90256-X.
Jump up ^ Mott, N. F. (1934). "The Resistance of Liquid Metals". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 146 (857): 465. Bibcode:1934RSPSA.146..465M. doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0166.
Jump up ^ Lindemann, C. (1911). "On the calculation of molecular natural frequencies". Phys. Z. 11: 609.
Jump up ^ Klement, W.; Willens, R. H.; Duwez, POL (1960). "Non-crystalline Structure in Solidified Gold–Silicon Alloys". Nature. 187 (4740): 869. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..869K. doi:10.1038/187869b0.
Jump up ^ Duwez, Pol; Willens, R. H.; Klement, W. (1960). "Continuous Series of Metastable Solid Solutions in Silver-Copper Alloys". Journal of Applied Physics. 31 (6): 1136. Bibcode:1960JAP....31.1136D. doi:10.1063/1.1735777.
Jump up ^ Duwez, Pol; Willens, R. H.; Klement, W. (1960). "Metastable Electron Compound in Ag-Ge Alloys". Journal of Applied Physics. 31 (6): 1137. Bibcode:1960JAP....31.1137D. doi:10.1063/1.1735778.
Jump up ^ Chaudhari, P; Turnbull, D (1978). "Structure and properties of metallic glasses". Science. 199 (4324): 11–21. Bibcode:1978Sci...199...11C. PMID 17841932. doi:10.1126/science.199.4324.11.
Jump up ^ Chen, J. S. (1980). "Glassy metals". Reports on Progress in Physics. 43 (4): 353. Bibcode:1980RPPh...43..353C. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/43/4/001.
Jump up ^ Jonson, M.; Girvin, S. M. (1979). "Electron-Phonon Dynamics and Transport Anomalies in Random Metal Alloys". Phys. Rev. Lett. 43 (19): 1447. Bibcode:1979PhRvL..43.1447J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.1447.
Jump up ^ Turnbull, D. (1974). "Amorphous Solid Formation and Interstitial Solution Behavior in Metallic Alloy System". J. Phys. C. 35 (C4): C4–1. doi:10.1051/jphyscol:1974401.
Jump up ^ Chen, H. S.; Park, B. K. (1973). "Role of chemical bonding in metallic glasses". Acta Met. 21 (4): 395. doi:10.1016/0001-6160(73)90196-X.
Jump up ^ Wang, R.; Merz, D. (1977). "Polymorphic bonding and thermal stability of elemental noncrystalline solids". Physica Status Solidi (a). 39 (2): 697. Bibcode:1977PSSAR..39..697W. doi:10.1002/pssa.2210390240.
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Crown Royal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 2001 album by Run DMC, see Crown Royal (album).
Crown Royal
Type
Canadian whisky
Manufacturer
Diageo
Country of origin
Canada
Introduced
1939 (Canada)
1964 (US and other countries)
Proof (US)
80
Variants
Limited Edition, Special Reserve, XO, XR, Black, Maple, Regal Apple, Honey, Northern Harvest Rye, Vanilla.
Website
crownroyal.com
Crown Royal is a blended Canadian whisky owned by Diageo, which purchased the brand when the Seagram portfolio was dissolved in 2000.[1] It is the top-selling Canadian whisky in the United States.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Production
3 Versions
3.1 Former
4 Ratings
5 Advertising
6 References
7 External links
Origins[edit]
Crown Royal was introduced in 1939 by Samuel Bronfman, president of Seagram, as a tribute to the royal visit of King George VI and his wife, Queen Elizabeth, the first of a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom to Canada.[3][4] It was available only in Canada until 1964,[5] being introduced to the United States in the 1960s.[3]
Production[edit]
Diageo Global Supply Crown Royal plant, Gimli, Manitoba, Canada
Crown Royal is produced solely at the company's distillery at Gimli, on the shores of Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Daily production of Crown Royal uses 10,000 bushels of rye, corn and barley sourced from Manitoba and surrounding provinces,[6]and requires 750,000 imperial gallons (3,400,000 L; 900,000 US gal) of water naturally filtered through the limestone beneath the lake.[6] The whisky produced at the Manitoba distillery is stored in 1.5 million barrels,[7] located in 50 warehouses over 5 acres (2 ha) of land. The whisky is then blended and bottled in Amherstburg, Ontario.[8][9]
Crown Royal was also produced in Waterloo, Ontario, until the plant there closed in 1992.[10]
Versions[edit]
Crown Royal was introduced in 1939 and is the original version of the brand. It was available only in Canada until 1964. Crown Royal comes in a purple felt-like bag with a gold tasselled drawstring.
Crown Royal Black was introduced in 2010, and is a darker, higher alcohol (90 proof) whisky. Comes in a black felt-like bag.[11]
Crown Royal Reserve was introduced in 1992. The whiskies are aged for a longer period than the original.[12] Crown Royal Reserve comes in a tan, velvet-like bag with coarse gold drawstrings.
Crown Royal XR (Extra Rare) was introduced in 2006. This limited-release version is sold in numbered bottles and was originally made from the last batches of whiskey distilled at the now-closed Waterloo, Ontario, distillery; it now features whisky from the also now-closed Lasalle, Quebec, distillery.[13] It received a 7¼ and 7¾ from Whisky Magazine critics.[14][15] The LaSalle-based Crown Royal XR features a blue colour scheme to distinguish it from the red scheme of the original Waterloo-based version.[15]
Crown Royal XO was introduced in January 2014. It is a blend of 50 whiskies that is then finished in Cognac casks from the French Limousin forest. It is packaged in a bag with gray and gold embroidery accents.[16]
Crown Royal Northern Harvest Rye was introduced in May 2015, and is packaged in an off-white felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Hand Selected Barrel was introduced in May 2015, and is a single barrel rye that is produced from the brand’s Coffey rye still, the only one of its kind in North America. Selected retailers will be able to purchase an entire cask to dispense to their customers.
Crown Royal Monarch 75th Anniversary Blend was created in 2014 to commemorate the 1939 royal visit that inspired the brand and was prepared as a gift for the royal family.[17]
Crown Royal Maple Finished was introduced in 2012. It is a blend of Crown Royal with maple flavour and comes in a brown felt-like bag.[18]
Crown Royal Regal Apple was introduced in November 2014. It is a blend of Crown Royal with apple flavour. Comes in a green felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Honey Comes in a yellow felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Vanilla Comes in a tan felt-like bag.
Former[edit]
Crown Royal Cask No. 16
Crown Royal Cask No. 16 was introduced late 2007. It was made from over fifty blended and individually aged whiskies in 12-year-old cognac barrels. These barrels were made of oak from the Limousin forest in France. The whiskies were designed to have a cognac type of finish with notes of rye, grain, and fruit. Cask No. 16 comes in a black felt-like bag embroidered with the logo and name "CASK No 16".[19] This blend was discontinued in late 2012.
Ratings[edit]
Crown Royal offerings have generally performed well at international spirit ratings competitions. For example, the basic Canadian whisky was awarded a string of five gold medals at the San Francisco World Spirits Competitions between 2005 and 2012. [20] The Special Reserve received an editors choice gold award from Whisky Magazine and received ratings from 7¾ to 8¾ from three of the critics.[21][22]
Jim Murray's "Whisky Bible" named Crown Royal’s Northern Harvest Rye as the World Whisky of the Year for 2016.[23]
Advertising[edit]
Crown Royal sponsored hauler of Jamie McMurray's NASCAR stock car
Crown Royal advertises in motor sports, horse shows, and horse racing. It sponsored the No. 17 Ford Fusion of Matt Kenseth from 2010-2011,[24] the No. 26 Ford Fusion of Jamie McMurray from 2006-2009, and has sponsored NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races since 2006. From 2004 until 2006, Crown Royal was the title sponsor of the International Race of Champions.
Crown Royal is a sponsor of the Grand American Road Racing Association's Rolex Sports Car Series. In 2010, it also began sponsoring the #60 Daytona Prototype car of Michael Shank Racing in the Rolex Sports Car Series.
The brand was a primary sponsor of the Washington International Horse Show for several years in the 1990s and since 1995 has sponsored the Crown Royal American Turf Stakes, a Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Churchill Downs.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Bronfmans: The Rise and Fall of the House of Seagram; Nicholas Faith; Thomas Dunne Books - May 30, 2006 - ISBN 0-312-33219-X
Jump up ^ January/February 2001 CANADIAN WHISKY, Beverage Net SPIRITS BUSINESS. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.crownroyal.com/story/our-history/
Jump up ^ "The House of Windsor: George VI (r.1936-1952)". The Royal Household. 2009. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Berkey, Chad; LeBlanc, Jeremy (2014). The North American Whiskey Guide from Behind the Bar: Real Bartenders' Reviews of More Than 250 Whiskeys--Includes 30 Standout Cocktail Recipes. Macmillan. p. 101. ISBN 9781624140761.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.crownroyal.com/story/our-process/
Jump up ^ https://www.crownroyal.com/story/our-home/
Jump up ^ "Towns look to leave mark on booze bottles". Business Edge News Magazine (Ontario Edition). businessedge.ca.
Jump up ^ Layoffs land at Diageo Archived 2008-01-31 at the Wayback Machine. at Canada.com
Jump up ^ "Crown Royal Fine De Luxe From 1963". Davin de Kergommeaux. 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Black Whisky: Crown Royal Black - Crown Royal". crownroyal.com.
Jump up ^ Crown Royal Reserve, CrownRoyal.com Special Reserve. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ About Crown Royal XR[permanent dead link], CrownRoyal.com Crown Royal XR. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Crown Royal XR Extra Rare, WhiskyMag.com Whiskies. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Bettridge, Jack (May 18, 2012). "Crown Royal Releases a New XR Edition - Drinks - Cigar Aficionado". Cigar Aficionado - The Good Life - Drinks. Cigar Aficionado Online. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Crown Royal XO - Crown Royal". crownroyal.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-18.
Jump up ^ http://www.drinkspirits.com/canadian-whisky/review-crown-royal-monarch-75th-anniversary-blend/
Jump up ^ "Rare Whisky: Crown Royal Maple - Crown Royal". crownroyal.com.
Jump up ^ About Cask No.16 Archived 2012-07-22 at Archive.is, CrownRoyal.com Crown Royal Cask 16. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Proof66.com Summary Page for Crown Royal". Retrieved 2012-10-21.
Jump up ^ Crown Royal Special Reserve, WhiskyMag.com Whiskies. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ Crown Royal SR Special Reserve, WhiskyMag.com Whiskies. Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ JIM MURRAY’S WHISKY BIBLE 2016 – THE WINNERS, "thewhiskyexchange.com". Retrieved 2015-11-21
Jump up ^ "About Matt Kenseth". Matt Kenseth. 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
External links[edit]
Crown Royal U.S. Web Site
Crown Royal Canadian Web Site
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1Produced by Moët Hennessy, a joint venture between Diageo (34%) and LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton S.A. (66%) 2Owned by Lothian Distillers, a joint venture between Diageo (50%) and The Edrington Group (50%)
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