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Brazilian nationality law
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Brazil Citizenship Act
Parliament of Brazil
An Act relating to Brazilian citizenship
Enacted by
Government of Brazil
Status: Current legislation
Brazilian nationality law is based on both the principles of jus soli and of jus sanguinis. As a general rule, any person born in Brazil acquires Brazilian nationality at birth, irrespective of status of parents. Nationality law is regulated by Article 12 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution.
Contents
[hide]
1 Birth in Brazil
2 Natural Brazilians born abroad
3 Naturalization as a Brazilian citizen
4 Dual nationality and loss of Brazilian nationality
5 Visa-free travel
6 Military service
7 Voting
8 See also
9 References
Birth in Brazil[edit]
A person born in Brazil acquires Brazilian nationality at birth. The only exception applies to children of persons in the service of a foreign government (such as a foreign diplomats). This means that parents and siblings of the Brazilian child are eligible to apply for permanent residency in Brazil, regardless of their nationality or where subsequent siblings were/are born.[1]
Natural Brazilians born abroad[edit]
Brazilian law considers as Brazilian citizens people born abroad in two cases:
a person born outside Brazil of a Brazilian parent who is in the service of the Brazilian government; or
a person born outside Brazil of a Brazilian parent, provided that that person either be registered with a Brazilian consular office or later move to Brazil and confirm one's nationality before a federal judge.
Between 1994 and 2007, registration with a Brazilian consular office did not confer Brazilian nationality. In September 2007, a constitutional amendment reinstituted consular registration as a means of acquiring Brazilian nationality.
Naturalization as a Brazilian citizen[edit]
Foreigners may apply for Brazilian nationality if they meet the following criteria:[2][3][4]
four years of residence in Brazil
adequate ability to communicate in Portuguese
no prior criminal conviction in either Brazil or any country that Brazil has formal relations with
The residence requirement may be reduced in certain circumstances:[2][3][4]
only one year of residence is required for those who have a Brazilian spouse or child, for nationals of Portuguese-speaking countries, for those who have provided "relevant services" to the country, or for those with notable "professional, scientific or artistic ability"
no residence period is required for those married to a Brazilian diplomat for more than five years, or for those who worked for more than 10 years in a Brazilian diplomatic mission
Those who have lived in Brazil for more than 15 years and have no criminal conviction do not have to satisfy any other condition for naturalization. There are also lower requirements for those who moved to Brazil as minors.[2][3][4]
Since 10 May 2016, Brazil recognizes dual citizenship, therefore not requiring naturalized citizens to renounce their previous nationality.[5][6][2][4]
Dual nationality and loss of Brazilian nationality[edit]
According to the Brazilian constitution, Brazilian citizens who acquire another nationality may lose Brazilian nationality. However, since 1994 a constitutional amendment allows two exceptions where Brazilians may maintain Brazilian nationality while acquiring another one. The first exception is in the case of recognition of "originary nationality" by foreign law. Contrary to a popular misconception, this term does not refer to recognition of original Brazilian nationality by the other country, but to cases where the other nationality is acquired by origin (by birth or descent, as opposed to naturalization).[7] Whether the other country recognizes dual nationality is irrelevant. The second exception is in case the other country requires naturalization for the person to remain residing or to exercise civil rights there.
Although the government has the power to revoke Brazilian nationality of those who voluntarily naturalized in another country and did not satisfy one of the exceptions, it tends to apply these exceptions very broadly, and in practice it only revokes Brazilian nationality if the person formally requests so, or very rarely in exceptional circumstances.[8][9] For example, in 2013 the Brazilian government revoked the nationality of a Brazilian citizen who had naturalized in the United States, to extradite her to that country (the Brazilian constitution does not allow extradition of its own citizens). The decision was confirmed by the Supreme Federal Court in 2017, and she was extradited in 2018.[10]
Those who lose Brazilian nationality due to naturalization in another country may apply for its reacquisition after requesting renunciation of the other nationality.[8]
Naturalized Brazilians are allowed to also keep their previous nationality.[5][6][2][4] They may lose Brazilian nationality if convicted of activity considered "harmful to the national interest".[3][4]
In general, Brazilian citizens must enter and leave Brazil on a Brazilian passport or Brazilian identity card, even if they also hold a passport of another country.[11] However, in exceptional circumstances, such as dual citizens who work in foreign government jobs that prohibit the use of a Brazilian passport, Brazil accepts issuing visitor visas on their foreign passports for travel to Brazil.[12]
Visa-free travel[edit]
Main article: Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens
Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens
Brazil
Passport not required. Travel with a Brazilian identity card
Visa free
Visa issued upon arrival
eVisa
Visa available both on arrival or online
Visa required
Visa requirements for Brazilian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Brazil. As of 1 January 2017, Brazilian citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 156 countries and territories, ranking the Brazilian passport 18th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index.[13]
Military service[edit]
Male Brazilian citizens have a 12-month military service obligation, unless the citizen has a disqualifying physical or psychological condition, or if the citizen does not wish to serve and the military finds enough volunteers to support its needs. Therefore, although registering for the military is mandatory, about 95% of those who register receive an exemption.[14] Male citizens between 18 and 45 years of age are required to present a military registration certificate when applying for a Brazilian passport.[15]
Voting[edit]
Voting in Brazil is mandatory for citizens between 18 and 70 years of age. Those who do not vote in an election and do not later present an acceptable justification (such as being away from their voting location at the time) must pay a fine of 3.51 BRL.[16][17] Citizens between 18 and 70 years of age are required to present proof of voting compliance (by having voted, justified absence or paid the fine) when applying for a Brazilian passport.[15]
See also[edit]
Brazilian identity card
Brazilian passport
Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas
History of Brazilian nationality
Visa policy of Brazil
Equality Statute between Brazil and Portugal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://givebirthinbrazil.com/why-give-birth-brazil-florianopolis, Why Give Birth In Brazil?
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Nationality, Ministry of Justice and Public Security of Brazil (in Portuguese).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Law no. 13.445, of 24 May 2017, Government of Brazil (in Portuguese).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Decree no. 9.199, of 20 November 2017, Government of Brazil (in Portuguese).
^ Jump up to: a b ACNUR: New decree facilitates naturalization of foreigners in Brazil and fights statelessness, United Nations in Brazil, 20 May 2016 (in Portuguese).
^ Jump up to: a b Decree no. 86.715, of 10 December 1981, Government of Brazil (in Portuguese).
Jump up ^ Ruling number 172 of the Ministry of Justice, of 4 August 1995, 26th Notary Office of São Paulo (in Portuguese).
^ Jump up to: a b Loss of nationality, Ministry of External Relations of Brazil (in Portuguese).
Jump up ^ A Brazilian may lose original nationality while becoming a citizen of another country, Gazeta Brazilian News, 20 April 2017 (in Portuguese).
Jump up ^ Government extradites Brazilian that lost citizenship, accused of homicide in the US, Consultor Jurídico, 18 January 2018 (in Portuguese).
Jump up ^ Tourist Visa, Consulate General of Brazil in Houston.
Jump up ^ Visitor visa, Consulate General of Brazil in Miami.
Jump up ^ "Global Ranking - Visa Restriction Index 2017" (PDF). Henley & Partners. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
Jump up ^ What are the obstacles to 'conscientious objection' to military registration?, Nexo, 16 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Documentation for normal passport, Federal Police of Brazil, 29 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Voting justification, Supreme Electoral Court of Brazil.
Jump up ^ Answers to doubts from voters, Regional Electoral Court of São Paulo.
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Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia deals with the legislative inconsistency between federal and state laws and declares that valid federal laws override ("shall prevail") inconsistent State laws, to the extent of the inconsistency. Section 109 is analogous to the Supremacy Clause in the United States Constitution and the Paramountcy doctrine in Canadian constitutional jurisprudence, and the jurisprudence in one jurisdictions is considered persuasive in the others.
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 History of approach
3 Approach to interpretation
3.1 Impossible to obey both laws
3.2 One law confers a right which the other purports to take away
3.3 Covering the field
3.4 Clearing the field
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Text[edit]
Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia provides that:
When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid.[1]
Section 109, together with section 5 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (which is not part of the Australian Constitution) have been considered to be the foundation for the existence of the judicial review power in Australia.[2] The section provides:
5. This Act, and all laws made by the Parliament of the Commonwealth under the Constitution, shall be binding on the courts, judges, and people of every State and of every part of the Commonwealth, notwithstanding anything in the laws of any State...
"Invalidity of a State law" does not mean that the State law is invalid in the postitivist sense that the State Parliament lacks power to pass it. The State law, though enacted with full procedural validity, merely ceases to have operative force. Hence, in order for s.109 to come into operation at all, there must be a valid State law and a valid Commonwealth law.[3] When s.109 takes effect, the State law yields to the Commonwealth law, but remains a valid law of the Parliament which enacted it. The practical significance of this will become apparent if, at some later date, the over-riding Commonwealth law ceases to operate. This effect applies also to laws passed by a state (ie., while it was a colony) prior to the establishment of the Australian Constitution as well as those passed by a state after the Commonwealth had passed a relevant law.
History of approach[edit]
The High Court of Australia in D'Emden v Pedder (1904), in the first substantial constitutional case presented before the court, cited and drew on the jurisprudence of the United States case of McCulloch v. Maryland, recognising that the case was not binding. Following the reasoning in the American case, the court adopted the doctrine of implied intergovernmental immunities.
In the Engineers Case (1920),[4] the High Court of Australia swept away the earlier doctrines of |implied intergovernmental immunities and reserved State powers, firmly establishing the modern basis for the legal understanding of federalism in Australia. The Court also rejected the use of American precedent and said that they would apply the settled rules of construction giving primacy to the text of the Constitution, anchoring interpretation in its express words. In 2003, former Chief Justice of Australia Sir Anthony Mason wrote:
“ The combination of literal interpretation and a broad construction of Commonwealth powers led to the Commonwealth assuming a dominant position in the Australian federation vis-a-vis the states. The Engineers Case ushered in a period of literal interpretation of the Constitution. Literal interpretation and legalism (of which Sir John Latham was the chief exponent) were characteristic of the Court's constitutional interpretation for the greater part of the 20th century.[5] ”
In conjunction with the doctrine outlined in the Engineers Case, it has also significantly extended the reach of Federal legislative power in Australia.[6]
Approach to interpretation[edit]
The evolution of High Court doctrine in s. 109 cases has led to three broad approaches to determine when there is inconsistency:[7]
is it impossible to obey both laws? (the "simultaneous obedience" test)
does one law confer a right which the other purports to take away? (the "conferred rights" test)
does the federal law cover the field in question? (the "cover the field" test)
The first two tests, and in particular the first, are said to involve direct inconsistency, while the third test is said to be one involving indirect inconsistency.
Impossible to obey both laws[edit]
Instances may arise when it is impossible to obey two laws simultaneously. A classical example is R v Licensing Court of Brisbane; Ex parte Daniell.[8] A state referendum on liquor trading hours was fixed by State law for the same day as a federal Senate election. The Commonwealth law provided that a State referendum could not be held on that day. It was held that the State law, to the extent of the inconsistency, was invalid. As Isaacs J. observed:
But the position is much stronger here, where there is a prohibition coming, not from the Act itself, but ab extra — from the Act of a Parliament which must be treated as paramount. The State Act operates not through the Federal Act or Constitution, but by virtue of the State Constitution; and it is valid in all respects except so far as the Federal Act and Constitution obstruct it. If the Federal Act, in place of merely forbidding the poll and prescribing penalties for the taking of the poll, had said that no reduction of licences should result from an affirmative poll, it would seem that there could be no reduction; but it has not said so.
One law confers a right which the other purports to take away[edit]
In some situations, one law may purport to confer a legal right, privilege or entitlement, while another law purports to take away or diminish some right or entitlement. In other words, one law says that you can do X, the other that you cannot do X. For example, the Commonwealth provision in Colvin v Bradley Brothers Pty Ltd[9] affirmed that employers in certain industries could employ women to work on certain machines whilst the State provision made it an offence to do so. It was not impossible to obey both laws, since nothing in the Commonwealth law required the employment of females. This type of inconsistency may require a working-out of the actual effect of both laws in an individual case. Because of this, it could require a more subtle analysis than test 1. Similar reasoning was later used in Telstra v Worthing, in discussing conflicting workers' compensation laws,[10] and in Bell Group v Western Australia, where a Western Australia Act that sought to accelerate the dissolution and administration of the Bell Group was held to conflict with the Commonwwealth's income tax laws.[11]
Chief Justice Knox and Justice Gavan Duffy agreed in Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn[12] that a simple test of logical contradiction was "not sufficient or even appropriate in every case", and enunciated this test: where one statute confers a right, and the other takes away the right, even if the right may be waived or abandoned, there is an inconsistency, whereupon the State law would then be invalid to the extent of the inconsistency.
Covering the field[edit]
It may happen that the Commonwealth law evinces a legislative intention to "cover the field". In such a case there need not be any direct contradiction between the two enactments. What is imputed to the Commonwealth Parliament is a legislative intention that its law shall be all the law there is on that topic. In that event, what is "inconsistent" with the Commonwealth law is the existence of any State law at all on that topic.
The "cover the field" test must be implemented in three steps:[13]
a finding as to the field or subject matter regulated by the Commonwealth Act,
a determination as to whether the Commonwealth law intended to regulate that subject matter completely, and
a determination as to whether the State law interferes with or intrudes upon the field covered by the Commonwealth law.
Questions 1 and 2 can be problematic as they frequently depend on a subjective assessment of the scope and operation of a Commonwealth law. In the absence of express intention, the Court will look to a variety of factors, such as the subject-matter of the law and whether for the law to achieve its purpose it is necessary that it be a complete statement of the law on that topic.
This test involves a more indirect form of inconsistency and makes s 109 a much more powerful instrument for ensuring the supremacy of Commonwealth law.
It had first been suggested by Isaacs J in 1910 in Australian Boot Trade Employees Federation v Whybrow.[14] Justice Dixon had foreshadowed a similar test in 1920 when appearing for the Commonwealth in Commonwealth v Queensland.[15] This test received its first clear formulation in Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn by Justice Isaacs. In that case, by covering the field, Isaacs was able to ensure the supremacy of the Commonwealth system.
The "cover the field" test became fully authoritative when Justice Dixon adopted it in Ex parte McLean, stating:
Close consideration of the reasons given by Isaacs, Rich and Starke JJ. in Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn shows that the view upon which they acted in that case and applied afterwards in H. V. McKay Pty. Ltd. v. Hunt[16] was substantially that the Constitution empowered the Parliament to give and that Parliament had given the award this exclusive authority. The view there taken, when analyzed, appears to consist of the following steps, namely:
The power of the Parliament to make laws with respect to conciliation and arbitration for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one State enables the Parliament to authorize awards which, in establishing the relations of the disputants, disregard the provisions and the policy of the State law;
the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act confers such a power upon the tribunal, which may therefore settle the rights and duties of the parties to a dispute in disregard of those prescribed by State law, which thereupon are superseded
sec. 109 gives paramountcy to the Federal statute so empowering the tribunal, with the result that State law cannot validly operate where the tribunal has exercised its authority to determine a dispute in disregard of the State regulation.[17]
In practice, the three tests overlap. For example, in Commercial Radio Coffs Harbour v Fuller,[18] the finding that there was no inconsistency between Federal and State laws depended on all three tests. In doing so, the reasoning by Mason J. in Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley was affirmed:
If, according to the true construction of the Commonwealth law, the right is absolute, then it inevitably follows that the right is intended to prevail to the exclusion of any other law. A State law which takes away the right is inconsistent because it is in conflict with the absolute right and because the Commonwealth law relevantly occupies the field. So also with a Commonwealth law that grants a permission by way of positive authority. The Commonwealth legislative intention which sustains the conclusion that the permission is granted by way of positive authority also sustains the conclusion that the positive authority was to take effect to the exclusion of any other law. Again it produces inconsistency on both grounds: cf. Airlines of NSW Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2) ,[19] where the permission for which Commonwealth law provided was neither absolute nor comprehensive.[20]
Clearing the field[edit]
The Commonwealth can avoid covering a legislative "field" by passing an express provision declaring its intention not to do so. This means in practice that the Commonwealth can control the operation of s.109 in a negative way by making it clear that related State laws are to operate concurrently with the Commonwealth law. The leading case is R v Credit Tribunal; Ex parte General Motors Acceptance Corporation, where Mason J. noted:
28. The judgments to which I have referred make the point that although a provision in a Commonwealth statute which attempts to deny operational validity to a State law cannot of its own force achieve that object, it may nevertheless validly evince an intention on the part of the statute to make exhaustive or exclusive provision on the subject with which it deals, thereby bringing s. 109 into play. Equally a Commonwealth law may provide that it is not intended to make exhaustive or exclusive provision with respect to the subject with which it deals, thereby enabling State laws, not inconsistent with Commonwealth law, to have an operation. Here again the Commonwealth law does not of its own force give State law a valid operation. All that it does is to make it clear that the Commonwealth law is not intended to cover the field, thereby leaving room for the operation of such State laws as do not conflict with Commonwealth law.
29. It is of course by now well established that a provision in a Commonwealth statute evincing an intention that the statute is not intended to cover the field cannot avoid or eliminate a case of direct inconsistency or collision, of the kind which arises, for example, when Commonwealth and State laws make contradictory provision upon the same topic, making it impossible for both laws to be obeyed. In Reg. v. Loewenthal; Ex parte Blacklock..., I pointed out that such a provision in a Commonwealth law cannot displace the operation of s. 109 in rendering the State law inoperative. But where there is no direct inconsistency, where inconsistency can only arise if the Commonwealth law is intended to be an exhaustive and exclusive law, a provision of the kind under consideration will be effective to avoid inconsistency by making it clear that the law is not intended to be exhaustive or exclusive.[21]
See also[edit]
See also: Category:Inconsistency in the Australian Constitution cases.
Supremacy Clause—analogous provision in the United States Constitution
Paramountcy doctrine used in Canadian constitutional jurisprudence
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Constitution of Australia, Chapter V
Jump up ^ Foley 2007, pp. 285–287.
Jump up ^ Carter v Egg & Egg Pulp Marketing Board [1942] HCA 30, (1942) 66 CLR 557 (26 November 1942), High Court
Jump up ^ Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd ("Engineers' case") [1920] HCA 54, (1920) 28 CLR 129 (31 August 1920), High Court
Jump up ^ Mason, Anthony (2003). "High Court of Australia: A Personal Impression of its first 100 years" (PDF). (2003) 27 Melbourne University Law Review 864, at 873–4.
Jump up ^ Morabito & Strain 1993, pp. 188–190.
Jump up ^ Morabito & Strain 1993, pp. 183–185.
Jump up ^ R v Licensing Court of Brisbane [1920] HCA 24, (1920) 28 CLR 23 (22 April 1920), High Court
Jump up ^ Colvin v Bradley Brothers Pty Ltd [1943] HCA 41, (1943) 68 CLR 151 (20 December 1943), High Court
Jump up ^ Telstra v Worthing [1999] HCA 12, 197 CLR 61 (24 March 1999)
Jump up ^ Bell Group N.V. (in liquidation) v Western Australia; W.A. Glendinning & Associates Pty Ltd v Western Australia; Maranoa Transport Pty Ltd (in liq) v Western Australia [2016] HCA 21 (16 May 2016)
Jump up ^ Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn [1926] HCA 6, (1926) 37 CLR 466 (19 April 1926), High Court
Jump up ^ Morabito & Strain 1993, p. 192.
Jump up ^ Australian Boot Trade Employees' Federation v Whybrow & Co [1910] HCA 53, (1910) 10 CLR 266.
Jump up ^ Commonwealth v Queensland [1920] HCA 79, (1920) 29 CLR 1 (6 December 1920), High Court
Jump up ^ H V McKay Pty Ltd v Hunt [1926] HCA 36, (1926) 38 CLR 308 (18 October 1926), High Court
Jump up ^ Ex Parte McLean [1930] HCA 12, (1930) 43 CLR 472 (6 June 1930), High Court
Jump up ^ Commercial Radio Coffs Harbour v Fuller [1986] HCA 42, (1986) 161 CLR 47 (1 August 1986), High Court
Jump up ^ Airlines of NSW Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2) [1965] HCA 3, (1965) 113 CLR 54 (3 February 1965), High Court
Jump up ^ Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty Ltd v Wardley [1980] HCA 8, (1980) 142 CLR 237 (4 March 1980), High Court
Jump up ^ R v Credit Tribunal; Ex parte General Motors Acceptance Corporation [1977] HCA 34 at para. 28–29, (1977) 137 CLR 545 (22 June 1977), High Court
Further reading[edit]
Foley, Kathleen E. (2007). "Australian judicial review" (PDF). Washington University Global Studies Law Review. Washington University School of Law. 6 (2): 281–338.
Morabito, Vince; Strain, Henriette (1993). "The Section 109 'Cover the Field' Test of Inconsistency: an Undesirable Legal Fiction" (PDF). (1993) 12 University of Tasmania Law Review 182
[hide]
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Constitution of Australia
Chapters
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III: Courts
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V: The States
VI: New States
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VIII: Amendments
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51
Powers of
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Amendments
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Pilgrimage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Pilgrimage (disambiguation).
David Teniers the younger: Female Pilgrim
A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a person's beliefs and faith, although sometimes it can be a metaphorical journey into someone's own beliefs. Many religions attach spiritual importance to particular places: the place of birth or death of founders or saints, or to the place of their "calling" or spiritual awakening, or of their connection (visual or verbal) with the divine, to locations where miracles were performed or witnessed, or locations where a deity is said to live or be "housed", or any site that is seen to have special spiritual powers. Such sites may be commemorated with shrines or temples that devotees are encouraged to visit for their own spiritual benefit: to be healed or have questions answered or to achieve some other spiritual benefit. A person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. As a common human experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift and Jean Dalby Clift.[1]
The Holy Land acts as a focal point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to a Stockholm University study in 2011, these pilgrims visit the Holy Land to touch and see physical manifestations of their faith, confirm their beliefs in the holy context with collective excitation, and connect personally to the Holy Land.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Bahá'í Faith
2 Buddhism
3 Christianity
4 Hinduism
5 Islam
5.1 Shi'ism
6 Judaism
7 Sikhism
8 Zoroastrianism
9 Meher Baba
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Bahá'í Faith[edit]
Main article: Bahá'í pilgrimage
Bahá'u'lláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas: the House of Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran. Later, `Abdu'l-Bahá designated the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh at Bahji, Israel as a site of pilgrimage.[3] The designated sites for pilgrimage are currently not accessible to the majority of Bahá'ís, as they are in Iraq and Iran respectively, and thus when Bahá'ís currently refer to pilgrimage, it refers to a nine-day pilgrimage which consists of visiting the holy places at the Bahá'í World Centre in northwest Israel in Haifa, Acre, and Bahjí.[3]
Buddhism[edit]
Main article: Buddhist pilgrimage
Ancient excavated Buddha-image at the Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kushinagar
Tibetans on a pilgrimage to Lhasa, doing full-body prostrations, often for the entire length of the journey
There are four places that Buddhists pilgrimage to:
Lumbini: Buddha's birthplace (in Nepal)
Bodh Gaya: place of Enlightenment(in the current Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India)
Sarnath: (formally Isipathana, Uttar pradesh, India) where he delivered his first teaching
Kusinara: (now Kusinagar, India) where he attained mahaparinirvana (died).
Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepal connected to the life of Gautama Buddha are: Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali, Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha, Varanasi, Sabari mala.
Other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimage include:
India: Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta.
Thailand: Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep.
Tibet: Lhasa (traditional home of the Dalai Lama), Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso.
Cambodia: Angkor Wat, Silver Pagoda.
Sri Lanka: Polonnaruwa, Temple of the Tooth (Kandy), Anuradhapura.
Laos: Luang Prabang.
Malaysia: Kek Lok Si, Cheng Hoon Teng, Maha Vihara
Myanmar: Bagan, Sagaing Hill.
Nepal: Boudhanath, Swayambhunath.
Indonesia: Borobudur.
China: Yung-kang, Lung-men caves. The Four Sacred Mountains
Japan:
Shikoku Pilgrimage, 88 Temple pilgrimage in the Shikoku island.
Japan 100 Kannon, pilgrimage composed of the Saigoku, Bandō and Chichibu pilgrimages.
Saigoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kansai region.
Bandō 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kantō region.
Chichibu 34 Kannon, pilgrimage in Saitama Prefecture.
Chūgoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Chūgoku region.
Kumano Kodō
Mount Kōya.
Christianity[edit]
Main article: Christian pilgrimage
Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Israel according to tradition is the site where Jesus was crucified and resurrected
The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima is one of the largest pilgrimage sites (Marian shrine) in the world.
Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with the birth, life, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. Aside from the early example of Origen in the third century, surviving descriptions of Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land date from the 4th century, when pilgrimage was encouraged by church fathers including Saint Jerome, and established by Saint Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great.[citation needed]
The purpose of Christian pilgrimage was summarized by Pope Benedict XVI this way:
To go on pilgrimage is not simply to visit a place to admire its treasures of nature, art or history. To go on pilgrimage really means to step out of ourselves in order to encounter God where he has revealed himself, where his grace has shone with particular splendour and produced rich fruits of conversion and holiness among those who believe. Above all, Christians go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, to the places associated with the Lord’s passion, death and resurrection. They go to Rome, the city of the martyrdom of Peter and Paul, and also to Compostela, which, associated with the memory of Saint James, has welcomed pilgrims from throughout the world who desire to strengthen their spirit with the Apostle’s witness of faith and love.[4]
Pilgrimages were, and are, also made to Rome and other sites associated with the apostles, saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. A popular pilgrimage journey is along the Way of St. James to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in Galicia, Spain, where the shrine of the apostle James is located. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales recounts tales told by Christian pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Thomas Becket.
Hinduism[edit]
See also: Tirtha (Hinduism), Hindu pilgrimage sites, Hinduism § Pilgrimage, and Yatra
Bathing ghat on the Ganges during Kumbh Mela, Haridwar
Pilgrimage to Kedarnath
Pilgrims on their way to Manikaran, Himachal Pradesh, India, in 2004
Simhastha held in holy city of Ujjain in 2016
According to Karel Werner's Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, "most Hindu places of pilgrimage are associated with legendary events from the lives of various gods.... Almost any place can become a focus for pilgrimage, but in most cases they are sacred cities, rivers, lakes, and mountains."[5] Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimages during their lifetime, though this practice is not considered absolutely mandatory. Most Hindus visit sites within their region or locale.
Kumbh Mela: Kumbh Mela is one of the largest gatherings of humans in the world where pilgrims gather to bathe in a sacred or holy river.[6][7][8] The location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.
Char Dham (Four Holy pilgrimage sites): The famous four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit.
Kanwar Pilgrimage: The Kanwar is India's largest annual religious pilgrimage. As part of this phenomenon, millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga (usually in Haridwar, Gangotri, Gaumukh, or Sultanganj) and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines.[9]
Old Holy cities per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi (Shiva), Allahabad formerly known as Prayag, Haridwar-Rishikesh (Vishnu), Mathura-Vrindavan (Krishna), Pandharpur, Paithan, Kanchipuram (Parvati), Dwarka (Krishna) and Ayodhya (Rama).
Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi, home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala, where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped.
Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.
Pancha Ishwarams - the five ancient Shiva temples of the island from classical antiquity.
The Murugan pilgrimage route of Sri Lanka, an ancient Arunagirinathar-traversed Pada Yatra route of Tiruppadai temples includes the Maviddapuram Kandaswamy Temple in Kankesanturai, the Nallur Kandaswamy temple in Jaffna, the Pancha Ishwaram Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee, the Verugal Murugan Kovil on the bank's of the river Verugal Aru, in Verugal, Trincomalee District, the Mandur Kandaswamy temple of Mandur (Sri Lanka), Thirukkovil Sithira Velayutha Swami Kovil, in Thirukkovil, Batticaloa, the Arugam Bay and Panamai in Amparai district, the Ukanthamalai Murugan Kovil, in Okanda, Kumana National Park and then through the park and Tissamaharama to the deity's holiest site, Kataragama temple, Katirkamam in the South.
Islam[edit]
Main articles: Hajj and Umrah
See also: Holiest sites in Islam, Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
Muslim pilgrims circumambulate around the Ka'aba during the Hajj
Supplicating pilgrim at Masjid al-Haram (Mecca, Saudi Arabia)
The main pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) is one of the five pillars of Islam and a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey, and can support their family during their absence.[10][11][12] The gathering during the Hajj is considered the largest annual gathering of people in the world.[13][14][15]
Another important place for Muslims is the city of Medina, the second holiest site in Islam, in Saudi Arabia, the final resting place of Muhammad in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet).[16] The third holiest site in Islam, Dome of the rock was a major site for pilgrimage where Muslims gather to pray and visit the structures of the holy mosque especially the footprint of Muhammad before he ascended to paradise to meet with deceased prophets. However, due to conflict and disputes between Israel and Palestine the site has been less popular amongst Muslims to go to pilgrimage to in recent years.
The Ihram (white robes of pilgrimage) is meant to show equality of all Muslim pilgrims in the eyes of God, that there is no difference between a prince and a pauper. Ihram is also symbolic for holy virtue and pardon from all past sins.
Shi'ism[edit]
Main articles: Arba'een, Ashura, and Imam Reza
Al-Arba‘een (Arabic: الأربعين, "The Forty"), Chehelom (Persian: چهلم, Urdu: چہلم, "the fortieth [day]") or Qirkhi, Imamin Qirkhi (Azerbaijani: İmamın qırxı, امامین قیرخی, "the fortieth of Imam") is a Shia Muslim religious observance that occurs forty days after the Day of Ashura. It commemorates the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, which falls on the 20th or 21st day of the month of Safar. Imam Husayn ibn Ali and 72 companions were killed by Yazid I's army in the Battle of Karbala in 61 AH (680 CE). Arba'een or forty days is also the usual length of mourning after the death of a family member or loved one in many Muslim traditions. Arba'een is one of the largest pilgrimage gatherings on Earth, in which up to 31 million people go to the city of Karbala in Iraq.[17][18][19][20]
The second largest holy city in the world, Mashhad attracts more than 20 million tourists and pilgrims every year, many of whom come to pay homage to Imam Reza (the eighth Shi'ite Imam). It has been a magnet for travelers since medieval times.[21]
Judaism[edit]
Jews at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem during the Ottoman period, 1867
See also: Temple in Jerusalem, Jerusalem in Judaism, and Three Pilgrimage Festivals
While Solomon's Temple stood, Jerusalem was the centre of the Jewish religious life and the site of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot, and all adult men who were able were required to visit and offer sacrifices (korbanot) at the Temple. After the destruction of the Temple, the obligation to visit Jerusalem and to make sacrifices no longer applied. The obligation was restored with the rebuilding of the Temple, but following its destruction in 70 CE, the obligation to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and offer sacrifices again went into abeyance.[citation needed]
The western retaining wall of the Temple Mount, known as the Western Wall or "Wailing" Wall, is the remaining part of Second Jewish Temple in the Old City of Jerusalem is the most sacred and visited site for Jews. Pilgrimage to this area was off-limits to Jews from 1948 to 1967, when East Jerusalem was under Jordanian control.[22][23]
There are numerous lesser Jewish pilgrimage destinations, mainly tombs of tzadikim, throughout the Land of Israel and all over the world, including: Hebron; Bethlehem; Mt. Meron; Netivot; Uman, Ukraine; Silistra, Bulgaria; Damanhur, Egypt; and many others.[24]
Sikhism[edit]
The Harmandir Sahib (the Golden Temple) in Amritsar
The Sikh religion does not place great importance on pilgrimage. Guru Nanak Dev was asked "Should I go and bathe at pilgrimage places?" and replied: "God's name is the real pilgrimage place which consists of contemplation of the word of God, and the cultivation of inner knowledge."
Eventually, however, Amritsar and Harmandir Saheb (the Golden Temple) became the spiritual and cultural centre of the Sikh faith, and if a Sikh goes on pilgrimage it is usually to this place.[25]
The Panj Takht (Punjabi: ਪੰਜ ਤਖ਼ਤ) are the five revered gurdwaras in India that are considered the thrones or seats of authority of Sikhism and are traditionally considered a pilgrimage.[26]
Zoroastrianism[edit]
The Yazd Atash Behram in Iran is a Atash Bahram, the highest grade of fire temple in Zoroastrianism
In Iran, there are pilgrimage destinations called pirs in several provinces, although the most familiar ones are in the province of Yazd.[27] In addition to the traditional Yazdi shrines, new sites may be in the process of becoming pilgrimage destinations. The ruins are the ruins of ancient fire temples. One such site is the ruin of the Sassanian era Azargoshnasp Fire Temple in Iran's Azarbaijan Province. Other sites are the ruins of fire temples at Rey, south of the capital Tehran, and the Firouzabad ruins sixty kilometres south of Shiraz in the province of Pars.
Atash Behram ("Fire of victory") is the highest grade of fire temple in Zoroastrianism. It has 16 different "kinds of fire", that is, fires gathered from 16 different sources.[28] Currently there are 9 Atash Behram, one in Yazd, Iran and the rest in Western India. They have become a pilgrimage destination.[29]
In India the cathedral fire temple that houses the Iranshah Atash Behram, located in the small town of Udvada in the west coast province of Gujarat, is a pilgrimage destination.[29]
Meher Baba[edit]
The main pilgrimage sites associated with the spiritual teacher Meher Baba are Meherabad, India, where Baba completed the "major portion"[30] of his work and where his tomb is now located, and Meherazad, India, where Baba resided later in his life.
See also[edit]
Burial places of founders of world religions
HCPT – The Pilgrimage Trust
Journey of self-discovery
Junrei
List of shrines
List of significant religious sites
Monastery
Pardon (ceremony)
Romeria
Sacred travel
World Youth Day
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cleft, Jean Darby; Cleft, Wallace (1996). The Archetype of Pilgrimage: Outer Action With Inner Meaning. The Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3599-X.
Jump up ^ Metti, Michael Sebastian (2011-06-01). "Jerusalem – the most powerful brand in history" (PDF). Stockholm University School of Business. Retrieved 1 July 2011. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Peter (2000). "Pilgrimage". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: eworld Publications. p. 269. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
Jump up ^ https://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/speeches/2010/november/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20101106_cattedrale-compostela.html
Jump up ^ Werner, Karel (1994). A popular dictionary of Hinduism. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 0700702792. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Thangham, Chris V. (2007-01-03). "Photo from Space of the Largest Human Gathering in India". Digital Journal. Retrieved 2014-03-22.
Jump up ^ Banerjee, Biswajeet (2007-01-15). "Millions of Hindus Wash Away Their Sins". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Millions bathe at Hindu festival". BBC News. 2007-01-03. Retrieved 2014-03-22.
Jump up ^ Singh, Vikas (2017). Uprising of the Fools: Pilgrimage as Moral Protest in Contemporary India. Stanford University Press.
Jump up ^ Long, Matthew (2011). Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-7614-7926-0. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
Jump up ^ "Islamic Practices". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Mosher, Lucinda (2005). Praying: The Rituals of Faith. Church Publishing, Inc. p. 155. ISBN 9781596270169. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Ruiz, Enrique (2009). Discriminate Or Diversify. PositivePsyche.Biz Corp. p. 279. ISBN 9780578017341.
Jump up ^ Katz, Andrew (16 October 2013). "As the Hajj Unfolds in Saudi Arabia, A Deep Look Inside the Battle Against MERS". Time. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural conservation in Islam: case study of the Prophet's Mosque (1st ed.). Skudai, Johor Darul Ta'zim, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. ISBN 9835203733. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
Jump up ^ uberVU – social comments (2010-02-05). "Friday: 46 Iraqis, 1 Syrian Killed; 169 Iraqis Wounded - Antiwar.com". Original.antiwar.com. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ Aljazeera. "alJazeera Magazine – 41 Martyrs as More than Million People Mark 'Arbaeen' in Holy Karbala". Aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ "Powerful Explosions Kill More Than 40 Shi'ite Pilgrims in Karbala". .voanews.com. 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ Hanun, Abdelamir (2010-02-05). "Blast in crowd kills 41 Shiite pilgrims in Iraq". News.smh.com.au. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ "Sacred Sites: Mashhad, Iran". sacredsites.com. Archived from the original on 2010-11-27. Retrieved 2006-03-13.
Jump up ^ "The Western Wall". mosaic.lk.net. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Western Wall: History & Overview". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ See David M. Gitlitz and Linda Kay Davidson, Pilgrimage and the Jews (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006) for history and data on several pilgrimages to both Ashkenazi and Sephardic holy sites.
Jump up ^ "Sikhism". Archived from the original on 23 November 2001.
Jump up ^ "Special train to connect all five Takhats, first run on February 16". Retrieved 5 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Aspandyar Sohrab Gotla (2000). "Guide to Zarthoshtrian historical places in Iran." University of Michigan Press. LCCN 2005388611 pg. 164
Jump up ^ Hartman, Sven S. (1980). Parsism: The Religions of Zoroaster. BRILL. p. 20. ISBN 9004062084.
^ Jump up to: a b Shelar, Jyoti (2017-12-01). "Pilgrimage or mela? Parsis split on Udvada festival". The Hindu. Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ Deshmukh, Indumati (1961). "Address in Marathi." The Awakener 7 (3): 29..
Further reading[edit]
al-Naqar, Umar. 1972. The Pilgrimage Tradition in West Africa. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press. [includes a map 'African Pilgrimage Routes to Mecca, ca. 1300–1900']
Coleman, Simon and John Elsner (1995), Pilgrimage: Past and Present in the World Religions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Coleman, Simon & John Eade (eds) (2005), Reframing Pilgrimage. Cultures in Motion. London: Routledge.
Davidson, Linda Kay and David M. Gitlitz (2002), Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Ca.: ABC-CLIO.
Gitlitz, David M. and Linda Kay Davidson (2006). Pilgrimage and the Jews. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Jackowski, Antoni. 1998. Pielgrzymowanie [Pilgrimage]. Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Dolnoslaskie.
Kerschbaum & Gattinger, Via Francigena – DVD – Documentation, of a modern pilgrimage to Rome, ISBN 3-200-00500-9, Verlag EUROVIA, Vienna 2005
Margry, Peter Jan (ed.) (2008), Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World. New Itineraries into the Sacred. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Sumption, Jonathan. 2002. Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.
Wolfe, Michael (ed.). 1997. One Thousands Roads to Mecca. New York: Grove Press.
Zarnecki, George (1985), The Monastic World: The Contributions of The Orders. pp. 36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. The Flowering of the Middle Ages. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
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