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Battle of San Jacinto
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For other battles of the same name, see San Jacinto.
Battle of San Jacinto
Part of the Texas Revolution

The Battle of San Jacinto – 1895 painting by Henry Arthur McArdle (1836–1908)[1]
Date
April 21, 1836
Location
Near modern La Porte, Texas
29°44′56″N 95°4′49″W / 29.74889°N 95.08028°W / 29.74889; -95.08028Coordinates: 29°44′56″N 95°4′49″W / 29.74889°N 95.08028°W / 29.74889; -95.08028
Result
Decisive Texian victory;
Mexican surrender and retreat to the south of the Rio Grande
Belligerents
Mexico Texian Rebels
Commanders and leaders
Antonio López de Santa Anna (POW)
Manuel Fernández Castrillón †
Juan Almonte (POW)
Martín Perfecto de Cos (POW) Sam Houston (WIA)
Thomas J. Rusk
James C. Neill (WIA)
Mirabeau B. Lamar
Sidney Sherman
Strength
1,360
1 cannon 910[2]
2 cannons
Casualties and losses
650 killed
208 wounded
300 captured 11 killed or fatally wounded
30 wounded
approximate location of the battle
Location within Texas
[show]
v
t
e
Texas Revolution
Gonzales
Goliad
Lipantitlán
Concepción
Grass Fight
Béxar
San Patricio
Agua Dulce
The Alamo
Refugio
Coleto
San Jacinto
The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day Harris County, Texas, was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Sam Houston, the Texian Army engaged and defeated General Antonio López de Santa Anna's Mexican army in a fight that lasted just 18 minutes.
Santa Anna, the President of Mexico, was captured the following day and held as a prisoner of war. Three weeks later, he signed the peace treaty that dictated that the Mexican army leave the region, paving the way for the Republic of Texas to become an independent country. These treaties did not specifically recognize Texas as a sovereign nation, but stipulated that Santa Anna was to lobby for such recognition in Mexico City. Sam Houston became a national celebrity, and the Texans' rallying cries from events of the war, "Remember the Alamo!" and "Remember Goliad!," became etched into Texan history and legend.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background: December 1832 – March 1836
1.1 The Mexican constitution is overturned
1.2 Cos is appointed military governor of Texas
1.3 Santa Anna takes the Alamo
2 Retreat: March–May 1836
2.1 Texian retreat: The Runaway Scrape
2.2 San Jacinto
2.3 Mexican retreat
3 Aftermath
3.1 Military
3.2 Republic of Texas
4 Legacy
5 See also
6 Notes
6.1 Footnotes
6.2 Citations
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background: December 1832 – March 1836[edit]
Main article: Texas Revolution
The Mexican constitution is overturned[edit]
General Antonio López de Santa Anna was a proponent of governmental federalism when he helped oust Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante in December 1832. Upon his election as president in April 1833,[3] Santa Anna switched his political ideology and began implementing centralist policies that increased the authoritarian powers of his office.[4] His abrogation of the Constitution of 1824, correlating with his abolishing local-level authority over Mexico's state of Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila and Texas), became a flashpoint in the growing tensions between the central government and its Tejano and Anglo citizens in Texas. While in Mexico City awaiting a meeting with Santa Anna, Texian empresario Stephen F. Austin wrote to the Béxar ayuntamiento (city council) urging a break-away state. In response, the Mexican government kept him imprisoned for most of 1834.[5][6]
Colonel Juan Almonte was appointed Director of Colonization in Texas,[7] ostensibly to ease relations with the colonists and mitigate their anxieties about Austin's imprisonment.[8] He delivered promises of self-governance, and conveyed regrets that the Mexican congress deemed it constitutionally impossible for Texas to be a separate state. Behind the rhetoric, his covert mission was to identify the local power brokers, obstruct any plans for rebellion, and supply the Mexican government with data that would be of use in a military conflict. For nine months in 1834, under the guise of serving as a government liaison, Almonte traveled through Texas and compiled an all-encompassing intelligence report on the population and its environs, including an assessment of their resources and defense capabilities.[9]
Cos is appointed military governor of Texas[edit]
In consolidating his power base, Santa Anna installed General Martín Perfecto de Cos as the governing military authority over Texas in 1835.[10][11] Cos established headquarters in San Antonio on October 9, triggering what became known as the Siege of Béxar.[12] After two months of trying to repel the Texian forces, Cos raised a white flag on December 9, and signed surrender terms two days later.[13] The surrender of Cos effectively removed the occupying Mexican army from Texas. Many believed the war was over, and volunteers began returning home.[14]
In compliance with orders from Santa Anna, Mexico's Minister of War José María Tornel issued his December 30 "Circular No. 5", often referred to as the Tornel Decree, aimed at dealing with United States intervention in the uprising in Texas. It declared that foreigners who entered Mexico for the purpose of joining the rebellion were to be treated as "pirates", to be put to death if captured. In adding "since they are not subjects of any nation at war with the republic nor do they militate under any recognized flag," Tornel avoided declaring war on the United States.[15][16]
Santa Anna takes the Alamo[edit]
The Mexican Army of Operations numbered 6,019 soldiers[17] and was spread out over 300 miles (480 km) on its march to Béxar. General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma was put in command of the Vanguard of the Advance that crossed into Texas.[18] Santa Anna and his aide-de-camp Almonte[19] forded the Rio Grande at Guerrero, Coahuila on February 16, 1836,[20] with General José de Urrea and 500 more troops following the next day at Matamoros.[21] Béxar was captured on February 23 and when the assault commenced, attempts at negotiation for surrender were initiated from inside the fortress. Travis sent Albert Martin to request a meeting with Almonte, who replied that he did not have the authority to speak for Santa Anna.[22] Bowie dispatched Green B. Jameson with a letter, translated into Spanish by Juan Seguín, requesting a meeting with Santa Anna, who immediately refused. Santa Anna did, however, extend an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress. Alamo non-combatant survivor Enrique Esparza said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer.[23]
Cos, in violation of his surrender terms, forded into Texas at Guerrero on February 26 to join with the main army at Béxar.[24] Urrea proceeded to secure the Gulf Coast, and was victorious in two skirmishes with Texian detachments serving under Fannin at Goliad. On February 27 a foraging detachment under Frank W. Johnson at San Patricio was attacked by Urrea. Sixteen were killed, and 21 taken prisoner, but Johnson and 4 others escaped.[25][26] Urrea sent a company to Agua Dulce searching for James Grant and Plácido Benavides who were leading a company of Anglos and Tejanos towards an invasion of Matamoros. The Mexicans set a trap, killing Grant and most of the company. Benavides and 4 others escaped, and 6 were taken prisoner.[27][28]
The Convention of 1836 met at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 1.[29] The following day, Sam Houston's 42nd birthday, the 59 delegates signed the Texas Declaration of Independence, and chose an ad interim government.[29][30] When news of the declaration reached Goliad, Benavides informed Fannin that in spite of his opposition to Santa Anna, he was still loyal to Mexico and did not wish to help Texas break away. Fannin discharged him from his duties and sent him home.[31] On March 4 Houston's military authority was expanded to include "the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia."[32]
At 5 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican troops launched their final assault on the Alamo. The guns fell silent 90 minutes later; the Alamo had fallen.[33] Survivors Susannah Dickinson, her daughter Angelina, Travis' slave Joe, and Almonte's cook Ben were spared by Santa Anna and sent to Gonzales, where Texian volunteers had been assembling.[34]
Retreat: March–May 1836[edit]
Texian retreat: The Runaway Scrape[edit]
Further information: Runaway Scrape
Sam Houston
The same day that Mexican troops departed Béxar, Houston arrived in Gonzales and informed the 374 volunteers (some without weapons) gathered there that Texas was now an independent republic.[35] Just after 11 p.m. on March 13, Susanna Dickinson and Joe brought news that the Alamo garrison had been defeated and the Mexican army was marching towards Texian settlements. A hastily convened council of war voted to evacuate the area and retreat. The evacuation commenced at midnight and happened so quickly that many Texian scouts were unaware the army had moved on. Everything that could not be carried was burned, and the army's only two cannons were thrown into the Guadalupe River.[36] When Ramírez y Sesma reached Gonzales the morning of March 14, he found the buildings still smoldering.[37]
Most citizens fled on foot, many carrying their small children. A cavalry company led by Seguín and Salvador Flores were assigned as rear guard to evacuate the more isolated ranches and protect the civilians from attacks by Mexican troops or Indians.[38] The further the army retreated, the more civilians joined the flight.[39] For both armies and the civilians, the pace was slow; torrential rains had flooded the rivers and turned the roads into mud pits.[40]
As news of the Alamo's fall spread, volunteer ranks swelled, reaching about 1,400 men on March 19.[40] Houston learned of Fannin's defeat on March 20 and realized his army was the last hope for an independent Texas. Concerned that his ill-trained and ill-disciplined force would be good for only one battle, and aware that his men could easily be outflanked by Urrea's forces, Houston continued to avoid engagement, to the immense displeasure of his troops.[41] By March 28, the Texian army had retreated 120 miles (190 km) across the Navidad and Colorado Rivers.[42] Many troops deserted; those who remained grumbled that their commander was a coward.[41]
On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groce's Landing, roughly 15 miles (24 km) north of San Felipe.[Note 1] Two companies that refused to retreat further than San Felipe were assigned to guard the crossings on the Brazos River.[43] For the next two weeks, the Texians rested, recovered from illness, and, for the first time, began practicing military drills. While there, two cannons, known as the Twin Sisters, arrived from Cincinnati, Ohio.[44] Interim Secretary of War Thomas Rusk joined the camp, with orders from President David G. Burnet to replace Houston if he refused to fight. Houston quickly persuaded Rusk that his plans were sound.[44] Secretary of State Samuel P. Carson advised Houston to continue retreating all the way to the Sabine River, where more volunteers would likely flock from the United States and allow the army to counterattack.[Note 2][45] Unhappy with everyone involved, Burnet wrote to Houston: "The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You must fight them. You must retreat no further. The country expects you to fight. The salvation of the country depends on your doing so."[44] Complaints within the camp became so strong that Houston posted notices that anyone attempting to usurp his position would be court-martialed and shot.[46]
Santa Anna and a smaller force had remained in Béxar. After receiving word that the acting president, Miguel Barragán, had died, Santa Anna seriously considered returning to Mexico City to solidify his position. Fear that Urrea's victories would position him as a political rival convinced Santa Anna to remain in Texas to personally oversee the final phase of the campaign.[47] He left on March 29 to join Ramírez y Sesma, leaving only a small force to hold Béxar.[48] At dawn on April 7, their combined force marched into San Felipe and captured a Texian soldier, who informed Santa Anna that the Texians planned to retreat further if the Mexican army crossed the Brazos River.[49] Unable to cross the Brazos due to the small company of Texians barricaded at the river crossing, on April 14 a frustrated Santa Anna led a force of about 700 troops to capture the interim Texas government.[50][51] Government officials fled mere hours before Mexican troops arrived in Harrisburgh (now Harrisburg, Houston) and Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Almonte with 50 cavalry to intercept them in New Washington. Almonte arrived just as Burnet shoved off in a rowboat, bound for Galveston Island. Although the boat was still within range of their weapons, Almonte ordered his men to hold their fire so as not to endanger Burnet's family.[52]
At this point, Santa Anna believed the rebellion was in its final death throes. The Texian government had been forced off the mainland, with no way to communicate with its army, which had shown no interest in fighting. He determined to block the Texian army's retreat and put a decisive end to the war.[52] Almonte's scouts incorrectly reported that Houston's army was going to Lynchburg Crossing, on Buffalo Bayou, in preparation for joining the government in Galveston, so Santa Anna ordered Harrisburg burned and pressed on towards Lynchburg.[52]
The Texian army had resumed their march eastward. On April 16, they came to a crossroads; one road led north towards Nacogdoches, the other went to Harrisburg. Without orders from Houston and with no discussion amongst themselves, the troops in the lead took the road to Harrisburg. They arrived on April 18, not long after the Mexican army's departure.[53] That same day, Deaf Smith and Henry Karnes captured a Mexican courier carrying intelligence on the locations and future plans of all of the Mexican troops in Texas. Realizing that Santa Anna had only a small force and was not far away, Houston gave a rousing speech to his men, exhorting them to "Remember the Alamo" and "Remember Goliad". His army then raced towards Lynchburg.[54] Out of concern that his men might not differentiate between Mexican soldiers and the Tejanos in Seguín's company, Houston originally ordered Seguín and his men to remain in Harrisburg to guard those who were too ill to travel quickly. After loud protests from Seguín and Antonio Menchaca, the order was rescinded, provided the Tejanos wear a piece of cardboard in their hats to identify them as Texian soldiers.[55]
San Jacinto[edit]
San Jacinto battlefield with troop movements
The area along Buffalo Bayou had many thick oak groves, separated by marshes. This type of terrain was familiar to the Texians and quite alien to the Mexican soldiers.[56] Houston's army, comprising 900 men, reached Lynch's Ferry mid-morning on April 20; Santa Anna's 700-man force arrived a few hours later. The Texians made camp in a wooded area along the bank of Buffalo Bayou; while the location provided good cover and helped hide their full strength, it also left the Texians no room for retreat.[57][58] Over the protests of several of his officers, Santa Anna chose to make camp in a vulnerable location, a plain near the San Jacinto River, bordered by woods on one side, marsh and lake on another.[56][59] The two camps were approximately 500 yards (460 m) apart, separated by a grassy area with a slight rise in the middle.[60] Colonel Pedro Delgado later wrote that "the camping ground of His Excellency's selection was in all respects, against military rules. Any youngster would have done better."[61]
Over the next several hours, two brief skirmishes occurred. Texians won the first, forcing a small group of dragoons and the Mexican artillery to withdraw.[56][62] Mexican dragoons then forced the Texian cavalry to withdraw. In the melee, Rusk, on foot to reload his rifle, was almost captured by Mexican soldiers, but was rescued by newly arrived Texian volunteer Mirabeau B. Lamar.[62] Over Houston's objections, many infantrymen rushed onto the field. As the Texian cavalry fell back, Lamar remained behind to rescue another Texian who had been thrown from his horse; Mexican officers "reportedly applauded" his bravery.[63] Houston was irate that the infantry had disobeyed his orders and given Santa Anna a better estimate of their strength; the men were equally upset that Houston had not allowed a full battle.[64]
Throughout the night, Mexican troops worked to fortify their camp, creating breastworks out of everything they could find, including saddles and brush.[65] At 9 a.m. on April 21, Cos arrived with 540 reinforcements, bringing the Mexican force to 1,200 men, which outnumbered the Texians.[66] Cos' men were raw recruits rather than experienced soldiers, and they had marched steadily for more than 24 hours, with no rest and no food.[67] As the morning wore on with no Texian attack, Mexican officers lowered their guard. By afternoon, Santa Anna had given permission for Cos' men to sleep; his own tired troops also took advantage of the time to rest, eat, and bathe.[68]
Not long after the Mexican reinforcements arrived, Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince's Bridge, 5 mi (8 km) away, to slow down any further Mexican reinforcements.[69] At 4 p.m. the Texians began creeping quietly through the tall grass, pulling the cannon behind them.[70] The Texian cannon fired at 4:30, beginning the battle of San Jacinto.[71] After a single volley, Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand-to-hand combat. Mexican soldiers were taken by surprise. Santa Anna, Castrillón, and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders, attempting to organize their men into some form of defense.[72] Within 18 minutes, Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives.[73] The killing lasted for hours.[74]
Many Mexican soldiers retreated through the marsh to Peggy Lake.[Note 3] Texian riflemen stationed themselves on the banks and shot at anything that moved. Many Texian officers, including Houston and Rusk, attempted to stop the slaughter, but they were unable to gain control of the men. Texians continued to chant "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" while frightened Mexican infantry yelled "Me no Alamo!" and begged for mercy to no avail.[75] In what historian Davis called "one of the most one-sided victories in history",[76] 650 Mexican soldiers were killed and 300 captured.[77] Eleven Texians died, with 30 others, including Houston, wounded.[78]
Although Santa Anna's troops had been thoroughly vanquished, they did not represent the bulk of the Mexican army in Texas. An additional 4,000 troops remained under the commands of Urrea and General Vicente Filisola.[79] Texians had won the battle due to mistakes made by Santa Anna, and Houston was well aware that his troops would have little hope of repeating their victory against Urrea or Filisola.[80] As darkness fell, a large group of prisoners was led into camp. Houston initially mistook the group for Mexican reinforcements and shouted out that all was lost.[81]
Mexican retreat[edit]
"Surrender of Santa Anna" by William Henry Huddle shows the Mexican president and general surrendering to a wounded Sam Houston, battle of San Jacinto
Santa Anna had escaped towards Vince's Bridge.[82] Finding the bridge destroyed, he hid in the marsh and was captured the following day.[77] He was brought before Houston, who had been shot in the ankle and badly wounded.[79][Note 4] Texian soldiers gathered around, calling for the Mexican general's immediate execution. Bargaining for his life, Santa Anna suggested that he order the remaining Mexican troops to stay away.[83] In a letter to Filisola, who was now the senior Mexican official in Texas, Santa Anna wrote that "yesterday evening [we] had an unfortunate encounter" and ordered his troops to retreat to Béxar and await further instructions.[80]
Urrea urged Filisola to continue the campaign. He was confident that he could challenge the Texian troops. According to Hardin, "Santa Anna had presented Mexico with one military disaster; Filisola did not wish to risk another."[84] Spring rains had ruined the ammunition and rendered the roads nearly impassable, with troops sinking to their knees in mud. The Mexican troops were soon out of food and began to fall ill from dysentery and other diseases.[85] Their supply lines had broken down, leaving no hope of further reinforcements.[86] Filisola later wrote that "Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances, on the only road that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion".[85]
For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet.[87] Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops withdraw south of the Rio Grande and that all private property be respected and restored. Prisoners of war would be released unharmed and Santa Anna would be given immediate passage to Veracruz. He secretly promised to persuade the Mexican Congress to acknowledge the Republic of Texas and to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between the two countries.[88]
When Urrea began marching south in mid-May, many families from San Patricio who had supported the Mexican army went with him. When Texian troops arrived in early June, they found only 20 families remaining. The area around San Patricio and Refugio suffered a "noticeable depopulation" in the Republic of Texas years.[89] Although the treaty had specified that Urrea and Filisola would return any slaves their armies had sheltered, Urrea refused to comply. Many former slaves followed the army to Mexico, where they could be free.[90] By late May, the Mexican troops had crossed the Nueces.[85] Filisola fully expected that the defeat was temporary and that a second campaign would be launched to retake Texas.[86]
Aftermath[edit]
Military[edit]
April 21, 1906 Army of the Republic of Texas veteran reunion. L–R are William P. Zuber, John W. Darlington, Aca C. Hill, Stephen F. Sparks, L. T. Lawlor and Alfonso Steele. All participated in the Battle of San Jacinto, as well as other skirmishes.[91]
When Mexican authorities received word of Santa Anna's defeat at San Jacinto, flags across the country were lowered to half staff and draped in mourning.[92] Denouncing any agreements signed by a prisoner, Mexican authorities refused to recognize the Republic of Texas.[93] Filisola was derided for leading the retreat and quickly replaced by Urrea. Within months, Urrea gathered 6,000 troops in Matamoros, poised to reconquer Texas. His army was redirected to address continued federalist rebellions in other regions.[94]
Most in Texas assumed the Mexican army would return quickly.[95] So many American volunteers flocked to the Texian army in the months after the victory at San Jacinto that the Texian government was unable to maintain an accurate list of enlistments.[96] Out of caution, Béxar remained under martial law throughout 1836. Rusk ordered that all Tejanos in the area between the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers migrate either to east Texas or to Mexico.[95] Some residents who refused to comply were forcibly removed. New Anglo settlers moved in and used threats and legal maneuvering to take over the land once owned by Tejanos.[93][97] Over the next several years, hundreds of Tejano families resettled in Mexico.[93]
For years, Mexican authorities used the reconquering of Texas as an excuse for implementing new taxes and making the army the budgetary priority of the impoverished nation.[98] Only sporadic skirmishes resulted.[99] Larger expeditions were postponed as military funding was consistently diverted to other rebellions, out of fear that those regions would ally with Texas and further fragment the country.[98][Note 5] The northern Mexican states, the focus of the Matamoros Expedition, briefly launched an independent Republic of the Rio Grande in 1839.[100] The same year, the Mexican Congress considered a law to declare it treasonous to speak positively of Texas.[101] In June 1843, leaders of the two nations declared an armistice.[102]
Republic of Texas[edit]
The Republic of Texas, including the disputed territory
On June 1, Santa Anna boarded a ship to travel back to Mexico. For the next two days, crowds of soldiers, many of whom had arrived that week from the United States, gathered to demand his execution. Lamar, by now promoted to Secretary of War, gave a speech insisting that "Mobs must not intimidate the government. We want no French Revolution in Texas!", but on June 4 soldiers seized Santa Anna and put him under military arrest.[103] Burnet called for elections to ratify the constitution and elect a Congress,[104] the sixth set of leaders for Texas in a twelve-month period.[105] Voters overwhelmingly chose Houston the first president, ratified the constitution drawn up by the Convention of 1836, and approved a resolution to request annexation to the United States.[106] Houston issued an executive order sending Santa Anna to Washington, D.C., and from there he was soon sent home.[107]
During his absence, Santa Anna had been deposed. Upon his arrival, the Mexican press wasted no time in attacking him for his cruelty towards those executed at Goliad. In May 1837, Santa Anna requested an inquiry into the event.[108] The judge determined the inquiry was only for fact-finding and took no action; press attacks in both Mexico and the United States continued.[109] Santa Anna was disgraced until the following year, when he became a hero of the Pastry War.[110]
Although the Texian interim governments had vowed to eventually compensate citizens for goods that were impressed during the war efforts, for the most part livestock and horses were not returned.[111] Veterans were guaranteed land bounties; in 1879, surviving Texian veterans who served more than three months from October 1, 1835, through January 1, 1837, were guaranteed an additional 1,280 acres (520 ha) in public lands.[112] Over 1.3 million acres (559 thousand ha) of land were granted; some of this was in Greer County, which was later determined to be part of Oklahoma.[113]
When Republic President Burnet unknowingly escaped death at New Washington, Almonte had found him by following courier Mike McCormick,[114] whose widowed mother Peggy was the owner of the land on which the battle was subsequently fought.[58] Although she sought financial restitution from the Republic of Texas for loss of livestock and other goods during the battle, McCormick died without recompense. Decades after her death, the state of Texas purchased part of her acreage for a commemoration site.[115]
Legacy[edit]
The San Jacinto Monument
San Jacinto Battle Flag in the Texas House of Representatives
The San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.[116] The site includes the 570 ft (170 m)[117] San Jacinto Monument, which was erected by the Public Works Administration. Authorized April 21, 1936, and dedicated April 21, 1939, the monument cost $1.5 million (equivalent to $26.39 million in 2015).[118][119] The site hosts a San Jacinto Day festival and battle re-enactment each year in April.[120]
Both the Texas Navy and the United States Navy have commissioned ships named after the Battle of San Jacinto: the Texan schooner San Jacinto and three ships named USS San Jacinto. There has been one civilian passenger ship named SS San Jacinto.
Texas Navy schooner San Jacinto was commissioned in 1839 and decommissioned in 1840 after she was wrecked at Cayos Arcas.[121]
The first USS San Jacinto was a screw frigate launched by the United States Navy in 1850. She was in service with the Africa Squadron in 1860 when she captured the slave ship Storm King. The frigate was in service for most of the American Civil War until she wrecked in the Bahamas in 1865.[122]
SS San Jacinto was a United States civilian passenger ship built in 1903 by the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding and Engine Works for the New York and Texas Steamship Company.[123] The US Navy considered acquiring the civilian passenger-cargo ship, for use during World War I as USS San Jacinto (ID-1531), but never acquired or commissioned her. On April 21, 1942, the ship was sunk by a German U-boat.[124]
The second USS San Jacinto was a United States Navy Independence-class World War II light aircraft carrier commissioned in December 1943, and was decommissioned in 1947.[125]
The third USS San Jacinto is a currently active guided missile cruiser commissioned by the US Navy in 1988.[126]
When the veteran battleship USS Texas was decommissioned in 1948 and made into a museum ship, it was decided to give her a permanent new anchorage near the San Jacinto Monument, at San Jacinto State Park. Her arrival from Baltimore, where she was decommissioned, was timed for April 21, 1948 – the anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto.
See also[edit]
Houston portal
Texas portal
Timeline of the Texas Revolution
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Groce's Landing is located roughly 9 miles (14 km) northeast of modern-day Bellville. Moore (2004), p. 149.
Jump up ^ After getting inaccurate reports that several thousand Indians had joined the Mexican army to attack Nacogdoches, American General Edmund P. Gaines and 600 troops crossed into Texas. This would have provoked a war if they had encountered the Mexican army, which might have followed Houston if he continued his retreat. Reid (2007), pp. 152–153.
Jump up ^ Peggy Lake, also called Peggy's Lake, no longer exists. It was located southeast of the Mexican breastworks, which is now the site of the monument. Hardin (2004) pp. 71, 93
Jump up ^ Lamar thought Houston was deliberately shot by one of his own men. Moore (2004), p. 339.
Jump up ^ New Mexico, Sonora, and California revolted unsuccessfully; their stated goals were a change in government, not independence. Henderson (2008), p. 100. Vazquez (1985), p. 318.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Picture and Key for "The Battle of San Jacinto" – Texas State Library and Archives Commission". Tsl.state.tx.us. Retrieved 2013-04-21.
Jump up ^ The official report of the battle claims 783. The more detailed roster published after the battle lists 845 officers and men but failed to include Captain Wyly's Company, giving a total of around 910.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 28
Jump up ^ Poyo (1996), pp. 42–43, "Under the Mexican Flag" (Andrés Tijerina)
Jump up ^ Henderson (2008), pp. 86–87
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 30–31
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 49, 57
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 38–39
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 42–44, 208–283
Jump up ^ Davis (2004), p. 143.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 121.
Jump up ^ Menchaca, Poche, Matovina, de la Teja (2013), p. 63
Jump up ^ "Surrender terms signed by General Cos and General Burleson at San Antonio, December 11, 1835". Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Poyo (1996), p. 54, "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Harden)
Jump up ^ Calore (2014), p. 56
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), pp. 137–138
Jump up ^ Hardin (2004), p. 15
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 34.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 351–352
Jump up ^ Hardin (2004), p. 25
Jump up ^ Hardin (2004), p. 21
Jump up ^ Groneman, Gill. "Green B. Jameson". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved June 25, 2015. ; Edmondson (2000), pp. 306–307; Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 367–368
Jump up ^ Poyo (1996), p. 53, 58 "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Harden); Lindley (2003), p. 94, 134
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 366–367, 208–283
Jump up ^ Hardin (2004), p. 53
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 372
Jump up ^ Bishop, Curtis. "Battle of Agua Dulce Creek". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hartmann, Clinton P. "James Walker Fannin Jr". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), 161
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 83
Jump up ^ Hardin-Teja (2010) pp. 64–66
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 14
Jump up ^ Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 373–374
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), pp. 37–38
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), pp. 43, 48, 52, 57.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), pp. 55–59.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 71.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 60.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 243.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 182.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), pp. 183–184.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), pp. 71, 74, 87, 134.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), pp. 134–137.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardin (1994), p. 189.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 263.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 185.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 254.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 154.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 176.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 190.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 182.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardin (1994), p. 191.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), pp. 190–193.
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Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 209.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardin (1994), p. 202.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), pp. 200–201.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore (2004), p. 258.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 283.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 208.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 287.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 203.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 204.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 267.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 205.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 206.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 292.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 207.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), pp. 312–318.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 210.
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Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 271.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 213.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), pp. 211–215.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 274.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 215.
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 364.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis (2006), p. 272.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis (2006), p. 273.
Jump up ^ Davis (2006), p. 276.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Davis (2006), p. 277.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 246.
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Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 180.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Davis (2006), p. 288.
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^ Jump up to: a b Vazquez (1985), p. 315.
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Jump up ^ "San Jacinto Battlefield". National Historic Landmarks. National Park Service. Archived from the original on February 26, 2013. Retrieved July 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "How Tall is it?". National Park Service. Retrieved July 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Buisseret, Francaviglia, Graves, Saxon (2009), p. 75
Jump up ^ Moore (2004), p. 426.
Jump up ^ "San Jacinto Monument". Texas Parks & Wildlife Department. Retrieved July 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "San Jacinto". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved July 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Silverstone (2006), p. 15
Jump up ^ "Mallory Line Twin-Screw Passenger and Freight Steamship San Jacinto". Marine Engineering. Marine Engineering Incorporated. VIII: 547–554. November 1903.
Jump up ^ Hampton Roads Naval Historical Foundation (2014), p. 71
Jump up ^ Green (2015), pp. 56, 107
Jump up ^ "USS San Jacinto". United States Navy. Retrieved July 8, 2015.
References[edit]
Buisseret, David; Francaviglia, Richard; Graves, Jack W. Jr.; Saxon, Gerald (2009). Historic Texas from the Air. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71927-9.
Calore, Paul (2014). The Texas Revolution and the U.S.–Mexican War A Concise History. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7940-5.
Davis, William C (2004). Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic. New York, NY: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-68486-510-2.
de la Teja, Jesus (1991). A Revolution Remembered: The Memoirs and Selected Correspondence of Juan N. Seguin. Austin, TX: State House Press. ISBN 0-938349-68-6.
Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-678-0.
Green, Michael (2015). Aircraft Carriers of the United States Navy: Rare Photographs from Wartime Archives. South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Maritime. ISBN 978-1-47385-468-0.
Hampton Roads Naval Historical Foundation (2014). Naval Station Norfolk. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4671-2027-2.
Hardin, Stephen L; de la Teja, Jesús F. (2010). Tejano Leadership in Mexican and Revolutionary Texas. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press. ISBN 1-60344-166-2.
Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad – A Military History of the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73086-1. OCLC 29704011.
Hardin, Stephen (2004). The Alamo 1836 : Santa Anna's Texas campaign. Westport, CT: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-090-2.
Hardin, Stephen; McBride, Angus (2001). The Alamo 1836: Santa Anna's Texas Campaign. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-090-2.
Henderson, Timothy J. (2008). A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States. New York, NY: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-4967-7.
Jackson, Jack; Wheat, John (2005). Almonte's Texas: Juan N. Almonte's 1834 Inspection, Secret Report & Role in the 1836 Campaign. Denton, TX: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-87611-207-6.
Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003). Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-983-6.
Menchaca, Antonio; Poche, Justin; Matovina, Timothy; de la Teja, Jesus (2013). Recollections of a Tejano Life: Antonio Menchaca in Texas History. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-29274-865-1.
Moore, Stephen L. (2004). Eighteen Minutes: The Battle of San Jacinto and the Texas Independence Campaign. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-58907-009-7.
Poyo, Gerald Eugene (1996). Tejano Journey, 1770–1850. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-29276-570-2.
Reid, Stuart (2007). The Secret War for Texas. Elma Dill Russell Spencer Series in the West and Southwest. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-565-3.
Silverstone, Paul (2006). Civil War Navies, 1855–1883 (The U.S. Navy Warship Series). New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41597-870-5.
Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2.
Vazquez, Josefina Zoraida (July 1985). translated by Jésus F. de la Teja. "The Texas Question in Mexican Politics, 1836–1845". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 89. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
Zamora, Emilio; Orozco, Cynthia; Rocha, Rodolfo (2000). Mexican Americans in Texas History: Selected Essays. Denton, TX: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-87611-174-1.
Further reading[edit]
Winders, Richard Bruce (April 4, 2017). ""This Is A Cruel Truth, But I Cannot Omit It": The Origin and Effect of Mexico's No Quarter Policy in the Texas Revolution". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 120 (4): 412–439. doi:10.1353/swh.2017.0000. ISSN 1558-9560. Retrieved July 11, 2017 – via Project MUSE. (Subscription required (help)).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of San Jacinto.
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about Battle of San Jacinto.
Battle of San Jacinto – Handbook of Texas Online
Flags of Guerrero and Matamoros Battalions – Texas State Library and Archives Commission
San Jacinto Monument & Museum
"San Jacinto, Battle of". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
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text:
Dingoes ate my baby
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"A dingo ate my baby" is a phrase attributed to Lindy Chamberlain-Creighton and also to Meryl Streep's depiction of Chamberlain in the movie A Cry in the Dark (1988) – also known as Evil Angels – about the death of Azaria Chamberlain, an Australian baby girl who died in 1980 at Uluru in the Northern Territory. The Chamberlain family had been holidaying at Uluru when their daughter was taken from their tent by a dingo. The authorities disbelieved the family's story about a dingo, and prosecuted and won convictions against Lindy Chamberlain for murder and against her then-husband Michael Chamberlain as an accessory after the fact. Ultimately, the courts found both parents innocent after being sent to court 3 different times, and the coroner found Azaria's death was "the result of being attacked and taken by a dingo".[1]
The phrase "A dingo ate my baby" was not actually used by Chamberlain, nor is it used in the film. Chamberlain is reported to have called out to her husband, "a dingo took my baby",[2] or either "That dog's got my baby" or "My God, My God, a dingo has got my baby."[1] In the film, Streep's character, upon discovering her daughter missing, cries out, "A dingo's got my baby."
In popular culture[edit]
In "The Stranded" episode of Seinfeld (Season 3, Episode 10), Elaine does a mock Australian accent and exclaims "Maybe the dingo ate your baby!"
Dingoes Ate My Baby is the name of a fictional band in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer
In The Simpsons episode "Bart vs Australia" (Season 6, Episode 16) Bart says to an Australian farmer "Hey! I think I hear a dingo eating your baby!"
In "Those Big Pink Things with Coconut" episode of Two and a Half Men (Season 2, Episode 14), Charlie says to Alan "Does the dingo feel sorry for the slow-crawling Australian baby?", and also Charlie refer to his mother and says; "And the dingo found another Australian baby?"
In The Simpsons episode "Lisa Gets an A" (Season 10, Episode 7) While home from school due to illness, Lisa plays the "Dashed Dingo" video game in which the main character is a dingo. As the game begins, the dingo is instructed by a large, floating Australian head that he must "find and devour the seven crystal babies".
In "Flour Child", an episode of Frasier (Season 2, Episode 4), Eddie is attacking a bag of flour that Niles is using to simulate an infant. Daphne puts on an Australian accent and exclaims "That dingo's got your baby!"
In the "Mystery Spot" episode of Supernatural (Season 3, Episode 11), Dean refers to what Sam is saying as "Dingo-ate-my-baby crazy."
In the "Good Queen Fun" episode of Project Runway (Season 5, Episode 6), guest judge RuPaul responded "Oh, did a dingo eat your baby, mate?" to contestant Keith Bryce after Bryce apparently took offense to critique from the rest of the judging panel.
In the "Mother Tucker" episode of Family Guy (season 5, episode 2), Brian and Stewie host a radio show named "Dingo and the Baby".
Modern Family's episode "Australia" references this joke when Claire's computer, previously being used for a project referenced as her "baby", is nabbed from a tent by a wild dog.
In the Hot in Cleveland episode titled "That Changes Everything," when Joy's grandchild goes missing, Regis Philbin's character says "Maybe a Dingo ate it."
In the Psych episode titled "The Old and Restless," Shawn tries to get into a retirement home by saying, "Dingo ate my baby."
In The Rugrats Movie, a news reporter on the scene of the Pickles' house asks Didi: "Is it true that a dingo ate your baby?"
In "Product Recall" episode of The Office (Season 3, Episode 20), Kevin makes a few Australian stereotypes in an Australian accent, including "Alligators and dingo babies."
In season three episode five of The Tick, titled "Devil in Diapers", Mr. Mental, disguised as a baby and being cared for by The Tick, is attacked by government agents disguised as dingoes. For a moment a newspaper can be seen with a picture of The Tick and the headline "dingoes stole my baby!"
In the 2008 comedy film Tropic Thunder, character Alpa Chino (Brandon T. Jackson) says: "I'm sorry a dingo ate your baby." during an argument with the Australian character Kirk Lazarus (Robert Downey, Jr.).
Pro-wrestler Chris Jericho on WWE Raw. March 18th 2013. He offered his various mocking pronunciations of rival Fandango, which included in an Australian accent - "Fan-Dingo ate my Baby-O!"
During the "Barry Gibb Talk Show VI" sketch on Saturday Night Live (Season 39, Episode 10), Jimmy Fallon (as Barry Gibb) takes offense to a guest's actions and goes on a usual hubristic rant, with one of his hyperbolic claims to importance being "My baby ate a dingo!"
In the episode “Grandpa” of the show High Maintenance after Gatsby the dog jumps on The Guy he says “that dingo better not eat no baby” to Beth. Beth (played by the Australian Yael Stone) replies “that’s not even funny. It’s a real thing.” When The Guy tries to excuse himself since he hasn’t seen the movie Beth soberly replies “it’s real people’s lives”.
During the January 8, 2017 Drew & Mike Podcast, hosts Drew Lane and Marc Fellhauer discuss Meryl Streep's delivery of the line in the movie A Cry in the Dark.[3]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Inquest into the death of Azaria Chantel Loren Chamberlain [2012] NTMC 020" (PDF). Coroners Court of the Northern Territory. Northern Territory Government of Australia. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Using the Chamberlain Case to explore evidence in history" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 11, 2011. Retrieved 2014-10-25. , National Museum of Australia, p. 7, 2001. Accessed 2014-10-25.
Jump up ^ http://drewandmikepodcast.com/
Further reading[edit]
The Story Behind "The Dingo Ate My Baby" (audio)
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Geography of Nigeria
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Location of Nigeria
Nigeria map of Köppen climate classification.
Satellite image of Nigeria
Nigeria is a country in West Africa. Nigeria shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast. Noted geographical features in Nigeria include the Adamawa highlands, Mambilla Plateau, Jos Plateau, Obudu Plateau, the Niger River, River Benue and Niger Delta.
Nigeria is found in the Tropics, where the climate is seasonally damp and very humid. Nigeria is affected by four climate types; these climate types are distinguishable, as one moves from the southern part of Nigeria to the northern part of Nigeria through Nigeria's middle belt.
Contents
[hide]
1 Climate types found in Nigeria
2 Seasons
3 Trade winds
3.1 Tropical maritime airmass
3.2 Tropical continental airmass
3.2.1 Effects of the tropical continental airmass
4 Temperature
5 Topography
6 Niger Delta
6.1 Vegetation of the Niger Delta
6.2 Human population in the Niger Delta
6.3 Rainfall in Niger Delta
7 Vegetation
8 Natural resources and land use
9 Extreme points
10 References
Climate types found in Nigeria[edit]
The tropical monsoon climate, designated by the Köppen climate classification as "Am", is found in the southern part of the country. This climate is influenced by the monsoons originating from the South Atlantic ocean, which is brought into the country by the (maritime tropical) MT airmass, a warm moist sea to land seasonal wind. Its warmth and high humidity gives it a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious rainfall, which is a result of the condensation of water vapour in the rapidly rising air.[1]
The Tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range. Then temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year, for example, Warri town in the southern part of Nigeria, records a maximum of 28 °C (82.4 °F) for its hottest month while its lowest temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) in its coldest month. The temperature difference of Warri town is not more than 2 °C (5 °F).
The southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall. These storms are usually convectional in nature due to the regions proximity, to the equatorial belt. The annual rainfall received in this region is very high, usually above the 2,000 mm (78.7 in) rainfall totals giving for tropical rainforest climates worldwide. Over 4,000 mm (157.5 in) of rainfall is received in the coastal region of Nigeria around the Niger delta area. Bonny town found in the coastal region of the Niger delta area in southern Nigeria receives well over 4,000 mm (157.5 in) of rainfall annually. The rest of the southeast receives between 2,000 and 3,000 mm (118.1 in) of rain per year.
The southern region of Nigeria experiences a double rainfall maxima characterised by two high rainfall peaks, with a short dry season and a longer dry season falling between and after each peaks. The first rainy season begins around March and last to the end of July with a peak in June, this rainy season is followed by a short dry break in August known as the August break which is a short dry season lasting for two to three weeks in August. This break is broken by the short rainy season starting around early September and lasting to Mid October with a peak period at the end of September. The ending of the short rainy season in October is followed by long dry season. This period starts from late October and lasts till early March with peak dry conditions between early December and late February.[2]
The tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate, is extensive in area and covers most of Western Nigeria to central Nigeria beginning from the Tropical rainforest climate boundary in southern Nigeria to the central part of Nigeria, where it exerts enormous influence on the region.
This climate, the tropical savanna climate exhibits a well marked rainy season and a dry season with a single peak known as the summer maximum due to its distance from the equator. Temperatures are above 18 °C (64 °F) throughout the year. Abuja, Nigeria's capital city found in central Nigeria, has a temperature range of 18.45 °C (65.21 °F) to 36.9 °C (98.4 °F), and an annual rainfall of about 1,500 mm (59.1 in) with a single rainfall maxima in September.[3]
The single Dry season experienced in this climate, the tropical savanna climate in central Nigeria beginning from December to march, is hot and dry with the Harmattan wind, a continental tropical (CT) airmass laden with dust from the Sahara Desert prevailing throughout this period.
With the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) swinging northward over West Africa from the Southern Hemisphere in April, heavy showers coming from pre-monsoonal convective clouds mainly in the form of squall lines also known as the north easterlies formed mainly as a result of the interactions of the two dominant airmasses in Nigeria known as the Maritime tropical(south westerlies) and the Continental tropical(north easterlies),[4] begins in central Nigeria while the Monsoons from the south atlantic ocean arrives in central Nigeria in July bringing with it high humidity, heavy cloud cover and heavy rainfall which can be daily occurrence lasting till September when the monsoons gradually begin retreating southward to the southern part of Nigeria.Rainfall totals in central Nigeria varies from 1,100 mm (43.3 in) in the lowlands of the river Niger Benue trough to over 2,000 mm (78.7 in) along the south western escarpment of the Jos Plateau.[5]
The Sahel climate or tropical dry climate, is the predominant climate type in the northern part of Nigeria. Annual rainfall totals are lower compared to the southern and central part of Nigeria.
The rainy season in the northern part of Nigeria last for only three to four months (June–September). The rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) .
Alpine climate or highland climate or mountain climate are found on highlands regions in Nigeria. Highlands with the alpine climate in Nigeria, are well over 1,520 metres (4,987 ft) above sea level. Due to their location in the tropics, this elevation is high enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands, mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height, a cool mountain climate.
Seasons[edit]
Nigeria, like the rest of West Africa and other tropical lands, has only two seasons. These are the dry season and the rainy season. The dry season is accompanied by a dust laden airmass from the Sahara Desert, locally known as Harmattan, or by its main name, The Tropical Continental (CT) airmass, while the rainy season is heavily influenced by an airmass originating from the south atlantic ocean, locally known as the south west wind, or by its main name, The Tropical Maritime (MT) airmass. These two major wind systems in Nigeria are known as the trade winds.
Trade winds[edit]
Tropical maritime airmass[edit]
The tropical maritime airmass (MT) is responsible for Nigeria's rainy season. This wind (the tropical maritime airmass) invades the country from February in the southern part of Nigeria while it takes longer for the wind to fully cover the whole of the country, reaching the northern part of Nigeria in June. Its invasion is as a result of the northward retreat, of the tropical continental airmass (CT) known as the harmattan. The northward retreat of the tropical continental airmass (CT), is caused by the sun's northward shift from the tropic of capricorn in the southern hemisphere to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. This shift begins from February and ends in June, when the sun is fully overhead, at the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere.
During this northward migration of the sun as a result of the earth tilting along its axis, the sun crosses the equator (around March), moving over west Africa at this time on its journey to the northern hemisphere. West Africa comes directly under the sun at this time. The sun is overhead throughout west Africa and over Nigeria during this period of the sun's northward migration to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere.
The whole of West Africa is heated intensely as result of the increased insolation received from the sun being overhead over west Africa. Temperatures can climb as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F) over west Africa during this time. Temperatures in the northern part of Nigeria can go as high as 48 °C (118.4 °F) in cities like Maiduguri.[6]
The high temperatures coupled with an increase in insolation causes a region of low pressure to develop over west Africa and Nigeria (between March to May). The Tropical continental airmass (CT) from the Sahara Desert in the northern part of West Africa, is weakened due to the overheating of the land surface in west Africa and Nigeria at this time. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) begins to retreat northwards to the Sahara Desert due to massive heating of the land which transfers heat in the form of convection into the Tropical continental airmass (CT) which constitutes the main layer of air above the land. This transfer of heat in the Tropical continental airmass (CT) in turn, causes the wind to expand and become lighter as this is the normal behaviour for winds moving above intensely heated grounds. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) loses its strength as a major airmass in the region of west Africa and over Nigeria at this time (around February in the southern part of Nigeria to June in northern Nigeria) and begins to retreat coupled with the rising of air in form of convection within this airmass (Tropical continental airmass (CT)), further weakening the dominance of the wind over west Africa and Nigeria. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) finally retreats from most part of Nigeria, and the West African atmosphere around April to May, leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria. The sun's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass, which contained dust (in form of haze) that reduced the intensity of the sun.[7] The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria. This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.
The Tropical Maritime Airmass is a warm humid and unstable trade wind due to its warmth. Convectional currents are easily set up within the airmass whenever there is little instability in the airmass as a result of a slight to a very high orographic uplift in mountainous regions like the obudu plateau or the heating of the land which can trigger the formation of cumulonimbus cloud leading to thunderstorms within the airmass.
During the dominance of the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) in the rainy season of Nigeria, mornings are bright and sunny, the sun's heating of the land in the mornings and afternoons sets up convectional currents, these currents rise vertically and cumulonimbus clouds are formed, by afternoons to evenings, torrential downpour follows.
The Easterly wave or the African easterly waves is another major contributor of rainfall during the summer monsoons months of May to September in Nigeria.
The nature of this waves changes at about the 15 degrees line. The waves that pass south of this line carry moisture and create convection that leads to rain clouds.[8] Nigeria's northern end is south of the 15 degrees line at about 14 degrees.[9] Nigeria's location in the wetter part of the easterly waves south of the 15 degree line creates wetter climatic conditions for Nigeria especially during the monsoons.
Tropical continental airmass[edit]
The Tropical Continental Airmass (CT) locally known as the harmattan, is a wind originating from North Africa which crosses the Sahara Desert into west Africa to Nigeria. This airmass dominates Nigeria's climate during the dry season from December to March. The Tropical continental airmass is dusty and creates a haze within the atmosphere of west Africa and Nigeria when it predominates. The haze is as a result of the dust within the airmass limiting visibility and blocking much of the sun's rays from reaching the earth.
Effects of the tropical continental airmass[edit]
The mass has no ability of forming rain due to low humidity within the airmass, since it crosses the Sahara Desert, it picks up dust instead of water thereby creating little chances for rainfall.
The airmass makes life difficult as a result of low visibility which hampers transportation. The dust haze creates an almost desert conditions in the country during the dominance of the Tropical continental airmass (the harmattan). But its coming brings some relief to farmers since the low humidity present in the air quickens the drying of their crops.
Temperature[edit]
Nigeria's location in the tropics has given her a tropical hot climate. Temperatures in Nigeria vary according to the seasons of the year as with other lands found in the tropics. Nigeria's seasons are determined by rainfall with rainy season and dry season being the major seasons in Nigeria.
The rainy season of Nigeria brings in cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage to the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the suns rays in the rainy season; this in turn cools the land, and the winds above the ground remains cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season. But afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid, a feature of tropical climates. In the rainy season it is damp, and the rainfalls are usually abundant.
The dry season of Nigeria is a period of little cloud cover in the southern part of Nigeria to virtually no cloud cover in the northern part of Nigeria. The sun shines through the atmosphere with little obstructions from the clear skies making the dry season in Nigeria a period of warm weather conditions.In the middle of the dry season around December, a dusty wind from the Sahara Desert called the harmattan enters Nigeria from the northeastern part of the country blocking sun rays partially from shining and also creating haze in the atmosphere, this activities of the wind lowers temperatures considerably saving inhabitants for sometime, from the scorching heat that would have occurred as a result of clearer skies during the dry season. But with the withdrawal of this wind around March to April following the onset of the rainy season, temperatures can go as high as 44 °C (111.2 °F) in some parts of Nigeria.[10]
Semi temperate weather conditions prevail on the highlands in central Nigeria above 1,200 metres (3,937 ft) above sea level, namely the Jos Plateau. Temperatures on the Jos plateau ranges between 21 °C to 25 °C which are cool all year round.
Temperate weather conditions occur on the highlands along the Nigeria Cameroon border, in the eastern part of Nigeria. Highlands in these region attain an average height of more than 1,524 m (5,000 ft) to some standing above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level. The climate on these highlands is temperate all year round. The major highlands in this region are the Obudu Plateau above 1,584 m (5,197 ft), Mambilla Plateau above 1,524 m (5,000 ft) and Mt Chappal Waddi above 2,000 m (6,562 ft).
Topography[edit]
Topography of Nigeria
Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys (which merge into each other and form a "y" shaped confluence at Lokoja).[11] Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast.[11]
Niger Delta[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011)
The Niger Delta is located in the southern part of Nigeria. It is one of the world's largest arcuate fan-shaped river deltas.
The riverine area of the Niger Delta is a coastal belt of swamps bordering the Atlantic ocean. The swamps are vegetated tidal flats formed by a reticulate pattern of interconnected meandering creeks and distributaries of the River Niger.
Vegetation of the Niger Delta[edit]
The vegetation of the Niger Delta consist mainly of forest swamps. The forest are of two types, nearest the sea is a belt of saline/brackish Mangrove swamp separated from the sea by sand beach ridges within the mangrove swamp. Numerous sandy islands occur with fresh water vegetation. Fresh water swamps gradually supersede the mangrove on the landward side. About 70% of Nigeria's crude oil and gas production is from the area.
Human population in the Niger Delta[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011)
The riverine area is home to a large population of people living mainly in small villages scattered along the banks of rivers and creeks.
Rainfall in Niger Delta[edit]
Rainfall in the coastal belt of the Niger Delta is heavy due to the closeness of the Delta region to the equator. Annual rainfall totals vary from 2400 to over 4000 millimeters.
Niger Delta cities and their annually rainfall totals in millimeters:
Warri — 2,730mm
Forcados (coastal town in the Niger Delta) — 4,870mm
Port Harcourt — 2,400mm
Calabar (coastal city) — 3,070mm (rainiest city with over one million people in Nigeria)
Bonny (south of Port Harcourt) — 4,200mm
Vegetation[edit]
Vegetation map of Nigeria.
Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (The latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border.) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts.[12]
Some of the forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp (see Central African mangroves). North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps, and north of that is rain forest.[12]
The savannah zone's three categories are divided into mm' Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees, the most common across the country; Sudan savannah, similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast.[12]
Natural resources and land use[edit]
Nigeria's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum (see petroleum in Nigeria), tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, and arable land.
Extreme points[edit]
This is a list of the extreme points of Nigeria, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Niger immediately northwest of the town of Chadawa, Sokoto State.
Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Cameroon immediately east of the village of Munyego, Borno State.
Southernmost point – unnamed headland south of the town of Egeregere, Bayelsa State.
Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Benin Republic immediately east of the Beninoise town of Jabata, Oyo State.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Monsoon - meteorology". britannica.com.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2011-05-27.
Jump up ^ http://iahs.info/redbooks/a281/iahs_281_277.pdf
Jump up ^ Adedoyin J. A. (1989). "Initiation of West African squall lines". Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 41: 99–103. doi:10.1007/BF01043455.
Jump up ^ "Jos Plateau forest-grassland mosaic". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
Jump up ^ http://sunday.dailytrust.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3565:maiduguri-residents-how-we-cope-under-harsh-48-degree-celsius&catid=41:latest-news&Itemid=26 Archived 2011-08-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Nigeria: Late dust (harmattan) storm covers the country (Google / AP)". wordpress.com. 25 March 2010.
Jump up ^ College Park MD (SPX) (Jun 11, 2004). "EARTH OBSERVATION Researchers Seeing Double On African Monsoons". SPACE MEDIA NETWORK PROMOTIONS. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "About the Country Nigeria". CANUK. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
Jump up ^ http://www.nigeria-weather.com/
^ Jump up to: a b "Nigeria". Encarta. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Human and Physical Characteristics of Nigeria". Geographical Alliance of Iowa. University of Northern Iowa. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
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