text:
Unicellular organism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Unicellular organism
Valonia ventricosa, a species of alga with a diameter that ranges typically from 1 to 4 centimetres (0.39 to 1.57 in) is among the largest unicellular species
A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of only one cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of more than one cell. Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but the group includes the protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8–4 billion years ago.[1][2]
Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised into cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.
Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage. Gametes, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms.[3] Additionally, multicellularity appears to have evolved independently many times in the history of life.
Some organisms are partially unicellular, like Dictyostelium discoideum. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be multinucleate, like Myxogastria and Plasmodium.
Contents
1 Evolutionary hypothesis
2 Prokaryotes
2.1 Bacteria
2.2 Archaea
3 Eukaryotes
3.1 Protozoa
3.2 Unicellular algae
3.3 Unicellular fungi
4 Macroscopic unicellular organisms
5 See also
6 References
Evolutionary hypothesis[edit]
Life timeline
view • discuss • edit
-4500 —
–
-4000 —
–
-3500 —
–
-3000 —
–
-2500 —
–
-2000 —
–
-1500 —
–
-1000 —
–
-500 —
–
0 —
water
Single-celled
life
photosynthesis
Eukaryotes
Multicellular
life
Arthropods Molluscs
Plants
Dinosaurs
Mammals
Flowers
Birds
Primates
←
Earth (−4540)
←
Earliest water
←
Earliest life
←
Earliest oxygen
←
Atmospheric oxygen
←
Oxygen crisis
←
Sexual reproduction
←
Earliest plants
←
Ediacara biota
←
Cambrian explosion
←
Tetrapoda
←
Earliest apes
P
h
a
n
e
r
o
z
o
i
c

P
r
o
t
e
r
o
z
o
i
c

A
r
c
h
e
a
n
H
a
d
e
a
n
Pongola
Huronian
Cryogenian
Andean
Karoo
Quaternary
Ice_Ages
Axis scale: million years

Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
Primitive protocells were the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the origin of life is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the RNA world hypothesis, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication.[4] The RNA world hypothesis assumes that RNA molecules could form in abiotic conditions, which would require nucleic acids and ribose to be present. Theoretical and experimental findings show that nucleic acids and sugars could have been synthesized in early prebiotic conditions.[4]
Compartmentalization was necessary for chemical reactions to be more likely as well as to differentiate reactions with the external environment. For example, an early RNA replicator ribozyme may have replicated other replicator ribozymes of different RNA sequences if not kept separate.[5]
When amphiphiles like lipids are placed in water, the hydrophobic (water fearing) tails aggregate to form micelles and vesicles, with the hydrophilic (water loving) ends facing outwards.[2][5] Primitive cells likely used self-assembling fatty-acid vesicles to separate chemical reactions and the environment.[5] Because of their simplicity and ability to self-assemble in water, it's likely that these simple membranes predated other forms of early biological molecules.[2]
Prokaryotes[edit]
Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria or a nucleus.[6] Instead, most prokaryotes have an irregular region that contains DNA, known as the nucleoid.[7] Most prokaryotes have a single, circular chromosome, which is in contrast to eukaryotes, which typically have linear chromosomes.[8] Nutritionally, prokaryotes have the ability to utilize a wide range of organic and inorganic material for use in metabolism, including sulfur, cellulose, ammonia, or nitrite.[9] Prokaryotes as a whole are ubiquitous in the environment and exist in extreme environments as well.
Bacteria[edit]
Modern stromatolites in Shark Bay, Western Australia. It can take a century for a stromatolite to grow 5 cm.[10]
Bacteria are one of the world’s oldest forms of life, and are found virtually everywhere in nature.[9] Many common bacteria have plasmids, which are short, circular, self-replicating DNA molecules that are separate from the bacteria chromosome.[11] Plasmids can carry genes responsible for novel abilities, of current critical importance being antibiotic resistance.[12] Bacteria predominantly reproduce asexually through a process called binary fission. However, about 80 different species can undergo a sexual process referred to as natural genetic transformation.[13] Transformation is a bacterial process for transferring DNA from one cell to another, and is apparently an adaptation for repairing DNA damage in the recipient cell.[14] In addition, plasmids can be exchanged through the use of a pilus in a process known as conjugation.[12]
The photosynthetic cyanobacteria are arguably the most successful bacteria, and changed the early atmosphere of the earth by oxygenating it.[15] Stromatolites, structures made up of layers of calcium carbonate and trapped sediment left over from cyanobacteria and associated community bacteria, left behind extensive fossil records.[15][16] The existence of stromatolites gives an excellent record as to the development of cyanobacteria, which are represented across the Archaean (4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), Proterozoic (2.5 billion to 540 million years ago), and Phanerozoic (540 million years ago to present day) eons.[16] Much of the fossilized stromatolites of the world can be found in Western Australia.[16] There, some of the oldest stromatolites have been found, some dating back to about 3,430 million years ago.[16]
Archaea[edit]
A bottom-dwelling community found deep in the European Arctic.[17]
Hydrothermal vents release heat and hydrogen sulfide, allowing extremophiles to survive using chemolithotrophic growth.[18] Archaea are generally similar in appearance to bacteria, hence their original classification as bacteria, but have significant molecular differences most notably in their membrane structure and ribosomal RNA.[19][20] By sequencing the ribosomal RNA, it was found that the Archeae most likely split from bacteria and were the precursors to modern eukaryotes, and are actually more phylogenetically related to eukaryotes.[20] As their name suggests, Archeae comes from a Greek word archaios, meaning original, ancient, or primitive.[21]
Some archaea inhabit the most biologically inhospitable environments on earth, and this is believed to in some ways mimic the early, harsh conditions that life was likely exposed to. Examples of these Archaean extremophiles are as follows:
Thermophiles, optimum growth temperature of 50 °C-110 °C, including the genera Pyrobaculum, Pyrodictium, Pyrococcus and Melanopyrus.[22]
Psychrophiles, optimum growth temperature of less than 15 °C, including the genera Methanogenium and Halorubrum.[22]
Alkaliphiles, optimum growth pH of greater than 8, including the genus Natronomonas.[22][23]
Acidophiles, optimum growth pH of less than 3, including the genera Sulfolobus and Picrophilus.[22][24]
Piezophiles, (also known as barophiles), prefer high pressure up to 130 MPa, such as deep ocean environments, including the genera Methanococcus and Pyrococcus.[22]
Halophiles, grow optimally in high salt concentrations between 0.2 M and 5.2 M NaCl, including the genera Haloarcula, Haloferax, Halococcus.[22][25]
Methanogens are a significant subset of archaea and include many extremophiles, but are also ubiquitous in wetland environments as well as the ruminant and hindgut of animals.[26] This process utilizes hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide into methane, releasing energy into the usable form of adenosine triphosphate.[26] They are the only known organisms capable of producing methane.[27] Under stressful environmental conditions that cause DNA damage, some species of archaea aggregate and transfer DNA between cells.[28] The function of this transfer appears to be to replace damaged DNA sequence information in the recipient cell by undamaged sequence information from the donor cell.[29]
Eukaryotes[edit]
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles, such as mitochondria, a nucleus, and chloroplasts. Prokaryotic cells probably transitioned into eukaryotic cells between 2.0–1.4 billion years ago.[30] This was an important step in evolution. In contrast to prokaryotes, eukaryotes reproduce by using mitosis and meiosis. Sex appears to be a ubiquitous and ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life.[31] Meiosis, a true sexual process, allows for efficient recombinational repair of DNA damage [14] and a greater range of genetic diversity by combining the DNA of the parents followed by recombination.[30] Metabolic functions in eukaryotes are more specialized as well by sectioning specific processes into organelles.
The endosymbiotic theory holds that mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacterial origins. Both organelles contain their own sets of DNA and have bacteria-like ribosomes. It is likely that modern mitochondria were once a species similar to Rickettsia, with the parasitic ability to enter a cell.[32] However, if the bacteria were capable of respiration, it would have been beneficial for the larger cell to allow the parasite to live in return for energy and detoxification of oxygen.[32] Chloroplasts probably became symbiants through a similar set of events, and are most likely descendants of cyanobacteria.[33] While not all eukaryotes have mitochondria or chloroplasts, mitochondria are found in most eukaryotes, and chloroplasts are found in all plants and algae. Photosynthesis and respiration are essentially the reverse of one another, and the advent of respiration coupled with photosynthesis enabled much greater access to energy than fermentation alone.
Protozoa[edit]
Paramecium tetraurelia, a ciliate, with oral groove visible
Protozoa are largely defined by their method of locomotion, including flagella, cilia, and pseudopodia.[34] While there has been considerable debate on the classification of protozoa caused by their sheer diversity, there are currently 7 phyla recognized under the kingdom protozoa: Euglenozoa, Amoebozoa, Choanozoa, Loukozoa, Percolozoa, Microsporidia and Sulcozoa.[35][36] Protozoa, like plants and animals, can be considered heterotrophs or autotrophs.[32] Autotrophs like Euglena are capable of producing their energy using photosynthesis, while heterotrophic protozoa consume food by either funneling it through a mouth-like gullet or engulfing it with pseudopods, a form of phagocytosis.[32] While protozoa reproduce mainly asexually, some protozoa are capable of sexual reproduction.[32] Protozoa with sexual capability include the pathogenic species Plasmodium falciparum, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma brucei, Giardia intestinalis and Leishmania species.[14]
Ciliophora, or ciliates, are a group of protists that utilize cilia for locomotion. Examples include Paramecium, Stentors, and Vorticella.[37] Ciliates are widely abundant in almost all environments where water can be found, and the cilia beat rhythmically in order to propel the organism.[38] Many ciliates have trichocysts, which are spear-like organelles that can be discharged to catch prey, anchor themselves, or for defense.[39][40] Ciliates are also capable of sexual reproduction, and utilize two nuclei unique to ciliates: a macronucleus for normal metabolic control and a separate micronucleus that undergoes meiosis.[39] Examples of such ciliates are Paramecium and Tetrahymena that likely employ meiotic recombination for repairing DNA damage acquired under stressful conditions.
The Amebozoa utilize pseudopodia and cytoplasmic flow to move in their environment. Most Amebas are unicellular, although a few can become multicellular, such as Physarum polycephalum, a slime mold.[41] Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amebic dysentery.[42] Entamoeba histolytica appears to be capable of meiosis.[43]
Unicellular algae[edit]
A scanning electron microscope image of a diatom
Unicellular algae are plant-like autotrophs and contain chlorophyll.[44] They include groups that have both multicellular and unicellular species:
Euglenophyta, flagellated, mostly unicellular algae that occur often in fresh water.[44] In contrast to most other algae, they lack cell walls and can be mixotrophic (both autotrophic and heterotrophic).[44] An example is Euglena gracilis.
Chlorophyta (green algae), mostly unicellular algae found in fresh water.[44] The chlorophyta are of particular importance because they are believed to be most closely related to the evolution of land plants.[45]
Diatoms, unicellular algae that have siliceous cell walls.[46] They are the most abundant form of algae in the ocean, although they can be found in fresh water as well.[46] They account for about 40% of the world's primary marine production, and produce about 25% of the world's oxygen.[47] Diatoms are very diverse, and comprise about 100,000 species.[47]
Dinoflagellates, unicellular flagellated algae, with some that are armored with cellulose.[48] Dinoflagellates can be mixotrophic, and are the algae responsible for red tide.[45] Some dinoflagellates, like Pyrocystis fusiformis, are capable of bioluminescence.[49]
Unicellular fungi[edit]
Transmission electron microscope image of budding Ogataea polymorpha
Unicellular fungi include the yeasts. Fungi are found in most habitats, although most are found on land.[50] Yeasts reproduce through mitosis, and many use a process called budding, where most of the cytoplasm is held by the mother cell.[50] Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and alcohol, and is used in the making of beer and bread.[51] S. cerevisiae is also an important model organism, since it is a eukaryotic organism that's easy to grow. It has been used to research cancer and neurodegenerative diseases as well as to understand the cell cycle.[52][53] Furthermore, research using S. cerevisiae has played a central role in understanding the mechanism of meiotic recombination and the adaptive function of meiosis. Candida spp. are responsible for candidiasis, causing infections of the mouth and/or throat (known as thrush) and vagina (commonly called yeast infection).[54]
Macroscopic unicellular organisms[edit]
Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic size and are thus classified as microorganisms. However, some unicellular protists and bacteria are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.[55] Examples include:
Xenophyophores, protozoans of the phylum Foraminifera, are the largest examples known, with Syringammina fragilissima achieving a diameter of up to 20 cm (7.9 in)[56]
Nummulite, foraminiferans
Valonia ventricosa, an alga of the class Chlorophyceae, can reach a diameter of 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 2 in)[57][58]
Acetabularia, algae
Caulerpa, algae[59]
Gromia sphaerica, amoeba
Thiomargarita namibiensis is the largest bacterium, reaching a diameter of up to 0.75 mm
Epulopiscium fishelsoni, a bacterium
See also[edit]
Abiogenesis
Colonial organism
Individuality in biology
Largest organisms
Modularity in biology
Protocel
Superorganism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ An Introduction to Cells, ThinkQuest, retrieved 2013-05-30
^ Jump up to: a b c Pohorille, Andrew; Deamer, David (2009-06-23). "Self-assembly and function of primitive cell membranes". Research in Microbiology. 160: 449–456. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2009.06.004. Retrieved 2015-10-28.
Jump up ^ Coates, Juliet C.; Umm-E-Aiman; Charrier, Bénédicte (2015-01-01). "Understanding "green" multicellularity: do seaweeds hold the key?". Plant Evolution and Development. 5: 737. doi:10.3389/fpls.2014.00737. PMC 4299406  . PMID 25653653.
^ Jump up to: a b Andras, Peter; Andras, Csaba (2004-11-26). "The origins of life – the 'protein interaction world' hypothesis: protein interactions were the first form of self-reproducing life and nucleic acids evolved later as memory molecules". Medical Hypotheses. 64: 678–688. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2004.11.029.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Exploring Life's Origins: Fatty Acids". exploringorigins.org. Retrieved 2015-10-28.
Jump up ^ "Prokaryotes". webprojects.oit.ncsu.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ Kleckner, Nancy; Fisher, Jay K.; Stouf, Mathieu; White, Martin A.; Bates, David; Witz, Guillaume (2014-12-01). "The bacterial nucleoid: nature, dynamics and sister segregation". Current Opinion in Microbiology. Growth and development: eukaryotes/ prokaryotes. 22: 127–137. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2014.10.001. PMC 4359759  . PMID 25460806.
Jump up ^ "Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure | Science Primer". scienceprimer.com. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Dwight G (2015). Bacteria. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science. ISBN 1-58765-084-3.
Jump up ^ "Nature Fact Sheets – Stromatolites of Shark Bay » Shark Bay". www.sharkbay.org.au. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ "Conjugation (prokaryotes)". www.nature.com. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Cui, Yanhua; Hu, Tong; Qu, Xiaojun; Zhang, Lanwei; Ding, Zhongqing; Dong, Aijun (2015-06-10). "Plasmids from Food Lactic Acid Bacteria: Diversity, Similarity, and New Developments". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 16 (6): 13172–13202. doi:10.3390/ijms160613172. PMC 4490491  . PMID 26068451.
Jump up ^ Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control". Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 12 (3): 181–96. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3199. PMID 24509783.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (2018). Sex in microbial pathogens. Infection, Genetics and Evolution volume 57, pages 8-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024
^ Jump up to: a b "Fossil Record of the Cyanobacteria". www.ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McNamara, Kenneth (2009-09-01). Stromatolites. Western Australian Museum. ISBN 978-1-920843-88-5.
Jump up ^ "NOAA Ocean Explorer: Arctic Exploration 2002: Background". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ Barton, Larry L.; Fardeau, Marie-Laure; Fauque, Guy D. (2014-01-01). "Hydrogen sulfide: a toxic gas produced by dissimilatory sulfate and sulfur reduction and consumed by microbial oxidation". Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14: 237–277. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_10. ISSN 1559-0836. PMID 25416397.
Jump up ^ "Archaea". www.microbeworld.org. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archaeal Ribosomes". www.els.net. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ "archaea | prokaryote". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Extremophiles: An Overview of Microorganism from Extreme Environment". ResearchGate. doi:10.5958/2230-732X.2014.00258.7. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ Falb, Michaela; Pfeiffer, Friedhelm; Palm, Peter; Rodewald, Karin; Hickmann, Volker; Tittor, Jörg; Oesterhelt, Dieter (2005-10-01). "Living with two extremes: Conclusions from the genome sequence of Natronomonas pharaonis". Genome Research. 15 (10): 1336–1343. doi:10.1101/gr.3952905. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 1240075  . PMID 16169924.
Jump up ^ "Acidophiles". www.els.net. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ ""Extremophiles: Archaea and Bacteria" : Map of Life". www.mapoflife.org. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "Methanogens". www.vet.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ Hook, Sarah E.; Wright, André-Denis G.; McBride, Brian W. (2010-01-01). "Methanogens: methane producers of the rumen and mitigation strategies". Archaea. 2010: 945785. doi:10.1155/2010/945785. ISSN 1472-3654. PMC 3021854  . PMID 21253540.
Jump up ^ van Wolferen M, Wagner A, van der Does C, Albers SV (2016). "The archaeal Ced system imports DNA". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 (9): 2496–501. doi:10.1073/pnas.1513740113. PMC 4780597  . PMID 26884154.
Jump up ^ Bernstein H, Bernstein C. Sexual communication in archaea, the precursor to meiosis. pp. 103-117 in Biocommunication of Archaea (Guenther Witzany, ed.) 2017. Springer International Publishing ISBN 978-3-319-65535-2 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9
^ Jump up to: a b Yett, Jay R. (2015). Eukaryotes. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
Jump up ^ Speijer, D.; Lukeš, J.; Eliáš, M. (2015). "Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (29): 8827–34. doi:10.1073/pnas.1501725112. PMC 4517231  . PMID 26195746.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Origin of Mitochondria". Nature. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Endosymbiosis and The Origin of Eukaryotes". users.rcn.com. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Klose, Robert T (2015). Protozoa. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
Jump up ^ Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M. (2015-04-29). "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms". PLoS ONE. 10 (4): e0119248. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMC 4418965  . PMID 25923521.
Jump up ^ "Protozoa". www.microbeworld.org. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Ciliophora: ciliates, move with cilia". www.microscope-microscope.org. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Introduction to the Ciliata". www.ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "ciliate | protozoan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Sugibayashi, Rika; Harumoto, Terue (2000-12-29). "Defensive function of trichocysts in Paramecium tetraurelia against heterotrich ciliate Climacostomum virens". European Journal of Protistology. 36 (4): 415–422. doi:10.1016/S0932-4739(00)80047-4.
Jump up ^ "Descriptions and articles about the Amoebas (Amoebozoa) – Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "amoeba | protozoan order". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Kelso AA, Say AF, Sharma D, Ledford LL, Turchick A, Saski CA, King AV, Attaway CC, Temesvari LA, Sehorn MG (2015). "Entamoeba histolytica Dmc1 Catalyzes Homologous DNA Pairing and Strand Exchange That Is Stimulated by Calcium and Hop2-Mnd1". PLoS ONE. 10 (9): e0139399. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139399. PMC 4589404  . PMID 26422142.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "algae Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about algae". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Algae – Biology Encyclopedia – cells, plant, body, human, organisms, cycle, life, used, specific". www.biologyreference.com. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "siliceous cell walls". www.mbari.org. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Diatoms are the most important group of photosynthetic eukaryotes – Site du Genoscope". www.genoscope.cns.fr. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Untitled". botany.si.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "BL Web: Growing dinoflagellates at home". biolum.eemb.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Microbiology Online | Microbiology Society | About Microbiology – Introducing microbes – Fungi". www.microbiologyonline.org.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Alba-Lois, Luisa; Segal-Kischinevzky, Claudia (2010). "Yeast Fermentation and the Making of Beer and Wine". Nature Education. 3 (9): 17. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Saccharomyces cerevisiae – MicrobeWiki". MicrobeWiki. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Using yeast in biology". www.yourgenome.org. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Candidiasis | Types of Diseases | Fungal Diseases | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ Max Planck Society Research News Release Accessed 21 May 2009
Jump up ^ Researchers Identify Mysterious Life Forms in the Desert. Accessed 2011-10-24.
Jump up ^ Bauer, Becky (October 2008). "Gazing Balls in the Sea". All at Sea. Archived from the original on 17 September 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
Jump up ^ John Wesley Tunnell; Ernesto A. Chávez; Kim Withers (2007). Coral reefs of the southern Gulf of Mexico. Texas A&M University Press. p. 91. ISBN 1-58544-617-3.
Jump up ^ "What is the Largest Biological Cell? (with pictures)". Wisegeek.com. 2014-02-23. Retrieved 2014-03-01. [unreliable source?]
hide
v
t
e
Evolutionary biology
Evolutionary history of life
Index of evolutionary biology articles
Introduction
Outline of evolution
Timeline of evolution
Evolution
Abiogenesis
Adaptation
Adaptive radiation
Cladistics
Coevolution
Common descent
Convergence
Divergence
Earliest known life forms
Evidence of evolution
Extinction
Event
Gene-centered view
Homology
Last universal common ancestor
Macroevolution
Microevolution
Origin of life
Panspermia
Parallel evolution
Speciation
Taxonomy
Population genetics
Biodiversity
Gene flow
Genetic drift
Mutation
Natural selection
Variation
Development
Canalisation
Evolutionary developmental biology
Inversion
Modularity
Phenotypic plasticity
Of taxa
Birds
origin
Brachiopods
Molluscs
Cephalopods
Dinosaurs
Fish
Fungi
Insects
butterflies
Life
Mammals
cats
canids
wolves
dogs
hyenas
dolphins and whales
horses
primates
humans
lemurs
sea cows
Plants
Reptiles
Spiders
Tetrapods
Viruses
influenza
Of organs
Cell
DNA
Flagella
Eukaryotes
symbiogenesis
chromosome
endomembrane system
mitochondria
nucleus
plastids
In animals
eye
hair
auditory ossicle
nervous system
brain
Of processes
Aging
Death
Programmed cell death
Avian flight
Biological complexity
Cooperation
Color vision
in primates
Emotion
Empathy
Ethics
Eusociality
Immune system
Metabolism
Monogamy
Morality
Mosaic evolution
Multicellularity
Sexual reproduction
Gamete differentiation/sexes
Life cycles/nuclear phases
Mating types
Meiosis
Sex-determination
Snake venom
Tempo and modes
Gradualism/Punctuated equilibrium/Saltationism
Micromutation/Macromutation
Uniformitarianism/Catastrophism
Speciation
Allopatric
Anagenesis
Catagenesis
Cladogenesis
Cospeciation
Ecological
Hybrid
Parapatric
Peripatric
Reinforcement
Sympatric
History
Renaissance and Enlightenment
Transmutation of species
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species
History of paleontology
Transitional fossil
Blending inheritance
Mendelian inheritance
The eclipse of Darwinism
Modern synthesis
History of molecular evolution
Extended evolutionary synthesis
Philosophy
Darwinism
Alternatives
Catastrophism
Lamarckism
Orthogenesis
Mutationism
Saltationism
Structuralism
Spandrel
Theistic
Vitalism
Teleology in biology
Related
Biogeography
Ecological genetics
Molecular evolution
Phylogenetics
Tree
Polymorphism
Protocell
Systematics
Category
Commons
Portal
WikiProject
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unicellular_organism&oldid=855715289"
Categories:
Microorganisms
Hidden categories:
All articles lacking reliable references
Articles lacking reliable references from March 2014
Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Alemannisch
العربية
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaelg
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Қазақша
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
मराठी
მარგალური
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Seeltersk
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
ไทย
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
56 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 August 2018, at 10:04 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: i

values: /wiki/Alga mw-redirect Alga

value: td

value: tbody

value: table

attrs: class style

value: b

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

values: background-color:#77bb77; font-weight:bold; padding:0.2em; text-align:center; margin:0.6em 0 1.2em 0

values: You can edit this timeline. Please use the preview button before saving.

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:35.68281938326em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:33.700440528634em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:31.718061674009em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:29.735682819383em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:27.753303964758em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:25.770925110132em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:23.788546255507em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:21.806167400881em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:19.823788546256em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:17.84140969163em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:15.859030837004em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:13.876651982379em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:11.894273127753em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:9.9118942731278em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:7.9295154185022em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:5.9471365638767em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:3.9647577092511em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:1.9823788546256em;

values: float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:0em;

values: width:3.1em; position:relative; top:-0.82em; float:left; height:36em; padding:0px

values: width:1px; float:left; height:36em; padding:0; background-color:#242020

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-17.492511013216em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#7aa3cc; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:34.985022026432em; margin-left:0.1em; width:9.9em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:14.89em; left:0.5em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-15.859030837004em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#b3d9ff; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:31.718061674009em; margin-left:0.1em; width:9.9em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:12.14em; left:0.4em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-13.876651982379em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#99ffff; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:27.753303964758em; margin-left:0.7em; width:9.3em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:6.94em; left:0.2em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-8.3259911894273em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#b3ffea; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:16.651982378855em; margin-left:1.4em; width:8.6em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:5.14em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-5.9471365638767em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#ccffe7; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:11.894273127753em; margin-left:1.4em; width:8.6em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:0.39em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-2.1449339207048em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#cc9900; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:4.2898678414097em; margin-left:2em; width:8em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:0.84em; left:-0.5em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-1.4273127753304em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#dddd00; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:2.8546255506608em; margin-left:2em; width:2.5em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.36em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.92973568281938em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#e6b800; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.51938325991189em; height:1.8594713656388em; margin-left:4.5em; width:5.5em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.28em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.79295154185022em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#ffcc00; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:1.5859030837004em; margin-left:6.5em; width:3.5em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.41em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.55506607929515em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#ffff00; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:1.1101321585903em; margin-left:2em; width:2.2em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.47577092511013em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#e6b844; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:0.95154185022026em; margin-left:4.5em; width:2em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.36em; left:0em;

values: position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.21806167400881em;

values: font-size:100%; background-color:#ff8800; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:0.43612334801762em; margin-left:7.5em; width:2.5em; font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-1.06em; left:0em;

values: font-size:100%; width:100%; height:36em; padding:0px; float:left; width:10em; border:none; background-color:#e5cc7f;

values: position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;

values: position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;

values: float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:36em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:34.985022026432em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:31.718061674009em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:27.753303964758em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:19.823788546256em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:18.237885462555em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:9.5154185022026em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:6.7400881057269em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:4.9955947136564em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:4.2898678414097em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:3.0925110132159em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.19823788546256em;

values: position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:70%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.87224669603524em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:5.0035242290749em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:0.5em; left:-13em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:20.537444933921em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:0.75em; left:-13em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:31.955947136564em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.25em; left:-13em; width:7em;

values: font:bold 10px Arial;display:inline;background-color:rgba(255,165,0,0.5);padding:3.537px 10px 3.537px 10px;

values: position: absolute; left: -000px; top: 000px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:22.599118942731em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.85em; left:-14em; width:7em;

values: font:bold 10px Arial;display:inline;background-color:rgba(255,165,0,0.5);padding:14px 4px 14px 4px;

values: position: absolute; left: 002px; top: 000px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17.84140969163em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.85em; left:-13.9em; width:7em;

values: font:bold 9px Arial;display:inline;background-color:rgba(255,165,0,0.5);padding:3px 4px 3px 4px;

values: position: absolute; left: -003px; top: 000px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:5.3722466960352em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-1.15em; left:-13.5em; width:7em;

values: font:bold 10px Arial;display:inline;background-color:rgba(255,165,0,0.5);padding:0px 4px 0px 4px;

values: position: absolute; left: 009px; top: 000px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:3.4493392070485em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-1.15em; left:-13.7em; width:7em;

values: position: absolute; left: 015px; top: 000px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:2.4581497797357em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-1em; left:-13.8em; width:7em;

values: font:bold 9px Arial;display:inline;background-color:rgba(255,165,0,0.5);padding:0px 4px 0px 4px;

values: position: absolute; left: 000px; top: -001px

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0.010308370044053em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.28em; left:-13.55em; width:7em;

values: width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-1.5em; left:-13.5em; width:7em;

values: margin-left:3.1em; border-style:none; float:left; clear:both;

values: The image above contains clickable links

values: margin:0 0.5em; float:left; padding:0 auto; border-style:none; clear:both; text-align:center; width:20.5em

values: text-align: left; padding:0.5em 0 0 0; border-style:solid; float:right;clear:right; padding:0 0.5em; margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em; overflow: hidden;

values:
/wiki/Origin_of_life
mw-redirect
Origin of life

values:
/wiki/Stentor_(protozoa)
mw-redirect
Stentor (protozoa)

values:
/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease
mw-redirect
Neurodegenerative disease

values: Edit section: Macroscopic unicellular organisms

values:
/wiki/Colonial_organism
mw-redirect
Colonial organism

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2009.06.004

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00737

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25653653

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2004.11.029

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2014.10.001

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25460806

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3390/ijms160613172

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26068451

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3199

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24509783

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1559-0836

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25416397

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1101/gr.3952905

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1088-9051

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16169924

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1155/2010/945785

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1472-3654

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21253540

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1513740113

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26884154

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501725112

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26195746

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119248

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25923521

values:
nofollow
external text
http://eol.org/pages/2915041/details

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139399

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26422142

values: The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (March 2014)

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Timeline of evolutionary history of life

values:
*_Evolutionary_history_of_life
*_Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles
*_Introduction
*_Outline_of_evolution
*_Timeline_of_evolution

values:
/wiki/Evidence_of_evolution
mw-redirect
Evidence of evolution

values:
/wiki/Evolution_of_canids
mw-redirect
Evolution of canids

values:
/wiki/Evolution_of_hyenas
mw-redirect
Evolution of hyenas

values:
/wiki/Evolution_of_hair
mw-redirect
Evolution of hair

values: Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles

values:
/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity
mw-redirect
Evolution of multicellularity

values: Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment

values: Alternatives to evolution by natural selection

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from March 2014

values: Category:Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Unicellular_organism
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: كائن وحيد الخلية – Arabic

values: এককোষী জীৱ – Assamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: Аднаклетачныя арганізмы – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Едноклетъчно – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einzeller
Einzeller – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Μονοκύτταρος οργανισμός – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: جانداران تک‌یاخته‌ای – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 단세포 생물 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Միաբջիջ օրգանիզմներ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: एककोशिकीय जीव – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: חד-תאיים – Hebrew

values: ერთუჯრედიანი ორგანიზმები – Georgian

values: Бір жасушалылар – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values: Бир клеткалуу организмдер – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values: Едноклеточен организам – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: एकपेशीय सजीव – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: ართთოლამი ორგანიზმეფი – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values: ဧကကလာပ်စည်းသက်ရှိ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਇੱਕ-ਕੋਸ਼ੀ ਪ੍ਰਾਣੀ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Одноклеточные организмы – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values: Eensällige Lieuweweesen – Saterland Frisian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-stq
display: none;

values: ඒක සෛලික ජීවින් – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Jednoćelijski organizam – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: สิ่งมีชีวิตเซลล์เดียว – Thai

values: Одноклітинні організми – Ukrainian

values: جراثیم – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Unicellular_organism rootpage-Unicellular_organism skin-vector action-view


text:
Leah
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For alternate uses, see Leah (disambiguation).
Dante's Vision of Rachel and Leah – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1855
Leah[a] is described in the Hebrew Bible as the daughter of Laban. She and her younger sister Rachel became the two concurrent wives of Hebrew patriarch Jacob. She had six sons, whose descendants became some of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. She also had a daughter, Dinah.
Contents
1 Personal history
1.1 Appearance
1.2 Marriage to Jacob
1.3 Motherhood
1.4 Rivalry with Rachel
1.5 Death and burial
1.6 Family tree
2 Medieval Christian symbolism
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Personal history[edit]
Appearance[edit]
The Torah introduces Leah by describing her with the phrase, "Leah had tender eyes" (Hebrew: ועיני לאה רכות) (Genesis 29:17). It is argued as to whether the adjective "tender" (רכות) should be taken to mean "delicate and soft" or "weary".[4]
The commentary of Rashi cites a Rabbinic interpretation of how Leah's eyes became weak. According to this story, Leah was destined to marry Jacob's older twin brother, Esau. In the Rabbinic mind, the two brothers are polar opposites; Jacob being a God-fearing scholar and Esau being a hunter who also indulges in idolatry and adultery. But people were saying, "Laban has two daughters and his sister, Rebekah, has two sons. The older daughter (Leah) will marry the older son (Esau), and the younger daughter (Rachel) will marry the younger son (Jacob)."[5] Hearing this, Leah spent most of her time weeping and praying to God to change her destined mate. Thus the Torah describes her eyes as "soft" from weeping. God hearkens to Leah's tears and prayers and allows her to marry Jacob even before Rachel does.
Marriage to Jacob[edit]
Leah becomes Jacob's wife through a deception on the part of her father, Laban. In the Biblical account, Jacob is dispatched to the hometown of Laban—the brother of his mother Rebekah—to avoid being killed by his brother Esau, and to find a wife. Out by the well, he encounters Laban's younger daughter Rachel tending her father's sheep, and decides to marry her. Laban is willing to give Rachel's hand to Jacob as long as he works seven years for her.
On the wedding night, however, Laban switches Leah for Rachel. Later Laban claims that it is uncustomary to give the younger daughter away in marriage before the older one (Genesis 29:16-30). Laban offers to give Rachel to Jacob in marriage in return for another seven years of work (Genesis 29:27). Jacob accepts the offer and marries Rachel after the week-long celebration of his marriage to Leah.
Michelangelo's Leah at the tomb of Pope Julius II at San Pietro in Vincoli.
Motherhood[edit]
Leah is the mother of six of Jacob's sons, including his first four (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah), and later two more (Issachar and Zebulun), and a daughter (Dinah). According to the scriptures, God saw that Leah was "unloved" and opened her womb as consolation.
Seeing that she is unable to conceive, Rachel offers her handmaid Bilhah to Jacob, and names and raises the two sons (Dan and Naphtali) that Bilhah bears. Leah responds by offering her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, and names and raises the two sons (Gad and Asher) that Zilpah bears. According to some commentaries, Bilhah and Zilpah are actually half-sisters of Leah and Rachel.[6]
One day, Leah's firstborn son Reuben returns from the field with mandrakes for his mother. Leah has not conceived for a while, and this plant, whose roots resemble the human body, is thought to be an aid to fertility.[7] Frustrated that she is not able to conceive at all, Rachel offers to trade her night with their husband in return for the mandrakes. Leah agrees, and that night she sleeps with Jacob and conceives Issachar. Afterwards she gives birth to Zebulun and to a daughter, Dinah. After that, God remembers Rachel and gives her two sons, Joseph and Benjamin.
Rivalry with Rachel[edit]
On a homiletical level, the classic Chassidic texts explain the sisters' rivalry as more than marital jealousy. Each woman desired to grow spiritually in her avodat HaShem (service of God), and therefore sought closeness to the tzadik (Jacob) who is God's personal emissary in this world. By marrying Jacob and bearing his sons, who would be raised in the tzadik's home and continue his mission into the next generation (indeed, all 12 sons became tzadikim in their own right and formed the foundation of the Nation of Israel), they would develop an even closer relationship to God. Therefore, Leah and Rachel each wanted to have as many of those sons as possible, going so far as to offer their handmaids as proxies to Jacob so they could have a share in the upbringing of their handmaids' sons, too.[8]
Each woman also continually questioned whether she was doing enough in her personal efforts toward increased spirituality, and would use the other's example to spur herself on. Rachel envied Leah's tearful prayers, by which she merited to marry the tzadik and bear six of his twelve sons.[6][8] The Talmud (Megillah 13b) says that Rachel revealed to Leah the secret signs which she and Jacob had devised to identify the veiled bride, because they both suspected Laban would pull such a trick.[9]
Death and burial[edit]
Leah died some time before Jacob (according to Genesis 49:31). She is thought to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron alongside Jacob. This cave also houses the graves of Abraham and Sarah, and Isaac and Rebekah.[10]
Tomb of Leah, 1911.
Family tree[edit]
Terah
Sarah[11] Abraham Hagar Haran
Nahor
Ishmael Milcah Lot Iscah
Ishmaelites 7 sons[12] Bethuel 1st daughter 2nd daughter
Isaac Rebecca Laban Moabites Ammonites
Esau Jacob Rachel
Bilhah
Edomites Zilpah
Leah
1. Reuben
2. Simeon
3. Levi
4. Judah
9. Issachar
10. Zebulun
Dinah (daughter) 7. Gad
8. Asher 5. Dan
6. Naphtali 11. Joseph
12. Benjamin

According to this tree, Leah's husband Jacob is her first cousin (through their mutual grandfather Bethuel). They are also second cousins once removed (Jacob's great-grandfather through Abraham, Terah, is Leah's great-great grandfather through Nahor); and again second cousins once removed (Jacob's great-grandfather through Sarah, Terah, is Leah's great-great-grandfather through Nahor). Finally, they are second cousins twice removed (Jacob's great-grandfather through Abraham, Terah, is Leah's great-great-great-grandfather through Milcah); and again second cousins twice removed (Jacob's great-grandfather through Sarah, Terah, is Leah's great-great-great-grandfather through Milcah).
Medieval Christian symbolism[edit]
In medieval Christian symbolism, Rachel was taken as a symbol of the contemplative (monastic) Christian life, and Leah as a symbol of the active (non-monastic) life.[13] Dante Alighieri's Purgatorio includes a dream of Rachel and Leah, which inspired illustrations by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and others:
"... in my dream, I seemed to see a woman
both young and fair; along a plain she gathered
flowers, and even as she sang, she said:
Whoever asks my name, know that I'm Leah,
and I apply my lovely hands to fashion
a garland of the flowers I have gathered."[14]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ (Hebrew: לֵאָה, Modern Lēʼa, Tiberian Lēʼā, ISO 259-3 Leˀa; Syriac: ܠܝܐ La'ya; from 𒀖 littu Akkadian for "cow"[1][2][3])
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Meyers, Carol L.; Craven, Toni; Kraemer, Ross Shepard, eds. (2001), Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of Named and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and the New Testament, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, p. 108, ISBN 9780802849625
Jump up ^ Hepner, Gershon (2010), Legal Friction: Law, Narrative, and Identity Politics in Biblical Israel, Bern: Peter Lang, p. 422, ISBN 9780820474625
Jump up ^ "ab [COW]", The electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, OCLC 163207721
Jump up ^ Bivin, David, "Leah's Tender Eyes," at jerusalemperspective.com Archived 2007-05-26 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "What's in A Name," Vayetzei (Genesis 28:10-32:3) at aish.com
^ Jump up to: a b Ginzberg, Louis (1909) The Legends of the Jews, Volume I, Chapter VI: Jacob, at sacred-texts.com
Jump up ^ Mandrake Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine. in the American Bible Society Online Bible Dictionary, 1865, Broadway, New York, NY 10023-7505 at www.bibles.com
^ Jump up to: a b Feinhandler, Yisrael Pesach, Beloved Companions, Vayetze - III, "Jealousy Can Be a Tool for Spiritual Growth," at shemayisrael.com
Jump up ^ Wagensberg, Abba (2006), "Between The Lines," in Toras Aish, Volume XIV, No. 11, © 2006 Rabbi A. Wagensberg & aish.com
Jump up ^ Richman, Chaim (1995), "Focus on Hebron," © 1995 Light to the Nations, Rabbi Chaim Richman - All Rights Reserved, Reprinted from The Restoration newsletter, July, 1995 (Tammuz/Av, 5755) at lttn.org
Jump up ^ Genesis 20:12: Sarah was the half–sister of Abraham.
Jump up ^ Genesis 22:21-22: Uz, Buz, Kemuel, Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, and Jidlaph
Jump up ^ Dorothy L. Sayers, Purgatory (translation of Dante's Purgatorio), notes on Canto XXVII.
Jump up ^ Dante's Purgatorio, Canto XXVII, lines 97–102, Mandelbaum translation.
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of Leah at Wiktionary
Media related to Leah at Wikimedia Commons
show
v
t
e
Children of Jacob by wife in order of birth
Leah
Reuben (1)
Simeon (2)
Levi (3)
Judah (4)
Issachar (9)
Zebulun (10)
Dinah (11)
Rachel
Joseph (12)
Benjamin (13)
Bilhah (Rachel's servant)
Dan (5)
Naphtali (6)
Zilpah (Leah's servant)
Gad (7)
Asher (8)
show
v
t
e
Prophets in the Hebrew Bible
Pre-Patriarchal
Abel
Kenan
Enoch
Noah (in rabbinic literature)
Patriarchs / Matriarchs
Abraham
Isaac
Jacob
Levi
Joseph
Sarah
Rebecca
Rachel
Leah
Israelite prophets
in the Torah
Moses (in rabbinic literature)
Aaron
Miriam
Eldad and Medad
Phinehas
Mentioned in the
Former Prophets
Joshua
Deborah
Gideon
Eli
Elkanah
Hannah
Abigail
Samuel
Gad
Nathan
David
Solomon
Jeduthun
Ahijah
Shemaiah
Elijah
Elisha
Iddo
Hanani
Jehu
Micaiah
Jahaziel
Eliezer
Zechariah ben Jehoiada
Huldah
Major
Isaiah (in rabbinic literature)
Jeremiah
Ezekiel
Daniel (in rabbinic literature)
Minor
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah (in rabbinic literature)
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Noahide
Beor
Balaam
Job (in rabbinic literature)
Other
Amoz
Beeri
Baruch
Agur
Uriah
Buzi
Mordecai
Esther (in rabbinic literature)
Oded
Azariah
Italics indicate persons whose status as prophets is not universally accepted.
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
LCCN: n86093833
VIAF: 18705243
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leah&oldid=852512448"
Categories:
Prophets of the Hebrew Bible
Biblical matriarchs
Book of Genesis people
Hebrew-language names
Jacob
Women in the Hebrew Bible
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Syriac-language text
Articles containing Akkadian-language text
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles containing Hebrew-language text
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Kiswahili
Latina
Magyar
Malagasy
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Svenska
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
中文
27 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 July 2018, at 14:06 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Leah_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Leah (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

values: /wiki/Dante mw-redirect Dante

attrs: href title

value: sup

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Reuben_(Bible)
mw-redirect
Reuben (Bible)

values:
/wiki/Simeon_(Hebrew_Bible)
mw-redirect
Simeon (Hebrew Bible)

values:
/wiki/Judah_(Bible)
mw-redirect
Judah (Bible)

values:
/wiki/Dan_(biblical_figure)
mw-redirect
Dan (biblical figure)

values:
/wiki/Mandrake_(mythology)#In_the_Bible
mw-redirect
Mandrake (mythology)

values:
/wiki/Joseph_(Hebrew_Bible)
mw-redirect
Joseph (Hebrew Bible)

values: border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em

values: border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px dashed black;height:1em;width:1em

values: border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px dotted black;height:1em;width:1em

values: border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;

values: Edit section: Medieval Christian symbolism

values: font-size: 115%; font-family: 'Ezra SIL', 'Ezra SIL SR', 'Keter Aram Tsova', 'Taamey Ashkenaz', 'Taamey David CLM', 'Taamey Frank CLM', 'Frenk Ruehl CLM', 'Keter YG', 'Shofar', 'David CLM', 'Hadasim CLM', 'Simple CLM', 'Nachlieli', 'SBL BibLit', 'SBL Hebrew', Cardo, Alef, 'Noto Serif Hebrew', 'Noto Sans Hebrew', 'David Libre', David, 'Times New Roman', Gisha, Arial, FreeSerif, FreeSans;

values: font-size:125%;font-family:'Segoe UI Historic','Akkadian','Noto Sans Cuneiform','Noto Sans Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform';

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
/wiki/Carol_L._Meyers
mw-redirect
Carol L. Meyers

values:
/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania
mw-redirect
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/163207721

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.sacred-texts.com/index.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bibles.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.shemayisrael.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.lttn.org

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
/wiki/Matriarchs_(Bible)#Matriarchs
mw-redirect
Matriarchs (Bible)

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/18705243

values: Category:Articles containing Syriac-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Akkadian-language text

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles containing Hebrew-language text

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Leah
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Leah&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lia
Lia – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: Λεία (βίβλος) – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leah
Leah – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9a
Léa – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lia
Lia – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: லேயா – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
Lea – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Leah rootpage-Leah skin-vector action-view