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2017 College Football Playoff National Championship
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2017 College Football Playoff National Championship
College Football Playoff
Clemson Tigers Alabama Crimson Tide
(13–1) (14–0)
ACC SEC
35 31
Head coach:
Dabo Swinney Head coach:
Nick Saban
AP Coaches CFP
3 3 2
AP Coaches CFP
1 1 1
1
2
3
4
Total
Clemson 0 7 7 21 35
Alabama 7 7 10 7 31
Date
January 9, 2017
Season
2016
Stadium
Raymond James Stadium
Location
Tampa, Florida
MVP
Offensive: #4 QB Deshaun Watson, Jr. Clemson
Defensive: #10 LB Ben Boulware, Sr. Clemson
Favorite
Alabama by 6.5
National anthem
Little Big Town
Referee
Mike Defee (Big 12)
Halftime show
Million Dollar Band, Clemson University Tiger Band
Attendance
74,512
United States TV coverage
Network
ESPN/ESPN Radio/ESPN Deportes
Announcers
Chris Fowler, Kirk Herbstreit, Samantha Ponder and Tom Rinaldi (ESPN)
Eduardo Varela and Pablo Virugela (ESPN Deportes)
Sean McDonough, Todd Blackledge, Holly Rowe and Ian Fitzsimmons (ESPN Radio)
Nielsen ratings
15.3 (26.0 million viewers)
College Football Playoff National Championship
< 2016 2018 >
The 2017 College Football Playoff National Championship was a bowl game that was used to determine a national champion of college football in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2016 season. The game was played at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, on January 9, 2017. It was the culminating game of the 2016–17 bowl season.
The game was played between the winners of two pre-designated bowl games played on December 31, 2016: the Clemson Tigers, who defeated the Ohio State Buckeyes in the Fiesta Bowl, and the Alabama Crimson Tide, who defeated the Washington Huskies in the Peach Bowl. Having met in the previous year's championship game, the resulting title game between Clemson and Alabama became college football's first rematch between #1 and #2 in national championship game history.[1]
The Tigers won the game 35–31 on a go-ahead touchdown with one second left, having come back from a 14–0 deficit earlier in the game. Clemson quarterback and Heisman Finalist Deshaun Watson set the record for most passing yards in a championship game with 420, breaking his own record of 405 yards set in the 2016 national championship game.[2][3] Deshaun Watson and Ben Boulware were named the Offensive and Defensive Most Valuable Players respectively.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 2017 College Football Playoff
3 Teams
3.1 Alabama
3.2 Clemson
4 Starting lineups
5 Game summary
5.1 Scoring summary
5.2 Statistics
6 Broadcasting
7 See also
8 References
Background[edit]
The 2017 College Football Playoff National Championship was played at Raymond James Stadium.
Competing bids were placed to host the championship game by Tampa, Jacksonville, Minneapolis, San Antonio, San Francisco, and South Florida. Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, was announced as the host site for the third College Football Playoff (CFP) National Championship game on December 17, 2013. It became the first CFP championship game to not be held at the site of one of the "New Year's Six" bowls.[4] This championship game is part of the third annual CFP, constituted by four teams playing to decide the national champion of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision. The four teams were originally selected by a 13 member-committee.[5]
2017 College Football Playoff[edit]
Semifinals 2017 Championship Game
December 31 – Peach Bowl
Georgia Dome, Atlanta
1 Alabama 24
4 Washington 7 January 9 – National Championship
Raymond James Stadium, Tampa
1 Alabama 31
December 31 – Fiesta Bowl
University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale 2 Clemson 35
2 Clemson 31
3 Ohio State 0
This bracket:
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Teams[edit]
The championship game was a rematch of the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship, where Alabama defeated Clemson, 45–40.[6][7] Overall, the championship game marked the 17th meeting between the two schools; however, prior to the previous championship game, the programs had only met once in the regular season since 1975.[8]
Alabama[edit]
See also: 2016 Alabama Crimson Tide football team
Alabama was led by head coach Nick Saban. The Crimson Tide were undefeated in the regular season and played the Washington Huskies in the 2016 Peach Bowl, winning 24–7.
Alabama's defense was ranked first in the nation in points allowed (11.8) and yards per game (248). The defense was led by defensive back Minkah Fitzpatrick, who had six interceptions and 62 total tackles.[9]
Jalen Hurts attempted to become the first true freshman quarterback since 1985 and only the second ever to win the National Championship.[10]
Alabama had four AP First-Team All-Americans on its roster and entered the game as a 6.5-point favorite over Clemson.[11]
Clemson[edit]
See also: 2016 Clemson Tigers football team
Clemson was led by head coach Dabo Swinney. The Tigers entered the game with a 13-1 record, with their only loss being to Pittsburgh. Clemson played the Ohio State Buckeyes in the 2016 Fiesta Bowl and won, 31–0.
On offense, the Tigers were led by quarterback Deshaun Watson, who threw for 4,173 yards, 38 touchdowns and 17 interceptions on the season. Watson was also Clemson's second-leading rusher, rushing for 586 yards and 8 touchdowns.[9]
Clemson had two Associated Press Second-Team All-Americans and three AP Third-Team All-Americans.[12] Clemson's cornerback Cordrea Tankersley and defensive end Christian Wilkins were First-team All-Americans with USA Today and the Football Writers Association (FWAA), respectively.[13]
Starting lineups[edit]
[14]
Selected in an NFL Draft (number corresponds to draft round)
† = 2016 All-American
Alabama
Position
Clemson
Offense
Calvin Ridley WR Artavis Scott
Hale Hentges TE WR Mike Williams 1
† Cam Robinson 2 LT Mitch Hyatt
Ross Pierschbacher LG Taylor Hearn
Bradley Bozeman C Jay Guillermo
Korren Kirven RG Tyrone Crowder Jr.
Jonah Williams RT Sean Pollard
O. J. Howard 1 TE Jordan Leggett 5
ArDarius Stewart 3 WR Hunter Renfrow
Jalen Hurts QB Deshaun Watson 1
Damien Harris RB Wayne Gallman 4
Defense
† Jonathan Allen 1 DE DE Christian Wilkins
Da'Ron Payne NG DT Carlos Watkins 4
Dalvin Tomlinson 2 DE DT Dexter Lawrence
Tim Williams 3 JLB DE Clelin Ferrell
Rashaan Evans MLB SLB Dorian O'Daniel
† Reuben Foster 1 WLB MLB Kendall Joseph
Ryan Anderson 2 SLB WLB Ben Boulware
Anthony Averett CB Cordrea Tankersley 3
Marlon Humphrey 1 CB Ryan Carter
† Minkah Fitzpatrick SS Jadar Johnson
Ronnie Harrison FS Van Smith
Game summary[edit]
1
2
3
4
Total
#2 Clemson 0 7 7 21 35
#1 Alabama 7 7 10 7 31
Alabama opened the game with a three-and-out, and Clemson failed to capitalize, turning the ball over on downs after failing to convert a 4th & 1. On Alabama's ensuing drive, Bo Scarbrough opened the game's scoring with a 25-yard rushing touchdown. The first quarter ended with Alabama leading Clemson, 7–0.[15] Scarbrough scored again in the second quarter, on a 37-yard rush to increase Alabama's lead to 14–0.[15] Clemson quarterback Deshaun Watson scored the Tigers' first touchdown of the game on an eight–yard run with six minutes left in the second quarter. The game went to halftime with Alabama leading, 14–7.
The Tigers turned the ball over on their first drive in the second half; their fumble was recovered by Ryan Anderson and returned to Clemson's 16 yard line – the Tide increased their lead to 10 after converting a 27-yard field goal. Clemson cut the lead to three with seven minutes left in the third quarter after Watson found Hunter Renfrow over the middle for a 24-yard touchdown pass.[16] After an injury to Scarbrough, the Tide came out and scored on a 68-yard pass from Jalen Hurts to O. J. Howard on the next play; this put Alabama back up by ten points with 1:53 left in the third quarter, which ended with Alabama leading Clemson, 24–14. Clemson scored just three plays into the final quarter as Watson threw a touchdown pass to Mike Williams; this cut the lead down to 24–21.[17] With 4:38 to go in the game, Clemson took their first lead in the game after Wayne Gallman scored on a one-yard touchdown rush; Alabama got the ball back on their own 32 yard line with 4:38 remaining in the game.[18] The drive came to a 3rd & 16, on which Jalen Hurts found ArDarius Stewart for a 15-yard pass to set up a 4th & 1, which the Tide converted via a Damien Harris 5-yard rush. Hurts found the end zone on a 30-yard rush just a few plays later to give Alabama the lead back, 31–28.[19]
Clemson took possession of the ball with 2:01 on the clock and the ball on their own 36 yard line. After another long catch by Mike Williams, the drive came to a 3rd & 3 on the Alabama 32 yard line, which was converted on a pass to Renfrow to the Alabama 26 yard line with 0:19 left. The next play saw Watson find Jordan Leggett on a pass down to the Tide 9 yard line with 0:14 left. Watson threw to the end zone on 1st & goal; the pass was overthrown and the clock stopped with 0:09. On 2nd & goal, Watson targeted Mike Williams, who was tripped in the end zone. The resulting pass interference call gave the Tigers 1st & goal with the ball placed on the 2-yard line with 0:06 left. On the next play, Watson threw a touchdown pass to Renfrow with 0:01 left; putting Clemson back in the lead, 35–31.[20] After Clemson recovered an onside kick attempting to run out the clock, the game ended with a kneel-down and Clemson won the National Championship Game.[21]
Watson, who went 36-for-56 (7001640000000000000♠64%) on pass attempts for 420 yards with three passing touchdowns, and ran for 43 yards and one rushing touchdown, was named the game's Offensive Most Valuable Player. Ben Boulware, who recorded six tackles, including one for loss of yards, was named the Defensive Most Valuable Player.[22]
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
Clemson
Alabama
1 9:23 3 59 0:58 Alabama Bo Scarbrough 25-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 0 7
2 10:42 5 74 1:24 Alabama Bo Scarbrough 37-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 0 14
2 6:09 7 87 1:33 Clemson Deshaun Watson 8-yard touchdown run, Greg Huegel kick good 7 14
3 12:25 4 7 1:29 Alabama 27-yard field goal by Adam Griffith 7 17
3 7:10 4 42 1:03 Clemson Hunter Renfrow 24-yard touchdown reception from Deshaun Watson, Greg Huegel kick good 14 17
3 1:53 4 79 1:01 Alabama O. J. Howard 68-yard touchdown reception from Jalen Hurts, Adam Griffith kick good 14 24
4 14:00 9 72 2:47 Clemson Mike Williams 4-yard touchdown reception from Deshaun Watson, Greg Huegel kick good 21 24
4 4:38 6 88 1:55 Clemson Wayne Gallman 1-yard touchdown run, Greg Huegel kick good 28 24
4 2:07 6 68 2:31 Alabama Jalen Hurts 30-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 28 31
4 0:01 9 68 2:00 Clemson Hunter Renfrow 2-yard touchdown reception from Deshaun Watson, Greg Huegel kick good 35 31
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
35
31
Source:[23][24]
Statistics[edit]
Statistics
Clemson
Alabama
First Downs 31 16
Plays-yards 99–511 66–376
Third down efficiency 7–18 2–15
Rushes-yards 42–91 34–221
Passing yards 420 155
Passing, Comp-Att-Int 36–57–0 14–32–0
Time of Possession 34:44 25:16
Source: [1]
Team
Category
Player
Statistics
Clemson
Passing Deshaun Watson 36/56, 420 yds, 3 TD
Rushing Wayne Gallman 18 car, 46 yds, 1 TD
Receiving Hunter Renfrow 10 rec, 92 yds, 2 TD
Alabama
Passing Jalen Hurts 13/31, 131 yds, 1 TD
Rushing Bo Scarbrough 16 car, 93 yds, 2 TD
Receiving O. J. Howard 4 rec, 106 yds, 1 TD
Source: [2]
Broadcasting[edit]
The game was broadcast in the United States by ESPN, ESPN Deportes (Spanish), and ESPN Radio. In Brazil, the game was broadcast on ESPN Brazil by Everaldo Marques (play by play) and Antony Curti (color commentator). As in past years, ESPN provided Megacast coverage of the game, which supplemented coverage with analysis and additional perspectives of the game on different ESPN channels and platforms.[25] A 30-second commercial cost up to $1 million to air.[12]
The game had a total of 26.03 million viewers,[26] and earned a 15.3 overnight Nielsen rating, a 4% increase from the 2016 championship game. ESPN reported that the game set records in online streaming with a 710,000 average audience, 2.41 million unique viewers, and 182.5 million overall minutes watched. However, according to USA Today "the combined overnight rating fell well short of the record for a College Football Playoff title." This became the third-highest watched game by streaming on ESPN, after two games from the FIFA World Cup.[27]
See also[edit]
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Johnson, Richard. "Bama-Clemson is college football's first-ever true title rematch". SBNation.com. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hutchins, Andy. "How Deshaun Watson became a superstar". SBNation.com. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Paine, Neil (January 10, 2017). "Deshaun Watson And Clemson Made History Against Alabama". FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ English, Antonya; Jamison, Peter (December 16, 2013). "Tampa to host 2017 college football national championship". Tampa Bay Times. Tampa, Florida: Times Publishing Company. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Meet the College Football Playoff Selection Committee". USA Today. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alabama beats Clemson 45–40 to win national championship". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alabama, Clemson square off in national championship rematch". CNN. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Bill. "Bama vs. Clemson changed both programs last time". SBNation.com. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b College football playoff: Alabama vs. Clemson preview, how to watch, game time for national championship. NCAA.com. January 9, 2017. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kirshner, Alex. "Hurts: Second-ever true freshman national champ QB?". SBNation.com. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "National championship, Alabama vs. Clemson predictions, picks, spread, line". Retrieved January 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Badenhausen, Kurt. "College Football National Championship: Alabama Vs. Clemson By The Numbers". Retrieved January 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Clemson has 6 named to All-American Teams". CBSSports.com. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.nmnathletics.com/fls/28500/pdf/football/2016-17/DepthChart.pdf?DB_OEM_ID=28500_ID=28500&ATCLID=210944425
^ Jump up to: a b Zimanek, Brad (January 10, 2017). "Alabama's offensive deficiencies drag Tide down". Montgomery Advertiser. Tampa, Florida: Gannett Company. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Keepfer, Scott (January 10, 2017). "Hunter Renfrow continues his playoff prowess". The Greenville News. Tampa, Florida: Gannett Company. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Borden, Sam (January 10, 2017). "Clemson Upsets Alabama to Win the College Football Championship". The New York Times. Tampa, Florida: The New York Times Company. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bonnell, Rick (January 10, 2017). "Clemson rides a frantic 4th quarter to national championship". The Charlotte Observer. Tampa, Florida: The McClatchy Company. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hurt, Cecil (January 10, 2017). "Alabama can't complete perfect season". The Tuscaloosa News. Tampa, Florida: GateHouse Media. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Auerbach, Nicole (January 10, 2017). "Clemson gets revenge vs. Alabama to win national championship". USA Today. Tampa, Florida: Gannett Company. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Russo, Ralph (January 10, 2017). "Watson and Clemson dethrone top-ranked Tide, 35–31". Associated Press. Tampa, Florida: AP Sports. Associated Press. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Clements, Ron (January 10, 2017). "Clemson follows MVPs Deshaun Watson, Ben Boulware to national title". SportingNews.com. Sporting News. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "StatMonitr Stat Feed". Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "ESPN Game Summary – Clemson vs Alabama". Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "2017 College Football Playoff Championship Megacast: What's on each ESPN network". SB Nation. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Barrabi, Thomas (January 10, 2017). "Alabama-Clemson Football: Thrilling Upset, But TV Ratings Sink". Retrieved January 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Clemson-Alabama title game ratings better than last year, but far off record". Retrieved January 11, 2017.
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English modal verbs
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The modal verbs of English are a small class of auxiliary verbs used mostly to express modality (properties such as possibility, obligation, etc.). They can be distinguished from other verbs by their defectiveness (they do not have participle or infinitive forms) and by the fact that they do not take the ending -(e)s in the third-person singular.
The principal English modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and would. Certain other verbs are sometimes, but not always, classed as modals; these include ought, had better, and (in certain uses) dare and need. Verbs which share only some of the characteristics of the principal modals are sometimes called "semimodals".
Contents
[hide]
1 Modal verbs and their features
2 Etymology
3 Syntax
4 Past forms
4.1 Conditional sentences
5 Replacements for defective forms
6 Contractions and reduced pronunciation
7 Usage of specific verbs
7.1 Can and could
7.2 May and might
7.3 Shall and should
7.4 Will and would
7.5 Must and have to
7.6 Ought to and had better
7.7 Dare and need
7.8 Used to
8 Deduction
9 Double modals
10 Comparison with other Germanic languages
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links
Modal verbs and their features[edit]
The verbs customarily classed as modals in English have the following properties:
They do not inflect (in the modern language) except insofar as some of them come in present–past (present–preterite) pairs. They do not add the ending -(e)s in the third-person singular (the present-tense modals therefore follow the preterite-present paradigm).[a]
They are defective: they are not used as infinitives or participles (except occasionally in non-standard English; see § Double modals below), nor as imperatives, nor (in the standard way) as subjunctives.
They function as auxiliary verbs: they modify the meaning of another verb, which they govern. This verb generally appears as a bare infinitive, although in some definitions a modal verb can also govern the to-infinitive (as in the case of ought).
They have the syntactic properties associated with auxiliary verbs in English, principally that they can undergo subject–auxiliary inversion (in questions, for example) and can be negated by the appending of not after the verb.
Jump up ^ However, they used to be declined by person and number, but with the preterite endings. Thus, they often have deviating second person singular forms, which still may be heard in quotes from the Bible (as in thou shalt not steal) or in poetry.
The following verbs have all of the above properties, and can be classed as the principal modal verbs of English. They are listed here in present–preterite pairs where applicable:
can and could
may and might
shall and should
will and would
must (no preterite; see etymology below)
Note that the preterite forms are not necessarily used to refer to past time, and in some cases they are near synonyms to the present forms. Note that most of these so-called preterite forms are most often used in the subjunctive mood in the present tense. The auxiliary verbs may and let are also used often in the subjunctive mood. Famous examples of these are "May The Force be with you," and "Let God bless you with good." These are both sentences that express some uncertainty, hence they are subjunctive sentences.
The verbs listed below mostly share the above features, but with certain differences. They are sometimes, but not always, categorized as modal verbs.[1] They may also be called "semimodals".
The verb ought differs from the principal modals only in that it governs a to-infinitive rather than a bare infinitive (compare he should go with he ought to go).
The verbs dare and need can be used as modals, often in the negative (Dare he fight?; You dare not do that.; You need not go.), although they are more commonly found in constructions where they appear as ordinary inflected verbs (He dares to fight; You don't need to go). There is also a dialect verb, nearly obsolete but sometimes heard in Appalachia and the Deep South of the United States: darest, which means "dare not", as in "You darest do that."
The verb had in the expression had better behaves like a modal verb, hence had better (considered as a compound verb) is sometimes classed as a modal or semimodal.
The verb used in the expression used to (do something) can behave as a modal, but is more often used with do-support than with auxiliary-verb syntax: Did she used to do it? (or Did she use to do it?) and She didn't used to do it (or She didn't use to do it)[a] are more common than Used she to do it? and She used not (usedn't) to do it.
Other English auxiliaries appear in a variety of different forms and are not regarded as modal verbs. These are:
be, used as an auxiliary in passive voice and continuous aspect constructions; it follows auxiliary-verb syntax even when used as a copula, and in auxiliary-like formations such as be going to, is to and be about to;
have, used as an auxiliary in perfect aspect constructions, including the idiom have got (to); it is also used in have to, which has modal meaning, but here (as when denoting possession) have only rarely follows auxiliary-verb syntax (see also must below);
do; see do-support.
For more general information about English verb inflection and auxiliary usage, see English verbs and English clause syntax. For details of the uses of the particular modals, see § Usage of specific verbs below.
Etymology[edit]
The modals can and could are from Old English can(n) and cuþ, which were respectively present and preterite forms of the verb cunnan ("to be able"). The silent l in the spelling of could results from analogy with would and should.
Similarly, may and might are from Old English mæg and meahte, respectively present and preterite forms of magan ("may, to be able"); shall and should are from sceal and sceolde, respectively present and preterite forms of sculan ("to owe, be obliged"); and will and would are from wille and wolde, respectively present and preterite forms of willan ("to wish, want").
The aforementioned Old English verbs cunnan, magan, sculan and willan followed the preterite-present paradigm (or in the case of willan, a similar but irregular paradigm), which explains the absence of the ending -s in the third person on the present forms can, may, shall and will. (The original Old English forms given above were first and third person singular forms; their descendant forms became generalized to all persons and numbers.)
The verb must comes from Old English moste, part of the verb motan ("to be able to, be obliged to"). This was another preterite-present verb, of which moste was in fact the preterite (the present form mot gave rise to mote, which was used as a modal verb in Early Modern English; but must has now lost its past connotations and has replaced mote). Similarly, ought was originally a past form – it derives from ahte, preterite of agan ("to own"), another Old English preterite-present verb, whose present tense form ah has given the modern (regular) verb owe (and ought was formerly used as a past tense of owe).
The verb dare also originates from a preterite-present verb, durran ("to dare"), specifically its present tense dear(r), although in its non-modal uses in Modern English it is conjugated regularly. However, need comes from the regular Old English verb neodian (meaning "to be necessary") – the alternative third person form need (in place of needs), which has become the norm in modal uses, became common in the 16th century.[6]
Syntax[edit]
A modal verb serves as an auxiliary to another verb, which appears in infinitive form (the bare infinitive, or the to-infinitive in the cases of ought and used as discussed above). Examples: You must escape; This may be difficult.
The verb governed by the modal may be another auxiliary (necessarily one that can appear in infinitive form – this includes be and have, but not another modal, except in the non-standard cases described below under § Double modals). Hence a modal may introduce a chain (technically catena) of verb forms, in which the other auxiliaries express properties such as aspect and voice, as in He must have been given a new job.
Modals can appear in tag questions and other elliptical sentences without the governed verb being expressed: ...can he?; I mustn't.; Would they?
Like other auxiliaries, modal verbs are negated by the addition of the word not after them. (The modification of meaning may not always correspond to simple negation, as in the case of must not.) The modal can combines with not to form the single word cannot. Most of the modals have contracted negated forms in n't which are commonly used in informal English: can't, mustn't, won't (from will), etc.
Again like other auxiliaries, modal verbs undergo inversion with their subject, in forming questions and in the other cases described in the article on subject–auxiliary inversion: Could you do this?; On no account may you enter. When there is negation, the contraction with n't may undergo inversion as an auxiliary in its own right: Why can't I come in? (or: Why can I not come in?).
More information on these topics can be found at English clause syntax.
Past forms[edit]
The preterite (past) forms given above (could, might, should and would, corresponding to can, may, shall and will, respectively) do not always simply modify the meaning of the modal to give it past time reference. The only one regularly used as an ordinary past tense is could, when referring to ability: I could swim may serve as a past form of I can swim.
All the preterites are used as past equivalents for the corresponding present modals in indirect speech and similar clauses requiring the rules of sequence of tenses to be applied. For example, in 1960 it might have been said that People think that we will all be driving hovercars by the year 2000, whereas at a later date it might be reported that In 1960, people thought we would all be driving hovercars by the year 2000.
This "future-in-the-past" usage of would can also occur in independent sentences: I moved to Green Gables in 1930; I would live there for the next ten years.
In many cases, in order to give modals past reference, they are used together with a "perfect infinitive", namely the auxiliary have and a past participle, as in I should have asked her; You may have seen me. Sometimes these expressions are limited in meaning; for example, must have can refer only to certainty, whereas past obligation is expressed by an alternative phrase such as had to (see § Replacements for defective forms below).
Conditional sentences[edit]
The preterite forms of modals are used in counterfactual conditional sentences, in the apodosis (then-clause). The modal would (sometimes should as a first-person alternative) is used to produce the conditional construction which is typically used in clauses of this type: If you loved me, you would support me. It can be replaced by could (meaning "would be able to") and might (meaning "would possibly") as appropriate.
When the clause has past time reference, the construction with the modal plus perfect infinitive (see above) is used: If they (had) wanted to do it, they would (could/might) have done it by now. (The would have done construction is called the conditional perfect.)
The protasis (if-clause) of such a sentence typically contains the past tense of a verb (or the past perfect construction, in the case of past time reference), without any modal. The modal could may be used here in its role as the past tense of can (if I could speak French). However all the modal preterites can be used in such clauses with certain types of hypothetical future reference: if I should lose or should I lose (equivalent to if I lose); if you would/might/could stop doing that (usually used as a form of request).
Sentences with the verb wish (and expressions of wish using if only...) follow similar patterns to the if-clauses referred to above, when they have counterfactual present or past reference. When they express a desired event in the near future, the modal would is used: I wish you would visit me; If only he would give me a sign.
For more information see English conditional sentences and English subjunctive.
Replacements for defective forms[edit]
As noted above, English modal verbs are defective in that they do not have infinitive, participle, imperative or (standard) subjunctive forms, and in some cases past forms. However in many cases there exist equivalent expressions that carry the same meaning as the modal, and can be used to supply the missing forms. In particular:
The modals can and could, in their meanings expressing ability, can be replaced by am/is/are able to and was/were able to. Additional forms can thus be supplied: the infinitive (to) be able to, the subjunctive and (rarely) imperative be able to, and the participles being able to and been able to.
The modals may and might, in their meanings expressing permission, can be replaced by am/is/are allowed to and was/were allowed to.
The modal must in most meanings can be replaced by have/has to. This supplies the past and past participle form had to, and other forms (to) have to, having to.
Will can be replaced by am/is/are going to. This can supply the past and other forms: was/were going to, (to) be going to, being/been going to.
The modals should and ought to might be replaced by am/is/are supposed to, thus supplying the forms was/were supposed to, (to) be supposed to, being/been supposed to.
Contractions and reduced pronunciation[edit]
As already mentioned, most of the modals in combination with not form commonly used contractions: can't, won't, etc. Some of the modals also have contracted forms themselves:
The verb will is often contracted to 'll; the same contraction may also represent shall.
The verb would (or should, when used as a first-person equivalent of would) is often contracted to 'd.
The had of had better is also often contracted to 'd. (The same contraction is also used for other cases of had as an auxiliary.)
Certain of the modals generally have a weak pronunciation when they are not stressed or otherwise prominent; for example, can is usually pronounced /kǝn/. The same applies to certain words following modals, particularly auxiliary have: a combination like should have is normally reduced to /ʃʊd(h)ǝv/ or just /ʃʊdǝ/ "shoulda". Also ought to can become /ɔːtǝ/ "oughta". See weak and strong forms in English.
Usage of specific verbs[edit]
Can and could [edit]
The modal verb can expresses possibility in either a dynamic, deontic, or epistemic sense, that is, in terms of innate ability, permissibility, or possible circumstance. For example:
I can speak English means "I am able to speak English" or "I know how to speak English".
You can smoke here means "you may (are permitted to) smoke here" (in formal English may or might is sometimes considered more correct than can or could in these senses).
There can be strong rivalry between siblings means that such rivalry is possible.
The preterite form could is used as the past tense or conditional form of can in the above meanings (see § Past forms above). It is also used to express possible circumstance: We could be in trouble here. It is preferable to use could, may or might rather than can when expressing possible circumstance in a particular situation (as opposed to the general case, as in the "rivalry" example above, where can or may is used).
Both can and could can be used to make requests: Can/could you pass me the cheese? means "Please pass me the cheese" (where could indicates greater politeness).
It is common to use can with verbs of perception such as see, hear, etc., as in I can see a tree. Aspectual distinctions can be made, such as I could see it (ongoing state) vs. I saw it (event). See can see.
The use of could with the perfect infinitive expresses past ability or possibility, either in some counterfactual circumstance (I could have told him if I had seen him), or in some real circumstance where the act in question was not in fact realized: I could have told him yesterday (but in fact I didn't). The use of can with the perfect infinitive, can have..., is a rarer alternative to may have... (for the negative see below).
The negation of can is the single word cannot, only occasionally written separately as can not.[7] Though cannot is preferred (as can not is potentially ambiguous), its irregularity (all other uncontracted verbal negations use at least two words) sometimes causes those unfamiliar with the nuances of English spelling to use the separated form. Its contracted form is can't (pronounced /kɑːnt/ in RP and some other dialects). The negation of could is the regular could not, contracted to couldn't.
The negative forms reverse the meaning of the modal (to express inability, impermissibility or impossibliity). This differs from the case with may or might used to express possibility: it can't be true has a different meaning than it may not be true. Thus can't (or cannot) is often used to express disbelief in the possibility of something, as must expresses belief in the certainty of something. When the circumstance in question refers to the past, the form with the perfect infinitive is used: he can't (cannot) have done it means "I believe it impossible that he did it" (compare he must have done it).
Occasionally not is applied to the infinitive rather than to the modal (stress would then be applied to make the meaning clear): I could not do that, but I'm going to do it anyway.
May and might[edit]
The verb may expresses possibility in either an epistemic or deontic sense, that is, in terms of possible circumstance or permissibility. For example:
The mouse may be dead means that it is possible that the mouse is dead.
You may leave the room means that the listener is permitted to leave the room.
In expressing possible circumstance, may can have future as well as present reference (he may arrive means that it is possible that he will arrive; I may go to the mall means that I am considering going to the mall).
The preterite form might is used as a synonym for may when expressing possible circumstance (as can could – see above). It is sometimes said that might and could express a greater degree of doubt than may. For uses of might in conditional sentences, and as a past equivalent to may in such contexts as indirect speech, see § Past forms above.
May (or might) can also express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: He may be taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger could mean "While it is (or may be) true that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger."
May can indicate presently given permission for present or future actions: You may go now. Might used in this way is milder: You might go now if you feel like it. Similarly May I use your phone? is a request for permission (might would be more hesitant or polite).
A less common use of may is to express wishes, as in May you live long and happy or May the Force be with you (see also English subjunctive).
When used with the perfect infinitive, may have indicates uncertainty about a past circumstance, whereas might have can have that meaning, but it can also refer to possibilities that did not occur but could have in other circumstances (see also conditional sentences above).
She may have eaten the cake (the speaker does not know whether she ate cake).
She might have eaten cake (this means either the same as the above, or else means that she did not eat cake but that it was or would have been possible for her to eat cake).
Note that the above perfect forms refer to possibility, not permission (although the second sense of might have might sometimes imply permission).
The negated form of may is may not; this does not have a common contraction (mayn't is obsolete). The negation of might is might not; this is sometimes contracted to mightn't, mostly in tag questions and in other questions expressing doubt (Mightn't I come in if I took my boots off?).
The meaning of the negated form depends on the usage of the modal. When possibility is indicated, the negation effectively applies to the main verb rather than the modal: That may/might not be means "That may/might not-be", i.e. "That may fail to be true". But when permission is being expressed, the negation applies to the modal or entire verb phrase: You may not go now means "You are not permitted to go now" (except in rare cases where not and the main verb are both stressed to indicate that they go together: You may go or not go, whichever you wish).
Shall and should [edit]
Main article: Shall and will
The verb shall is used in some varieties of English in place of will, indicating futurity when the subject is first person (I shall, we shall).
With second- and third-person subjects, shall indicates an order, command or prophecy: Cinderella, you shall go to the ball! It is often used in writing laws and specifications: Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of not less than three years; The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within a normal temperature range.
Shall is sometimes used in questions (in the first, or possibly third, person) to ask for advice or confirmation of a suggestion: Shall I read now?; What shall we wear? Also, Shall can be used as the simple future tense of Should so I shall can mean I will be supposed to or I will ought to.[8]
Should is sometimes used as a first-person equivalent for would (in its conditional and "future-in-the-past" uses), in the same way that shall can replace will. Should is also used to form a replacement for the present subjunctive in some varieties of English, and also in some conditional sentences with hypothetical future reference – see English subjunctive and English conditional sentences.
Should is often used to describe an expected or recommended behavior or circumstance. It can be used to give advice or to describe normative behavior, though without such strong obligatory force as must or have to. Thus You should never lie describes a social or ethical norm. It can also express what will happen according to theory or expectations: This should work. In these uses it is equivalent to ought to.
Both shall and should can be used with the perfect infinitive (shall/should have (done)) in their role as first-person equivalents of will and would (thus to form future perfect or conditional perfect structures). Also shall have may express an order with perfect aspect (you shall have finished your duties by nine o'clock). When should is used in this way it usually expresses something which would have been expected, or normatively required, at some time in the past, but which did not in fact happen (or is not known to have happened): I should have done that yesterday ("it would have been expedient, or expected of me, to do that yesterday").
The formal negations are shall not and should not, contracted to shan't and shouldn't. The negation effectively applies to the main verb rather than the auxiliary: you should not do this implies not merely that there is no need to do this, but that there is a need not to do this. The logical negation of I should is I don't ought to or I am not supposed to.
Will and would [edit]
The modal will is often used to express futurity (The next meeting will be held on Thursday). Since this is an expression of time rather than modality, constructions with will (or sometimes shall; see above and at shall and will) are often referred to as the future tense of English, and forms like will do, will be doing, will have done and will have been doing are often called the simple future, future progressive (or future continuous), future perfect, and future perfect progressive (continuous). With first-person subjects (I, we), in varieties where shall is used for simple expression of futurity, the use of will indicates particular willingness or determination.
Future events are also sometimes referred to using the present tense (see Uses of English verb forms), or using the going to construction.
Will as a modal also has a number of different uses:[9][10]
It can express habitual aspect; for example, he will make mistakes may mean that he frequently makes mistakes (here the word will is usually stressed somewhat, and often expresses annoyance).
It can express strong probability with present time reference, as in That will be John at the door.
It can be used to give an indirect order, as in You will do it right now.
The preterite form would is used in some conditional sentences, and as a past form of future will as described above under § Past forms. (It is sometimes replaced by should in the first person in the same way that will is replaced by shall.) Other uses of would include:
Expression of politeness, as in I would like... (for "I want") and Would you (be so kind as to) do this? (for "Please do this").
Expression of habitual aspect in past time, as in Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school.[11][12]
Both will and would can be used with the perfect infinitive (will have, would have), either to form the future perfect and conditional perfect forms already referred to, or to express perfect aspect in their other meanings (e.g. there will have been an arrest order, expressing strong probability).
The negated forms are will not (contracted to won't) and would not (contracted to wouldn't). In the modal meanings of will the negation is effectively applied to the main verb phrase and not to the modality (e.g. when expressing an order, you will not do it expresses an order not to do it, rather than just the absence of an order to do it). For contracted forms of will and would themselves, see § Contractions and reduced pronunciation above.
Must and have to[edit]
The modal must expresses obligation or necessity: You must use this form; We must try to escape. It can also express a confident assumption (the epistemic rather than deontic use), such as in It must be here somewhere.
An alternative to must is the expression have to or has to depending on the pronoun (in the present tense sometimes have got to), which is often more idiomatic in informal English when referring to obligation. This also provides other forms in which must is defective (see § Replacements for defective forms above) and enables simple negation (see below).
When used with the perfect infinitive (i.e. with have and the past participle), must expresses only assumption: Sue must have left means that the speaker confidently assumes that Sue has left. To express obligation or necessity in the past, had to or some other synonym must be used.
The formal negation of must is must not (contracted to mustn't). However the negation effectively applies to the main verb, not the modality: You must not do this means that you are required not to do this, not just that you are not required to do this. To express the lack of requirement or obligation, the negative of have to or need (see below) can be used: You don't have to do this; You needn't do this.
The above negative forms are not usually used in the sense of confident assumption; here it is common to use can't to express confidence that something is not the case (as in It can't be here or, with the perfect, Sue can't have left).
Mustn't can nonetheless be used as a simple negative of must in tag questions and other questions expressing doubt: We must do it, mustn't we? Mustn't he be in the operating room by this stage?
Ought to and had better [edit]
Ought is used with meanings similar to those of should expressing expectation or requirement. The principal grammatical difference is that ought is used with the to-infinitive rather than the bare infinitive, hence we should go is equivalent to we ought to go. Because of this difference of syntax, ought is sometimes excluded from the class of modal verbs, or is classed as a semimodal.
The reduced pronunciation of ought to (see § Contractions and reduced pronunciation above) is sometimes given the eye dialect spelling oughta.
Ought can be used with perfect infinitives in the same way as should (but again with the insertion of to): you ought to have done that earlier.
The grammatically negated form is ought not or oughtn't, equivalent in meaning to shouldn't (but again used with to). The actual negation is don't ought to which has a similar meaning to am/is/are not supposed to. The past tense form is oughted to negated to didn't ought to.
The expression had better has similar meaning to should and ought when expressing recommended or expedient behavior: I had better get down to work (it can also be used to give instructions with the implication of a threat: you had better give me the money or else). The had of this expression is similar to a modal: it governs the bare infinitive, it is defective in that it is not replaceable by any other form of the verb have, and it behaves syntactically as an auxiliary verb. For this reason the expression had better, considered as a kind of compound verb, is sometimes classed along with the modals or as a semimodal.
The had of had better can be contracted to 'd, or in some informal usage (especially American) can be omitted. The expression can be used with a perfect infinitive: you'd better have finished that report by tomorrow. There is a negative form hadn't better, used mainly in questions: Hadn't we better start now? It is more common for the infinitive to be negated by means of not after better: You'd better not do that (meaning that you are strongly advised not to do that).
Dare and need [edit]
The verbs dare and need can be used both as modals and as ordinary conjugated (non-modal) verbs. As non-modal verbs they can take a to-infinitive as their complement (I dared to answer her; He needs to clean that), although dare may also take a bare infinitive (He didn't dare go). In their uses as modals they govern a bare infinitive, and are usually restricted to questions and negative sentences.
Examples of the modal use of dare, followed by equivalents using non-modal dare where appropriate:
Dare he do it? ("Does he dare to do it?")
I daren't (or dare not or dasn't) try ("I don't dare to try")
How dare you!; How dare he! (idiomatic expressions of outrage)
I dare say (another idiomatic expression, here exceptionally without negation or question syntax)
The modal use of need is close in meaning to must expressing necessity or obligation. The negated form need not (needn't) differs in meaning from must not, however; it expresses lack of necessity, whereas must not expresses prohibition. Examples:
Need I continue? ("Do I need to continue? Must I continue?")
You needn't water the grass ("You don't have to water the grass"; compare the different meaning of You mustn't water...)
Modal need can also be used with the perfect infinitive: Need I have done that? It is most commonly used here in the negative, to denote that something that was done was (from the present perspective) not in fact necessary: You needn't have left that tip.
Used to[edit]
See also English markers of habitual aspect. For the 2 Chainz song, see Used 2.
The verbal expression used to expresses past states or past habitual actions, usually with the implication that they are no longer so. It is followed by the infinitive (that is, the full expression consists of the verb used plus the to-infinitive). Thus the statement I used to go to college means that the speaker formerly habitually went to college, and normally implies that this is no longer the case.
While used to does not express modality, it has some similarities with modal auxiliaries in that it is invariant and defective in form and can follow auxiliary-verb syntax: it is possible to form questions like Used he to come here? and negatives like He used not (rarely usedn't) to come here. More common, however, (though not the most formal style) is the syntax that treats used as a past tense of an ordinary verb, and forms questions and negatives using did: Did he use(d) to come here? He didn't use(d) to come here.[a]
Note the difference in pronunciation between the ordinary verb use /juːz/ and its past form used /juːzd/ (as in scissors are used to cut paper), and the verb forms described here: /juːst/.
The verbal use of used to should not be confused with the adjectival use of the same expression, meaning "familiar with", as in I am used to this, we must get used to the cold. When the adjectival form is followed by a verb, the gerund is used: I am used to going to college in the mornings.
Deduction[edit]
Main article: English modals of deduction
In English, modal verbs as must, have to, have got to, can’t and couldn't are used to express deduction and contention. These modal verbs state how sure the speaker is about something.[13][14][15]
You're shivering—you must be cold.
Someone must have taken the key: it is not here.
I didn't order ten books. This has to be a mistake.
These aren't mine—they've got to be yours.
It can't be a burglar. All the doors and windows are locked.
Double modals[edit]
In formal standard English usage, more than one modal verb is not used consecutively, as modals are followed by an infinitive, which they themselves lack. They can be combined only with non-modal constructions that have a modal function, such as have to, which in spite of its function is not a modal verb. Thus, might have to is acceptable, but might must is not, even though must and have to can normally be used interchangeably. However the main auxiliary (which is usually the first modal verb in the sentence), doesn't have to be in the infinitive. To put double modals in past tense, only the first modal is changed as in I could ought to.
A greater variety of double modals appears in some regional dialects. In English, for example, phrases such as would dare to, may be able to or should have to are sometimes used in conversation and are grammatically correct.[16] The double modal may sometimes be in the future tense, as in "I will ought to go", where will is the main verb and ought to is also an auxiliary but an infinitive. Another example is We must be able to work with must being the main auxiliary and be able to as the infinitive. Other examples include You may not dare to run or I would need to have help.
Some kinds of double modal phrases are not regarded as standard,[16] although a combination of a modal with a modal-like construction may be used instead. "I might could do something" is wrong because could is not an infinitive. This is more often expressed as "I might have been able to do something", which is considered correct. Similarly used to could (also wrong and expressed as used to be able to) appears for example in country singer Bill Carlisle's 1951 song "Too Old to Cut the Mustard":
To form questions the subject and the first verb are swapped if the verb requires no do-support such as Shall you be able to write? If the main auxiliary requires do- support the appropriate of to do is added to the beginning as in Did he use to need to fight? As if normal modals are used the action verb needs to be in the infinitive form.
If modals are put in the perfect tense the past participle of the infinitive is used as in He had been going to swim or You have not been able to skate and to interrogate these the main verb and subject are swapped as in Has she had to come?
Double modals also occur in the closely related Germanic language Scots.
Comparison with other Germanic languages[edit]
Many English modals have cognates in other Germanic languages, albeit with different meanings in some cases. Unlike the English modals, however, these verbs are not generally defective; they can inflect, and have forms such as infinitives, participles and future tenses (for example using the auxiliary werden in German). Examples of such cognates include:
in German: mögen, müssen, können, sollen, wollen; cognates of may, must, can, shall, and will. Although German shares five modal verbs with English, their meanings are often quite different. Mögen does not mean "to be allowed" but "may" as epistemic modal and "to like" as a normal verb followed by a noun. It can be followed by an infinitive with the meaning of 'to have a desire to'. Wollen means "will" only in the sense of "to want to" and is not used to form the future tense. Müssen, können, and sollen are used similarly as English "must", "can", and "shall". Note, however, that the negation of müssen is a literal one in German, not an inverse one as in English. This is to say that German ich muss ("I must") means "I need to", and ich muss nicht (literally the same as "I must not") accordingly means "I don't need to". In English, "to have to" behaves the same way, whereas English "must" expresses an interdiction when negated. brauchen (need) is sometimes used like a modal verb, especially negated ("Er braucht nicht kommen", "He does not need to come").
in Dutch: mogen, moeten, kunnen, zullen, willen; cognates of may, must, can, shall, and will.
in Danish: måtte, kunne, ville, skulle, cognates of may/must, can, will, shall. They generally have the same corresponding meanings in English, with the exception of ville, which usually means "to want to" (but which can also mean "will").
in Swedish: må (past tense: måtte), måsta, kunna, vilja, ska(ll), cognates of may/might, must, can, will, shall. They generally have the same corresponding meanings in English, with the exception of vilja, which means "to want to."
Since modal verbs in other Germanic languages are not defective, the problem of double modals (see above) does not arise: the second modal verb in such a construction simply takes the infinitive form, as would any non-modal verb in the same position. Compare the following translations of English "I want to be able to dance", all of which translate literally as "I want can dance".
German: Ich will tanzen können.
Dutch: Ik wil kunnen dansen.
Danish: Jeg vil kunne danse.
Swedish: Jag vill kunna dansa.
See also[edit]
Tense–aspect–mood § Invariant auxiliaries
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Use of did ... used to is controversial. According to Garner's Modern American Usage didn't used to is the correct idiomatic form, encountered far more commonly in print than did ... use to.[2] On the other hand Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage marks didn't used to as ungrammatical and states "The grammatically correct construction is didn't use to but this is less frequent in OEC [Oxford English Corpus] data than the "anomalous" *didn't used to. Despite its higher frequency, purists may well consider the latter incorrect."[3] A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language states that this spelling "is often regarded as nonstandard" and that the spelling with did ... use to is "preferred" in both American and British English.[4] Merriam Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage finds that didn't use to is the usual form in American English.[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See Palmer, F. R., Mood and Modality, Cambridge Univ. Press, second edition, 2001, p. 33, and A Linguistic Study of the English Verb, Longmans, 1965. For an author who rejects ought as a modal because of the following particle to (and does not mention had better), see Warner, Anthony R., English Auxiliaries, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993. For more examples of discrepancies between different authors' listings of modal or auxiliary verbs in English, see English auxiliaries.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2003). Garner's Modern American Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 810. ISBN 978-0-19-516191-5.
Jump up ^ Jeremy; Butterfield, eds. (2015). Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 853. ISBN 978-0- 199-66135-0.
Jump up ^ Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; Svartvik, Jan (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Longman. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-582-51734-9.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage. Merriam-Webster. 2002. pp. 760–761. ISBN 978-0-87779-633-6.
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, entry for "need".
Jump up ^ Dictionary.com
Jump up ^ https://www.myenglishteacher.eu/blog/english-grammar-shall-vs-should-with-examples/
Jump up ^ Fleischman, Suzanne, The Future in Thought and Action, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982, pp. 86-97.
Jump up ^ Comrie, Bernard, Tense, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985, pp. 21, 47-48.
Jump up ^ "UltraLingua Online Dictionary & Grammar, "Conditional tense"". Archived from the original on 2009-10-11.
Jump up ^ Spanish Conditional. StudySpanish.com
Jump up ^ Modals – deduction (present) learnenglish.britishcouncil.org
Jump up ^ Oxford Practice Grammar (Advanced), George Yule, Oxford University Press ISBN 9780194327541 Page:40
Jump up ^ Modals Deduction Past ecenglish.com
^ Jump up to: a b Kenneth G. Wilson, "Double Modal Auxiliaries". Rubin
External links[edit]
Look up Appendix:English modal verbs in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Verbs in English Grammar, wikibook
modal auxiliaries Website/Project that collects phrases containing modal auxiliaries on the web (in German and English)
modal auxiliaries Website/Project that collects phrases containing modal auxiliaries on the web (in German and English)
Modal auxiliary verbs: special points
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Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

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Language settings
0
button
true

values: فعل کمکی وجهی در زبان انگلیسی – Persian

values: Kata kerja modal (bahasa Inggris) – Indonesian

values: Czasowniki modalne w języku angielskim – Polish

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