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Access modifiers
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Access modifiers (or access specifiers) are keywords in object-oriented languages that set the accessibility of classes, methods, and other members. Access modifiers are a specific part of programming language syntax used to facilitate the encapsulation of components.[1]
In C++, there are only three access modifiers. C# extends the number of them to five, while Java has four access modifiers,[2] but three keywords for this purpose. In Java, having no keyword before defaults to the package-private modifier. Access specifiers for classes:- When a class is declared as public, it is accessible to other classes defined in the same package as well as those defined in other packages. This is the most commonly used specifier for classes. A class cannot be declared as private. If no access specifier is stated, the default access restrictions will be applied. The class will be accessible to other classes in the same package but will be inaccessible to classes outside the package. When we say that a class is inaccessible, it simply means that we cannot create an object of that class or declare a variable of that class type. The protected access specifier too cannot be applied to a class.
Contents
[hide]
1 Names of keywords
2 Example in C++
3 References
3.1 Notes
3.2 Bibliography
Names of keywords[edit]
C++ uses the three modifiers called public, protected, and private. C# has the modifiers public, protected ,internal, private, and protected internal. Java has public, package, protected, and private. The access modifier package is the default and used, if any other access modifier keyword is missing. The meaning of these modifiers may differ from one language to another. A comparison of the keywords, ordered from the most restrictive to the most open, and their meaning in these three languages follows. Their visibility ranges from the same class to the package where the class is defined to a general access permission. Below, the maximal access is written into the table.
Keyword
C#
C++
Java
private class class class
protected internal same assembly and
derived classes - -
protected derived classes derived classes derived classes
and/or
within same package
package - - within its package
internal same assembly - -
public everybody everybody everybody
Example in C++[edit]
#include <iostream> #include<conio.h> using std::cout; using std::endl; struct B { // default access modifier inside struct is public void set_n(int v) { n = v; } void f() { cout << "B::f" << endl; } protected: int m, n; // B::m, B::n are protected private: int x; }; struct D : B { using B::m; // D::m is public int get_n() { return n; } // B::n is accessible here, but not outside // int get_x() { return x; } // ERROR, B::x is inaccessible here private: using B::f; // D::f is private }; int main() { D d; // d.x = 2; // ERROR, private // d.n = 2; // ERROR, protected d.m = 2; // protected B::m is accessible as D::m d.set_n(2); // calls B::set_n(int) cout << d.get_n() << endl; // output: 2 // d.f(); // ERROR, B::f is inaccessible as D::f B& b = d; // b references d and "views" it as being type B // b.x = 3; // ERROR, private // b.n = 3; // ERROR, protected // b.m = 3; // ERROR, B::m is protected b.set_n(3); // calls B::set_n(int) // cout << b.get_n(); // ERROR, 'struct B' has no member named 'get_n' b.f(); // calls B::f() return 0; }
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Mayo 2002, pp. 199.
Jump up ^ http://javapapers.com/core-java/access-modifiers-in-java-explain/
Bibliography[edit]
Mayo, Joseph (2002), C Sharp Unleashed, Sams publishing, ISBN 9780672321221
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Access_modifiers&oldid=799846801"
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RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars (season 3)
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RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars
Season 3
Broadcast from
January 25 (2018-01-25) – March 15, 2018 (2018-03-15)
Judges
RuPaul
Michelle Visage
Carson Kressley
Ross Mathews
Host(s)
RuPaul
Broadcaster
VH1
Competitors
10
Winner
Trixie Mattel
Origin
Los Angeles, California
Runner-up
Kennedy Davenport
Chronology
◀
Season 3
The third season of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars began airing on January 25, 2018. The season was announced in August 2017, and 9 of the 10 cast members were revealed during a VH1 television special titled "Exclusive Queen Ruveal," which aired on October 20, 2017.[1][2][3] This season featured ten All Star contestants, selected from the show's first season through to its ninth season, who competed to be inducted into the "Drag Race Hall of Fame".
As in the previous season, the top two queens in the challenge compete in a "Lip Sync for Your Legacy," with the winner of the lip sync earning $10,000 and choosing which of the bottom queens gets eliminated. A new twist on how the top queens of the season were chosen was revealed in the seasons last episode. The previously eliminated queens returned in the finale and voted for the top two out of the remaining top four finalists, from there on the two queens with the most votes advanced and the others were subsequently eliminated. The prizes for the winner of the competition are a one-year supply of Anastasia Beverly Hills cosmetics and a cash prize of $100,000.
The winner of the third season of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars was Trixie Mattel, with Kennedy Davenport being the runner-up.
Contents
[hide]
1 Contestants
2 Contestant progress
3 Lip syncs
4 Guest judges
4.1 Special guests
5 Episodes
6 Leak
7 Ratings
8 Reception
9 References
10 External Links
Contestants
The drag queens that competed are:[4]
(Ages and names stated are at time of contest.)
Contestant
Real name
Age
Hometown
Original season
Original placement
Outcome
Trixie Mattel Brian Firkus 28 Los Angeles, California Season 7 06 !6th Place Winner
Kennedy Davenport Reuben Asberry Jr.[5] 35 Dallas, Texas Season 7 04 !4th Place Runner-up
BeBe Zahara Benet Nea Marshall Kudi 36 Minneapolis, Minnesota Season 1 01 !Winner 3rd/4th Place
Shangela D.J. Pierce 35 Los Angeles, California Season 2 12 !12th Place
Season 3 05 !6th Place
Morgan McMichaels Thomas White 36 Los Angeles, California Season 2 08 !8th Place 5th Place[a]
BenDeLaCreme Benjamin Putnam 35 Seattle, Washington Season 6 05 !5th Place[b] 6th Place[c]
Aja Jay Rivera[6] 23 Brooklyn, New York Season 9 09 !9th Place 7th Place
Chi Chi DeVayne Zavion Davenport[7] 32 Shreveport, Louisiana Season 8 04 !4th Place 8th Place
Milk Dan Donigan[8] 29 New York, New York Season 6 09 !9th Place 9th Place
Thorgy Thor Shane Galligan[9][10] 33 Brooklyn, New York Season 8 06 !6th Place 10th Place
Jump up ^ Morgan McMichaels originally placed 10th before being chosen to return to the competition.
Jump up ^ This contestant was voted Miss Congeniality during her original season.
Jump up ^ This contestant eliminated herself.
Contestant progress
Contestant
1[11]
2[12]
3[13]
4[14]
5[15]
6[16]
7[17]
8[18]
Trixie Mattel SAFE SAFE HIGH BTM3 WIN BTM3 WIN Winner
Kennedy Davenport SAFE BTM2 WIN BTM3 SAFE BTM3 BTM3 Runner-up
BeBe Zahara Benet SAFE HIGH SAFE SAFE WIN WIN BTM3 Eliminated
Shangela HIGH WIN SAFE WIN BTM2 BTM3 WIN Eliminated
Morgan McMichaels ELIM IN ELIM Guest
BenDeLaCreme WIN WIN WIN WIN SAFE ELIM Guest
Aja WIN SAFE BTM3 SAFE ELIM OUT Guest
Chi Chi DeVayne BTM2 LOW BTM3 ELIM OUT Guest
Milk SAFE SAFE ELIM OUT Guest
Thorgy Thor SAFE ELIM OUT Guest
The contestant won RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars.
The contestant was the runner-up.
The contestant was eliminated by jury vote without lip-syncing entirely.
The contestant won the challenge and won the "Lip Sync for Your Legacy."
The contestant won the challenge but lost the "Lip Sync for Your Legacy."
The contestant came back for a chance to re-enter the competition and was chosen to return.
The contestant came back for a chance to re-enter the competition but was not chosen to return.
The contestant received positive judges' critiques but was ultimately declared safe.
The contestant received judges' critiques but was ultimately declared safe.
The contestant received negative judges' critiques but was ultimately declared safe.
The contestant won the challenge and won the "Lip Sync for Your Legacy" but chose to eliminate herself.
The contestant was in the bottom and eligible for elimination.
The contestant was eliminated.
The contestant returned as a juror for the final episode to vote for the Top 2
Lip syncs
Episode
Contestants
(Pick for Elimination)
Song
Winner
Up for Elimination
Eliminated
1 Aja
(Chi Chi DeVayne) vs. BenDeLaCreme
(Morgan McMichaels) "Anaconda"
(Nicki Minaj) BenDeLaCreme Chi Chi DeVayne
Morgan McMichaels
Morgan McMichaels
2 BenDeLaCreme
(Thorgy Thor) vs. Shangela
(Thorgy Thor) "Jump (For My Love)"
(The Pointer Sisters) Shangela Kennedy Davenport
Thorgy Thor
Thorgy Thor
3 BenDeLaCreme
(Chi Chi DeVayne) vs. Kennedy Davenport
(Milk) "Green Light"
(Lorde) Kennedy Davenport Aja
Chi Chi DeVayne
Milk
Milk
4 BenDeLaCreme
(Chi Chi DeVayne) vs. Shangela
(Chi Chi DeVayne) "I Kissed a Girl"
(Katy Perry) BenDeLaCreme & Shangela Chi Chi DeVayne
Kennedy Davenport
Trixie Mattel
Chi Chi DeVayne
5 BeBe Zahara Benet
(Aja) vs. Trixie Mattel
(Aja) "The Boss"
(Diana Ross) BeBe Zahara Benet Aja
Shangela Aja
6 BeBe Zahara Benet[a] vs. BenDeLaCreme
(BenDeLaCreme)
[Morgan McMichaels][b] "Nobody's Supposed to Be Here
(Hex Hector Dance Mix)"
(Deborah Cox) BenDeLaCreme Kennedy Davenport
Shangela
Trixie Mattel BenDeLaCreme
7 Shangela
(Morgan McMichaels) vs. Trixie Mattel
(Morgan McMichaels) "Freaky Money"
(RuPaul ft. Big Freedia) Shangela BeBe Zahara Benet
Kennedy Davenport
Morgan McMichaels Morgan McMichaels
8 Kennedy Davenport vs. Trixie Mattel "Wrecking Ball"
(Miley Cyrus) Trixie Mattel None Kennedy Davenport
The contestant was eliminated after their first time in the bottom.
The contestant was eliminated after their second time in the bottom.
The contestant was eliminated after their third time in the bottom.
The contestant self-eliminated without being in the bottom.
The contestant was eliminated after the final lip sync.
Jump up ^ In episode 7, BeBe Zahara Benet chose not to show who she selected to return to the competition and who she selected to eliminate if she had won the lip sync.
Jump up ^ In episode 6, the contestants in the lip sync were asked to choose an eliminated contestant to return to the competition in addition to picking someone to eliminate.
Guest judges
Guest judges[19] for this season include (in order of appearance):
Vanessa Hudgens, actress and singer
Todrick Hall, actor and singer
Vanessa Williams, actress and singer
Constance Zimmer, actress
Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman, actor and model
Nicole Byer, comedian and actress
Kristin Chenoweth, actress and singer
Tituss Burgess, actor and singer
Shay Mitchell, actress and model
Adam Lambert, singer and actor
Emma Bunton, singer and actress
Chris Colfer, actor and singer
Garcelle Beauvais, actress and model
Special guests
Guests who appeared in episodes but did not judge on the main stage (in order of appearance):
Chad Michaels, runner-up from season four and winner of season one of All Stars
Alaska, runner-up from season five and winner of season two of All Stars
Marc Jacobs, fashion designer
Nancy Pelosi, House Democratic leader and representative for California's 12th congressional district
Episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
16
1 "All-Star Variety Show" January 25, 2018 (2018-01-25)
Nine formerly eliminated queens from past seasons of RuPaul's Drag Race enter the workroom to win a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame, and also to win a cash prize of $100,000. Upon entering the room, RuPaul introduces the final 10th queen, season one winner BeBe Zahara Benet, stating that he wants to showcase the contestant to a new generation of fans.[11] For the episode's maxi-challenge, each queen is to prepare a live talent presentation for the second All Star Variety Show.[11] Upon judgement, BeBe Zahara Benet, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, Aja and BenDeLaCreme are selected as the top two all stars of the week. Contestants Shangela and Thorgy Thor receive positive reviews from the judges. Chi Chi DeVayne and Morgan McMichaels are placed in the bottom for their performances. Aja and BenDeLaCreme lip-sync against each other to Nicki Minaj's "Anaconda"; BenDeLaCreme wins the lip sync and eliminates Morgan McMichaels.[11]
Guest Judge: Vanessa Hudgens
Mini-challenge: Reading is Fundamental
Mini-challenge Winner: BenDeLaCreme
Mini-challenge Prize: $3,000 shopping spree to L.A. Eyeworks
Main Challenge: Perform a talent in front of the judges, a live audience, and other competitors.
Challenge Winners: Aja & BenDeLaCreme
Main Challenge Prize: Five-night stay at the Grand Resort Hotel and Spa in Fort Lauderdale, air fare included
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: BenDeLaCreme
Lip Sync Song: "Anaconda" by Nicki Minaj
Bottom Two: Chi Chi DeVayne & Morgan McMichaels
Eliminated: Morgan McMichaels
Farewell Message: "I love you girls! Keep rocking and stay FABULOUS!"
17
2 "Divas Lip Sync Live" February 1, 2018 (2018-02-01)
In episode two, the nine remaining queens are assigned female musicians to embody in the Divas Lip Sync Live battle, a tribute act in the form of a live medley of RuPaul songs. Aja performs as Amy Winehouse, BeBe Zahara Benet as Diana Ross, BenDeLaCreme as Julie Andrews, Chi Chi DeVayne as Patti LaBelle, Kennedy Davenport as Janet Jackson, Milk as Celine Dion, Shangela as Mariah Carey, Trixie Mattel as Dolly Parton, and Thorgy Thor as Stevie Nicks.[12] The runway theme on the main stage is "RuDemption," a theme for which each contestant recreates a look from their original season.[12] Upon judgement, Aja, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, BeBe Zahara Benet, BenDaLeCreme, and Shangela receive positive feedback on their performances and runway looks, with the latter two winning the challenge. Chi Chi DeVayne, Kennedy Davenport and Thorgy Thor are all criticized for their performances, while their runway looks receive praise. DeVayne is declared safe from the bottom two. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip-sync against each other to The Pointer Sisters' "Jump (For My Love)." Shangela wins the lip sync and eliminates Thorgy Thor.[12]
Guest Judges: Todrick Hall & Vanessa Williams
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Main Challenge: Perform in a lip-syncing dance number inspired by VH1 Divas.
Runway Theme: RuDemption Runway
Challenge Winners: BenDeLaCreme & Shangela
Main Challenge Prize: $1000 gift card from Sparkles Rhinestones and a $1000 gift card from Fierce Queen Heels
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: Shangela
Lip Sync Song: "Jump (For My Love)" by The Pointer Sisters
Bottom Two: Kennedy Davenport & Thorgy Thor
Eliminated: Thorgy Thor
Farewell Message: "Wooo! Drag is fun. Suck it ShangeLLA!" [Drawing of an ejaculating penis]
18
3 "The B*tchelor" February 8, 2018 (2018-02-08)
The eight remaining queens are each assigned a personality by RuPaul for The Bitchelor, a satire based on the show The Bachelor. Aja plays the Needy Girl, BeBe Zahara Benet the Shy Virgin, BenDeLaCreme the Cougar, Chi Chi DeVayne and Shangela a polyamorous couple, Kennedy Davenport the Party Girl, Milk the Stalker, and Trixie Mattel the Fake Bitch.[13] Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman participates as the main love interest of the show. The main-stage runway theme is "Wigs on Wigs on Wigs".[13] Upon judgement, Benet and Shangela are both deemed safe. BenDeLaCreme, Davenport and Mattel are praised for their performances and looks, with the former two contestants winning the challenge. Aja, Chi Chi DeVayne, and Milk are placed in the bottom three. Davenport and BenDeLaCreme lip-sync against each other to Lorde's "Green Light." Davenport wins the lip sync and eliminates Milk.[13]
Guest Judges: Constance Zimmer & Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Main Challenge: Improvise in an unscripted dating show inspired by The Bachelor.
Runway Theme: Wigs on Wigs on Wigs
Challenge Winners: BenDeLaCreme & Kennedy Davenport
Main Challenge Prize: A jewelry pack from Fierce Drag Jewels and a $1000 gift card to Nailed by Cristy
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: Kennedy Davenport
Lip Sync Song: "Green Light" by Lorde
Bottom Three: Aja, Chi Chi DeVayne, & Milk
Eliminated: Milk
Farewell Message: "Love u girls but ya'll know this is bogus! Stay amazing ❤ Milk"
19
4 "All Stars Snatch Game" February 15, 2018 (2018-02-15)
The seven remaining queens prepare for the Snatch Game, where each contestant picks a celebrity to impersonate. Aja appears as Crystal LaBeija, BeBe Zahara Benet as Grace Jones, BenDeLaCreme as Paul Lynde, Chi Chi DeVayne as Maya Angelou, Kennedy Davenport as Phaedra Parks, Shangela as Jenifer Lewis and Trixie Mattel as RuPaul.[14] Guest judge Kristin Chenoweth partakes in the challenge, playing herself.[14] The runway theme on the main stage is "Flower Power."[14] Upon judgement, BenDeLaCreme and Shangela are deemed the winners of the challenge. Aja and Benet receive positive remarks for their runway looks, though reviews are divided on Benet's Snatch Game performance. Both are ultimately declared safe. DeVayne, Davenport and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip-sync against each other to Katy Perry's "I Kissed a Girl." The lip sync is declared a tie, and both contestants eliminate DeVayne.[14]
Guest Judges: Kristin Chenoweth & Nicole Byer
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Main Challenge: Impersonate celebrities in the Snatch Game.
Runway Theme: Flower Power
Challenge Winners: BenDeLaCreme & Shangela
Main Challenge Prize: A wig wardrobe courtesy of Rockstar Wigs and a $1000 gift card from Coolhaus Ice Cream
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: BenDeLaCreme & Shangela
Lip Sync Song: "I Kissed a Girl" by Katy Perry
Bottom Three: Chi Chi DeVayne, Kennedy Davenport, & Trixie Mattel
Eliminated: Chi Chi DeVayne
Farewell Message: "LOVE All of you gals, Remember to Keep it fair. Chi Chi 💋"
20
5 "Pop Art Ball[20]" February 22, 2018 (2018-02-22)[21]
The six remaining queens participate in a mini-challenge where they dress up in "Quick Drag" and model in an Andy Warhol-inspired photoshoot. Aja wins the challenge, receiving a year's supply of burgers from Hamburger Mary's and a cash tip of $2,000. For the main challenge, each contestant is asked to prepare two runway looks for the Pop Art Ball: one inspired by Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans and a second inspired by Studio 54. Additionally, each contestant has to record a voice-over narrative to be played during her runway presentation. During the judges' critiques, Aja and Shangela are criticized for both of their runway looks, and they fall into the bottom two. BeBe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel are both commended for their runway looks, winning the challenge. BenDeLaCreme and Kennedy Davenport attract mixed commentary but are ultimately declared safe. Benet and Mattel lip-sync against each other to Diana Ross's "The Boss". Benet wins the lip sync and eliminates Aja.[15] At the end of the episode, RuPaul brings previous winners Chad Michaels and Alaska back onto the main stage, and they reveal three queens in cloaks that will be returning for the next episode.[15]
Guest Judges: Tituss Burgess & Shay Mitchell
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Mini-challenge: Pose for a pop art-style portrait
Mini-challenge Winner: Aja
Mini-challenge Prize: A year's supply of hamburgers from Hamburger Mary's and $2,000
Main Challenge: Design wearable soup cans inspired by Andy Warhol as well as a Studio 54 disco look.
Challenge Winners: BeBe Zahara Benet & Trixie Mattel
Main Challenge Prize: Two-night escape for 2 at the W Hotel in Fort Lauderdale
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: BeBe Zahara Benet
Lip Sync Song: The Boss by Diana Ross
Bottom Two: Aja & Shangela
Eliminated: Aja
Farewell Message: "I love u bitches❤ Honestly, thank you from the bottom of my heart! Y'all inspire me! -Aja"
21
6 "Handmaids to Kitty Girls[25]" March 1, 2018 (2018-03-01)[21]
RuPaul reintroduces all the eliminated queens to the competition. Everyone is tasked with writing and performing original lyrics to audition for RuPaul's new all-star supergroup, The Kitty Girls. The queens are split equally into two teams: the eliminated queens on one team, and the remaining queens on the other.[16] Each member creates a character to perform: Benet appears as Jungle Kitty, BenDeLaCreme as Goth Kitty, Davenport as Diva Kitty, Shangela as Sparkle Kitty, and Mattel as IQ Kitty. On the opposite team, Aja appears as Lil' Banjee, DeVayne as Cajun Kitty, Milk as Milky Kitty, McMichaels as Bimbo Kitty, and Thor as Cardio Kitty.[16]
During the judges' critiques, Benet and BenDeLaCreme are praised for their performances, and they are deemed the top two contestants. Davenport, Shangela and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Benet and BenDeLaCreme are instructed to eliminate one of the bottom queens and to select an eliminated contestant to return to the competition.[16] Benet and BenDeLaCreme lip-sync against each other to Deborah Cox's "Nobody's Supposed To Be Here," and the latter wins.[16] BenDeLaCreme chooses McMichaels to return to the competition and subsequently eliminates herself, making her the second queen to leave the competition voluntarily.[16] Upon the episode's premiere, critics deemed her move one of the most controversial and "unthinkable" moments on the show.[22][23][24]
Guest Judges: Adam Lambert & Emma Bunton
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Main Challenge: Audition for RuPaul's new all star super group called "The Kitty Girls."
Challenge Winners: BeBe Zahara Benet & BenDeLaCreme
Main Challenge Prize: $1,000 gift card to The Spa on Rodeo and a $1,000 gift card to MuLondon
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: BenDeLaCreme
Lip Sync Song: "Nobody's Supposed to Be Here (Hex Hector Dance Mix)" by Deborah Cox
Bottom Three: Kennedy Davenport, Shangela, & Trixie Mattel
Returned: Morgan McMichaels
Eliminated: BenDeLaCreme
Farewell Message: "Dear new top 5, thank you so much for this incredible journey. Stay fierce. You all deserve a crown. Your friendship and respect is the best win I can imagine. XO BDLC"
22
7 "My Best Squirrelfriend's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip[26]" March 8, 2018 (2018-03-08)[26]
The five remaining queens are asked to act in a trailer for a movie titled My Best Squirrelfriend's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip, comedically portraying Academy Award-winning female characters. Morgan McMichaels is tasked with handing out roles to each contestant: Bebe Zahara Benet plays The Queen (The Queen), Kennedy Davenport plays La La (La La Land), McMichaels plays Beige Swan (Black Swan), Shangela plays Actavia (The Help/Hidden Figures), and Trixie Mattel plays Sharon Frokovich (Erin Brockovich). The runway theme for the episode is "Red for Filth."[17] During critiques, Shangela's and Mattel's performances and looks are praised, and they are chosen as the top two contestants. Although Benet, Davenport and McMichaels receive compliments for their runway looks, all three are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and Mattel lip-sync against each other to RuPaul's "Freaky Money." Shangela wins the lip sync and chooses to eliminate McMichaels.[17]
Guest Judges: Chris Colfer & Garcelle Beauvais
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Main Challenge: Star in a raunchy girl comedy blockbuster.
Runway Theme: "Red for Filth"
Challenge Winners: Shangela & Trixie Mattel
Main Challenge Prize: $1,000 gift card to Elea's Closet and a luggage set from Radden Luggage
Lip Sync for Your Legacy Winner: Shangela
Lip Sync Song: "Freaky Money" by RuPaul ft. Big Freedia
Bottom Three: BeBe Zahara Benet, Kennedy Davenport & Morgan McMichaels
Eliminated: Morgan McMichaels
Farewell Message: "Let no one dim your light. I love you all totally! SISTERS FOREVER! 💋"
23
8 "A Jury of Their Queers[26]" March 15, 2018 (2018-03-15)[26]
The final four queens were asked to write, sing and dance in an ambitious production number to RuPaul's song "Kitty Girl."[18] Choreographer Todrick Hall accompanied the girls choreography, but also revealed that the entire music video would be shot in one-take throughout the backstage of RuPaul's Drag Race, including the runway The music video opens with Kennedy Davenport, and follows with Shangela, Bebe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel; the judges, and eliminated contestants, all appeared as cameo to the video.[18] During the critiques, all four queens were given positive comments about their performances and runway looks. RuPaul reveals that each eliminated queen gets to vote two contestants to enter the top two spots, whereas each remaining contestant got the chance to plead why they deserved to be in the top positions. Subsequently, the four remaining queens were asked to change costumes for the lip-sync to Miley Cyrus's "Wrecking Ball". After deliberation, eliminated contestant Morgan McMichaels announces Davenport and Mattel as the top two All-Stars, effectively eliminating both Benet and Shangela. After the lip-sync, RuPaul announces Mattel as the season three winner, and earns a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame.[18]
Main Challenge: Write, sing, and dance in an ambitious production number to RuPaul's song "Kitty Girl."
Eliminated: BeBe Zahara Benet & Shangela
Final Two: Kennedy Davenport & Trixie Mattel
Lip Sync Song: "Wrecking Ball" by Miley Cyrus
Runner-up: Kennedy Davenport
Winner of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars Season Three: Trixie Mattel
Leak
On February 15, 2018, the series production company World of Wonder filed a lawsuit against an anonymous leaker using the alias RealityTVLeaks.[27] According to the lawsuit, RealityTVLeaks posted several visuals from the season on various social media websites such as Reddit, Twitter, and Instagram before each episode's airing—including runway themes, challenges, episode titles, and eliminated queens.[27] Additionally, a producer from the show stated that the leaker removed "information identifying [World of Wonder] as the copyright owner and author" before adding "misleading copyright management information falsely identifying [the defendants] as the copyright owners and authors."[27] World of Wonder launched the suit because of the defendant's "unlawful theft and public dissemination of episodes of the popular and critically-acclaimed reality television show," and the production company confirmed it is seeking damages of $300,000, including $150,000 for each infringed episode and $25,000 per violation of "actual damages" and defendants' profits.[27]
Ratings
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
1 "All-Star Variety Show" January 25, 2018 0.46[28] 0.895[28]
2 "Divas Lip Sync Live" February 1, 2018 0.40[29] 0.777[29]
3 "The B*tchelor" February 8, 2018 0.39[30] 0.738[30]
4 "All Stars Snatch Game" February 15, 2018 0.34[31] 0.713[31]
5 "Pop Art Ball" February 22, 2018 0.38[32] 0.732[32]
6 "Handmaids to Kitty Girls" March 1, 2018 0.49[33] 0.883[33]
7 "My Best Squirrelfriend's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip" March 8, 2018 0.31[34] 0.658[34]
8 "A Jury of Their Queers" March 15, 2018 0.27[35] 0.589[35]
Reception
Although a ratings success, the season was not critically well received, following the high bar set by All Stars 2. Vulture, in writing a summation review, described the season as "truly one of the roughest seasons of the show ever. After a stellar, jaw-unhingingly good All Stars 2, this season felt more like an embarrassing cousin you brought to gay happy hour who wears double polos".[36] The A.V. Club similarly described the season as disappointing; in their final review of the season, they wrote, "I should be celebrating the crowning of a new queen in the Drag Race hall of fame, but Drag Race All Stars season three has left me feeling totally underwhelmed and wondering, What’s the point?"[37]
Vulture did however make the point that although the season did not live up to expectations, "even at its worst, it’s still one of one the best, if not the best goddamn reality competition show on television".[38]
References
Jump up ^ "RuPaul to Reveal 'All Stars' Season 3 Cast on Upcoming VH1 Special: 'Prepare to Be Gagged'". Billboard. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars' season 3 cast to be revealed during TV special". Entertainment Weekly. October 13, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, Matt (October 14, 2017). "TV News Roundup: 'RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars' to Launch Season 3 with Hour Special". Variety. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars' season 3 queens announced: See an exclusive cast photo". Entertainment Weekly. 2017-10-21. Retrieved 2017-10-21.
Jump up ^ Avery, Dan. "Shangela, Latrice Royale, Kasha Davis Raise The Roof To Save Kennedy Davenport's Home". LOGO News. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Patricio, Edana (March 9, 2017). "'RuPaul's Drag Race' season 9 episode 1: Lady Gaga, the Queens and spoilers". International Business Times. Archived from the original on April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Weigle, Lauren (March 7, 2016). "RuPaul's Drag Race' Season 8 Cast". Heavy.com. Archived from the original on March 23, 2017. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Avery, Dan (January 19, 2017). "Milk Out Of Drag—And Out Of His Clothes". Logo. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "All Stars: The Changing Face of Drag official website". Archived from the original on August 31, 2016. Retrieved April 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hegedus, Eric (March 7, 2016). "RuPaul still reigns supreme as 'Drag Race' hits 100 episodes". New York Post. Archived from the original on March 18, 2016. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "All-Star Variety Show". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 1. January 25, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Divas Lip-Sync Live". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 2. February 1, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The B*itchelor". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 3. February 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "All Stars Snatch Game". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 4. February 15, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c "All Stars Snatch Game". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 5. February 22, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Handmaid to Kitty Girls". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 6. March 1, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c "My Best Squirrelfriend's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 7. March 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "A Jury of their Queers". RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars. Season 3. Episode 8. March 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ O'Keefe, Kevin (January 18, 2018). "'RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars 3' Reveals Guest Judges, Releases New Sneak Peek". IntoMore. Retrieved January 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "TV Schedule for RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars". www.vh1.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Futon Clinic". The Futon Critic. January 12, 2018. Retrieved January 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sava, Oliver (March 2, 2018). "Everything changes for Drag Race All Stars with a shocking elimination". The A.V. Club. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Munzenrieder, Kyle (March 2, 2018). "The Night Bendelacreme Became a Goddess". W Magazine. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Mulkerin, Tim (March 2, 2018). "undamental Reading: On 'RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars 3' episode 6, the girls got their revenge". Mic.com. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ru Paul Copyright". www.scribd.com. February 15, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "All Stars Season 3 Episode Guide". www.tvguide.com. March 6, 2018. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Moore, Matt (February 17, 2018). "RuPaul's Drag Race producers are suing an anonymous leaker for $300,000". Gay Times. Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 1.25.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved January 26, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.1.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.8.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.15.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 2.22.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved February 23, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.1.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.8.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch. "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Thursday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.15.2018". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ http://www.vulture.com/2018/03/rupauls-drag-race-where-did-it-go-wrong-this-season.html
Jump up ^ https://www.avclub.com/a-mediocre-season-of-rupaul-s-drag-race-all-stars-ends-1823821936
Jump up ^ http://www.vulture.com/2018/03/rupauls-drag-race-where-did-it-go-wrong-this-season.html
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Neurapraxia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Neurapraxia
Classification and external resources
Specialty
neurology
ICD-10
G58.9
[edit on Wikidata]
Neurapraxia is a disorder of the peripheral nervous system in which there is a temporary loss of motor and sensory function due to blockage of nerve conduction, usually lasting an average of six to eight weeks before full recovery. Neurapraxia is derived from the word apraxia, meaning “loss or impairment of the ability to execute complex coordinated movements without muscular or sensory impairment”.
This condition is typically caused by a blunt neural injury due to external blows or shock-like injuries to muscle fibers and skeletal nerve fibers, which leads to repeated or prolonged pressure buildup on the nerve. As a result of this pressure, ischemia occurs, a neural lesion results, and the human body naturally responds with edema extending in all directions from the source of the pressure. This lesion causes a complete or partial action potential conduction block over a segment of a nerve fiber and thus a reduction or loss of function in parts of the neural connection downstream from the lesion, leading to muscle weakness.
Neurapraxia results in temporary damage to the myelin sheath but leaves the nerve intact and is an impermanent condition; thus, Wallerian degeneration does not occur in neurapraxia. In order for the condition to be considered neurapraxia, according to the Seddon classification system of peripheral nerve injury, there must be a complete and relatively rapid recovery of motor and sensory function once nerve conduction has been restored; otherwise, the injury would be classified as axonotmesis or neurotmesis. Thus, neurapraxia is the mildest classification of peripheral nerve injury.
Neurapraxia is very common in professional athletes, especially American football players, and is a condition that can and should be treated by a physician.
Contents
[hide]
1 Signs and symptoms
2 Causes
3 Anatomy
3.1 Order of pathology
3.2 Mechanisms of injury
4 Diagnosis
4.1 Seddon classification
5 Treatment and recovery
5.1 Non-operative treatment
5.2 Treating cervical cord neurapraxia on the field
6 Prognosis
7 Epidemiology
7.1 American football
8 References
9 See also
Signs and symptoms[edit]
A variety of nerve types can be subjected to neurapraxia and therefore symptoms of the injury range in degree and intensity. Common symptoms of neurapraxia are disturbances in sensation, weakness of muscle, vasomotor and sudomotor paralysis in the region of the affected nerve or nerves, and abnormal sensitivity of the nerve at the point of injury.[1] It has been observed that subjective sensory symptoms include numbness, tingling, and burning sensations at the site of the injury. Objective sensory symptoms are generally minimal in regards to touch, pain, heat, and cold.[1] In cases of motor neuron neurapraxia, symptoms consist of flaccid paralysis of the muscles innervated by the injured nerve or nerves.[2] Symptoms are often transient and only last for a short period of time immediately following the injury. However, in severe cases of neurapraxia, symptoms can persist for weeks or months at a time.[3]
Causes[edit]
The cause of neurapraxia is a neural lesion which causes a temporary block of nerve conduction without transection of the axon. A conduction block is classified as a 40% reduction in action potential amplitude over a short distance on the nerve, or a 50% reduction for a longer distance on the nerve.[4] In neurapraxia, stimulation to the injured nerve results in a greater reduction in the action potential amplitude on the proximal site of the injury as opposed to the distal site.[4]
Anatomy[edit]
Neurapraxia occurs in the peripheral nervous system typically in the ulnar, median, and radial nerves of the upper body and in the sciatic and peroneal nerves of the lower body.[3] Peripheral nerves are myelinated, relatively large, spatially complex cells whose size and connectivity typically make them more susceptible to damage and compromise their capacity to self-repair, although this is not the case in neurapraxia.[5] Microscopic evidence has shown that there is damage to the myelin sheath, but not to the axon. Therefore, distal nerve fibers do not degenerate and the myelin damage can be repaired.
Order of pathology[edit]
The order of pathology within the first 24 hours after injury follows a general pattern of nerve injury. The first physical manifestation of the injury is focal swelling adjacent to the site of the injury.[2] In the cellular dimension, a fragmentation of neurotubules and neurofilaments occurs as a result of pressure exerted on the nerve.[2] Axons swell at some sites and are compressed at others, leading to a beaded appearance.[2]
Mechanisms of injury[edit]
There are several mechanisms of nerve injury including mechanical lesions, ischemia, immunologic attack, metabolic disorder, toxic agents, and exposure to radiation.[6] The most common mechanism of injury is nerve compression in which external pressure causes decreased blood flow to the nerve and deformation of the nerve fibers.[6] Repeated or prolonged compression of the nerve results in ischemia and ultimately edema above and below the source of the pressure (I). The thinning of myelin sheaths or focal demyelination are the main consequences of the injury that lead to conduction blockage.[6]
Diagnosis[edit]
Seddon classification[edit]
There are three distinct classifications and degrees of nerve injury:
Neurotmesis is the most serious degree of nerve injury. It involves the disruption of the nerve and the nerve sheath.[7]
Axonotmesis occurs when the majority of the supporting structures of the nerve are preserved, but disruption of the nerve fibers is still observed. Wallerian degeneration often occurs in the near the proximity of the injury site.[7]
Neurapraxia is least serious form of nerve injury.[7]
There are two different forms of mechanical nerve injury involving neurapraxia. The underlying causes of transient nerve injury typically include a brief ischemic episode or any form of compression.[5] More persistent forms of nerve injury involve demyelination and axonal constriction.[1] In certain circumstances, diagnosing neurapraxia can be uncomfortable because of the presence of severe neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain is an indication that the lesion of the nerve is still in progress.[1] Diagnosis of neurapraxia is almost always followed by a quick and complete recovery period.
Treatment and recovery[edit]
The entire nerve is involved in the response to traumatic injuries.[5] The outcome of nerve repair is dependent on the degree of the nerve injury and the circumstances at the site of injury.[5] Since neurapraxia is the least serious form of peripheral nerve injury, recovery and treatment are not extensive. Once the cause of neurapraxia is eliminated, recovery of the lesions in the nerve occurs within a short time span.[6]
Non-operative treatment[edit]
Neurapraxia is often treated and cured by non-operative means. The primary goals of treatment are to maintain the proper nutrition of the paralyzed muscles, prevent contraction by the antagonists of the paralyzed muscles, and to consistently keep the joints mobile.[7] A splint is often used in cases of neurapraxia because it is able to maintain a relaxed position of the paralyzed muscle. The splint prevents the paralyzed muscle from being overstretched either by the force of gravity or by other non-paralyzed antagonists. During the recovery period of neurapraxia, it is essential that the joints constantly undergo passive movement in order to preserve proper mobility. If joints are kept mobile, the limb has the best possible chance of benefit from the return of nervous function.[7] Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications can also help to reduce swelling at the injury site. In addition to these non-operative remedies, it is suggested that muscles affected by neurapraxia be kept warm at all times. Circulation in the limb is stimulated with the use of heat. Once voluntary movement has returned to the muscle, recovery and treatment continues by the participation in active exercises. Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy are common sources of treatment during these early stages of restoration of active movement.[7] Almost all cases of neurapraxia can be completely treated by non-operative means.
Treating cervical cord neurapraxia on the field[edit]
According to medical professionals with the Cleveland Clinic, once an athlete suffers from an episode of cervical spinal cord, team physician or athletic trainer first stabilize the head and neck followed by a thorough neurologic inspection. If the injury is deemed severe, injured parties should be taken to a hospital for evaluation. Athletes that suffer from severe episodes of neurapraxia are urged to consult orthopaedic or spinal medical specialists. In mild cases of neurapraxia, the athlete is able to remove themselves from the field of play. However, the athlete is still advised to seek medical consultation.[8]
Prognosis[edit]
In cases of neurapraxia, the function of the nerves are temporarily impaired. However, the prognosis for recovery from neurapraxia is efficient and quick. Recovery begins within two to three weeks after the injury occurs, and it is complete within six to eight weeks. There are instances when function is not completely restored until four months after the instance of injury.[7] The recovery period of neurapraxia is not an entirely ordered process, but the recovery is always complete and fast.
Epidemiology[edit]
Neurapraxia is most commonly observed in athletes involved in collision sports, such as American football. Athletes participating in collision sports most often suffer from cervical cord neurapraxia, also known as transient neurapraxia. Cervical cord neurapraxia is the result of a severe collision in which a blow to the crown of the athlete’s head forcefully extends or compresses the neck. Numbness, stinging, and/or weakness in the arms, legs or both, distinguish cervical cord neurapraxia.[9] Typical episodes of transient nuerapraxia only last a few seconds and symptoms dissipate entirely.[9] Though the severity of the injury can range, transient neurapraxia does not lead to permanent paralysis of the affected muscles. Subsequent spinal cord injury after an episode of cervical cord neurapraxia has not been observed. However, athletes who experience an episode of transient cervical neurapraxia face an approximately 50% chance of a repeat episode if they continue to participate in collision sports.[8]
American football[edit]
This tackle which occurred during an Army versus Navy game is similar to those that occur in American football. Neurapraxia is a common injury in all levels of football.
Cervical cord neurapraxia among American football players is commonly observed in athletes playing positions involving high-speed collisions and open-field tackling. Cases of neurapraxia in the National Football League were first described in 1986 by Joseph S. Torg, M.D., founder of the National Football Head and Neck Injury Registry (established in 1975). As a result of Dr. Torg’s findings the NFL as well as other levels of American football have outlawed the act of spearing, or the lowering of the head and hitting an opponent with the crown of the helmet. The cervical spine cannot properly absorb the force of a collision when the head is even slightly lowered as is the case in spearing. In addition to outlawing acts such as spearing, prevention of neurapraxia on the football field relies on instruction and reinforcement of proper tackling technique by coaches and trainers.
Adam Copeland, also known in the WWE wrestling world by his stage name "Edge", retired from professional wrestling in April 2011 due to symptoms of neurapraxia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Birch, Rolfe (2005). "Operating on Peripheral Nerves". In Peter J. Dyck, P. K. Thomas. Peripheral Neuropathy, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 1511–532. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lange, Dale J., Werner Trojaborg (1995). "Peripheral and Cranial Nerve Lesions". In Lewis P. Rowland. Merritt's Textbook of Neurology. Williams & Wilkins. pp. 461–462. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Barker, Ellen M. (1994). Neuroscience Nursing. St. Louis: Mosby.
^ Jump up to: a b Ropper, Allan H., (2005). "Conduction Block". In Robert H. Brown. Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology. p. 1099. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hall, Susan (2005). "Mechanisms of Repair after Traumatic Injury". In Peter J. Dyck, P.K. Thomas. Peripheral Neuropathy. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 1403–1433. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Navarro, X., E. Verdú, T. Herdegen (2004). "Cell Transplants and Artificial Guides for Nerve Repair". In J. Delgado-Garcia. Brain Damage and Repair From Molecular Research to Clinical Therapy. Springer. pp. 452–453. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Walton, Walter R., and John N. Walton (1969). Brain's Diseases of the Nervous System. London: Oxford UP. pp. 756–766. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b "Neurapraxia". Retrieved 5 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Torg J. S., Genuario S. E., Sennett B., Wisneski R. J., Robie B. H., Jahre C. (1986). "Neurapraxia of the Cervical Spinal Cord with Transient Quadriplegia". Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 68 (9): 1354–370. PMID 3782207. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
See also[edit]
Axonotmesis
Neurotmesis
Nerve injury
Peripheral nerve injury
Neuroregeneration
Wallerian degeneration
Seddon's classification
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Laughing kookaburra
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Laughing kookaburra
Recorded in southwestern Australia
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Subfamily: Halcyoninae
Genus: Dacelo
Species: D. novaeguineae
Binomial name
Dacelo novaeguineae
(Hermann, 1783)
Distribution within Australia
Synonyms
Dacelo gigas
Coloured plate with the incorrect legend that was used by both Johann Hermann and Pieter Boddaert
Kookaburra in Tamborine National Park
The laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) is a bird in the kingfisher subfamily Halcyoninae. It is a large robust kingfisher with a whitish head and a dark eye-stripe. The upperparts are mostly dark brown but there is a mottled light-blue patch on the wing coverts. The underparts are white and the tail is barred with rufous and black. The plumage of the male and female birds is similar. The territorial call is a distinctive laugh that is often delivered by several birds at the same time, and is widely used as a stock sound effect in situations that involve a jungle setting.
The laughing kookaburra is native to eastern mainland Australia, but has also been introduced to parts of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Western Australia. It occupies dry eucalypt forest, woodland, city parks and gardens. This species is sedentary and occupies the same territory throughout the year. It is monogamous, retaining the same partner for life. A breeding pair can be accompanied by up to five fully grown non-breeding offspring from previous years that help the parents defend their territory and raise their young. The laughing kookaburra generally breeds in unlined tree holes or in excavated holes in arboreal termite nests. The usual clutch is three white eggs. The parents and the helpers incubate the eggs and feed the chicks. The youngest of the three nestlings is often killed by the older siblings. When the chicks fledge they continue to be fed by the group for six to ten weeks until they are able to forage independently.
A predator of a wide variety of small animals, the laughing kookaburra typically waits perched on a branch until it sees an animal on the ground and then flies down and pounces on its prey. Its diet includes lizards, insects, worms and snakes.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classed the laughing kookaburra as a species of least concern as it has a huge range and large population, with no widespread threats.
Contents
[hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Description
2.1 Call
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Behaviour
4.1 Breeding
4.2 Feeding
5 Status
6 Interaction with humans
7 Depiction in Popular Culture
8 References
9 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
The laughing kookaburra was first described and illustrated (in black and white) by the French naturalist and explorer Pierre Sonnerat in his Voyage à la nouvelle Guinée which was published in 1776.[2][3] He claimed to have seen the bird in New Guinea. In fact Sonnerat never visited New Guinea and the laughing kookaburra does not occur there. He probably obtained a preserved specimen from one of the naturalists who accompanied Captain James Cook to the east coast of Australia.[4] Edme-Louis Daubenton and François-Nicolas Martinet included a coloured plate of the laughing kookaburra based on Sonnerat's specimen in their Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle. The plate has the legend in French "Martin-pecheur, de la Nouvelle Guinée" (Kingfisher from New Guinea).[5]
In 1783 the French naturalist Johann Hermann provided a formal description of the species based the coloured plate by Daubenton and Martinet. He gave it the scientific name Alcedo novæ Guineæ.[6][7] The current genus Dacelo was introduced in 1815 by the English zoologist William Elford Leach,[8][9] and is an anagram of Alcedo, the Latin word for a kingfisher. The specific name novaeguineae combines the Latin novus for new with Guinea,[10] based on the erroneous belief that the specimen had originated from New Guinea.[3] For many years it was believed that the earliest description was by the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert and his scientific name Dacelo gigas was used in the scientific literature[11] but in 1926 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews showed that a description by Hermann had been published earlier in the same year, 1783, and thus had precedence.[3][12]
In the 19th century this species was commonly called the "laughing jackass", a name first recorded (as Laughing Jack-Ass) in An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales by David Collins which was published in 1798.[13][14] In 1858 the ornithologist John Gould used "great brown kingfisher", a name that had been coined by John Latham in 1782.[15][16] Another popular name was "laughing kingfisher".[14] The name in several Australian indigenous languages were listed by European authors including Go-gan-ne-gine by Collins in 1878,[13] Cuck'anda by René Lesson in 1828[17] and Gogera or Gogobera by George Bennett in 1834.[18] In the early years of the 20th century "kookaburra" was included as an alternative name in ornithological publications[19][20] but it was not until 1926 in the second edition of the Official Checklist of Birds of Australia that the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union officially adopted the name "laughing kookaburra".[14] The name comes from Wiradhuri, an Aboriginal language now effectively extinct.[14]
The genus Dacelo contains four kookaburra species of which the rufous-bellied kookaburra and the spangled kookaburra are restricted to New Guinea and islands in the Torres Straits. The blue-winged kookaburra and the laughing kookaburra are both widespread in Australia.[21]
Two subspecies are recognised:[22]
D. n. novaeguineae (Hermann, 1783) – the nominate subspecies, east Australia, Tasmania and southwest Australia
D. n. minor Robinson, 1900 – Cape York Peninsula south to Cooktown[23][24]
Description[edit]
Large bill and head detail
In Royal National Park, NSW
The laughing kookaburra is the largest kingfisher.[24] It is a stout, stocky bird 39–42 cm (15–17 in) in length, with a large head, prominent brown eyes, and a very large bill. The sexes are very similar, although the female is usually larger and has less blue to the rump than the male. The male weighs 310–345 g (10.9–12.2 oz) and the female 355–480 g (12.5–16.9 oz). They have a white or cream-coloured body and head with a dark brown stripe across each eye and more faintly over the top of the head. The wings and back are brown with sky blue spots on the shoulders. The tail is rusty reddish-orange with dark brown bars and white tips on the feathers. The heavy bill is black on top and bone-coloured on the bottom. The subspecies D. n. minor has a similar plumage to the nominate but is smaller in size.[24]
The laughing kookaburra can be distinguished from the similarly sized blue-winged kookaburra by its dark eye, dark eye-stripe, shorter bill and the smaller and duller blue areas on the wing and rump.[24] Male blue-winged kookaburras also differ in having a barred blue and black tail.[25]
Call[edit]
Perched on a silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) in Tasmania
The name "laughing kookaburra" refers to the bird's "laugh", which it uses to establish territory among family groups. It can be heard at any time of day, but most frequently at dawn and dusk.[24]
One bird starts with a low, hiccuping chuckle, then throws its head back in raucous laughter: often several others join in. If a rival tribe is within earshot and replies, the whole family soon gathers to fill the bush with ringing laughter. Hearing kookaburras in full voice is one of the more extraordinary experiences of the Australian bush, something even locals cannot ignore; some visitors, unless forewarned, may find their calls startling.[26]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The laughing kookaburra is native to eastern Australia and has a range that extends from the Cape York Peninsula in the north to Cape Otway in the south. It is present on both the eastern and the western sides of the Great Dividing Range. In the south the range extends westwards from Victoria to the Yorke Peninsula and the Flinders Ranges in South Australia.[27]
It has been introduced into many other areas probably because of its reputation for killing snakes. In Western Australia, laughing kookaburras were released near Mullewa in around 1896 and over the following decade hundreds of birds were imported from Victoria and released around Perth. By 1912 breeding populations had been established in a number of areas. The present range in Western Australia is southwest of a line joining Geraldton on the west coast and Hopetoun on the south coast. In Tasmania the laughing kookaburra was introduced at several locations beginning in 1906. It now mainly occurs northeast of a line joining Huonville, Lake Rowallan, Watatah and Marrawah. It was introduced on Flinders Island in around 1940 where it is now widespread and on Kangaroo Island in 1926.[27]
In the 1860s, during his second term as governor of New Zealand, George Grey arranged for the release of laughing kookaburras on Kawau Island. The island lies in the Hauraki Gulf, about 40 km (25 mi) north of Auckland on the North Island of New Zealand. It was thought that the introduction had been unsuccessful but in 1916 some birds were discovered on the adjacent mainland.[27][28] It now breeds in a small region on the western side of the Hauraki Gulf between Leigh and Kumeu.[27]
The usual habitat is open sclerophyll forest and woodland. It is more common where the understory is open and sparse or where the ground is covered with grass. Tree-holes are needed for nesting. It also occurs near wetlands and in partly cleared areas or farmland with trees along roads and fences. In urban areas it is found in parks and gardens.[29] The range of the laughing kookaburra overlaps with that of the blue-winged kookaburra in an area of eastern Queensland that extends from the Cape York Peninsula south to near Brisbane. Around Cooktown the laughing kookaburra tends to favour areas near water while the blue-winged kookaburra keeps to drier habitats.[24]
Behaviour[edit]
Kookaburra with a captured gecko in its beak
Kookaburras occupy woodland territories (including forests) in loose family groups, and their laughter serves the same purpose as a great many other bird calls—to mark territorial borders. Most species of kookaburras tend to live in family units, with offspring helping the parents hunt and care for the next generation of offspring.
Breeding[edit]
Juvenile in Sydney: Juveniles have shorter bills with a dark underside, and a strong white on the wing and mantle feathers
During mating season, the laughing kookaburra reputedly indulges in behaviour similar to that of a wattlebird. The female adopts a begging posture and vocalises like a young bird. The male then offers her his current catch accompanied with an "oo oo oo" sound. However, some observers maintain that the opposite happens - the female approaches the male with her current catch and offers it to him. Either way, they start breeding around October/November. If the first clutch fails, they will continue breeding into the summer months.
They generally lay three eggs at about two-day intervals. If the food supply is not adequate, the third egg will be smaller and the third chick will also be smaller and at a disadvantage relative to its larger siblings. Chicks have a hook on the upper mandible, which disappears by the time of fledging. If the food supply to the chicks is not adequate, the chicks will quarrel, with the hook being used as a weapon. The smallest chick may even be killed by its larger siblings. If food is plentiful, the parent birds spend more time brooding the chicks, so the chicks are not able to fight.
Feeding[edit]
Play media
Catching a worm, Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia
Kookaburras hunt much as other kingfishers (or indeed Australasian robins) do, by perching on a convenient branch or wire and waiting patiently for prey to pass by. Common prey include mice and similar-sized small mammals, large insects, yabbies, lizards, small birds and nestlings, and most famously, snakes. Small prey are preferred, but kookaburras sometimes take large creatures, including venomous snakes, much longer than their bodies.
Status[edit]
The population density of the laughing kookaburra in Australia varies between 0·04 and 0·8 birds/ha depending on the habitat. Assuming an average of 0.3 birds/ha the total population may be as large as 65 million individuals.[24] The population in New Zealand is relatively small and is probably less than 500 individuals.[30] Given the extended range and the large stable population, the species is evaluated as of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[1]
Interaction with humans[edit]
Laughing kookaburras are a common sight in suburban gardens and urban settings, even in built-up areas, and are so tame that they will often eat out of a person's hands. It is not uncommon for kookaburras to snatch food out of people's hands without warning, by swooping in from a distance. People often feed them pieces of raw meat. Laughing Kookaburras are often kept in zoos.
The kookaburra is also the subject of a popular Australian children's song, the "Kookaburra" which was written by Marion Sinclair in 1934.[31]
Depiction in Popular Culture[edit]
Recordings of this bird have been edited into Hollywood movies for decades, beginning with the Tarzan series in the 1930's, and more recently in the film "The Lost World: Jurassic Park" (1997).[32]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b BirdLife International (2012). "Dacelo novaeguineae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Sonnerat, Pierre (1776). Voyage à la Nouvelle Guinée (in French). Chez Ruault. p. 170, Plate 106.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mees, G.F. (1977). "The scientific name of the Laughing Kookaburra: Dacelo gigas (Boddaert) v. Dacelo novaeguineae (Hermann)". Emu. 77 (1): 35–36. doi:10.1071/mu9770035.
Jump up ^ Lysaght, A. (1956). "Why did Sonnerat record the kookaburra, Dacelo gigas (Boddaert) from New Guinea?". Emu. 56 (3): 224–225. doi:10.1071/MU956224  .
Jump up ^ Daubenton, Edme-Louis; Martinet, François-Nicolas (1765–1783). Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle. Volume 7. Paris. Plate 663.
Jump up ^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1945). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 5. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 190.
Jump up ^ Hermann, Johann (1783). Tabula affinitatum animalium olim academico specimine edita : nunc uberiore commentario illustrata cum annotationibus ad historiam naturalem animalium augendam facientibus (in Latin). Argentorati: Impensis Joh. Georgii Treuttel. p. 192 Note.
Jump up ^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1945). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 5. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 189.
Jump up ^ Leach, William Elford (1815). The Zoological Miscellany; being descriptions of new, or interesting Animals. Volume 2. London: B. McMillan for E. Nodder & Son. p. 125.
Jump up ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 130, 275. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Jump up ^ Boddaert, Pieter (1783). Table des planches enluminéez d'histoire naturelle de M. D'Aubenton (in French). Utrecht. p. 40.
Jump up ^ Mathews, Gregory M. (1926). "An important date". Emu. 26: 148. doi:10.1071/mu926148.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, David (1798). An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. London: T. Cadell Jr and W. Davies. Appendix 12 Language.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gray, Jeannie; Fraser, Ian (2013). Australian Bird Names: A Complete Guide. Collingwood VIC, Australia: CSIRO. pp. 156–158. ISBN 978-0-64310469-3.
Jump up ^ Gould, John (1848). The Birds of Australia. Volume 2. London: Self-published. Plate 18.
Jump up ^ Latham, John (1782). A General Synopsis of Birds. Volume 1. London: Printed for Benj. White. p. 609.
Jump up ^ Lesson, René Primeverre (1828). Manuel d'ornithologie, ou description des genres et des principales espèces d'oiseaux (in French). Paris: Roret. p. 93.
Jump up ^ Bennett, George (1834). Wandering in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, and China: being the journal of a naturalist in those countries during 1832, 1833, and 1834. Volume 1. London: Richard Bentley. p. 222.
Jump up ^ Lucas, A.H.S.; Le Souef, W.H. Dunley (1911). The Birds of Australia. London: Whitcombe and Tombs. pp. 236–237.
Jump up ^ Leach, John Albert (1912). An Australian bird book: a pocket book for field use (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Whitcombe & Tombs. p. 105.
Jump up ^ Woodall, P.F. "Kingfishers (Alcedinidae)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 2 February 2017. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2016). "Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers". World Bird List Version 6.3. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Robinson, Herbert Christopher (1900). "Contributions to the zoology of north Queensland". Bulletin of the Liverpool Museums. 2 (3&4): 116.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Fry, C. H.; Fry, Kathie; Harris, Alan (1999). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 133–136. ISBN 978-0-7136-5206-2.
Jump up ^ Fry, C. H.; Fry, Kathie; Harris, Alan (1999). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 131–133. ISBN 978-0-7136-5206-2.
Jump up ^ http://ausinternet.com/ettamogah/kookaburrasong.htm[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Higgins 1999, pp. 1124-1125.
Jump up ^ Thomson, G.M. (1922). The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 137–138.
Jump up ^ Higgins 1999, p. 1123.
Jump up ^ Michaux, B. (2013). Miskelly, C.M., ed. "Laughing kookaburra". New Zealand Birds Online. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Howell, P. A. (2012). "Sinclair, Marion (1896–1988)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Canberra: Australian National University. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Kaercher, Melissa (May 30, 2013). "The Sound and the Foley". Tin Lizard Productions.
Sources[edit]
Higgins, Peter J., ed. (1999). "Dacelo novaeguineae Laughing Kookaburra" (PDF). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to dollarbird. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 1121–1138. ISBN 978-0-19-553071-1.
Further reading[edit]
Legge, Sarah (2004). Kookaburra: King of the Bush. Collingwood Vic, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09063-7.
Parry, Veronica A. (1970). Kookaburras. Melbourne: Lansdowne Press. ISBN 978-0-7018-0290-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dacelo novaeguineae.
Wikispecies has information related to Dacelo novaeguineae
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the laughing kookaburra
[show]
v
t
e
Tree kingfishers
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Subfamily: Halcyoninae
Lacedo
Banded kingfisher (L. pulchella)
Dacelo
Laughing kookaburra (D. novaeguineae)
Blue-winged kookaburra (D. leachii)
Spangled kookaburra (D. tyro)
Rufous-bellied kookaburra (D. gaudichaud)
Clytoceyx
Shovel-billed kookaburra (C. rex)
Cittura
Lilac kingfisher (C. cyanotis)
Pelargopsis
Brown-winged kingfisher (P. amauroptera)
Stork-billed kingfisher (P. capensis)
Great-billed kingfisher (P. melanorhyncha)
Halcyon
Ruddy kingfisher (H. coromanda)
Chocolate-backed kingfisher (H. badia)
White-throated kingfisher (H. smyrnensis)
Grey-headed kingfisher (H. leucocephala)
Black-capped kingfisher (H. pileata)
Javan kingfisher (H. cyanoventris)
Woodland kingfisher (H. senegalensis)
Mangrove kingfisher (H. senegaloides)
Blue-breasted kingfisher (H. malimbica)
Brown-hooded kingfisher (H. albiventris)
Striped kingfisher (H. chelicuti)
Todiramphus
Blue-black kingfisher (T. nigrocyaneus)
Winchell's kingfisher (T. winchelli)
Blue-and-white kingfisher (T. diops)
Lazuli kingfisher (T. lazuli)
Forest kingfisher (T. macleayii)
White-mantled kingfisher (T. albonotatus)
Ultramarine kingfisher (T. leucopygius)
Vanuatu kingfisher (T. farquhari)
Red-backed kingfisher (T. pyrrhopygia)
Flat-billed kingfisher (T. recurvirostris)
Guam kingfisher (T. cinnamominus)
Pohnpei kingfisher (T. reichenbachii)
Rusty-capped kingfisher (T. pelewensis)
Collared kingfisher (T. chloris)
Pacific kingfisher (T. sacer)
Melanesian kingfisher (T. tristrami)
Islet kingfisher (T. colonus)
Mariana kingfisher (T. albicilla)
Torresian kingfisher (T. sordidus)
Sombre kingfisher (T. funebris)
Talaud kingfisher (T. enigma)
Beach kingfisher (T. saurophaga)
Cinnamon-banded kingfisher (T. australasia)
Sacred kingfisher (T. sanctus)
Society kingfisher (T. veneratus)
Mewing kingfisher (T. ruficollaris)
Chattering kingfisher (T. tuta)
Marquesan kingfisher (T. godeffroyi)
Mangareva kingfisher (T. gambieri)
Niau kingfisher (T. gertrudae)
Caridonax
Glittering kingfisher (C. fulgidus)
Melidora
Hook-billed kingfisher (M. macrorrhina)
Actenoides
Moustached kingfisher (A. bougainvillei)
Rufous-collared kingfisher (A. concretus)
Spotted wood kingfisher (A. lindsayi)
Hombron's kingfisher (A. hombroni)
Green-backed kingfisher (A. monachus)
Scaly-breasted kingfisher (A. princeps)
Syma
Yellow-billed kingfisher (S. torotoro)
Mountain kingfisher (S. megarhyncha)
Tanysiptera
Little paradise kingfisher (T. hydrocharis)
Common paradise kingfisher (T. galatea)
Kofiau paradise kingfisher (T. ellioti)
Biak paradise kingfisher (T. riedelii)
Numfor paradise kingfisher (T. carolinae)
Red-breasted paradise kingfisher (T. nympha)
Brown-headed paradise kingfisher (T. danae)
Buff-breasted paradise kingfisher (T. sylvia)
Black-capped paradise kingfisher (T. nigriceps)
56 to 61 living species in 12 genera
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q824974
ADW: Dacelo_novaeguineae
ARKive: dacelo-novaeguineae
eBird: laukoo1
EoL: 2867236
GBIF: 2475648
iNaturalist: 2413
ITIS: 554574
IUCN: 22683189
NCBI: 8939
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laughing_kookaburra&oldid=826808065"
Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species
Dacelo
Birds of Queensland
Birds of South Australia
Birds of New South Wales
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