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Restraining order
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Not to be confused with restraint orders, which freezes a person's assets and bank accounts in relation to suspected proceeds of crime (UK law).
‹ The template below (Distinguish2) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Not to be confused with civil restraint orders, which prevent a person from commencing vexatious litigation (UK law).
A restraining order issued by the Justice Court of Las Vegas.
A restraining order or protective order is an order used by a court to protect a person, business, company, establishment, or entity, and the general public, in a situation involving alleged domestic violence, harassment, stalking, or sexual assault. In the United States, every state has some form of domestic violence restraining order law,[1] and many states also have specific restraining order laws for stalking[2] and sexual assault.[3]
Restraining and personal protection order laws vary from one jurisdiction to another but all establish who can file for an order, what protection or relief a person can get from such an order, and how the order will be enforced. The court will order the adverse party to refrain from certain actions and/or require compliance with certain provisions. Failure to comply is a violation of the order which can result in the arrest and prosecution of the offender. Violations in some jurisdictions may also constitute criminal or civil contempt of court.
Contents
[hide]
1 Restraining order provisions
2 Burden of proof and misuse
3 Effectiveness
4 Gender of parties
5 Jurisdictions
5.1 United Kingdom
5.1.1 England
5.2 United States
5.2.1 Types
6 See also
7 References
Restraining order provisions[edit]
All protective order statutes permit the court to instruct an alleged abuser to stay a certain distance away from someone, their home, their workplace or their school ("stay away" provisions) and to not contact them. Alleged victims generally may also request the court to order that all contact, whether it be by telephone, notes, mail, fax, email or delivery of flowers or gifts, be prohibited ("no contact" provisions). Courts can also instruct an alleged abuser to not hurt or threaten someone ("cease abuse" provisions).
Some states also allow the court to order the alleged abuser to pay temporary support or continue to make mortgage payments on a home owned by both people ("support" provisions), to award sole use of a home or car owned by both people ("exclusive use" provisions), or to pay for medical costs or property damage caused by the alleged abuser ("restitution" provisions). Some courts might also be able to instruct the alleged abuser to turn over any firearms and ammunition he or she has ("relinquish firearms" provisions), attend a batterers' treatment program, appear for regular drug tests, or start alcohol or drug abuse counselling. Its issuance is sometimes called a "de facto divorce".[4]
Burden of proof and misuse[edit]
The standard of proof required to obtain a restraining order can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but it is generally lower than the standard of beyond a reasonable doubt required in criminal trials. Many US states—such as Oregon and Pennsylvania along with many others—use a standard of preponderance of the evidence. Other states use different standards, such as Wisconsin which requires that restraining orders be based on "reasonable grounds".[5]
Judges have some incentives to err on the side of granting restraining orders. If a judge should grant a restraining order against someone who might not warrant it, typically the only repercussion is that the defendant might appeal the order. If, on the other hand, the judge denies a restraining order and the plaintiff is killed or injured, sour publicity and an enraged community reaction may harm the jurist's career.[4][6]
Colorado's statute inverts the standard court procedures and due process, providing that after the court issues an ex parte order, the defendant must "appear before the court at a specific time and date and . . . show cause, if any, why said temporary civil protection order should not be made permanent."[7] That is, Colorado courts place the burden of proof on the accused to establish his or her innocence, rather than requiring the accuser to prove his or her case. Hawaii similarly requires the defendant to prove his or her own innocence.[8]
The low burden of proof for restraining orders has led to some high-profile cases involving stalkers of celebrities obtaining restraining orders against their targets. For example, in 2005 a New Mexico judge issued a restraining order against New York City-based TV host David Letterman after a woman made claims of abuse and harassment, including allegations that Letterman had spoken to her via coded messages on his TV show. The judge later admitted that he granted the restraining order not on the merits of the case, but because the petitioner had completely filled out the required paperwork.[9]
Another criticism is that restraining orders are sometimes used in divorce cases for tactical advantage. Joseph E. Cordell, an attorney who specializes in representing men in divorce and custody cases, estimates that about 85% of restraining orders are filed by women alleging abuse by men, yet over 90% of restraining orders against men are tactical rather than due to legitimate fears of abuse or injury.[10] Some attorneys offer to have restraining orders dropped in exchange for financial concessions in such proceedings.
There have also been cases of abusers obtaining restraining orders against their victims, forcing them to divest themselves of firearms that could otherwise have been used for self-defense.[11]
Effectiveness[edit]
Experts disagree on whether restraining orders are effective in preventing further harassment. A 2010 analysis published in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law reviewed 15 U.S. studies of restraining order effectiveness, and concluded that restraining orders "can serve a useful role in threat management". However, a 2002 analysis of 32 U.S. studies found that restraining orders are violated an average of 40 percent of the time and are perceived as being "followed by worse events" almost 21 percent of the time, and concluded that "evidence of [restraining orders'] relative efficacy is lacking", and that they may pose some degree of risk.[12] Other studies have found that restraining orders offer little or no deterrent against future interpersonal violence.[13][14][15] A large America-wide telephone survey conducted in 1998 found that, of stalking victims who obtained a restraining order, more than 68 percent reported it being violated by their stalker.
Threat management experts are often suspicious of restraining orders, believing they may escalate or enrage stalkers. In his 1997 book The Gift of Fear, American security specialist Gavin de Becker characterized restraining orders as "homework assignments police give to women to prove they're really committed to getting away from their pursuers", and said they "clearly serve police and prosecutors", but "they do not always serve victims". The Independent Women’s Forum decries them as "lulling women into a false sense of security", and in its Family Legal Guide, the American Bar Association warns “a court order might even add to the alleged offender's rage".[16]
Castle Rock v. Gonzales, 545 U.S. 748 (2005), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled, 7–2, that a town and its police department could not be sued under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for failing to enforce a restraining order, which had led to the murder of a woman's three children by her estranged husband.
Gender of parties[edit]
Although the restrained person and the protected person may be of either gender, restraining orders most commonly protect a woman against a male alleged abuser. A California study found that 72% of restraining orders active in the state at the time protected a woman against a male abuser.[17] The Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence uses female pronouns to refer to petitioners and male pronouns to refer to abusers due to the fact that most petitioners are women and most abusers are men.[18]
Jurisdictions[edit]
United Kingdom[edit]
England[edit]
Main article: Non-Molestation Order
In English law, a non-molestation order may be granted under Section 42 of the Family Law Act 1996.[19] Non-molestation orders are a type of injunction used to protect an individual from intimidation or harassment. Breaching a non-molestation order is a criminal offence.[20] Under the Domestic Violence Crime and Victims Act 2004, cohabiting same-sex couples are able to seek a non-molestation order.[21] Non-molestation orders sought for protection from domestic violence qualify for legal aid regardless of the applicant's income.[22]
United States[edit]
Federal law requires that all states give "full faith and credit" to every portion of a restraining order issued by any state provided that certain minimum due process requirements are met.[23] Thus a state with very lax standards for issuing a restraining order may enter such a protective order, and every state and federal territory would be required to adhere to every provision.[6] Federal law prohibits any person who is subject to a state protective order from possessing a firearm,[24] provided that the protected party is an intimate partner, meaning a spouse or former spouse, or a person with whom the protected party has had a child.[25] Violating a restraining order is a deportable offense.
Some states (e.g. Mississippi[26]) may also call a restraining order a peace bond and are similar to ASBO laws in the UK. Minnesota law provides for an Order for Protection (OFP) and a Harassment Restraining Order (HRO).[27]
Many jurisdictions offer a simplified process for filing a civil complaint for unrepresented litigants. For example, in North Carolina, pro se litigants can file a 50B (also called a DVPO, for Domestic Violence Protective Order) complaint with the Clerk of Court.[28]
Types[edit]
In the US, each state has its own restraining order laws, but they tend to be divided into about five main types. Not every state will have every type of restraining order on the books. A domestic violence restraining order generally protects only parties deemed to be in some form of "domestic" relationship which may, depending on the statute, include a family, household, intimate, or sexual relationship. A sexual assault restraining order specifically protects a victim of sexual assault regardless of what relationship may or may not exist between petitioner and respondent. If her state has no sexual assault restraining order statute, she may still qualify for a domestic violence restraining order if the sexual assault occurred in the context of a domestic relationship or if the statute is written sufficiently broad. In such cases, sexual assault survivors can sometimes qualify for domestic violence restraining orders because any act of sexual intercourse between petitioner and respondent, even during rape, legally establishes the required sexually intimate relationship. Harassment and stalking restraining orders also generally do not require any specific relationship to exist or not exist between the parties, but also may not be available in all states. These types of restraining orders also generally require at least two instances of, respectively, harassment or stalking to qualify.[29] In many cases, one statute may cover more than one type of restraining order. For example, what is called a harassment restraining order in Wisconsin also specifically includes cases of sexual assault and stalking.[30]
Finally, an extreme risk restraining order is a new form of USA restraining order, currently in use in only four states but with 19 other states showing interest in enacting similar laws. Other forms of restraining order will sometimes order firearms restrictions as a part of a larger injunction intended to protect a specific individual. But with an extreme risk restraining order, the sole focus is on the firearms restrictions. It is sought when household members or police believe a particular individual is at risk to use firearms to harm themselves or others. If a court agrees, the person can have their firearms taken away. This type of restraining order is not intended to protect a specific individual but rather the community at large from someone believed to be a danger for gun violence. It has been cited as a possible tool to help prevent mass shootings such as the Orlando nightclub shooting.[31]
See also[edit]
Anti-Social Behaviour Order (UK)
Anti-Social Behaviour Injunction (UK)
Peace bond (Canada)
Anti-suit injunction
Anti-Injunction Act
Burden of proof
Interim order
Cease and desist
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Domestic Violence Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence. August 2007.
Jump up ^ http://www.abanet.org/domviol/docs/StalkingHarassment_CPO_Chart_8_2007.pdf
Jump up ^ "Sexual Assault Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence. August 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Heleniak, David N. (2010). "Erring on the Side of Hidden Harm: The Granting of Domestic Violence Restraining Orders" (PDF). Partner Abuse. Springer. 1 (2).
Jump up ^ University of Baltimore School of Law Family Law Clinic (June 2009). "Standards of Proof for Domestic Violence Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence.
^ Jump up to: a b Slocum, Peter (2010). "Biting the D.V. Bullet: Are Domestic-Restraining Orders Trampling on Second Amendment Rights?". Seton Hall Law Review. 40 (2).
Jump up ^ Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated § 13-14-102(5)
Jump up ^ Hawaii Revised Statutes Annotated § 586-5(b)
Jump up ^ Mandarano, Liz (13 April 2011). "The Worst Thing A Woman Can Do In Divorce Proceedings - The Abuse Of Orders of Protection". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ Corell, Joseph E. (2011). Order of Protection: And Justice for All? HuffingtonPost.com, accessed 15 March 2016
Jump up ^ Young, Cathy (25 October 1999). "Hitting below the belt". Salon.
Jump up ^ "The Tactical Topography of Stalking Victimization and Management". Trauma Violence Abuse. 3 (4): 261–288. October 2002. doi:10.1177/1524838002237330.
Jump up ^ Grau J, Fagan J, and Wexler S. Restraining orders for battered women: Issues of access and efficacy. Women and Politics, Vol. 4, 1984, pp. 13–28.
Jump up ^ Harrell A and Smith B. Effects of restraining orders on domestic violence victims. In Buzawa C and Buzawa E (eds.): Do Arrests and Restraining Orders Work? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996. p. 229.
Jump up ^ McFarlane J, Malecha A, Gist J et al. Protection orders and intimate partner violence: An 18-month study of 150 Black, Hispanic, and White women. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp. 613–618.
Jump up ^ American Bar Association Family Legal Guide. Random House Reference. 27 April 2004. ISBN 978-0375720772.
Jump up ^ Sorenson SB, Shen H (July 2005). "Restraining Orders in California: A Look at Statewide Data". Violence Against Women. 11 (7): 912–933. doi:10.1177/1077801205276944. PMID 16043577.
Jump up ^ "Process for Obtaining a Restraining Order in Wisconsin" (PDF). WCADV. Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence. Archived from the original on 2016-03-10. Retrieved 12 Jan 2014. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "Family Law Act 1996". www.legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 2016-05-10.
Jump up ^ "About guidelines" (PDF).
Jump up ^ http://www.broken-rainbow.org.uk
Jump up ^ "The Survivor's Handbook - Womens Aid". Womens Aid. Retrieved 2016-05-10.
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 2265(a)
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)
Jump up ^ "Prosecutions Under 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)". U.S. Attorney Manual.
Jump up ^ "LexisNexis® Legal Resources".
Jump up ^ "HRO FAQs". Minnesota Judicial Branch. Archived from the original on August 15, 2013. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Domestic Violence Protective Orders". Retrieved March 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mindlin, Jessica; Reeves, Liani (2005). "Rights and Remedies: Meeting the Civil Legal Needs of Sexual Violence Survivors". The National Crime Victim Law Institute. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Restraining Orders in Wisconsin" (PDF). WCADV. Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence. Retrieved 26 Jul 2014.
Jump up ^ Fies, Andy (February 16, 2018). "How a temporary restraining order for guns could help stop mass shootings". ABCNews.com. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
Davis, J.A. (2001, August). Stalking Crimes and Victim Protection, CRC Press, 568 pages.
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text:
8-track tape
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Cartridge (disambiguation).
This article is about the eight-track cartridge. For eight-track multitracking, see Multitrack recording.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Stereo 8
Media type
Magnetic tape endless loop
Encoding
Stereo analog signal
Capacity
Four stereo channels
Read mechanism
Tape head
Write mechanism
Magnetic recording head
Developed by
Lear Industries
Usage
Audio storage
Extended from
Fidelipac / Mohawk cartridge[1]
The 8-track tape (formally Stereo 8; commonly known as the eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, or simply eight-track) is a magnetic tape sound-recording technology that was popular in the United States[2] from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s, when the Compact Cassette format took over.[3][4] The format is regarded as an obsolete technology, and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan.[3][4][5]
Stereo 8 was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear of Lear Jet Corporation[6], along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records (RCA). It was a further development of the similar Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge introduced by Earl "Madman" Muntz, which was adapted by Muntz from the Fidelipac cartridge developed by George Eash. A later quadraphonic version of the format was announced by RCA in April 1970 and first known as Quad-8, then later changed to just Q8.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Development of tape cartridges
1.2 Introduction of Stereo 8
1.3 Commercial success
1.4 Early karaoke machines
1.5 Other use
1.6 Decline and demise
2 Design
3 Composition
4 Comparison with compact cassette
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The original format for magnetic tape sound reproduction was the reel-to-reel tape recorder, first available in the United States in the late 1940s, but too expensive and bulky to be practical for amateur home use until well into the 1950s. Loading a reel of tape onto the machine and threading it through the various guides and rollers proved daunting to some casual users—certainly, it was more difficult than putting a vinyl record on a record player and flicking a switch. Because in early years each tape had to be dubbed from the master tape in real-time to maintain good sound quality, prerecorded tapes were more expensive to manufacture, and costlier to buy, than vinyl records which could be stamped much quicker than their own playing time.
To eliminate the nuisance of tape-threading, various manufacturers introduced cartridges that held the tape inside a metal or plastic housing to eliminate handling. Most were intended only for low-fidelity voice recording in dictation machines. The first tape cartridge designed for general consumer use, including music reproduction, was the Sound Tape or Magazine Loading Cartridge (RCA tape cartridge), introduced in 1958 by RCA. Prerecorded stereophonic music cartridges were available, and blank cartridges could be used to make recordings at home, but the format failed to gain popularity.
Development of tape cartridges[edit]
The inside of an 8-track cartridge. The black rubber pinch roller is at upper right.
The endless loop tape cartridge was first designed in 1952 by Bernard Cousino around a single reel carrying a continuous loop of standard 1/4-inch, plastic, oxide-coated recording tape running at 3.75 in (9.53 cm) per second. Program starts and stops were signaled by a one-inch-long metal foil that activates the track-change sensor. (Bill Lear had tried to create an endless-loop wire recorder in the 1940s, but gave up in 1946. He would be inspired by Earl Muntz's four-track design in the early 1960s.)
Inventor George Eash invented a cartridge design in 1953, called the Fidelipac cartridge.[7] The Eash cartridge was later licensed by manufacturers, notably the Collins Radio Company, which first introduced a cartridge system for broadcasting at the National Association of Broadcasters 1959 annual show. Fidelipac cartridges (nicknamed "carts" by DJs and radio engineers) were used by many radio stations for commercials, jingles, and other short items. Eash later formed Fidelipac Corporation to manufacture and market tapes and recorders, as did several others, including Audio-Pak (Audio Devices Corp.).
There were several attempts to sell music systems for cars, beginning with the Chrysler Highway Hi-Fi of the late 1950s (which used discs). Entrepreneur Earl "Madman" Muntz of Los Angeles, California, however, saw a potential in these "broadcast carts" for an automobile music system. In 1962 he introduced his Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge stereo system and tapes, mostly in California and Florida. The four tracks were divided into two "programs", typically corresponding to the two sides of an LP record, with each program comprising two tracks read simultaneously for stereo playback. He licensed popular music albums from the major record companies and duplicated them on these four-track cartridges, or "CARtridges", as they were first advertised.
Introduction of Stereo 8[edit]
The Lear Jet Stereo 8 track cartridge was designed by Richard Kraus while working under Bill Lear and for his Lear Jet Corporation in 1963. The major change was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself, rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity. Lear also eliminated some of the internal parts of the Eash cartridge, such as the tape-tensioning mechanism and an interlock that prevented tape spillage. By doubling the number of tracks from 4 to 8,[8] the recording length doubled to 80 minutes.
In 1964, Lear's aircraft company constructed 100 demonstration Stereo 8 players for distribution to executives at RCA and the auto companies.
Commercial success[edit]
Factory optional 8-track stereo player in a 1967 American Motors (AMC) vehicle mounted between the center console and dash
Factory installed AM/FM/8-track unit in 1978 AMC Matador with a Briefcase Full of Blues cartridge in "play" position
The popularity of both four-track and eight-track cartridges grew from the booming automobile industry.[9] In September 1965, Ford Motor Company introduced factory-installed and dealer-installed eight-track tape players as an option on three of its 1966 models (Mustang, Thunderbird, and Lincoln)[10], and RCA Victor introduced 175 Stereo-8 Cartridges from its RCA Victor and RCA Camden artist's catalogs.[11] By the 1967 model year, all of Ford's vehicles offered this tape player upgrade option. Most of the initial factory installations were separate players from the radio (such as shown in the image), but dashboard mounted 8-track units were offered in combination with an AM radio, as well as with AM/FM receivers.[12] Muntz, and a few other manufacturers, also offered 4/8 or "12-track" players that were capable of playing cartridges of either format, 4-track or 8-track. With the backing of the US automakers, the eight-track format quickly won out over the four-track format, with Muntz abandoning it completely by late 1970.
Despite its problems, the format gained steady popularity because of its convenience and portability. Home players were introduced in 1966 that allowed consumers to share tapes between their homes and portable systems. By the late 1960s, the 8-track segment was the largest in the consumer electronics market and the popularity of 8-track systems for cars helped generate demand for home units.[13] "Boombox" type players were also popular but eight-track player/recorders failed to gain wide popularity and few manufacturers offered them. With the availability of cartridge systems for the home, consumers started thinking of eight-tracks as a viable alternative to vinyl records, not only as a convenience for the car. Within a year, prerecorded releases on eight-track began to arrive within a month of the vinyl release. The eight-track format became by far the most popular and offered the largest music library of all the tape systems.[14]
Eight-track players were fitted as standard equipment in most Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars of the period for sale in UK and worldwide. Optional 8-track players were available in many cars and trucks through the early 1980s.
Ampex, based in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, set up a European operation (Ampex Stereo Tapes) in London, England, in 1970 under general manager Gerry Hall, with manufacturing in Nivelles, Belgium, to promote 8-track product (as well as musicassettes) in Britain and in Europe, but it struggled and folded in 1974.[verification needed]
Quadraphonic eight-track cartridges (announced by RCA in April 1970) were also produced, Ford being particularly eager to promote in-car quadraphonic players as a pricey option. Neither Chrysler, General Motors, nor American Motors ever offered a quadraphonic tape player. The format enjoyed a moderate amount of success for a time but faded in the mid-1970s. These cartridges are sought by collectors since they provide four channels of discrete sound, unlike matrixed formats such as SQ, which Columbia/CBS Records used for their quadraphonic vinyl records.
Early karaoke machines[edit]
Daisuke Inoue invented the first karaoke machine in 1971 called the Juke-8.[15][16]
Other use[edit]
Milton Bradley's (MB) OMNI Entertainment System was an electronic quiz machine game, similar to Jeopardy! or later You Don't Know Jack video game series, using 8-track tapes for playback analog audio for questions, instructions and answers as well as digital signals in magnetic tape data storage on remaining tracks to load the right answer for counting the score. Some year[clarification needed] before the Mego Corporation launched the 2-XL toy robot.[17]
Decline and demise[edit]
Eight-track players became less common in homes and vehicles in the late 1970s. The compact cassette arrived in 1962, and by the 1970s the eight-track cartridges had greatly diminished in popularity. In some Latin American countries as well as European, the format was abandoned in the mid-1970s in favor of the cassette. The UK never had as much use as the compact cassette in cars and home players were almost unknown in the UK.
In the US, eight-track cartridges were phased out of retail stores by late 1982. Some titles were still available as eight-track tapes through Columbia House and RCA (BMG) Music Service Record Clubs until late 1988. Many of these late-period releases are highly collectible because of the low numbers that were produced and the few customers who ever purchased them. Among the most rare is Stevie Ray Vaughan's Texas Flood. Another is Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band's Live/1975-85, which was one of the very few boxed sets to be released on vinyl, cassette, compact disc, and eight-track tape.
There is a debate among collectors about the last commercial eight-track released by a major label, but the fan website 8 Track Heaven cannot find a major label release past Fleetwood Mac's Greatest Hits in November 1988.[18] Radio Shack continued to sell blank eight-track cartridges under its Realistic brand until 1990. [19]
The professional broadcast cart format survived for more than another decade at most radio stations. It was used to play and switch jingles, advertisements, station identifications, and music content until it was replaced by various computer-based methods in the 1990s. This format survived longer because it was used for relatively short sound loops, where starting from the beginning was more important than other criteria. The endless loop tape concept continues to be used in modern movie projectors, although in that application the spool is actively rotated and not drawn by tension on the film. That too, however, is being supplanted by digital cinema technologies.
Some independent artists still release eight-track tapes, such as the US band RTB2, who released We Are a Strange Man in 2011.[20] Also, bands sometimes release eight-tracks as special releases; for example, The Melvins released a limited-time, live eight-track album,[21] Cheap Trick issued a limited edition version of their album The Latest on the format on June 23, 2009,[22] and power electronics solo artist Waves Crashing Piano Chords has released multiple eight-track tapes since 2012, as well as starting an eight-track tape label, H8-Track Stereo. In the book Journals, Kurt Cobain wrote about wanting to release Nirvana's album In Utero as an 8-track tape, but this never happened. Apart from a select group of highly collectible artists, the record club issues, and the quadraphonic releases, many eight-track tapes seem to have limited value to most collectors, especially if the tapes have been misused or appear to be worn.
Design[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the Cousino, Eash, Muntz, and Lear cartridges, tape was pulled from the center of the reel, passed across the opening at one end of the cartridge and wound back onto the outside of the same reel. The spool itself was freewheeling and the tape was driven only by tension from the capstan and pinch roller.
With a reel turning at a constant rate, the tape around the hub has a lower linear velocity than the tape at the outside of the reel, so the tape layers must slip past each other as they approach the center. The tape was coated with a slippery backing material, usually graphite and patented by Bernard Cousino, to ease the continuous slip between the tape layers. While the design allowed simple, cheap, and mobile players, unlike a two-reel system, it did not permit rewinding of the tape. Some players offered fast-forward by speeding up the motor while cutting off the audio; but rewinding was never offered, because it was technically impossible.
Muntz's cartridge had used two pairs of stereo tracks in the same configuration as then-current "quarter track" reel-to-reel tapes. This format was intended to parallel his source material, which was usually a single LP (long playing) record with two sides. Program switching was achieved by physically moving the head up and down mechanically by a lever. The Stereo 8 version doubled the amount of programming on the tape by providing eight total tracks, usually comprising four programs of two tracks each. Lear touted this as a great improvement, because much more music could be held inside a standard cartridge housing, but in practice this resulted in a slight loss of sound quality and an increase in background noise from the narrower tape tracks. Unlike the Stereo-Pak, the Stereo 8 could switch between tracks automatically, with the use of a small length of conductive foil at the splice joint on the tape, which would cause the player to change tracks as it passed the head assembly.
The cartridges have an audible pause due to the presence of a length of metallic foil, which a sensor detects and signals the end of the tape and acts as a splice for the loop. The foil passes across a pair of electrical contacts which are in the tape path. Contact of the foil closes an electrical circuit that engages a solenoid which mechanically shifts the tape head to the level of the next track.
Most players produced a mechanical click when switching programs, although early Lear players switched silently. Because of the expense of producing tape heads capable of reading eight tracks, most eight-track players have heads that read just two tracks. Switching from program to program is accomplished by moving the head itself. Since the alignment of the head to the tape is crucial to any tape system, and because eight-track systems were generally designed to be cheap, this configuration further degraded the sound of the eight-track tape.
The Stereo 8 system was fairly simple, mechanically, but presented difficulties in various primary areas:
Capstan wear and buildup. As tape residue, dirt and lubricant built up on the capstan, the tape speed would increase and, since the buildup was uneven, the tape speed would become correspondingly uneven. Similarly, some units were subject to the capstan wear, causing a decrease in tape speed. Technicians routinely kept a supply of new capstans on hand ready to install into worn decks for this reason, during the heyday of the format. Once the capstan wears only .001" the tape speed slows. Replacing or resurfacing the capstan would restore operation. The old "matchpack" or "matchbook" under the tape fix while playing, was done primarily because the capstan was worn or polished, and would no longer grip the tape and play it at the correct speed. Replacing or resurfacing the capstan, restores proper operation without using a wedge under the tape.
Head alignment. This was an issue for two reasons: a) Azimuth misalignment results in reduced high frequencies, and b) Head height misalignment allows sounds from adjacent tracks to bleed over, an effect sometimes known as "double-tracking". This is due to the resultant time delay between the left and right channels resulting in a degradation of phase correlation. This effect is enhanced in an 8-track system, as compared to either reel-to-reel or cassette, due to the larger physical distance, on the tape, between the left and right channel tracks. Resetting head height and azimuth is a primary service procedure required, when refurbishing any vintage tape deck. Once set the player will perform accurately. This format, unlike other tape formats, features a movable head with four positions. Among audio service technicians, there used to be a joke that "the eight-track is the only audio device which knocks itself out of alignment four times during each album." When tracking/azimuth is set using a high quality (ex: Columbia) or alignment tape, correct operation will be restored. Some brands of 8-track decks had adjustable tape head thumbwheel knobs on the front panel, so the listener could adjust the tracking, much like a VHS or Beta tape was adjusted for picture quality. The listener could then adjust the tape head individually for each tape, avoiding double tracking.
The sensing foil that would allow the tape to switch programs, could dry up, fall off, and the tape would separate, and disappear inside the sealed cartridge. This was especially prevalent on bootleg tapes, that used cheaper sensing foils. Had the tape been reinforced on both sides at this point, the tapes would be much more reliable. Many modern collectors replace the old sensing foil with a more robust, properly reinforced foil. As of 2014[update], rolls of new sensing foil and new pressure pads sell at a steady pace on eBay and other specialty online sites who cater to the format.
The movement of the head at program switch point could sometimes pull the tape up or down, causing the tape to fold over and start playing the back side of the tape. The tape would continue to play, albeit muffled and barely audible. Continued playing would flip the entire tape over, so the tape would be wound on the reel inside with the backside showing. Many vintage tapes can be found with the back side of the tape, facing forward. The program switch point is often the place where the tapes would be ingested into the player i.e. "eaten", when the tape head moved from program 4, to program 1- its furthest track change movement. While moving upward the head would grab the tape, fold it over, and when this fold hit the capstan, it would wrap around the capstan and ingest the tape into the player.
The "melted" rubber pinch rollers that can be found in many early 8-Track cartridges were the result of the rubber not being fully cured. After discovering this cause, later cartridges used only fully cured (hard) rubber pinch rollers that did not deteriorate as much over time.
Tape tension was another cause of unreliability. Prerecorded eight-track tapes tended to hold only a single album, about 46 minutes of content, or 11.5 minutes per track. Consumers wanted the ability to record more music on a single cartridge, so manufacturers came out with units of greater capacity, i.e. 60 and 90 minutes tapes. A few 100 minutes tapes do exist. With the corresponding increase in tape length, there was a greater velocity differential between the tape being drawn from the center of the reel and the tape being fed back to the outer edge of the reel as it passed the capstan/pinch-roller assembly (loop length). A 90-minute tape also exerts more drag on the tape deck motor, making a large AC 120 volt motor imperative to play the longest tapes. Over time, cheaper tapes may tighten, making it more difficult to feed, and to maintain a constant playback speed. Once a tape sheds most of its graphite backing, it will bind up and the tape won't play.
When the sliding tape pack would pull itself tight, for whatever reason, a jammed 8-track cartridge was the result. A quick solution was to hold the cartridge in one hand, facing down, while pulling out a section of, about 4-6' in length from the outer winding side. A quick tug on the tape would cause it to immediately wind in and the result was a loosened up tape pack that would play correctly.
Failing that, another solution was to open the cartridge, cut the tape at the splice, and relieve the excess tension by manually unwinding one or two sections from the outer edge of tape (loop length) while keeping the reel stationary, then re-splicing the tape, with a fresh piece of foil. Another, simpler fix was to shake the cassette in the plane of the tape reel with a rotary motion, sometimes this would cause the windings inside to rotate and loosen. If the cartridge has shed its graphite backing, it would have to be discarded. Small businesses that specialize in transferring audio tapes to digital format can remove the tape from the cartridge and play it on a small reel-to-reel player to extract maximum fidelity.
A decrease in the quality of the parts used in the eight-track cartridge, that is, plastic pinch rollers, lubricant quality and quantity, etc., was another blow to the faltering format. As these problems further reduced the reliability, sound quality, and consistent tape speed, the eight-track eventually developed a reputation for being unreliable.
Composition[edit]
The Stereo 8 introduced the problem of dividing up the programming intended for a two-sided LP record into four programs. Often this resulted in songs being split into two parts (the split was often made during an instrumental break or a repeated chorus), song orders being reshuffled, shorter songs being repeated, and songs separated by long passages of silence. Some eight-tracks included extra musical content to fill in time such as a piano solo on Lou Reed's Berlin, extra verses on The Rolling Stones' Some Girls and a guitar solo in Pink Floyd's Animals.
In rare instances, an eight-track was able to be arranged exactly like the record album version, without any song breaks. Examples of this are Quadrophenia by The Who, and some versions of Days of Future Passed by The Moody Blues. Other examples of this rarity are Freeways by Bachman-Turner Overdrive, Bursting Out Live by Jethro Tull, Live Bullet and Nine Tonight by Bob Seger and the Silver Bullet Band, Caught Live + 5 by The Moody Blues, The Concert in Central Park by Simon & Garfunkel, Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs by Derek and The Dominoes, Octave by The Moody Blues, the US version of Three Sides Live by Genesis and Coda by Led Zeppelin (a record club only release).
Comparison with compact cassette[edit]
There are numerous reasons for the format's decline.
Some of the inherent deficiencies of the format were:
High wow and flutter due to the constantly changing load presented by the sliding tape pack
Tendency to jam as the tape got dirty, the lubricant wore away, and the tape was exposed to heat
Flattening of the pinch roller, over time, when a cartridge was left plugged in, causing increased wow and flutter
Inability to attain and maintain head alignment due to the movable head design
Rewind is impossible
Consumer units with both play and recording function were rare and expensive
The order of the songs was often changed, and program changes sometimes occurred in the middle of songs (because the album had to be split into 4 programs, the tape length had to be that of the longest program, and any inequality in program length caused blanks that had to be fast-forwarded through)
As time went on, these issues were compounded as later cartridges started using cheaper, lower quality materials, such as plastic pinch rollers. Another contributing factor was an effort by record companies to reduce the number of formats offered. In the late 1970s, when sales of eight-tracks slipped, they were quick to abandon the format.[citation needed]
While the cassette offered features that the eight-track lacked, such as smaller size, greater reliability and both rewinding and home recording capability, it also had disadvantages:
Its tape speed was half that of Stereo 8, producing theoretically lower sound quality
The tape needed turning over after one side of playing was finished (until late in the lifecycle of the compact cassette, when 'auto-reverse' mechanisms became more popular)
It required greater mechanical complexity of the player
However, constant development of the cassette turned it into a widespread high-fidelity medium and also lowered the cost and complexity. That, combined with the inherent deficiencies of the Stereo 8 format, contributed to its decline.
See also[edit]
Audio format
Audio storage
Birotron
References[edit]
Jump up ^ TelePro Cartridge Patent Fails, Billboard vol. 79, No. 27, 8 July 1967 p. 3
Jump up ^ "What Are 8-Track Tapes?". wisegeek.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015. While immensely popular in the United States for a period of time...
^ Jump up to: a b "Collector’s Corner: The History Of The Eight-Track Tape". Retrieved 2014-01-22. Just as the signs were all pointing to eight-track toppling vinyl as the format of choice for music lovers in the United States, Canada and to a lesser extent, in Great Britain, along came the audio cassette
^ Jump up to: a b "What Are 8-Track Tapes?". Retrieved 2014-01-22. Outside of the United Kingdom, Canada, and a few other nations, the use of 8-track technology was virtually unknown.
Jump up ^ http://www.8trackheaven.com/archive/world.html
Jump up ^ Wilford, John Noble (1971-04-04). "Bill Lear Thinks He'll Have the Last Laugh". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
Jump up ^ "George Eash CARtridge inventor tells how it was born". Billboard. 78 (10). 3 March 1966. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~cochinea/html-paper/a-crews-03-magnetic-media.html
Jump up ^ "Vintage Audio Recording History". Videointerchange.com. 10 May 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Despagni, Anthony J. (1976). "Some Help From Debussy For the Hassled Driver". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
Jump up ^ "RCA Fires 175-Title Burst with Release of Stereo 8 Cartridges". Billboard. 77 (39): 3. 25 September 1965. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Larry G. (2000). AMC Muscle Cars. MBI Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-7603-0761-8. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Kussisto, Oscar P. (2 November 1968). "8-track market booms". Billboard. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Shatavsky, Sam (February 1969). "The best tape system for you". Popular Science. 194 (2): 126–129. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Raftery, Brian (2008). Don't Stop Believin': How Karaoke Conquered the World and Changed My Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306815834.
Jump up ^ Mitsui, Tōru; Hosokawa, Shūhei (1998). Karaoke around the world: global technology, local singing. London ; New York: Routledge. pp. 29–42. ISBN 9781280140877.
Jump up ^ Techmoan: MB OMNI Entertainment System - The 1980s 8-Track games machine, YouTube 6 August 2017
Jump up ^ "Record Club Only 8-tracks". 8trackheaven.com. Archived from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/catalogs/1990/
Jump up ^ Floorwalker, Mike (15 January 2013). "10 Music Recordings for the Insanely Determined". listverse.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Slim's 8-Track". Themelvins.net. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Carnoy, David (15 July 2009). "New Cheap Trick album available on 8-track tape". CNET. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 8-track tape.
"A Survey of Recordable Magnetic Media" by Andrew D. Crews, December, 2003, University of Texas, accessed 8 August 2006
So Wrong They're Right - A 1995 documentary about 8-track enthusiasts
8-Track Heaven
8-Track Moments Listen to the sound of the 8-Track click
Bill Lear Invents the 8-Track and Brings in Ford, Motorola, and RCA Victor. Recording History.org
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Frazier lens
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A Frazier Lens on a RED One camera
The Frazier lens is a special camera lens designed by Australian photographer Jim Frazier. The Frazier lens provides an appearance of a massive depth of field, allowing the foreground and background of an image to be in focus. Frazier's lenses have been widely used in Hollywood and wildlife cinematography. In addition to its unique depth of field properties, the Frazier lens is significantly smaller than previous deep focus lenses allowing more versatility and flexibility to cinematographers. The main feature of the lens, an extended tube with a rotating prism, allows cinematographers to place the camera in a variety of positions for a given shot. Cinematographers then rotate the prism to correct the horizon. This feature allows directors and cameramen to achieve shots in minutes that previously took cinematographers hours in rigging and designing special sets to accommodate shooting positions.
Patent claims[edit]
A United States patent 5,727,236 was issued on March 10, 1998 for the lens and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded a Technical Achievement Award to Frazier for his lenses. The patent was licensed to Panavision for production and marketing of the lens. In 2003, Panavision and Frazier brought suit against Roessel Cine Photo Tech, Inc. for violating the patent.
At the trial, it was discovered that the 60 minute Panavision educational video that the Frazier lawyers had submitted ("in the interests of demonstrating to the Examiner the features and uniqueness of the optical system of this patent application") had 8 seconds of a shot that had been created with a different lens. Although Frazier reshot the footage in question with the Frazier Panavision lens the patent was declared unenforceable for inequitable conduct and attorney's fees were awarded to the defendants.
External links[edit]
Frazier Lens US Patent 5,727,236 PDF at Google Patents
Official page with pictures at panavision.com
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Economy of Buffalo, New York
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Elevator Alley", the stretch of the Buffalo River immediately adjacent to the harbor that is lined with historic grain elevators
The Buffalo area economy consists of a mix of industrial, light manufacturing, high technology and service-oriented private sector companies. Instead of relying on a single industry or sector for its economic future, the region has taken a diversified approach that have the potential to create opportunities for growth and expansion in the 21st century.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Employment
3 Life sciences
4 Banking
5 Other
6 Standard of living
7 Principal employers
8 References
History[edit]
Buffalo and the surrounding area were long involved in railroad commerce, steel manufacture, automobile production, aircraft/aerospace design and production, Great Lakes shipping, and grain storage. Most of these industries have left the city through the years. Major steel production no longer exists in the area, although several smaller steel mills remain in operation. For example, Gibraltar Industries, a leading manufacturer, processor, and distributor of steel products for the building, industrial, and vehicular markets is headquartered in Buffalo. As of the 1950 United States Census, Buffalo was the 15th largest city in the country, the nation's largest inland port (twelfth overall), second biggest rail center, sixth largest steel producer, and eighth largest manufacturer.[2]
Employment[edit]
Overall, employment in Buffalo has shifted as its population has declined and manufacturing has diminished. Buffalo's 2005 unemployment rate was 6.6%, contrasted with New York State's 5.0% rate.[3] And from the fourth quarter of 2005 to the fourth quarter of 2006, Erie County had no net job growth, ranking it 271st among the 326 largest counties in the country.[4] Yet the area has recently seen an upswing in job growth as unemployment has dropped to only 4.9% in July 2007 from 5.2% in 2006 and 6.6% in 2005.[5] The area's manufacturing jobs have continued to show the largest losses in jobs with over 17,000 fewer than at the start of 2006. Yet other sectors of the economy have outdistanced manufacturing and are seeing large increases. Educational and health services added over 30,400 jobs in 2006 and over 20,500 jobs have been added in the professional and business (mostly finance) arena.[6]
Life sciences[edit]
Buffalo has increasingly become a center for bioinformatics and human genome research, including work by researchers at the University at Buffalo and the Roswell Park Cancer Institute. This consortium is known as the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus. It also includes: Buffalo Hearing & Speech Center, Buffalo Medical Group Foundation, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, Kaleida Health, Olmsted Center for the Visually Impaired, Cleveland BioLabs and Upstate New York Transplant Services. The DNA samples used in The Human Genome Project were also collected from anonymous donors from Buffalo.
Entrepreneurial resources and life science business consultants accelerate the growth and development of emerging companies found within the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus and Upstate New York Region. For example, Buffalo BioSciences is a technology commercialization partner to the New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences and contributed to the launch and early success of Empire Genomics –- a firm based on research conducted at Roswell Park Cancer Institute by Dr. Norma Nowak[7] enabling the delivery of personalized medicine.
Banking[edit]
Buffalo Savings Bank Building
Buffalo is the headquarters of M&T Bank, a large regional bank with assets over $79B (as of June 2011).[8] HSBC Bank USA has reduced its local operations in Buffalo, and Upstate NY as a whole, as it closed its retail banking centers. Many of the shuttered HSBC retail banking centers in upstate were acquired by First Niagara Bank (see below). Other banks, such as Bank of America and KeyBank have corporate operations in Buffalo. Citigroup also has regional offices in Amherst, Buffalo's largest suburb. Buffalo has also become a hub of the debt collection industry.[9]
First Niagara Bank recently moved its headquarters to downtown Buffalo from nearby Lockport. First Niagara has branches from Buffalo to Albany, New York, and since September 2009 has had branches as far south as Pittsburgh. On September 10, 2009, First Niagara announced the relocation of its corporate headquarters from Lockport to downtown Buffalo. The company says facilities in Lockport will remain open and fully staffed.[10] First Niagara, which had been considering expanding into Western Pennsylvania for some time,[11] benefited from PNC Financial Services being required by the United States Department of Justice to sell off 50 National City branches in the Pittsburgh area and 11 more branches in and around Erie to competitors,[12] since the two banks had significant overlap in Western Pennsylvania and had potential antitrust issues in that area. First Niagara took advantage by buying 57 of the 61 National City branches from PNC that had to be divested after PNC acquired National City with funds from the $700 billion bailout plan after National City became a victim of the subprime mortgage crisis. The move affected the area by creating 200 more jobs, some in the Buffalo area.[13] On July 31, 2011, it was announced First Niagara had acquired all of HSBC Banks Western New York branches; after closing and selling some branches to its competitors its total number in Upstate New York had almost doubled.[14]
Other[edit]
Buffalo is home to Rich Products, one of the world's largest family-owned food manufacturers.[15] Canadian brewer Labatt moved its US headquarters to Buffalo in May 2007.[16] This is in large part due to Buffalo's location directly in the middle of the Northeastern Trade Corridor. The city is the heart of the Canadian-American corridor. Over 80% of all U.S.-Canada trade occurs via border crossings in the eastern United States and with five bridges to Canada, the Buffalo area is one of the key eastern border crossing locations. Cheese company Sorrento Lactalis is also based in Buffalo.
New Era Cap Company, the largest sports-licensed headwear company in the United States, is based in Buffalo. It opened new headquarters in 2007 in the former Federal Reserve Building in downtown Buffalo.[17]
The windshield wiper maker Trico, founded in Buffalo by John R. Oishei, operated three major manufacturing facilities but has since closed all of them and moved operations to Mexico. In 1998, the company head office moved to Rochester Hills, Michigan.[18] Trico's Plant No. 1 was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 and in 2014 was being re-developed by the State University of New York at Buffalo. The John R. Oishei Foundation is western New York's largest and the new Women's & Children's Hospital, scheduled to open in 2015, will be named the John R. Oishei Children's Hospital.
For many years, Buffalo was the nation's second largest rail center, after Chicago. Peaked traffic reached during World War II, but declined soon after the war.[19] Through the 1960s and 1970s freight traffic via Buffalo declined, air travel and the New York State Thruway took railway passengers away as well.[19] By 1980, the rail hub in the city was gone.[19]
Del Monte Foods' Milk Bone dog biscuits are still manufactured in a small factory on the city's East Side.
Regionally based insurance companies also have maintained their headquarters in Buffalo, New York. There's Merchants Insurance Group and Lawley Insurance. Merchants Insurance Group is a property and casualty insurance company that provides commercial, personal property and casualty insurance throughout the Northeast and North Central United States. Lawley Insurance provides commercial insurance, employee benefits, risk management and personal insurance.
Delaware North Companies are headquartered in Buffalo.[20]
Standard of living[edit]
The loss of traditional jobs in manufacturing, rapid suburbanization and high costs of labor have led to economic decline, making Buffalo one of the poorest among U.S. cities with populations of more than 250,000 people. An estimated 28.7–29.9% of Buffalo residents live below the poverty line, behind either only Detroit,[21] or only Detroit and Cleveland.[22] Buffalo's median household income of $27,850 is third-lowest among large cities, behind only Miami and Cleveland; however the median household income for the metropolitan area is $57,000.[23]
This, in part, has led to the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area having the most affordable housing market in the U.S. today. The quarterly NAHB/Wells Fargo Housing Opportunity Index (HOI) noted that nearly 90% of the new and existing homes sold in the metropolitan area during the second quarter were affordable to families making the area's median income of $57,000. The area median price of homes was $75,000.[citation needed]
Buffalo faces issues with vacant and abandoned houses, as the city ranks second to St. Louis on the list of American cities with the most vacant properties per capita. Since 2000, the city has torn down 2,000 vacant homes but as many as 10,000 still remain. Mayor Byron W. Brown recently unveiled a $100 million, five-year plan to demolish 5,000 more houses.[24] The city's move away from heavy industry and toward a service and bioinformatics economy[citation needed] has brought improved air and water quality, which benefit not only residents and tourists but the bioregion as a whole. In July 2005, Reader's Digest ranked Buffalo as the third cleanest large city in the nation.[25]
Buffalo's economy has begun to see significant improvements since the early 2010s.[26] Money from state governor Andrew Cuomo, plans for different construction programs, and hundreds of new jobs have brought strong economic change to the area.[27]
A set of images of Buffalo's skyline
Principal employers[edit]
According to the City's 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[28] the principal employers in the Buffalo Metropolitan Area are:
#
Employer
# of Employees
1 State of New York 15,123
2 Federal Executive Board (United States of America) 11,183
3 Kaleida Health 10,000
4 University at Buffalo 6,733
5 Catholic Health System 6,628
6 Employer Services Corp 6,363
7 M&T Bank 5,140
8 Tops Markets 5,058
9 Buffalo City School District 4,949
10 Erie County 4,203
References[edit]
Jump up ^ University at Buffalo Regional Institute (2011). "Binational Buffalo Niagara Region Report". Regional Knowledge Network. UB Regional Institute. Archived from the original on March 22, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bisco, Jim (1986). A Greater Look at Greater Buffalo. Windsor Publications. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89781-198-9.
Jump up ^ "See Erie County". Labor.state.ny.us.
Jump up ^ "BLS, Table 1. Covered establishments, employment, and wages in the 326 largest counties, fourth quarter 2006". Bls.gov. Archived from the original on April 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "New York". Labor.state.ny.us.
Jump up ^ "''bizjournals.com''". Bizjournals.com. October 24, 2012. Archived from the original on May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "About the Founder". Empiregenomics.com. March 18, 2008. Archived from the original on June 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "M&T Bank : Who Is M&T". Mtb.com. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Carolyn (January 5, 2010). "Buffalo's debt collectors accused of bullying =". Associated Press. Archived from the original on January 8, 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-05.
Jump up ^ "First Niagara 2009". Fnfg.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ KDKA-TV[dead link]
Jump up ^ "United States Department of Justice" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 31, 2009. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
Jump up ^ "First Niagara 2009" (PDF). Fnfg.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ First Niagara to buy HSBC bank branches wivb.com Published 2011-07-31. Archived May 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rich Products Corporation :: Our Business/ Archived October 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ LABATT USA: Company opens new headquarters in Buffalo » Business » Tonawanda News/ Archived October 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ History Timeline of the New Era Cap Company/ Archived July 30, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "METRO BUSINESS; Trico Opens Buffalo Site". The New York Times. October 20, 1999. Archived from the original on April 10, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Buffalo Central Terminal – Decline & Abandonment, 1945 – 1990". Buffalohistoryworks.com. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ [1]/ Archived June 26, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Poverty USA – Catholic Campaign for Human Development – A hand up, not a hand out". Usccb.org. July 27, 2011. Archived from the original on July 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ Buffalo 3rd Poorest Large City. WGRZ TV. Retrieved October 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ Buffalo falls to second-poorest big city in U.S., with a poverty rate of nearly 30 percent. Buffalo News. Retrieved September 2, 2007.[dead link]
Jump up ^ Vacant Houses, Scourge of a Beaten-down Buffalo. New York Times. Retrieved September 14, 2007.
Jump up ^ Derek Burnett,America's Top Five Cleanest Cities. Reader's Digest. Retrieved January 4, 2007. Archived July 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/Home/Leadership/City_Comptroller/economy
Jump up ^ http://www.buffalonews.com/feed/signs-of-economic-revival-finally-appear-20140125
Jump up ^ "City of Buffalo 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 18, 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2014.
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This page was last edited on 16 September 2017, at 20:46.
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