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Epithelium
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This article is about epithelium in animal anatomy. For the fungal structure of the same name, see Pileipellis.
Epithelium
Types of epithlium
Identifiers
TH
H2.00.02.0.00002
FMA
9639
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
This article is one of a series on
Epithelia
Squamous epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Columnar epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Cuboidal epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Specialised epithelia
Olfactory
Respiratory
Intestinal
Transitional
Germinal
female
male
Other
Table of epithelia of human organs
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Epithelium (epi- + thele + -ium) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body.
There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. These can be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium, either squamous, columnar, cuboidal, pseudo-stratified columnar or in layers of two or more cells deep as stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar or cuboidal. All glands are made up of epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement membrane.[1][2] Cell junctions are well-employed in epithelial tissues.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
1.1 Simple epithelium
1.2 Stratified epithelium
2 Cell types
3 Structure
3.1 Location
3.2 Basement membrane
3.3 Cell junctions
3.4 Development
4 Functions
4.1 Glandular tissue
4.2 Sensing the extracellular environment
5 Clinical significance
6 Etymology and pronunciation
7 Additional images
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
Classification[edit]
Summary showing different epithelial cells/tissues and their characteristics.
In general, epithelial tissues are classified by the number of their layers and by the shape and function of the cells.[1][3][4]
The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are—squamous, cuboidal and columnar.
Squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height (flat and scale-like).
Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width are approximately the same (cube shaped).
Columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped).
By layer, epithelium is classed as either simple epithelium, only one cell thick (unilayered) or stratified epithelium as stratified squamous epithelium, stratified cuboidal epithelium, and stratified columnar epithelium that are two or more cells thick (multi-layered),[5][6] and both types of layering can be made up of any of the cell shapes.[3] However, when taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights, they can be confused with stratified epithelia. This kind of epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium.[7]
Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium.[8]
Simple epithelium[edit]
Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur. The thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.[3]
In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells. The four major classes of simple epithelium are: (1) simple squamous; (2) simple cuboidal; (3) simple columnar; (4) pseudostratified.[3]
(1) simple squamous; which is found lining areas where passive diffusion of gases occur. e.g. skin, walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, as well as the linings of the alveoli of the lungs.
(2) simple cuboidal: these cells may have secretory, absorptive, or excretory functions. examples include small collecting ducts of kidney, pancreas, and salivary gland.
(3) simple columnar; cells can be secretory, absorptive, or excretory; Simple columnar epithelium can be ciliated or non-ciliated; ciliated columnar is found in the female reproductive tract and uterus. Non-ciliated epithelium can also possess microvilli.
(4) pseudostratified columnar epithelium; can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The ciliated type is also called respiratory epithelium as it is almost exclusively confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi.
Stratified epithelium[edit]
Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered. It is therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can be squamous, cuboidal or columnar.[9]
Stratified epithelia (of columnar, cuboidal or squamous type) can have the following specializations:[9]
Specialization
Description
Keratinized In this particular case, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and lose their nucleus and cytoplasm, instead contain a tough, resistant protein called keratin. This specialization makes the epithelium waterproof, so is found in the mammalian skin. The lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or "moist" stratified epithelium.[9]
Parakeratinized In this case, the most apical layers of cells are filled with keratin, but they still retain their nuclei. These nuclei are pyknotic, meaning that they are highly condensed. Parakeratinized epithelium is sometimes found in the oral mucosa and in the upper regions of the esophagus.[10]
Transitional Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can appear to be stratified cuboidal when the tissue is not stretched or stratified squamous when the organ is distended and the tissue stretches. It is sometimes called urothelium since it is almost exclusively found in the bladder, ureters and urethra.[9]
Cell types[edit]
The basic cell types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar classed by their shape.
Type
Description
Squamous Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates that can look polygonal when viewed from above.[11] Their name comes from squāma, Latin for scale – as on fish or snake skin. The cells fit closely together in tissues; providing a smooth, low-friction surface over which fluids can move easily. The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and helps to identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells tend to have horizontally flattened, nearly oval shaped nuclei because of the thin flattened form of the cell. Squamous epitheliium is found lining surfaces such as the skin, and alveoli in the lung, enabling simple passive diffusion as also found in the alveolar epithelium in the lungs. Specialized squamous epithelium also forms the lining of cavities such as in blood vessels, as endothelium and in the pericardium, as mesothelium and in other body cavities.
Cuboidal Cuboidal epithelial cells have a cube-like shape and appear square in cross-section. The cell nucleus is large, spherical and is in the centre of the cell. Cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in secretive tissue such as the exocrine glands, or in absorptive tissue such as the pancreas, the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands. The germinal epithelium that covers the female ovary, and the germinal epithelium that lines the walls of the seminferous tubules in the testes are also of the cuboidal type. Cuboidal cells provide protection and may be active in pumping material in or out of the lumen, or passive depending on their location and specialisation. Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly differentiates to form the secretory and duct portions of glands.[12] Stratified cuboidal epithelium protects areas such as the ducts of sweat glands,[13] mammary glands, and salivary glands.
Columnar Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and have a height of at least four times their width. Their nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the stomach and intestines. The cells here may possess microvilli for maximising the surface area for absorption and these microvilli may form a brush border. Other cells may be ciliated to move mucus in the function of mucociliary clearance. Other ciliated cells are found in the fallopian tubes, the uterus and central canal of the spinal cord. Some columnar cells are specialized for sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds. Hair cells in the inner ears have stereocilia which are similar to microvilli. Goblet cells are modified columnar cells and are found between the columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They secrete mucus, which acts as a lubricant. Single-layered non-ciliated columnar epithelium tends to indicate an absorptive function. Stratified columnar epithelium is rare but is found in lobar ducts in the salivary glands, the eye, pharynx and sex organs. This consists of a layer of cells resting on at least one other layer of epithelial cells which can be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.
Pseudostratified These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at different heights, giving the misleading (hence "pseudo") impression that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross section. Ciliated pseudostratified epithelial cells have cilia. Cilia are capable of energy dependent pulsatile beating in a certain direction through interaction of cytoskeletal microtubules and connecting structural proteins and enzymes. In the respiratory tract the wafting effect produced causes mucus secreted locally by the goblet cells (to lubricate and to trap pathogens and particles) to flow in that direction (typically out of the body). Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.
Structure[edit]
Cells of epithelial tissue are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. They have almost no intercellular spaces. All epithelia is usually separated from underlying tissues by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane. The lining of the mouth, lung alveoli and kidney tubules all are made of epithelial tissue. The lining of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of a specialised form of epithelium called endothelium.
Location[edit]
See also: Table of epithelia of human organs
Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumina of bodies. The outermost layer of human skin is composed of dead stratified squamous, keratinized epithelial cells.[14]
Tissues that line the inside of the mouth, the esophagus and part of the rectum are composed of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Other surfaces that separate body cavities from the outside environment are lined by simple squamous, columnar, or pseudostratified epithelial cells. Other epithelial cells line the insides of the lungs, the gastrointestinal tract, the reproductive and urinary tracts, and make up the exocrine and endocrine glands. The outer surface of the cornea is covered with fast-growing, easily regenerated epithelial cells. A specialised form of epithelium – endothelium forms the inner lining of blood vessels and the heart, and is known as vascular endothelium, and lining lymphatic vessels as lymphatic endothelium. Another type, mesothelium, forms the walls of the pericardium, pleurae, and peritoneum.[citation needed]
In arthropods, the integument, or external "skin", consists of a single layer of epithelial ectoderm from which arises the cuticle,[15] an outer covering of chitin the rigidity of which varies as per its chemical composition.
Basement membrane[edit]
Epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane, which acts as a scaffolding on which epithelium can grow and regenerate after injuries.[16] Epithelial tissue has a nerve supply, but no blood supply and must be nourished by substances diffusing from the blood vessels in the underlying tissue. The basement membrane acts as a selectively permeable membrane that determines which substances will be able to enter the epithelium.[2]
Cell junctions[edit]
Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. They consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells, between a cell and the extracellular matrix, or they build up the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control the paracellular transport.[17]
Cell junctions are the contact points between plasma membrane and tissue cells. There are mainly 5 different types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions are a pair of trans-membrane protein fused on outer plasma membrane. Adherens junctions are a plaque (protein layer on the inside plasma membrane) which attaches both cells' microfilaments. Desmosomes attach to the microfilaments of cytoskeleton made up of keratin protein. Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes on a section. They are made up of the integrin (a transmembrane protein) instead of cadherin. They attach the epithelial cell to the basement membrane. Gap junctions connect the cytoplasm of two cells and are made up of proteins called connexins (six of which come together to make a connexion).[citation needed]
Development[edit]
Epithelial tissues are derived from all of the embryological germ layers:[citation needed]
from ectoderm (e.g., the epidermis);
from endoderm (e.g., the lining of the gastrointestinal tract);
from mesoderm (e.g., the inner linings of body cavities).
However, it is important to note that pathologists do not consider endothelium and mesothelium (both derived from mesoderm) to be true epithelium. This is because such tissues present very different pathology. For that reason, pathologists label cancers in endothelium and mesothelium sarcomas, whereas true epithelial cancers are called carcinomas. Also, the filaments that support these mesoderm-derived tissues are very distinct. Outside of the field of pathology, it is, in general, accepted that the epithelium arises from all three germ layers.[citation needed]
Functions[edit]
Forms of secretion in glandular tissue
Different characteristics of glands of the body
Epithelial tissues have as their primary functions:
to protect the tissues that lie beneath from radiation, desiccation, toxins, invasion by pathogens, and physical trauma
the regulation and exchange of chemicals between the underlying tissues and a body cavity
the secretion of hormones into the blood vascular system, and/or the secretion of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are delivered by ducts[18]
to provide sensation[19]
Glandular tissue[edit]
Glandular tissue is the type of epithelium that forms the glands from the infolding of epithelium and subsequent growth in the underlying connective tissue. There are two major classifications of glands: endocrine glands and exocrine glands:
Endocrine glands secrete their product into the extracellular space where it is rapidly taken up by the blood vascular system.
Exocrine glands secrete their products into a duct that then delivers the product to the lumen of an organ or onto the free surface of the epithelium.
Sensing the extracellular environment[edit]
"Some epithelial cells are ciliated, especially in respiratory epithelium, and they commonly exist as a sheet of polarised cells forming a tube or tubule with cilia projecting into the lumen." Primary cilia on epithelial cells provide chemosensation, thermoception, and mechanosensation of the extracellular environment by playing "a sensory role mediating specific signalling cues, including soluble factors in the external cell environment, a secretory role in which a soluble protein is released to have an effect downstream of the fluid flow, and mediation of fluid flow if the cilia are motile."[20]
Clinical significance[edit]
Epithelial cell infected with Chlamydia pneumoniae
The slide shows at (1) an epithelial cell infected by Chlamydia pneumonia; their inclusion bodies shown at (3); an uninfected cell shown at (2) and (4) showing the difference between an infected cell nucleus and an uninfected cell nucleus.
Epithelium grown in culture can be identified by examining its morphological characteristics. Epithelial cells tend to cluster together, and have a "characteristic tight pavementlike appearance". But this is not always the case, such as when the cells are derived from a tumor. In these cases, it is often necessary to use certain biochemical markers to make a positive identification. The intermediate filament proteins in the cytokeratin group are almost exclusively found in epithelial cells, and so are often used for this purpose.[21]
Carcinomas develop in epithelial tissues.(Sarcomas develop in connective tissue).[22]
When epithelial cells or tissues are damaged from cystic fibrosis, it also damages the sweat glands, causing a frosty coating of the skin.
Etymology and pronunciation[edit]
The word epithelium (/ˌɛpɪˈθiːliəm/) uses the Greek roots ἐπί (epi), "on" or "upon", and θηλή (thēlē), "nipple". Epithelium is so called because the name was originally used to describe the translucent covering of small "nipples" of tissue on the lip.[23] The word has both mass and count senses; the plural form is epithelia.
Additional images[edit]
Squamous Epithelium 100x
Human cheek cells (Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium) 500x
Histology of female urethra showing transitional epithelium
Histology of sweat gland showing stratified cuboidal epithelium
See also[edit]
Blastula
Dark cell
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition
Epithelial polarity
Gastrulation
Glycocalyx
Neuroepithelial cell
Skin cancer
Sulcular epithelium
Triploblasty
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Eurell, Jo Ann C.; et al., eds. (2006). Dellmann's textbook of veterinary histology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7817-4148-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Freshney, 2002: p. 3
^ Jump up to: a b c d Marieb, Elaine M. (1995). Human Anatomy and Physiology (3rd ed.). Benjamin/Cummings. pp. 103–104. ISBN 0-8053-4281-8.
Jump up ^ Platzer, Werner (2008). Color atlas of human anatomy: Locomotor system. Thieme. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-13-533306-9.
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 97
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 94
Jump up ^ Melfi, Rudy C.; Alley, Keith E., eds. (2000). Permar's oral embryology and microscopic anatomy: a textbook for students in dental hygiene. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-683-30644-6.
Jump up ^ Pratt, Rebecca. "Epithelial Cells". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Archived from the original on 2012-12-19. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jenkins, Gail W.; Tortora, Gerard J. (2013). Anatomy and Physiology from Science to Life (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 110–115. ISBN 978-1-118-12920-3.
Jump up ^ Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina, Wojciech (2015). Histology: A Text and Atlas: With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology (7th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 528, 604. ISBN 978-1451187427.
Jump up ^ Kühnel, Wolfgang (2003). Color atlas of cytology, histology, and microscopic anatomy. Thieme. p. 102. ISBN 978-3-13-562404-4.
Jump up ^ Pratt, Rebecca. "Simple Cuboidal Epithelium". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
Jump up ^ Eroschenko, Victor P. (2008). "Integumentary System". DiFiore's Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 212–234. ISBN 9780781770576.
Jump up ^ Marieb, Elaine (2011). Anatomy & Physiology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings. p. 133. ISBN 0321616405.
Jump up ^ Kristensen, Niels P.; Georges, Chauvin (1 December 2003). "Integument". Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies: Morphology, Physiology, and Development : Teilband. Walter de Gruyter. p. 484. ISBN 978-3-11-016210-3. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
Jump up ^ McConnell, Thomas H. (2006). The nature of disease: pathology for the health professions. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7817-5317-3.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1067. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
Jump up ^ van Lommel, 2002: p. 91
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4 ed.). New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1267. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
Jump up ^ Adams, M.; Smith, U.M.; Logan, C.V.; Johnson, C.A. (2008). "Recent advances in the molecular pathology, cell biology and genetics of ciliopathies". Journal of Medical Genetics. 45 (5): 257–267. PMID 18178628. doi:10.1136/jmg.2007.054999.
Jump up ^ Freshney, 2002: p. 9
Jump up ^ "Types of cancer". Cancer Research UK. 28 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Blerkom, edited by Jonathan Van; Gregory, Linda (2004). Essential IVF : basic research and clinical applications. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4020-7551-3. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Bibliography[edit]
Freshney, R.I. (2002). "Introduction". In Freshney, R. Ian; Freshney, Mary. Culture of epithelial cells. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-40121-6.
van Lommel, Alfons T.L. (2002). From cells to organs: a histology textbook and atlas. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-7257-4.
Further reading[edit]
Green H (September 2008). "The birth of therapy with cultured cells". BioEssays. 30 (9): 897–903. PMID 18693268. doi:10.1002/bies.20797.
Kefalides, Nicholas A.; Borel, Jacques P., eds. (2005). Basement membranes: cell and molecular biology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-153356-4.
Nagpal R; Patel A; Gibson MC (March 2008). "Epithelial topology". BioEssays. 30 (3): 260–6. PMID 18293365. doi:10.1002/bies.20722.
Yamaguchi Y; Brenner M; Hearing VJ (September 2007). "The regulation of skin pigmentation" (Review). J. Biol. Chem. 282 (38): 27557–61. PMID 17635904. doi:10.1074/jbc.R700026200.
External links[edit]
Look up epithelium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Epithelium Photomicrographs
1Histology at KUMC epithel-epith02 Simple squamous epithelium of the glomerulus (kidney) 2 Diagrams of simple squamous epithelium 3Histology at KUMC epithel-epith12 Stratified squamous epithelium of the vagina 4Histology at KUMC epithel-epith14 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thin skin) 5Histology at KUMC epithel-epith15 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thick skin) 6 Stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus
Microanatomy Web Atlas
[show]
v
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Epithelial tissue
Cells
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Types
Simple squamous epithelium
Endothelium
Mesothelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Respiratory epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium
Transitional epithelium
Urothelium
Glands
Types
Mechanism
Merocrine
Eccrine
Apocrine
Holocrine
Sebaceous
Meibomian
Shape
Tubular gland
Alveolar gland
Secretion
Serous glands
Mucous glands
Components
Myoepithelial cell
Serous demilune
Ducts:
Interlobar
Interlobular
Intralobular
Striated
Intercalated
Acinus/Lobe
[show]
v
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Biological tissue
Animals
Epithelium
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
Plants
Dermal
Vascular
Ground
[show]
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Histology: Epithelial proteins (TH H1.00.01.1)
Lateral/cell-cell
Cell adhesion molecules: Adherens junction
Cadherin
Desmosome
Desmoglein
Ion channels: Gap junction/Connexon
Connexin
Cytoskeleton: Desmosome
Desmoplakin
Plakoglobin
Tonofibril
other membrane proteins: Tight junction
Claudin
Occludin
MARVELD2
Basal/cell-matrix
Basal lamina
Hemidesmosome/Tonofibril
Focal adhesion
Costamere
Apical
Cilia/Kinocilium
Microvilli/Stereocilia (STRC)
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Part of speech
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Dessa album, see Parts of Speech (album).
In traditional grammar, a part of speech (abbreviated form: PoS or POS) is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items) which have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar behavior in terms of syntax—they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences—and sometimes in terms of morphology, in that they undergo inflection for similar properties. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection, and sometimes numeral, article or determiner.
Essentially all these word classes exist within all Indo-European languages,[1] even though articles might sometimes be considered as a part of a noun. Conversely, Hungarian completely lacks prepositions and Finnish only has very few of them, in addition to which it also has some postpositions. Hungarian is an agglutinative language whereas Finnish is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages, but both belong to the Uralic language family.
A part of speech—particularly in more modern classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than the traditional scheme does—may also be called a word class, lexical class, or lexical category, although the term lexical category refers in some contexts to a particular type of syntactic category, and may thus exclude parts of speech that are considered to be functional, such as pronouns. The term form class is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions.[2] Word classes may be classified as open or closed: open classes (like nouns, verbs and adjectives) acquire new members constantly, while closed classes (such as pronouns and conjunctions) acquire new members infrequently, if at all.
Almost all languages have the word classes noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.[3] For example, Japanese has as many as three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese have a class of nominal classifiers; many languages lack a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, or between adjectives and verbs (see stative verb). This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties means that analysis needs to be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 India
1.2 Western tradition
2 Functional classification
3 Open and closed classes
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics.[4]
India[edit]
In the Nirukta, written in the 5th or 6th century BC, the Sanskrit grammarian Yāska defined four main categories of words:[5]
नाम nāma – noun (including adjective)
आख्यात ākhyāta – verb
उपसर्ग upasarga – pre-verb or prefix
निपात nipāta – particle, invariant word (perhaps preposition)
These four were grouped into two larger classes: inflectable (nouns and verbs) and uninflectable (pre-verbs and particles).
The ancient work on the grammar of the Tamil language, Tolkāppiyam, argued to have been written around 2,500 years ago, classifies Tamil words as peyar (பெயர்; noun), vinai (வினை; verb), idai (part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns), and uri (word that further qualifies a noun or verb).[6]
Western tradition[edit]
A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the Greek scholar Plato wrote in his Cratylus dialog that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [rhêma] and nouns [ónoma]".[7] Aristotle added another class, "conjunction" [sýndesmos], which included not only the words known today as conjunction, but also other parts (the interpretations differ, in one interpretation it is pronouns, prepositions, and the article[8]).
By the end of the 2nd century BC grammarians had expanded this classification scheme into eight categories, seen in the Art of Grammar, attributed to Dionysius Thrax:[9]
Noun (ónoma): a part of speech inflected for case, signifying a concrete or abstract entity
Verb (rhêma): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
Participle (metokhḗ): a part of speech sharing features of the verb and the noun
Article (árthron): a declinable part of speech, taken to include the definite article, but also the basic relative pronoun
Pronoun (antōnymíā): a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person
Preposition (próthesis): a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
Adverb (epírrhēma): a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb, adjective, clause, sentence, or other adverb
Conjunction (sýndesmos): a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation
It can be seen that these parts of speech are defined by morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria.
The Latin grammarian Priscian (fl. 500 AD) modified the above eightfold system, excluding "article" (since the Latin language, unlike Greek, does not have articles), but adding "interjection".[10][11]
The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were nomen, verbum, participium, pronomen, praepositio, adverbium, conjunctio and interjectio. The category nomen included substantives (nomen substantivum, corresponding to what are today called nouns in English), adjectives (nomen adjectivum) and numerals (nomen numerale). This is reflected in the older English terminology noun substantive, noun adjective and noun numeral. Later[12] the adjective became a separate class, as often did the numerals, and the English word noun came to be applied to substantives only.
Works of English grammar generally follow the pattern of the European tradition as described above, except that participles are now usually regarded as forms of verbs rather than as a separate part of speech, and numerals are often conflated with other parts of speech: nouns (cardinal numerals, e.g., "one", and collective numerals, e.g., "dozen"), adjectives (ordinal numerals, e.g., "first", and multiplier numerals, e.g., "single") and adverbs (multiplicative numerals, e.g., "once", and distributive numerals, e.g., "singly"). Eight or nine parts of speech are commonly listed:
noun
verb
adjective
adverb
pronoun
preposition
conjunction
interjection
article or (more recently) determiner
Some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these. For discussion see the sections below.
The classification below, or slight expansions of it, is still followed in most dictionaries:
Noun (names)
a word or lexical item denoting any abstract (abstract noun: e.g. home) or concrete entity (concrete noun: e.g. house); a person (police officer, Michael), place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television), idea (happiness), or quality (bravery). Nouns can also be classified as count nouns or non-count nouns; some can belong to either category. The most common part of speech; they are called naming words.
Pronoun (replace or again placed)
a substitute for a noun or noun phrase (them, he). Pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer since they replace nouns.
Adjective (describes, limits)
a modifier of a noun or pronoun (big, brave). Adjectives make the meaning of another word (noun) more precise.
Verb (states action or being)
a word denoting an action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be). Without a verb a group of words cannot be a clause or sentence.
Adverb (describes, limits)
a modifier of an adjective, verb, or another adverb (very, quite). Adverbs make language more precise.
Preposition (relates)
a word that relates words to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context (in, of). Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another word in the sentence.
Conjunction (connects)
a syntactic connector; links words, phrases, or clauses (and, but). Conjunctions connect words or group of words
Interjection (expresses feelings and emotions)
an emotional greeting or exclamation (Huzzah, Alas). Interjections express strong feelings and emotions.
Article (describes, limits)
a grammatical marker of definiteness (the) or indefiniteness (a, an). The article is not always listed among the parts of speech. It is considered by some grammarians to be a type of adjective[13] or sometimes the term 'determiner' (a broader class) is used.
English words are not generally marked as belonging to one part of speech or another; this contrasts with many other European languages, which use inflection more extensively, meaning that a given word form can often be identified as belonging to a particular part of speech and having certain additional grammatical properties. In English, most words are uninflected, while the inflected endings that exist are mostly ambiguous: -ed may mark a verbal past tense, a participle or a fully adjectival form; -s may mark a plural noun or a present-tense verb form; -ing may mark a participle, gerund, or pure adjective or noun. Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, some adverbs (e.g. tomorrow, fast, very) do not have that ending, while some words with that ending (e.g. friendly, ugly) are not adverbs.
Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the hows and not just the whys." The process whereby a word comes to be used as a different part of speech is called conversion or zero derivation.
Functional classification[edit]
Linguists recognize that the above list of eight or nine word classes is drastically simplified.[14] For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,[15] or not applicable to certain languages.[16][17] Modern linguists have proposed many different schemes whereby the words of English or other languages are placed into more specific categories and subcategories based on a more precise understanding of their grammatical functions.
Common lexical categories defined by function may include the following (not all of them will necessarily be applicable in a given language):
Categories that will usually be open classes:
adjectives
adverbs
nouns
verbs (except auxiliary verbs)
interjections
Categories that will usually be closed classes:
auxiliary verbs
clitics
coverbs
conjunctions
determiners (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
particles
measure words or classifiers
adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
preverbs
pronouns
contractions
cardinal numbers
Within a given category, subgroups of words may be identified based on more precise grammatical properties. For example, verbs may be specified according to the number and type of objects or other complements which they take. This is called subcategorization.
Many modern descriptions of grammar include not only lexical categories or word classes, but also phrasal categories, used to classify phrases, in the sense of groups of words that form units having specific grammatical functions. Phrasal categories may include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP) and so on. Lexical and phrasal categories together are called syntactic categories.
A diagram showing some of the posited English syntactic categories
Open and closed classes[edit]
See also: Function word and Content word
Word classes may be either open or closed. An open class is one that commonly accepts the addition of new words, while a closed class is one to which new items are very rarely added. Open classes normally contain large numbers of words, while closed classes are much smaller. Typical open classes found in English and many other languages are nouns, verbs (excluding auxiliary verbs, if these are regarded as a separate class), adjectives, adverbs and interjections. Ideophones are often an open class, though less familiar to English speakers,[18][19][a] and are often open to nonce words. Typical closed classes are prepositions (or postpositions), determiners, conjunctions, and pronouns.[21]
The open–closed distinction is related to the distinction between lexical and functional categories, and to that between content words and function words, and some authors consider these identical, but the connection is not strict. Open classes are generally lexical categories in the stricter sense, containing words with greater semantic content,[22] while closed classes are normally functional categories, consisting of words that perform essentially grammatical functions. This is not universal: in many languages verbs and adjectives[23][24][25] are closed classes, usually consisting of few members, and in Japanese the formation of new pronouns from existing nouns is relatively common, though to what extent these form a distinct word class is debated.
Words are added to open classes through such processes as compounding, derivation, coining, and borrowing. When a new word is added through some such process, it can subsequently be used grammatically in sentences in the same ways as other words in its class.[26] A closed class may obtain new items through these same processes, but such changes are much rarer and take much more time. A closed class is normally seen as part of the core language and is not expected to change. In English, for example, new nouns, verbs, etc. are being added to the language constantly (including by the common process of verbing and other types of conversion, where an existing word comes to be used in a different part of speech). However, it is very unusual for a new pronoun, for example, to become accepted in the language, even in cases where there may be felt to be a need for one, as in the case of gender-neutral pronouns.
The open or closed status of word classes varies between languages, even assuming that corresponding word classes exist. Most conspicuously, in many languages verbs and adjectives form closed classes of content words. An extreme example is found in Jingulu, which has only three verbs, while even the modern Indo-European Persian has no more than a few hundred simple verbs, a great deal of which are archaic. (Some twenty Persian verbs are used as light verbs to form compounds; this lack of lexical verbs is shared with other Iranian languages.) Japanese is similar, having few lexical verbs.[27] Basque verbs are also a closed class, with the vast majority of verbal senses instead expressed periphrastically.
In Japanese, verbs and adjectives are closed classes,[28] though these are quite large, with about 700 adjectives,[29][30] and verbs have opened slightly in recent years. Japanese adjectives are closely related to verbs (they can predicate a sentence, for instance). New verbal meanings are nearly always expressed periphrastically by appending suru (する, to do) to a noun, as in undō suru (運動する, to (do) exercise), and new adjectival meanings are nearly always expressed by adjectival nouns, using the suffix -na (〜な) when an adjectival noun modifies a noun phrase, as in hen-na ojisan (変なおじさん, strange man). The closedness of verbs has weakened in recent years, and in a few cases new verbs are created by appending -ru (〜る) to a noun or using it to replace the end of a word. This is mostly in casual speech for borrowed words, with the most well-established example being sabo-ru (サボる, cut class; play hooky), from sabotāju (サボタージュ, sabotage).[31] This recent innovation aside, the huge contribution of Sino-Japanese vocabulary was almost entirely borrowed as nouns (often verbal nouns or adjectival nouns). Other languages where adjectives are closed class include Swahili,[25] Bemba, and Luganda.
By contrast, Japanese pronouns are open class—if they can even be considered a class—and nouns become used as pronouns with some frequency; a recent example jibun (自分, self), now used by some young men as a first-person pronoun. The status of Japanese pronouns as a distinct class is disputed, however, with some considering it only a use of nouns, not a distinct class. The case is similar in languages of Southeast Asia, including Thai and Lao, in which, like Japanese, pronouns and terms of address vary significantly based on relative social standing and respect.[32]
Some word classes are universally closed, however, including demonstratives and interrogative words.[32]
See also[edit]
Part-of-speech tagging
Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ideophones do not always form a single grammatical word class, and their classification varies between languages, sometimes being split across other word classes. Rather, they are a phonosemantic word class, based on derivation, but may be considered part of the category of "expressives",[18] which thus often form an open class due to the productivity of ideophones. Further, "[i]n the vast majority of cases, however, ideophones perform an adverbial function and are closely linked with verbs."[20]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Part 3.1 first line of [1]
Jump up ^ John Lyons, Semantics, CUP 1977, p. 424.
^ Jump up to: a b Kroeger, Paul (2005). Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-01653-7.
Jump up ^ Robins RH (1989). General Linguistics (4th ed.). London: Longman.
Jump up ^ Bimal Krishna Matilal (1990). The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language (Chapter 3).
Jump up ^ Ilakkuvanar S (1994). Tholkappiyam in English with critical studies (2nd ed.). Educational Publisher.
Jump up ^ Cratylus 431b
Jump up ^ The Rhetoric, Poetic and Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, translated by Thomas Taylor, London 1811, p. 179.
Jump up ^ Dionysius Thrax. τέχνη γραμματική (Art of Grammar), ια´ περὶ λέξεως (11. On the word):
λέξις ἐστὶ μέρος ἐλάχιστον τοῦ κατὰ σύνταξιν λόγου.
λόγος δέ ἐστι πεζῆς λέξεως σύνθεσις διάνοιαν αὐτοτελῆ δηλοῦσα.
τοῦ δὲ λόγου μέρη ἐστὶν ὀκτώ· ὄνομα, ῥῆμα,
μετοχή, ἄρθρον, ἀντωνυμία, πρόθεσις, ἐπίρρημα, σύνδεσμος. ἡ γὰρ προσηγορία ὡς εἶδος τῶι ὀνόματι ὑποβέβληται.
A word is the smallest part of organized speech.
Speech is the putting together of an ordinary word to express a complete thought.
The class of word consists of eight categories: noun, verb,
participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction. A common noun in form is classified as a noun.
Jump up ^ [penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/1B*.html This translation of Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria reads: "Our own language (Note: i.e. Latin) dispenses with the articles (Note: Latin doesn't have articles), which are therefore distributed among the other parts of speech. But interjections must be added to those already mentioned."]
Jump up ^ "Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria I".
Jump up ^ See for example Beauzée, Nicolas, Grammaire générale, ou exposition raisonnée des éléments nécessaires du langage (Paris, 1767), and earlier Jakob Redinger, Comeniana Grammatica Primae Classi Franckenthalensis Latinae Scholae destinata ... (1659, in German and Latin).
Jump up ^ https://The Archived 2016-01-12 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar by Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker & Edmund Weine. OUP Oxford 2014. Page 35.
Jump up ^ Zwicky, Arnold (30 March 2006). "What part of speech is "the"". Language Log. Retrieved 26 December 2009. ...the school tradition about parts of speech is so desperately impoverished
Jump up ^ Hopper, P; Thompson, S (1985). "The Iconicity of the Universal Categories 'Noun' and 'Verbs'". In John Haiman. Typological Studies in Language: Iconicity and Syntax. 6. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 151–183.
Jump up ^ Launey, Michel (1994). Une grammaire omniprédicative: essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique. Paris: CNRS Editions.
Jump up ^ Broschart, Jürgen (1997). "Why Tongan does it differently: Categorial Distinctions in a Language without Nouns and Verbs". Linguistic Typology. 1 (2): 123–165. doi:10.1515/lity.1997.1.2.123.
^ Jump up to: a b The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, p. 99
Jump up ^ G. Tucker Childs, "African ideophones", in Sound Symbolism, p. 179
Jump up ^ G. Tucker Childs, "African ideophones", in Sound Symbolism, p. 181
Jump up ^ "Sample Entry: Function Words / Encyclopedia of Linguistics".
Jump up ^ Carnie, Andrew (2012). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-0-470-65531-3.
Jump up ^ Dixon, Robert M. W. (1977). "Where Have all the Adjectives Gone?". Studies in Language. 1: 19–80. doi:10.1075/sl.1.1.04dix.
Jump up ^ Adjective classes: a cross-linguistic typology, Robert M. W. Dixon, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, OUP Oxford, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, p. 97
Jump up ^ Hoff, Erika (2014). Language Development. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-133-93909-2.
Jump up ^ Categorial Features: A Generative Theory of Word Class Categories, p. 54
Jump up ^ Dixon 1977, p. 48.
Jump up ^ The Typology of Adjectival Predication, Harrie Wetzer, p. 311
Jump up ^ The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, p. 96
Jump up ^ Adam (2011-07-18). "Homage to る(ru), The Magical Verbifier".
^ Jump up to: a b The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, p. 98
External links[edit]
For a list of words relating to enumerating the known parts of speech in any language, see the Parts of speech category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
For a list of words relating to English vocabulary organized by part of speech, see the English lemmas category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The parts of speech
Parts of Speech Activities at Quia
Guide to Grammar and Writing
PartofSpeech.org
English Grammar Blog
Quick online POS tagger for English and German
An App that find Parts of Speech
Martin Haspelmath. 2001. "Word Classes and Parts of Speech." In: Baltes, Paul B. & Smelser, Neil J. (eds.) International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Amsterdam: Pergamon, 16538–16545. (PDF)
Open and Closed Word Classes
[show]
v
t
e
Lexical categories and their features
Noun
Abstract / Concrete
Adjectival
Agent
Animate / Inanimate
Attributive
Common / Proper
Countable / Mass / Collective
Initial-stress-derived
Relational
Strong / Weak
Verbal / Deverbal
Verb
Forms
Finite / Non-finite
Attributive
Converb
Gerund
Gerundive
Infinitive
Participle (adjectival · adverbial)
Supine
Verbal noun
Types
Accusative
Ambitransitive
Andative/Venitive
Anticausative
Autocausative
Auxiliary
Captative
Catenative
Compound
Copular
Defective
Denominal
Deponent
Ditransitive
Dynamic
ECM
Ergative
Frequentative
Impersonal
Inchoative
Intransitive
Irregular
Lexical
Light
Modal
Monotransitive
Negative
Performative
Phrasal
Predicative
Preterite-present
Reflexive
Regular
Separable
Stative
Stretched
Strong
Transitive
Unaccusative
Unergative
Weak
Adjective
Collateral
Demonstrative
Nominalized
Possessive
Postpositive
Adverb
Genitive
Conjunctive
Flat
Locative
Interrogative
Prepositional
Pronominal
Relative
Pronoun
Demonstrative
Disjunctive
Distributive
Donkey
Dummy
Formal/Informal
Gender-neutral
Gender-specific
Inclusive/Exclusive
Indefinite
Intensive
Interrogative
Objective
Personal
Possessive
Prepositional
Reciprocal
Reflexive
Relative
Resumptive
Subjective
Weak
Preposition/postposition
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Part_of_speech&oldid=843352862"
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