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French colonization of the Americas
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Map of North America (1750) - France (blue), Britain (pink), and Spain (orange)
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, sugar, and furs.
As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada; Detroit, Green Bay, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Mobile, Biloxi, Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haïtien (founded as Cap-Français) in Haiti, Cayenne in French Guiana and São Luís (founded as Saint-Louis de Maragnan) in Brazil.
Contents
[hide]
1 North America
1.1 Background
1.2 Colonization
1.3 French Florida
1.4 Canada and Acadia
1.5 Louisiana
1.5.1 The Mississippi Bubble
1.6 Dissolution
2 West Indies
3 South America
3.1 Brazil
3.1.1 1557 Calvinist arrival
3.1.2 Portuguese intervention
3.2 Equinoctial France
3.3 History of France Équinoxiale
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
6.1 In French
North America[edit]
Background[edit]
The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.[1]
Colonization[edit]
Main article: New France
Portrait of Jacques Cartier by Théophile Hamel, arr. 1844
In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present-day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen-person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present-day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604[2] Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short-lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present-day Nova Scotia.
Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present-day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville-Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern-day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.
Governor Frontenac performing a tribal dance with Indian allies
.[3]
The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th-century historian Francis Parkman stated:
"Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him"
—  Francis Parkman.[4]
To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen" by the Ordonnance of 1627:
"The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization."[5]
Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King's Daughters". However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War).[6]
See also: Franco-Indian alliance
French Florida[edit]
Map of French Florida
In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.[7]
This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.[8]
Canada and Acadia[edit]
Political map of the Northeastern part of North America in 1664.
The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages[9] (Relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).
Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port-Royal.
In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.[10]
Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois-Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville-Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).
A new map of the north parts of America claimed by France in 1720, according to the London cartographer Herman Moll.
Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 'King's Daughters' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.[11][12]
From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.[13]
Louisiana[edit]
Louisiana before 1736
On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami-Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).[14]
In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.[15]
In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle-aux-Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle-aux-Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called 'Maurepas' (later 'Old Biloxi'), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.
From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.
The Mississippi Bubble[edit]
Main article: Mississippi Company
In Weigel's map (1719) intended to promote sales of the Mississippi Company in Germany; most of the present-day United States appears under the name "Louisiana".
In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.
Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.[16]
Dissolution[edit]
The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon are still in French hands.
In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.
West Indies[edit]
Further information: French West Indies
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island[17] in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere.[18] A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France's islands during the Seven Years' War[19] and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie-Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.
South America[edit]
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Brazil[edit]
France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510–1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present-day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.
1557 Calvinist arrival[edit]
Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte-Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.
Portuguese intervention[edit]
In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor-General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny's and Villegaignon's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.
Equinoctial France[edit]
Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical" had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights", i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
History of France Équinoxiale[edit]
France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint-Louis", in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese,[1] the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.[20]
French Guiana located in the South American continent.
French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.[21]
See also[edit]
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Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Thomas B. Costain, The white and the gold: the French regime in Canada (Doubleday, 2012) ch 1.
Jump up ^ https://umaine.edu/canam/publications/st-croix/champlain-and-the-settlement-of-acadia-1604-1607/
Jump up ^ Francis PArkman, The Pioneers of France in the New World (1865).
Jump up ^ Quoted in Cave, p. 42
Jump up ^ Acte pour l'établissement de la Compagnie des Cent Associés pour le commerce du Canada, contenant les articles accordés à la dite Compagnie par M. le Cardinal de Richelieu, le 29 avril 1627 [1]
Jump up ^ Peter N. Moogk, La Nouvelle-France: the making of French Canada : a cultural history (2000).
Jump up ^ John T. McGrath, The French in early Florida: in the eye of the hurricane (U Press of Florida, 2000).
Jump up ^ Bartolome Barrientos, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés: Founder of Florida (University of Florida Press, 1965).
Jump up ^ Des sauvages, ou, Voyage de Samuel Champlain, de Brouage, fait en la France Nouuelle, l'an mil six cens trois, A Paris : Chez Claude de Monstr'œil, tenant sa boutique en la Cour du Palais, au nom de Iesus, 1603. OCLC 71251137
Jump up ^ James MacPherson Le Moine, Quebec, Past and Present: a history of Quebec, 1608-1876 (1876). online
Jump up ^ Francis Parkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV (1877)
Jump up ^ Hubert, et al. Charbonneau, "The population of the St-Lawrence Valley, 1608–1760." in A population history of North America (2000): 99-142.
Jump up ^ R. Cole Harris, Historical Atlas of Canada: Volume I: From the Beginning to 1800 (University of Toronto Press, 2016).
Jump up ^ Bennett H Wall and John C. Rodrigue, Louisiana: A History (2014( ch 1
Jump up ^ Francis Parkman, La Salle and the discovery of the Great West (1891). online
Jump up ^ [2] Cat Island: The History of a Mississippi Gulf Coast Barrier Island, By John Cuevas
Jump up ^ "Hispaniola Article". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-313-33272-2.
Jump up ^ As the French and Indian War started two years earlier, and continued until the signing of the peace treaty, the name Seven Years' War is more properly applied to the European phase of the war.
Jump up ^ Philip Boucher, "French Proprietary Colonies In The Greater Caribbean, 1620s–1670s." in Constructing Early Modern Empires (Brill, 2007) pp. 163-188.
Jump up ^ Joshua R. Hyles (2013). Guiana and the Shadows of Empire: Colonial and Cultural Negotiations at the Edge of the World. Lexington Books.
References[edit]
Further information: Bibliography of Canadian history § Prior to 1763
Brecher, Frank W. Losing a Continent: France's North American Policy, 1753-1763 (1998)
Dechêne, Louise Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Montreal (2003)
Eccles, W. J. The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760 (1983)
Eccles, W. J. Essays on New France (1988)
Eccles, W.J. The French in North America, 1500-1783 (Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, 1998.), a standard scholarly survey
Havard, Gilles, and Cécile Vidal, "Making New France New Again: French historians rediscover their American past," Common-Place (July 2007) v 7 #4
Holbrook, Sabra (1976), The French Founders of North America and Their Heritage, New York: Atheneum, ISBN 0-689-30490-0
Katz, Ron. French America: French Architecture from Colonialization to the Birth of a Nation. Editions Didier Millet, 2004.
McDermott, John Francis. The French in the Mississippi Valley (University of Illinois Press, 1965)
McDermott, John F., ed. Frenchmen and French ways in the Mississippi Valley (1969)
Moogk, Peter N. La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada -A Cultural History (2000). 340 pp.
Trudel, Marcel. The Beginnings of New France 1524-1663 (1973)
White, Sophie. Wild Frenchmen and Frenchified Indians: Material Culture and Race in Colonial Louisiana (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013)
In French[edit]
Balvay, Arnaud. L'épée et la plume: Amérindiens et soldats des troupes de la marine en Louisiane et au Pays d'en Haut (1683-1763) (Presses Université Laval, 2006)
Balvay, Arnaud. La Révolte des Natchez (Editions du Félin, 2008)
Halford, Peter Wallace, and Pierre-Philippe Potier. Le français des Canadiens à la veille de la conquête: témoignage du père Pierre Philippe Potier, SJ. (Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa, 1994)
Moussette, Marcel & Waselkov, Gregory A.: Archéologie de l'Amérique coloniale française. Lévesque éditeur, Montréal 2014. ISBN 978-2-924186-38-1 (print); ISBN 978-2-924186-39-8 (eBook)
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values: الاستعمار الفرنسي للأمريكيتين – Arabic

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Adaptation to extrauterine life
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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At the end of pregnancy, the fetus must take the journey of childbirth to leave the reproductive mother. Upon its entry to the air-breathing world, the newborn must begin to adjust to life outside the uterus.
Contents
[hide]
1 Breathing and circulation
2 Energy metabolism
3 Temperature regulation
4 See also
5 References
Breathing and circulation[edit]
Perfusing its body by breathing independently instead of utilizing placental oxygen delivered via the umbilical cord is the first challenge of a newborn. At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with lung liquid, which is distinct from amniotic fluid.[1] When the newborn is expelled from the birth canal, its central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment.[2] This triggers it to take the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery.[2] With the first breaths, there is a fall in pulmonary vascular resistance, and an increase in the surface area available for gas exchange. Over the next 30 seconds the pulmonary blood flow increases and is oxygenated as it flows through the alveoli of the lungs. Oxygenated blood now reaches the left atrium and ventricle, and through the descending aorta reaches the umbilical arteries. Oxygenated blood now stimulates constriction of the umbilical arteries resulting in a reduction in placental blood flow. As the pulmonary circulation increases there is an equivalent reduction in the placental blood flow which normally ceases completely after about three minutes. These two changes result in a rapid redirection of blood flow into the pulmonary vascular bed, from approximately 4% to 100% of cardiac output. The increase in pulmonary venous return results in left atrial pressure being slightly higher than right atrial pressure, which closes the foramen ovale. The flow pattern changes results in a drop in blood flow across the ductus arteriosus and the higher blood oxygen content of blood within the aorta stimulates the constriction and ultimately the closure of this fetal circulatory shunt.
All of these cardiovascular system changes result in the adaptation from fetal circulation patterns to an adult circulation pattern. During this transition, some types of congenital heart disease that were not symptomatic in utero during fetal circulation will present with cyanosis or respiratory signs.
Changing the composition of hemoglobin before and after birth. Also identifies the types of cells and organs in which the gene expression (data on Wood W.G., (1976). Br. Med. Bull. 32, 282.)
It is common obstetric practice to intervene in these changes by applying a clamp to the umbilical cord, often within 20 seconds of birth, before transition has taken place. However delayed clamping (>1min) may have benefits in terms of iron status.[3]
Following birth, the expression and re-uptake of surfactant, which begins to be produced by the fetus at 20 weeks gestation, is accelerated. Expression of surfactant into the alveoli is necessary to prevent alveolar closure (atelectasis). At this point, rhythmic breathing movements also commence. If there are any problems with breathing, management can include stimulation, bag and mask ventilation, intubation and ventilation. Cardiorespiratory monitoring is essential to keeping track of potential problems. Pharmacological therapy such as caffeine can also be given to treat apnea in premature newborns. A positive airway pressure should be maintained, and neonatal sepsis must be ruled out.
Potential neonatal respiratory problems include apnea, transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTNB), respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS), airway obstruction, and pneumonia.
Energy metabolism[edit]
Energy metabolism in the fetus must be converted from a continuous placental supply of glucose to intermittent feeding. While the fetus is dependent on maternal glucose as the main source of energy, it can use lactate, free-fatty acids, and ketone bodies under some conditions. Plasma glucose is maintained by glycogenolysis.
Glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscle begins in the late second trimester of pregnancy, and storage is completed in the third trimester. Glycogen stores are maximal at term, but even then, the fetus only has enough glycogen available to meet energy needs for 8–10 hours, which can be depleted even more quickly if demand is high. Newborns will then rely on gluconeogenesis for energy, which requires integration, and is normal at 2–4 days of life.
Fat stores are the largest storage source of energy. At 27 weeks gestation, only 1% of a fetus' body weight is fat. At 40 weeks, that number increases to 16%. Inadequate available glucose substrate can lead to hypoglycemia, fetal growth restriction, preterm delivery, or other problems. Similarly, excess substrate can lead to problems, such as infant of a diabetic mother (IDM), hypothermia or neonatal sepsis.
Anticipating potential problems is the key to managing most neonatal problems of energy metabolism. For example, early feeding in the delivery room or as soon as possible may prevent hypoglycemia. If the blood glucose is still low, then an intravenous (IV) bolus of glucose may be delivered, with continuous infusion if necessary. Rarely, steroids or glucagon may have to be employed.
Temperature regulation[edit]
Newborns come from a warm environment to the cold and fluctuating temperatures of this world. They are naked, wet, and have a large surface-area-to-mass ratio, with variable amounts of insulation, limited metabolic reserves, and a decreased ability to shiver. Physiologic mechanisms for preserving core temperature include vasoconstriction (decrease blood flow to the skin), maintaining the fetal position (decrease the surface area exposed to the environment), jittery large muscle activity (generate muscular heat), and "non-shivering thermogenesis". The latter occurs in "brown fat" which is specialized adipose tissue with a high concentration of mitochondria designed to rapidly oxidize fatty acids in order to generate metabolic heat. The newborn capacity to maintain these mechanisms is limited, especially in premature infants. As such, it is not surprising that some newborns may have problems regulating their temperature. As early as the 1880s, infant incubators were used to help newborns maintain warmth, with humidified incubators being used as early as the 1930s.
Basic techniques for keeping newborns warm include keeping them dry, wrapping them in blankets, giving them hats and clothing, or increasing the ambient temperature. More advanced techniques include incubators (at 36.5 °C), humidity, heat shields, thermal blankets, double-walled incubators, and radiant warmers while the use of skin-to-skin "kangaroo care" interventions for low-birth-weight infants have started to spread worldwide after its use as a solution in developing countries.[4]
See also[edit]
Shock of birth
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gardner, Sandra L.; Hines, Mary Enzman; Nyp, Michael (2016), "Chapter 23: Respiratory Diseases", in Gardner, Sandra Lee; Carter, Brian S.; Enzman-Hines, Mary; Hernandez, Jacinto A., Merenstein & Gardner's Handbook of Neonatal Intensive Care (8th ed.), Elsevier, p. 567, ISBN 978-0-323-32083-2, The fetal lung is filled with a volume of liquid (20 to 30 ml/kg) equal to the functional residual capacity. This fluid is not amniotic fluid but, rather, a liquid that has been produced in the lung and discharged through the larynx and mouth into the amniotic fluid. Lung fluid is continuously produced at a rate of approximately 2 to 4 ml/kg/hr.
^ Jump up to: a b * "About.com > Changes in the newborn at birth". Archived from the original on 2009-06-17. Retrieved 2016-01-25. Review Date: 27 November 2007. Reviewed By: Deirdre OReilly, MD
Jump up ^ Anderson, O (15 November 2011). "Effect of delayed versus early umbilical cord clamping on neonatal outcomes and iron status at 4 months: a randomised controlled trial". BMJ. 343: d7157. doi:10.1136/bmj.d7157.
Jump up ^ "Kangaroo Mother Care". Transfusion Medicine. 18: 77–82. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3148.2007.00812.x. Retrieved 2016-06-15.
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When Am I Going to Make a Living
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"When Am I Going to Make a Living"
Single by Sade
from the album Diamond Life
B-side
"Why Can't We Live Together"
"Should I Love You"
Released
14 May 1984 (UK)
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
1983–1984; The Power Plant
(London)
Genre
Soul
Length
3:27
Label
Epic
Portrait
Songwriter(s)
Sade Adu
Stuart Matthewman
Producer(s)
Robin Millar
Sade singles chronology
"Your Love Is King"
(1984) "When Am I Going to Make a Living"
(1984) "Smooth Operator"
(1984)
"Your Love Is King"
(1984) "When Am I Going to Make a Living"
(1984) "Smooth Operator"
(1984)
"When Am I Going to Make a Living" is a song by English band Sade from their debut studio album Diamond Life (1984). It was released in 1984 as a single, by Epic Records.
Contents
[hide]
1 Track listings and formats
2 Charts
3 References
4 External links
Track listings and formats[edit]
UK 7-inch single
Side A:
"When Am I Going to Make a Living"
Side B:
"Should I Love You"
UK 12-inch maxi single
Side A:
"When Am I Going to Make a Living"
Side B:
"Why Can't We Live Together"
"Should I Love You"
Charts[edit]
Chart (1984)
Peak
position
Dutch Singles Chart[1] 12
Irish Singles Chart[2] 28
UK Singles Chart[3] 36
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "dutchcharts.nl > Sade in Dutch Charts" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 2017-09-02.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – All there is to know > Search results for Sade (from irishcharts.ie)". Imgur.com (original source published by Fireball Media). Retrieved 2017-09-02.
Jump up ^ "Official Charts > Sade". The Official UK Charts Company. Retrieved 2017-09-02.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
Sade
Sade Adu
Paul Denman
Andrew Hale
Stuart Matthewman
Discography
Awards and nominations
Studio albums
Diamond Life
Promise
Stronger Than Pride
Love Deluxe
Lovers Rock
Soldier of Love
Live albums
Lovers Live
Bring Me Home: Live 2011
Compilation albums
The Best of Sade
The Ultimate Collection
Singles
"Your Love Is King"
"When Am I Going to Make a Living"
"Smooth Operator"
"Hang On to Your Love"
"The Sweetest Taboo"
"Is It a Crime"
"Never as Good as the First Time"
"Love Is Stronger Than Pride"
"Paradise"
"Nothing Can Come Between Us"
"Turn My Back on You"
"Haunt Me" (UK only)
"No Ordinary Love"
"Feel No Pain"
"Kiss of Life"
"Cherish the Day"
"By Your Side"
"King of Sorrow"
"Somebody Already Broke My Heart" (Live)
"Soldier of Love"
"Babyfather"
"The Moon and the Sky"
"Still in Love with You"
Video releases
Life Promise Pride Love
Live
Lovers Live
Live in Munich 1984
Bring Me Home: Live 2011
Concert tours
Diamond Life Tour
Promise Tour
Stronger Than Pride Tour
Love Deluxe World Tour
Lovers Rock Tour
Sade Live
Related articles
Sweetback
Lee Barrett
Paul Anthony Cook
Dave Early
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=When_Am_I_Going_to_Make_a_Living&oldid=798474629"
Categories:
1984 singles
Sade (band) songs
Songs written by Sade Adu
1984 songs
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This page was last edited on 2 September 2017, at 05:33.
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Doki Doki Literature Club!
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Doki Doki Literature Club!
The cover art of Doki Doki Literature Club!, featuring the four main characters.
Developer(s)
Team Salvato
Designer(s)
Dan Salvato
Programmer(s)
Dan Salvato
Artist(s)
Satchely, Velinquent
Writer(s)
Dan Salvato
Composer(s)
Dan Salvato
Engine
Ren'Py
Platform(s)
Microsoft Windows
macOS
Linux
Release
WW: September 22, 2017
Genre(s)
Visual novel
Mode(s)
Single-player
Doki Doki Literature Club! is a visual novel developed by Team Salvato. It was released on September 22, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux.[1] The story follows a male high school student who joins the school's Literature Club and interacts with its four female members. The game features a mostly linear story, with some alternate scenes and endings depending on the choices the player makes. While it appears at first glance to be a lighthearted dating simulator, it is in fact a psychological horror game that involves heavy use of breaking the fourth wall.[2][3]
The game was developed in an estimated two-year period by a team led by Dan Salvato, known previously for his modding work for Super Smash Bros. Melee. According to Salvato, the inspiration for the game came from his mixed feelings toward anime, and a fascination for surreal and unsettling experiences.[4] Upon its release, Doki Doki Literature Club! received critical praise for its metafictional and horror elements, with PC Gamer calling it "one of the most surprising games of the year."[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Plot
2.1 Possible endings
3 Development and release
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Gameplay
The poem writing mini-game in Doki Doki Literature Club!
Doki Doki Literature Club! is a visual novel, as such, the majority of the gameplay consists of the player reading the game's story with little impact on what direction the plot takes. At certain points in the game the player is prompted to make decisions which may affect how the story progresses. The game also features a poetry writing mechanic as part of the Literature Club.[2] The player is given a list of various words to select from that will make up their poem. Each girl in the Literature Club has different word preferences, and will react when the player picks a word that they like. Additional scenes can be unlocked for each girl if the player writes poems targeted at that girl's tastes, and chooses the correct dialogue options. Which scenes the player has viewed during their playthrough will determine what ending the story has. At one point in the game, the player is forced to access the game's files and delete a specific file to progress further.
Plot
The protagonist is invited by his childhood friend, Sayori, to join their high school's literature club. The protagonist then meets the other members of the club: Natsuki, Yuri, and the club president Monika.[6] The protagonist starts to participate in the club's activities such as writing and sharing poetry, and grows close to the four girls.
Whilst preparing for an upcoming school festival, Sayori reveals that she suffers from depression and confesses her love for the protagonist. As the day of the festival approaches, Sayori's usually bittersweet poem is replaced with a dark and morbid note repeatedly telling someone to get out of her head. When Sayori does not answer his text messages, the protagonist leaves the club meeting and rushes to Sayori's home, where he discovers that she has hanged herself. The game begins to glitch, and as the protagonist wonders if they could have saved Sayori, the game abruptly ends.
The player is sent back to the main menu, with all previous save files erased. The game starts as usual, but what used to be Sayori's text and name is replaced with unreadable text. The game suddenly glitches and restarts; however, Sayori is absent, and any previous references to her are either completely removed or replaced by glitches and meshes of portions of other characters' sprites. Monika instead invites the protagonist to the club. Unsettling events begin occurring: the game rewinds after the protagonist finds Yuri cutting herself, features disturbing bad endings such as Natsuki’s neck snapping, and refuses to accept dialog options that do not favor Monika. Just before the festival, Yuri presents the protagonist with a stained, illegible poem, and apparitions of a faceless Natsuki appear. Yuri later confesses her love to the protagonist, then stabs herself to death. Due to another glitch, the protagonist unwittingly spends the weekend sitting by her body. On Monday, Natsuki enters, vomits at the sight of Yuri's corpse, and flees. Monika then appears, apologizes, and deletes the "character files" for Yuri and Natsuki, causing the game to restart once again.
After being automatically taken to a new file, the protagonist is placed in a room with Monika seated across from them. Monika explains that she is aware that she is a character in a game, and that she is able to manipulate the game's files to alter the other characters' personalities or erase them altogether. She admits to making Sayori "more and more depressed" and "amplifying Yuri's obsessive personality" to make them more unlikable so the player would focus on her instead, having had an identity crisis from not being designed as a potential love interest. She confesses her love directly not to the protagonist, but to the player. Monika will sit and talk to the player indefinitely about various topics until the player manually enters the game's directory and deletes Monika's character file. Upon doing this, the game glitches once more and Monika panics as she is deleted from the game's world. Monika initially lashes out at the player, but after a pause, she confesses that she still loves the player, and expresses regret for everything she has done. Monika then restores the other girls, and removes herself from the game.
Possible endings
Choices the player can make in the playthrough can lead to three possible conclusions.
The first (and default) ending, following Monika's removal from the directory, the game starts over once again with Sayori, Yuri and Natsuki all alive, playing out similarly to the initial playthrough. Shortly after meeting everyone, Sayori tells the player that now that she is the president of the literature club, she knows everything about the game and what happened with Monika, and intends to do the same thing Monika did. Monika immediately intervenes once more via text prompt and deletes Sayori to save the player. Monika then speaks audibly to the player, and sings a song titled "Your Reality" to the player while the credits roll and Monika slowly deletes the game. After the credits, the game displays a note from Monika, stating that she has disbanded the literature club because "there is no happiness" in it.
Another possible ending may take place if Monika's character file is prematurely deleted before starting a new game, resulting with Sayori becoming the default leader of the club. Upon realizing the true nature of the game and her role in it, Sayori will panic and hijack the controls, deletes all the character files, and forcefully closes it. Opening the game again will result to a black end screen followed by an image of Sayori hanging herself, staying with the screen after 10 minutes will reveal a message — "Now everyone can be happy.".
However, an alternate ending may occur if the player has viewed all of the optional scenes in a single playthrough, which requires saving and loading at several points before witnessing Sayori's initial suicide. Sayori instead accepts the nature of her reality and tearfully expresses her gratitude to the player for trying to make all of the girls happy. She bids goodbye, hoping that the player will visit once again sometime and concluding that the girls all love the player before deleting the game herself. After the credits, which also feature "Your Reality", the player is presented with a thank-you note from the game's developer, Dan Salvato.
In all outcomes, further playthroughs require the game to be re-installed or hard reset.
Development and release
Dan Salvato spent an estimated two years working on Doki Doki Literature Club! in secret before releasing it as his first game.[4] Prior to its release, Salvato was known for creating the FrankerFaceZ extension for Twitch.tv,[4] his modding work in the Super Smash Bros scene,[7] and for his custom Super Mario Maker levels.[8][9]
Doki Doki Literature Club! was first released on September 22, 2017 on itch.io, and was later also released on Steam.[10] The game is available as freeware with an optional pay what you want model. Paying US$10 or more unlocks a bonus "Fan Pack" that includes desktop and mobile wallpapers, the game's official soundtrack, and a digital concept art booklet.[11]
Salvato cited his "love-hate relationship" with anime as inspiration for creating Doki Doki Literature Club!. Discussing the horror elements of the game, Salvato explained that he was inspired by "things that are scary because they make you uncomfortable, not because they shove scary-looking things in your face."[4]
Reception
Reception
Aggregate score
Aggregator
Score
Metacritic 78/100[12]
Review score
Publication
Score
RPGFan 90%[13]
After its release, Doki Doki Literature Club! quickly gained a cult following.[4][14]
Gita Jackson from Kotaku described Doki Doki Literature Club! as "a truly special game," adding "if you like horror games, especially ones that really get under your skin, please check out Doki Doki Literature Club."[15] GQ's Tom Philip called it "one of the scariest games I have ever played." He went on to praise the game's writing saying it contained "some of the most wickedly inventive narrative techniques I've ever seen," but commented that at times it felt like "a slog, clicking through endless amounts of inane, flirty conversation about poetry."[14]
In its first three months of release, Doki Doki Literature Club! was downloaded over one million times,[16] and exceeded two million downloads about a month later.[17]
At IGN's Best of 2017 Awards, the game won the People's Choice Award each for "Best PC Game",[18] "Best Adventure Game" (for which it was also a runner-up),[19] "Best Story",[20] and "Most Innovative".[21] EGMNow ranked the game 16th in their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017.[22] It won the "Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award" and was nominated for "Trending Game of the Year" at the 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards.[23][24]
References
Jump up ^ "Doki Doki Literature Club!". ddlc.moe. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Rose, Victoria (October 22, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club is an uncontrollably horrific visual novel". Polygon. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Josuweit, Amy (October 31, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club is a hidden horror game for the internet age". Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jackson, Gita (October 20, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club's Horror Was Born From A Love-Hate Relationship With Anime". Kotaku. Retrieved October 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wright, Steven (October 26, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club! hides a gruesome horror game under its cute surface". PC Gamer. Retrieved October 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Couture, Joel (October 13, 2017). "Get to Know Your Fellow Lovers Of Writing With Doki Doki Literature Club!". Silicon Era. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Good, Owen (September 13, 2015). "Powerful mod adds replay feature to Super Smash Bros. Melee". Polygon. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Blain, Louise (October 9, 2015). "P is for Pain is the new contender for Mario Maker's hardest level". Games radar. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eversion-Inspired Super Mario Maker Level Uses Doors In An Ingenious Way". Silliconera. September 21, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Doki Doki Literature Club! on Steam". Valve Corporation. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Doki Doki Literature Club Fan Pack on Steam". Valve Corporation. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Doki Doki Literature Club! for PC Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Fenner, Robert (December 24, 2017). "RPGFan Review - Doki Doki Literature Club". RPGFan. Retrieved February 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Philip, Tom (October 19, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club Is the Most Messed Up Horror Game You'll Play This Year". GQ. Retrieved October 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Gita (October 11, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club Scared Me Shitless". Kotaku. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Barnett, Brian (December 11, 2017). "Doki Doki Literature Club Hits 1 Million Downloads". IGN. Retrieved December 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jones, Ali (January 15, 2018). "Doki Doki Literature Club! surpasses two million downloads". PCGamesN. Retrieved January 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2017 Awards: Best PC Game". IGN. December 20, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2017 Awards: Best Adventure Game". IGN. December 20, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2017 Awards: Best Story". IGN. December 20, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2017 Awards: Most Innovative". IGN. December 20, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ EGM staff (December 28, 2017). "EGM's Best of 2017: Part Two: #20 ~ #16". EGMNow. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ McNeill, Andrew (January 31, 2018). "Here Are Your 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards Finalists!". SXSW. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ IGN Studios (March 17, 2018). "2018 SXSW Gaming Awards Winners Revealed". IGN. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
External links
Official website
"Doki Doki Literature Club!". The Visual Novel Database.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doki_Doki_Literature_Club!&oldid=841199876"
Categories:
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values: Doki Doki Literature Club! – Simple English

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values: โดกิ โดกิ ลิเทอเรเจอร์ คลับ! – Thai

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values: 心跳文學部！ – Chinese

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