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Elections in Alabama
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Elections in Alabama
Federal government[show]
Presidential elections
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1868
1872
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
Presidential primaries
Democratic
2008
2016
Republican
2008
2012
United States Senate elections
1962
1980
1986
1990
1992
1996
1998
2002
2004
2008
2010
2014
2016
2020
2022
United States House elections
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
Special elections
1st district, 2013
Senate, 2017
Government of Alabama[show]
Gubernatorial elections
1894
1896
1898
1900
1902
1906
1910
1914
1918
1922
1926
1930
1934
1938
1942
1946
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
2014
2018
State elections
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2018
Ballot measures[show]
2006
Amendment 774
Birmingham[show]
Mayoral elections
2017
Mobile[show]
Mayoral
2001
2005
2009
2013
Montgomery[show]
Mayoral elections
2015
Government
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Elections in Alabama are authorized under the Alabama State Constitution, which establishes elections for the state level officers, cabinet, and legislature, and the election of county-level officers, including members of school boards.
The office of the Alabama Secretary of State has an Elections Division that oversees the execution of elections under state law.
Contents
[hide]
1 State elections
1.1 History
1.2 As of 2012
2 Local elections
3 Federal elections
3.1 History
3.2 2017
3.3 Presidential elections
4 Summary of elections
5 Notes
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
State elections[edit]
History[edit]
With the disenfranchisement of blacks at the turn of the 20th century after the Reconstruction era, Alabama Democrats suppressed populist challenges and the state became part of the "Solid South." This constitution was not initially supported by the majority of whites, but Democrats used the call of white supremacy to gain passage.[1] In addition to wanting to affirm white supremacy, the planter and business elite were concerned about voting by lower-class and uneducated whites. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote."[2] After passage, the 1901 constitution's provisions for a grandfather clause, cumulative poll taxes, literacy tests, and increased residency requirements state, county and precinct effectively disenfranchised many poor whites as well, to enable elite control. Glenn Feldman has documented that in total, by 1941 more whites than blacks had been disenfranchised in Alabama under this constitution.[3] The Democratic Party dominated politics in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election.
Demographic changes and developments in the 1986 Democratic primary election led to the election of the first Republican governor by majority-white voters in more than a century. This was the beginning of what is now Republican political dominance in the state. One million voters cast ballots in the 1986 Democratic primary. The then-incumbent lieutenant governor, Bill Baxley, lost the Democratic nomination for governor by approximately 8,000 votes to then fellow Democratic Attorney General Charles Graddick.
The state Democratic party's five-member election contest committee invalidated the primary election result, claiming that thousands of Republicans had "illegally" voted in the Democratic primary for Graddick. As a result, they removed Graddick from the ballot. The Democratic Party placed Baxley's name on the ballot as the Democratic candidate instead of Graddick. The voters of the state revolted at what they perceived as disenfranchisement of their right to vote and elected the Republican challenger, Guy Hunt, as governor.[4] Hunt was nominated in a statewide Republican primary that had 28,000 participants compared to the 1,000,000 plus of the Democratic primary. That November Hunt became the first Republican governor elected in Alabama since Reconstruction, winning 57 percent of the vote statewide against Baxley.
Since 1986, Republicans have won six of the seven gubernatorial elections and become increasingly competitive in Alabama politics at many levels. They currently control both seats in the U.S. Senate and six out of the state's seven congressional seats. And all 9 seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama are held by Republicans.
Two Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since Reconstruction, Steve Windom and Kay Ivey, the current governor. Windom served as lieutenant governor under Democratic Gov. Don Siegelman. Before 2011, the last time that Alabama had a governor and lieutenant governor of the same party was the period between 1983 and 1987 when George Wallace was serving his fourth term as governor and Bill Baxley was serving as lieutenant governor; both were Democrats.
As of 2012[edit]
Republicans held all nine seats on the Alabama Supreme Court[5] and all ten seats on the state appellate courts. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the state court seats. In the 1994 general election, the then-incumbent Chief Justice of Alabama, Ernest C. Hornsby, refused to leave office after losing the election by precisely 262 votes to Republican Perry O. Hooper, Sr.. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing a long court battle that included a decision by the very Supreme Court of which he himself was the Chief Justice.[6] This ultimately led to a collapse of support for Democrats at the ballot box in the next three or four election cycles. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench.
Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. Democrats lost their last remaining statewide office in November 2012 with the re-election defeat of the President of the Alabama Public Service Commission, thus giving Republicans all three of its seats.[7][8][9]
Local elections[edit]
In the late 20th century, Alabama maintained its extensive system of at-large voting for most county and municipal offices, including County Commissioners, Boards of Education, Tax Assessors, Tax Collectors, etc. As a result, in majority-white jurisdictions, black minorities, even when significant in proportion and then able to register and vote, were generally unable to elect any candidates of their choice in such elections. These practices were challenged by plaintiffs under Dillard v. Crenshaw County (1986). The federal district judge found that the state's broad use of at-large elections had a racially discriminatory purpose and violated Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The state's use of a "place system", which precluded single-shot voting, was found specifically to have been adopted to "impede the ability of African-American voters to elect" candidates of their choice.[10]
Following the court ruling on the state's use of this system, the plaintiffs expanded their dilution claims in Dillard in an omnibus application to "include the at-large election systems to include other county commissions, county school boards, and municipal councils across the state."[10] The amended complaint covered nearly "200 units of local government", challenging at-large systems in local jurisdictions in which blacks were at least 10 percent of the population.[10] Most of the affected jurisdictions settled these cases by adopting single-member district systems (SMDs), which has resulted in the election of more blacks to local offices, generally in proportion to their part of the jurisdiction's population; this has resulted in more Democrats being elected to office. Limited voting schemes were adopted by 21 municipalities in negotiation with the plaintiffs, and another six jurisdictions adopted cumulative voting arrangements. As a result, total representation by black candidates has increased in local elections for municipal and county government, as well as county school boards.[10] Elections have been held since 1988 under these alternative systems.
As of the early 21st century, local elections in most rural counties, many of which are black dominated, are generally decided in the Democratic primary, and local elections in metropolitan and suburban counties, which are generally white majority, are decided in the Republican primary, although there are exceptions.[11][12]
Alabama's 67 County Sheriffs are elected in partisan elections , and Democrats until 2016 retained the majority of those posts. The current split as of April 2017 is 32 Democrats, 34 Republicans, and 1 Independent (Fayette).[13] Most Democrat sheriffs have been elected in rura counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties, which tend to be majority white.[13] Just two of 19 Alabama counties with a population of over 75,000 (Limestone and Montgomery) have a Democratic sheriff; and seventeen of 48 Alabama counties with a population of under 75,000 have Republican sheriffs (Autauga, Bibb, Blount, Cherokee, Chilton, Clarke, Cleburne, Crenshaw, Coffee, Coosa, Covington, Dale, Geneva, Jackson, Tallapoosa, Walker, and Winston).[13] The state has one female sheriff (Morgan) and ten black sheriffs (Bullock, Greene, Hale, Lowndes, Macon, Marengo, Montgomery, Perry, Sumter, and Wilcox).[13]
In addition, Alabama, considered a "ruby-red" state (frequently supporting the GOP), elected Doug Jones, the Democrat Candidate, as opposed to Roy Moore for the US Senator seat on 12 December 2017.
Federal elections[edit]
History[edit]
Presidential elections results
Year
Republican
Democratic
State winner
2016 62.08% 1,318,255 34.36% 729,547 Donald Trump
2012 60.55% 1,255,925 38.36% 795,696 Mitt Romney
2008 60.32% 1,266,546 38.80% 813,479 John McCain
2004 62.46% 1,176,394 36.84% 693,933 George W. Bush
2000 56.47% 944,409 41.59% 695,602 George W. Bush
1996 50.12% 769,044 43.16% 662,165 Bob Dole
1992 47.65% 804,283 40.88% 690,080 George Bush
1988 59.17% 815,576 39.86% 549,506 George Bush
1984 60.54% 872,849 38.28% 551,899 Ronald Reagan
1980 48.75% 654,192 47.45% 636,730 Ronald Reagan
1976 42.61% 504,070 55.73% 659,170 Jimmy Carter
1972 72.43% 728,701 25.54% 256,923 Richard Nixon
1968* 13.99% 146,923 18.72% 196,579 George Wallace (I)
1964 69.45% 479,085 30.55% 210,732 Barry Goldwater
1960 42.16% 237,981 56.39% 318,303 John F. Kennedy
*State won by George Wallace
of the American Independent Party,
at 65.86%, or 691,425 votes
From 1876 through 1956, Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by large margins. There were only two exceptions; the 1928 elections in which the Democrats won by a much smaller margin than normal due to Anti-Catholic prejudices against the Democratic Candidate Al Smith, and the 1948 election when Alabama, along with Mississippi, Louisiana, and South Carolina, voted for Strom Thurmond of the pro-segregation States Right's Democratic Party. In 1960, the Democrats won with John F. Kennedy on the ballot. However, six of the state's 11 Democratic electors were members of the unpledged elector movement, and gave their electoral votes as a protest to Harry Byrd.
In 1964, the state swung over dramatically to support Republican Barry Goldwater, who carried the state with an unheard-of 69 percent of the vote, carrying all but five counties. He was the first Republican to carry the state since 1872. Like much of the Deep South, Alabama's voters turned violently on President Lyndon Johnson in the wake of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
In the 1968 presidential election, Alabama supported native son and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace over both Richard Nixon and Hubert Humphrey. Wallace was the official Democratic candidate in Alabama, while Humphrey was the National Democratic nominee.[14] In 1976, Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter from Georgia carried the state, the region, and the nation, but Democratic control of the region slipped after that.
Alabama does not register voters by party and in several recent statewide elections Republican turnout in statewide primaries now exceeds that of the Democrats, Alabama is now reckoned as a Republican stronghold at both the federal and state level, although Democrats still retain a slim majority in many local offices (sheriffs, county commissioners, etc.). The state has voted Republican in every presidential election since 1980, and Democrats have not seriously contested the state since. Republicans have also done increasingly well in Senate and House elections; they have held a majority of the state's congressional delegation and both Senate seats since 1997. In 2012, Democrats lost the only remaining statewide office the party still held giving Republicans control of all 10 state constitutional offices. The GOP also has won all 19 statewide court seats. In 2010, Republicans won large majorities in both chambers of the Alabama Legislature ending 136 years of Democratic rule; see Dixiecrat.
In 2004, George W. Bush won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote, mostly white voters. The 11 counties that voted Democratic were Black Belt counties, where African Americans are the majority racial group.
2017[edit]
The state’s two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Democrat Doug Jones. Richard Shelby was first elected in 1992 as a Democrat and switched parties after a Republican wave the 1994 midterm elections. Doug Jones was elected in a special election in 2017 to replace U.S. Attorney General Jeff Sessions, defeating former Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice Roy Moore.
In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, six Republicans (Bradley Byrne, Mike D. Rogers, Robert Aderholt, Morris J. Brooks, Martha Roby, and Gary Palmer) and one Democrat (Terri Sewell).
Presidential elections[edit]
Vote in Alabama
National Winner
Year
Candidate
Year
Candidate
1820 James Monroe 1820 James Monroe
1824 Andrew Jackson 1824 John Quincy Adams
1828 Andrew Jackson 1828 Andrew Jackson
1832 Andrew Jackson 1832 Andrew Jackson
1836 Martin Van Buren 1836 Martin Van Buren
1840 Martin Van Buren 1840 William Henry Harrison
1844 James K. Polk 1844 James K. Polk
1848 Lewis Cass 1848 Zachary Taylor
1852 Franklin Pierce 1852 Franklin Pierce
1856 James Buchanan 1856 James Buchanan
1860 John C. Breckinridge 1860 Abraham Lincoln
1864 1864 Abraham Lincoln
1868 Ulysses S. Grant 1868 Ulysses S. Grant
1872 Ulysses S. Grant 1872 Ulysses S. Grant
1876 Samuel J. Tilden 1876 Rutherford B. Hayes
1880 Winfield Scott Hancock 1880 James A. Garfield
1884 Grover Cleveland 1884 Grover Cleveland
1888 Grover Cleveland 1888 Benjamin Harrison
1892 Grover Cleveland 1892 Grover Cleveland
1896 William Jennings Bryan 1896 William McKinley
1900 William Jennings Bryan 1900 William McKinley
1904 Alton B. Parker 1904 Theodore Roosevelt
1908 William Jennings Bryan 1908 William Howard Taft
1912 Woodrow Wilson 1912 Woodrow Wilson
1916 Woodrow Wilson 1916 Woodrow Wilson
1920 James M. Cox 1920 Warren G. Harding
1924 John W. Davis 1924 Calvin Coolidge
1928 Al Smith 1928 Herbert Hoover
1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt
1936 Franklin D. Roosevelt 1936 Franklin D. Roosevelt
1940 Franklin D. Roosevelt 1940 Franklin D. Roosevelt
1944 Franklin D. Roosevelt 1944 Franklin D. Roosevelt
1948 Strom Thurmond 1948 Harry S. Truman
1952 Adlai Stevenson 1952 Dwight D. Eisenhower
1956 Adlai Stevenson 1956 Dwight D. Eisenhower
1960 Harry F. Byrd 1960 John F. Kennedy
1964 Barry Goldwater 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson
1968 George Wallace 1968 Richard Nixon
1972 Richard Nixon 1972 Richard Nixon
1976 Jimmy Carter 1976 Jimmy Carter
1980 Ronald Reagan 1980 Ronald Reagan
1984 Ronald Reagan 1984 Ronald Reagan
1988 George H. W. Bush 1988 George H. W. Bush
1992 George H. W. Bush 1992 Bill Clinton
1996 Bob Dole 1996 Bill Clinton
2000 George W. Bush 2000 George W. Bush
2004 George W. Bush 2004 George W. Bush
2008 John McCain 2008 Barack Obama
2012 Mitt Romney 2012 Barack Obama
2016 Donald Trump 2016 Donald Trump
Summary of elections[edit]
The following table displays, by color, the parties of elected officials in the U.S. state of Alabama from 1817 to the current year. As such, it may indicate the political party strength at any given time. The officers listed include:
Governor
Lieutenant governor
Secretary of State
Attorney general
Comptroller of Public Accounts/State Auditor[note 1]
State treasurer
Commissioner of Agriculture and Industries
The table also indicates the historical party composition in the:
State Senate
State House of Representatives
State delegation to the U.S. Senate
State delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives
For years in which a presidential election was held, the table indicates which party's nominees received the state's electoral votes.
The parties are as follows: American (A), Democratic (D), Democratic-Republican (DR), Greenback (G), Independent (I), Jacksonian (J), Military (M), no party (N), Populist (P), Republican (R), Southern Democratic (SD), Unionist (U), Whig (W), and a tie or coalition within a group of elected officials.
Year
Executive offices
State Legislature
United States Congress
Electoral College votes
Governor
Lieutenant governor
Secretary of State
Attorney general
Auditor
Treasurer
Comm. of Ag. and Ind.
State Senate
State House
U.S. Sen. (Class II)
U.S. Sen. (Class III)
U.S. House
1817
William Wyatt Bibb (N)[note 2] no such office no such office no such office Jack Ross[note 3] no such office no such bodies no such offices John Crowell (DR)[note 4] no electoral votes
1818
Henry Hitchcock[note 5] unknown D majority
1819
William Wyatt Bibb (DR)[note 6] Thomas A. Rodgers Henry Hitchcock Samuel Pickens Jack Ross W majority William R. King (D) John Williams Walker (D) John Crowell (DR)
1820
D majority James Monroe and Daniel Tompkins (DR) Y
Thomas Bibb (DR)[note 7]
1821
James J. Pleasants (W) W majority Gabriel Moore (DR)
1822
Israel Pickens (DR) John C. Perry William Kelly (D)
1823
Thomas White D majority 3J
1824
James I. Thornton[note 8] Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun (DR) N
1825
Constantine Perkins Henry H. Chambers (D)
1826
John Murphy (J) Israel Pickens (D)
1827
John McKinley (D)
1828
Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun (D) Y
1829
George Whitfield Crabb (W) Hardin Perkins 2D, 1J
1830
Gabriel Moore (J)[note 9]
1831
Samuel B. Moore (D)[note 7] Gabriel Moore (D)
1832
John Gayle (D) Peter Martin[note 10] Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren (D) Y
1833
3J, 2D
1834
Edmund A. Webster William Hawn
1835
unknown 3D, 2W
1836
Clement Comer Clay (D)[note 9] Thomas B. Tunstall Alexander Meek[note 11] Jefferson C. Van Dyke Martin Van Buren and Richard Mentor Johnson (D) Y
1837
John D. Phelan 18W, 12D, 3? 46W, 44D, 10? John McKinley (D)
Hugh McVay (D)[note 7] Clement Comer Clay (D)
1838
Arthur P. Bagby (D) Lincoln Clarke unknown 45D, 33W, 22?
1839
Matthew W. Lindsay 19D, 9W, 5? 66D, 31W, 3?
1840
William Garrett (D) Samuel Frierson 23D, 10W 67D, 33W Martin Van Buren and Richard Mentor Johnson (D) N
1841
20D, 13W 54D, 46W 5D
1842
Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 52D, 48W Arthur P. Bagby (D)
1843
Thomas D. Clarke 21D, 12W 67D, 33W 6D, 1W
1844
19D, 14W 62D, 38W Dixon H. Lewis (D) James K. Polk and George M. Dallas (D) Y
1845
D Majority D Majority
1846
Joshua L. Martin (I)[note 12] William Graham 20D, 13W 61D, 37W, 2?
1847
William H. Martin 5D, 2W
1848
Reuben Chapman (D) Marion A. Baldwin Joel Riggs 17D, 16W 65D, 35W Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) William R. King (D) Lewis Cass and William O. Butler (D) N
1849
Jeremiah Clemens (D)
1850
Henry W. Collier (D) 17W, 16D 57D, 43W
1851
4D, 2W, 1A
1852
Vincent M. Benham (D) 22U, 11 Southern Rights 62U, 38 Southern Rights Franklin Pierce and William R. King (D) Y
1853
Clement Claiborne Clay (D) Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) 5D, 1W, 1A
1854
John A. Winston (D) 20D, 13W 59D, 41W
1855
William J. Greene 5D, 2A
1856
James H. Weaver 20D, 13A 61D, 39A James Buchanan and John C. Breckinridge (D) Y
1857
7D
1858
Andrew B. Moore (D) 27D, 6A 84D, 16A
1859
1860
Patrick Henry Brittan (D) Duncan Graham (D) 27D, 6 Opp. 85D, 15 Opp. John C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane (SD) N
1861
vacant vacant
1862
John Gill Shorter (D) American Civil War American Civil War
1863
1864
Thomas H. Watts (D)[note 13] no electoral votes
1865
Albert S. Elmore John W. A. Sanford Malcolm A. Chisholm Lyd Saxon (D)
Lewis E. Parsons (D)[note 14]
1866
Robert M. Patton (D)[note 15] David L. Dalton (D) 33N 100N
1867
Micah Taul (D) 6R
Wager Swayne (M)[note 16]
1868
Charles A. Miller (R) Joshua Morse (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Ulysses S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax (R) Y
William Hugh Smith (R)[note 17] Willard Warner (R) George E. Spencer (R)
Andrew J. Applegate (R)
1869
Robert M. Reynolds (R) 32R, 1D 97R, 3D 4R, 2D
1870
Jabez J. Parker John W. A. Sanford James Grant
1871
Robert B. Lindsay (D)[note 17] Edward H. Moren (D) 65D, 35R George Goldthwaite (D) 3R, 3D
1872
Patrick Ragland (R) Benjamin Gardner (R) Robert T. Smith (R) Arthur Bingham (R) Ulysses S. Grant and Henry Wilson (R) Y
1873
David P. Lewis (R) Alexander McKinstry (R) Neander H. Rice 17R, 16D[note 18] 51R, 49D[note 19] 6R, 2D
1874
Rufus K. Boyd (D) John W. A. Sanford Daniel Crawford
1875
George S. Houston (D) Robert F. Ligon (D) 20D, 13R 60D, 40R 6D, 2R
1876
Willis Brewer (D) Samuel Tilden and Thomas Hendricks (D) N
1877
[note 20] 33D 80D, 20R John Tyler Morgan (D) 8D
1878
William W. Screws (D) Henry Tompkins (D) Isaac Vincent (D)
1879
Rufus W. Cobb (D) 31D, 2R 91D, 4ID, 3R, 2G George S. Houston (D) 7D, 1G
1880
Jesse Malcolm Carmichael Luke Pryor (D) Winfield Hancock and William English (D) N
1881
33D 94D, 4ID, 1R, 1G James L. Pugh (D) 8D
1882
Ellis Phelan (D) 7D, 1G
1883
Edward A. O'Neal (D) Frederick Smith Edward C. Betts (D) 31D, 2R 77D, 17I, 5R, 1G 8D
1884
Thomas McClellan (D) Malcolm C. Burke 7D, 1R Grover Cleveland and Thomas Hendricks (D) Y
1885
Charles C. Langdon (D)[note 21] 30D, 3R 93D, 7R 8D
1886
1887
Thomas Seay (D) Ruben F. Kolb (D) 32D, 1R 83D, 17R
1888
Cyrus D. Hogue John Cobbs (D) Grover Cleveland and Allen Thurman (D) N
1889
William L. Martin (D) 92D, 8R
1890
Joseph D. Barron (D) 7D, 1R
1891
Thomas G. Jones (D) Hector D. Lane (D) 33D 97D, 3R 8D
1892
John Purifoy (D)[note 21] J. Craig Smith (D) Grover Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson I (D) Y
1893
26D, 7P 61D, 38P. 1R 9D
1894
James K. Jackson (D) William C. Fitts (D)
1895
William C. Oates (D) 24D, 8P, 1R 65D, 34P. 1R 8D, 1P
1896
Walter S. White George Ellis (D) Issac F. Culver (D) 5D, 2P, 2R William Jennings Bryan and Arthur Sewall (D) N
1897
Joseph F. Johnston (D) 22D, 9P, 2R 74D, 23P. 3R Edmund Pettus (D) 8D, 1P
1898
Robert P. McDavid (D) Charles G. Brown 7D, 1P, 1R
1899
28D, 5P 89D, 10P. 1R 9D
1900
Thomas L. Sowell (D) J. Craig Smith (D) Robert R. Poole (D) William Jennings Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson I (D) N
William D. Jelks (D)[note 22] 8D, 1R
1901
William J. Samford (D)[note 6] 32D, 1P 92D, 6P. 2R 9D
William D. Jelks (D)[note 23][note 24]
1902
1903
Russell McWhortor Cunningham (D)[note 25] James Thomas Heflin (D) Massey Wilson (D) 35D 103D, 2R
1904
Edmund R. McDavid (D)[note 11] Alton Parker and Henry Davis (D) N
1905
Jesse Malcolm Carmichael
1906
1907
B. B. Comer (D) Henry B. Gray (D) Frank N. Julian (D) Alexander M. Garber (D) William W. Brandon (D) Walter D. Seed, Sr. (D) Joseph A. Wilkinson (D) 34D, 1R 104D, 2R John H. Bankhead (D) Joseph F. Johnston (D)
1908
William Jennings Bryan and John Kern (D) N
1909
1910
Cyrus B. Brown (D)
1911
Emmet O'Neal (D) Walter D. Seed, Sr. (D) Robert Brickell (D) Charles Brooks Smith (D) John Purifoy (D) Ruben F. Kolb (D) 103D, 3R
1912
Woodrow Wilson and Thomas R. Marshall (D) Y
1913
10D
1914
Francis S. White (D)
1915
Charles Henderson (D) Thomas Kilby (D) John Purifoy (D) William Logan Martin (D) Miles C. Allgood (D) William Lancaster (D) James A. Wade (D) 104D, 2R Oscar Underwood (D)
1916
1917
1918
F. Lloyd Tate
Emmet S. Thigpen
1919
Thomas Kilby (D) Nathan Lee Miller (D) William Peyton Cobb (D) J. Q. Smith (D) Henry F. Lee (D) Robert Bradley Miles C. Allgood (D) 100D, 5R, 1?
1920
B. B. Comer (D) James Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) N
1921
Harwell G. Davis (D) James Thomas Heflin (D)
1922
1923
William W. Brandon (D) Charles S. McDowell (D)[note 26] Sidney H. Blan (D) William Barnett Allgood (D) George Ellis (D) James Monroe Moore (D) 35D 105D, 1R
1924
John Davis and Charles Bryan (D) N
1925
1926
1927
Bibb Graves (D) William C. Davis (D) John M. Brandon (D) Charlie C. McCall (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) William Barnett Allgood (D) Samuel Dunwoody (D) 104D, 2R Hugo Black (D)
1928
Al Smith and Joseph Robinson (D) N
1929
1930
1931
Benjamin M. Miller (D) Hugh D. Merrill (D) Pete Bryant Jarman, Jr. (D) Thomas E. Knight, Jr. (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sidney H. Blan (D) Seth Paddock Storrs (D) 103D, 3R John H. Bankhead II (D)
1932
Franklin D. Roosevelt and John Nance Garner (D) Y
1933
9D
1934
1935
Bibb Graves (D) Thomas E. Knight David Howell Turner (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Charles E. McCall (D) John M. Brandon (D) Robert James Goode (D) 105D, 1R
1936
1937
Dixie Bibb Graves (D)
1938
J. Lister Hill (D)
1939
Frank M. Dixon (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) John M. Brandon (D) Thomas S. Lawson (D) David Howell Turner (D) Charles E. McCall (D)[note 6] Haygood Paterson (D)
1940
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Henry Wallace (D) Y
1941
Walter Lusk[note 21]
1942
1943
Chauncey Sparks (D) Leven H. Ellis (D) David Howell Turner (D) William N. McQueen (D) John M. Brandon (D) Joseph N. Poole
1944
Sibyl Pool (D)[note 21] Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman (D) Y
1945
1946
George R. Swift (D)
1947
Jim Folsom (D) James C. Inzer (D) Albert A. Carmichael (D) Daniel H. Thomas, Sr. John M. Brandon (D) Haygood Paterson (D) John Sparkman (D)
1948
Strom Thurmond and Fielding Wright (D) N
1949
1950
1951
Gordon Persons (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) S. I. Garrett (D) John M. Brandon (D) Sibyl Pool (D) Frank M. Stewart (D)
1952
Adlai Stevenson and John Sparkman (D) N
1953
1954
1955
Jim Folsom (D) William G. Hardwick (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) John Malcolm Patterson (D) Agnes Baggett (D) John M. Brandon (D) A. W. Todd (D)
1956
Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver (D) N
1957
1958
1959
John Malcolm Patterson (D) Albert Boutwell (D) Bettye Frink (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Robert Bamberg (D) 106D
1960
6 Harry F. Byrd and Strom Thurmond (D) N, 5 John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson (D) Y
1961
1962
1963
George Wallace (D) James Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richmond M. Flowers (D) Bettye Frink (D) Mary Texas Hurt Garner (D) A. W. Todd (D) 104D, 2R 8D
1964
Barry Goldwater and William Miller (R) N
1965
5R, 3D
1966
1967
Lurleen Wallace (D)[note 6] Albert Brewer (D)[note 27] Mabel Sanders Amos (D) MacDonald Gallion (D) Melba Till Allen (D) Agnes Baggett (D) Richard Beard (D) 34D, 1R 106D 5D, 3R
1968
George Wallace and Curtis LeMay (AI) N
Albert Brewer (D)[note 28] vacant
1969
James Allen (D)
1970
1971
George Wallace (D) Jere Beasley (D)[note 29] Bill Baxley (D) 35D 104D, 2R
1972
Marion Gilmer (D)[note 6] Richard Nixon and Spiro Agnew (R) Y
1973
4D, 3R
1974
McMillan Lane (D)[note 21]
1975
Agnes Baggett (D) Bettye Frink (D) Melba Till Allen (D) 105D
1976
Jimmy Carter and Walter Mondale (D) Y
1977
1978
Annie Laurie Gunter (D)[note 21] Maryon Pittman Allen (D)
1979
Fob James (D) George McMillan (D) Don Siegelman (D) Charles Graddick (D) 101D, 4R Howell Heflin (D) Donald W. Stewart (D)
1980
Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush (R) Y
1981
Jeremiah Denton (R)
1982
1983
George Wallace (D) Bill Baxley (D) Jan Cook (D) Albert McDonald (D) 32D, 3R 97D, 8R 5D, 2R
1984
29D, 3R, 3I 87D, 18R
1985
1986
1987
H. Guy Hunt (R)[note 30] Jim Folsom, Jr. (D) Glen Browder (D) Don Siegelman (D) George Wallace, Jr. (D) 30D, 5R 89D, 16R Richard Shelby (D)
1988
George H. W. Bush and Dan Quayle (R) Y
1989
Fred Crawford (R)[note 11] 27D, 8R[note 31] 82D, 23R
1990
Perry A. Hand (R)[note 11]
1991
Billy Joe Camp (D) Jimmy Evans (D) Terry Ellis (D) A. W. Todd (D) 28D, 7R
1992
George H. W. Bush and Dan Quayle (R) N
1993
27D, 8R 4D, 3R
Jim Folsom, Jr. (D)[note 28] vacant James R. Bennett (D)[note 21]
1994
1995
Fob James (R) Don Siegelman (D) Jeff Sessions (R)[note 32] Pat Duncan (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Jack Thompson (R) 23D, 12R 73D, 32R Richard Shelby (R)[note 33]
1996
Bob Dole and Jack Kemp (R) N
1997
William H. Pryor, Jr. (R)[note 21] 71D, 34R[note 34] Jeff Sessions (R)[note 35] 5R, 2D
1998
21D, 14R[note 36] 68D, 37R[note 37]
1999
Don Siegelman (D) Steve Windom (R) James R. Bennett (R)[note 38] Susan Parker (D) Charles Bishop (D) 23D, 12R 69D, 36R
2000
24D, 11R[note 39] George W. Bush and Dick Cheney (R) Y
2001
68D, 37R[note 40]
2002
67D, 38R[note 41]
2003
Bob Riley (R) Lucy Baxley (D) Nancy Worley (D) Beth Chapman (R) Kay Ivey (R) Ron Sparks (D) 25D, 10R 63D, 42R[note 42]
2004
Troy King (R)[note 21]
2005
2006
62D, 43R[note 43]
2007
Jim Folsom, Jr. (D) Beth Chapman (R) Samantha Shaw (R) 23D, 12R
2008
22D, 13R[note 44] John McCain and Sarah Palin (R) N
2009
21D, 13R, 1I[note 45] 4R, 3D
2010
20D, 14R, 1I[note 46] 60D, 45R[note 47] 5R, 2D[note 48]
2011
Robert Bentley (R)[note 49] Kay Ivey (R) Luther Strange (R)[note 32] Young Boozer (R) John McMillan (R) 22R, 12D, 1I 66R, 39D[note 50] 6R, 1D
2012
Mitt Romney and Paul Ryan (R) N
2013
23R, 11D, 1I[note 51] 66R, 38D, 1I[note 52]
James R. Bennett (R)
2014
67R, 37D, 1I[note 53]
2015
John Merrill (R) Jim Zeigler (R) 26R, 8D, 1I 72R, 33D
2016
Donald Trump and Mike Pence (R) Y
2017
Kay Ivey (R)[note 28] vacant Steve Marshall (R)[note 11] Luther Strange (R)[note 11]
2018
Doug Jones (D)[note 54]
Year
Governor
Lieutenant governor
Secretary of State
Attorney general
Auditor
Treasurer
Comm. of Ag. and Ind.
State Senate
State House
U.S. Sen. (Class II)
U.S. Sen. (Class III)
U.S. House
Electoral College votes
Executive offices
State Legislature
United States Congress
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ With the adoption of the state Constitution of 1819, the auditor became the comptroller of public accounts elected annually by a joint vote of both houses of the General Assembly. The Constitution of 1868 changed the title of the office to auditor and established a process by which the officeholder would be chosen by the electors of the state every four years.
Jump up ^ Governor of Alabama Territory appointed by President James Monroe.
Jump up ^ Treasurer of Alabama Territory.
Jump up ^ Delegate from Alabama Territory.
Jump up ^ Secretary of Alabama Territory.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Died in office.
^ Jump up to: a b c As president of the state senate, filled unexpired term.
Jump up ^ Resigned.
^ Jump up to: a b Resigned to take an elected seat in the United States Senate.
Jump up ^ Resigned following appointment to the Circuit Court bench.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Appointed to fill vacancy.
Jump up ^ Democrat who opposed party leaders and ran as an independent.
Jump up ^ Arrested by Union forces soon after the American Civil War ended in May 1865; was released a few weeks later.
Jump up ^ Provisional governor appointed by the Union occupation; between Watts's arrest and Parsons' appointment, Alabama had no governor, instead being under direct rule of General George Henry Thomas.
Jump up ^ The United States Congress stripped Patton of most of his authority in March 1867, after which time the state was effectively under the control of Major General Wager Swayne.
Jump up ^ Military governor appointed during Reconstruction; though Patton was still officially governor, he was mostly a figurehead. The term start date given is the date of the first Reconstruction Act, which placed Alabama into the Third Military District; all references only say "March 1867."
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Lindsay was sworn into office on November 26, 1870, but William H. Smith refused to leave his seat for two weeks, claiming Lindsay was fraudulently elected, finally leaving office on December 8, 1870, when a court so ordered.
Jump up ^ Initial returns showed a 19-14 Democratic majority, but was overturned in a series of contests through March 1873.
Jump up ^ Initial returns showed a 54-46 Democratic majority, but was overturned in a series of contests through March 1873.
Jump up ^ Position of lieutenant governor was eliminated in 1875, effective at the end of the then-present term in November 1876, and was reestablished upon the adoption of the Alabama Constitution in 1901.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Initially appointed to fill vacancy, later was elected in his own right.
Jump up ^ Acting governor for 26 days. Jelks was president of the state Senate when William J. Samford was out of state at the start of his term seeking medical treatment.
Jump up ^ As president of the state Senate, filled unexpired term and was subsequently elected in his own right.
Jump up ^ Gubernatorial terms were increased from two to four years during Jelks' governorship; his first term was filling out Samford's two-year term, and he was elected in 1902 for a four-year term.
Jump up ^ Acting governor from April 25, 1904 until March 5, 1905 while Jelks was out of state for medical treatment.
Jump up ^ Acting governor for two days—July 10 and 11, 1924—while Brandon was out of state for 21 days as a delegate to the 1924 Democratic National Convention.
Jump up ^ Wallace left the state for 20 days for medical treatment; as lieutenant governor, Brewer became acting governor on July 25, 1967. Wallace returned to the state later that day.
^ Jump up to: a b c As lieutenant governor, filled unexpired term.
Jump up ^ Acting governor for 32 days, from June 5 until July 7, 1972. Beasley was lieutenant governor when Wallace spent 52 days in Maryland for medical treatment following an assassination attempt while campaigning for president of the United States.
Jump up ^ Removed from office upon being convicted of illegally using campaign and inaugural funds to pay personal debts; he was later pardoned by the state parole board based on innocence.
Jump up ^ Sens. John Amari, Frank "Butch" Ellis, and John Rice switched parties from Democrat to Republican.[15]
^ Jump up to: a b Resigned to accept U.S. Senate seat.
Jump up ^ Switched parties from Democratic to Republican in December 1994.
Jump up ^ Reps. H. Mac Gipson and Ronald "Ron" Johnson switch parties from Democrat to Republican.
Jump up ^ Resigned to become United States Attorney General.
Jump up ^ Sens. Chip Bailey and Steve Windom switched parties from Democratic to Republican before the 1998 session.
Jump up ^ Reps. Gerald Allen, Steve Flowers, and Tim Parker, Jr. switch parties from Democrat to Republican.[16]
Jump up ^ Bennett ran as a Democrat in 1994 and as a Republican in 1998. He might have switched parties between those elections.
Jump up ^ Sen. Jeff Enfinger switched parties from Republican to Democrat[17]
Jump up ^ A Republican won a special election, flipping a seat from the Democrats.
Jump up ^ Rep. Blaine Galliher switched parties from Democrat to Republican[18]
Jump up ^ Rep. Johnny Ford switched parties from Democrat to Republican right after the election, becoming the first black Republican legislator in Alabama in over a century. He resigned in 2004 and was succeeded Democrat Pebblin Warren before the 2005 session. At the same time, Republican Nick Williams succeed longtime Democratic Rep. Jeff Dolbare in a special election, leaving the overall House partisan composition unchanged.[19][20][21]
Jump up ^ Democratic Rep. Jack Venable died, and was succeeded by Republican Barry Mask, flipping the seat from Democrat to Republican. [22]
Jump up ^ Sen. Jimmy Holley switched parties from Democrat to Republican[23]
Jump up ^ Paul Sanford succeeded Parker Griffith after he resigned to take a Congressional seat, flipping a seat from Democrat to Republican. Sen. Harri Anne Smith was thrown out by the Republicans and became an Independent at around the same time after crossing party lines to endorse Democrat Bobby Bright in his successful run for Congress.
Jump up ^ Sen. Jim Preuitt switched parties from Democrat to Republican in the lead-up to the general election.
Jump up ^ Democratic Reps. Sue Schmitz and Lea Fite resigned and died, and were succeeded in special elections by Republicans Phil Williams and K.L. Brown, respectively, before the 2010 session.
Jump up ^ Rep. Parker Griffith switched parties from Democrat to Republican.
Jump up ^ Resigned per the terms of a plea deal after being convicted of using state resources to facilitate and conceal an extramarital affair with a former staffer.
Jump up ^ Four representatives, Alan Boothe, Steve Hurst, Mike Millican, and Lesley Vance, switched parties from Democrat to Republican right after the election. Between the 2011 and 2012 sessions Rep. Daniel Boman switched parties from Republican to Democrat, and Rep. Alan Harper switched parties from Democrat to Republican, leaving the partisan composition of the House overall the same.
Jump up ^ Sen. Jerry Fielding switched parties from Democrat to Republican.
Jump up ^ Rep. Richard Laird switched parties from Democrat to Independent, and caucused with the Republicans as such.
Jump up ^ Rep. Charles Newton switched parties from Democrat to Republican[24]
Jump up ^ Winner of the special election to fill the remainder of Jeff Sessions' term
See also[edit]
Government of Alabama
Politics of Alabama
Elections in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Joseph H. Taylor, "Populism and Disfranchisement in Alabama", The Journal of Negro History Vol. 34, No. 4 (Oct., 1949), pp. 410-427(subscription required)
Jump up ^ J. Morgan Kousser.The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974
Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–136
Jump up ^ Stovall, Cotter, & Fisher, Alabama Political Almanac, p. 260, 1995
Jump up ^ "Sue Bell Cobb considering running for governor". The Birmingham News. al.com. 2009-05-02. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Commissioners". Psc.state.al.us. Archived from the original on 2009-07-18. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ Special (2008-11-05). "Lucy Baxley wins Alabama Public Service Commission presidency, but recount possible". Birmingham News via al.com. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ Jeff Amy, Press-Register. "Public Service Commission: Twinkle Cavanaugh, Terry Dunn join GOP sweep". al.com. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Georgia Anne Persons, editor, Race and Representation, Transaction Publishers, 1997, p. 185
Jump up ^ "2006 Gubernatorial Democratic Primary Election Results - Alabama". Uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ "2006 Gubernatorial Republican Primary Election Results - Alabama". Uselectionatlas.org. 2007-02-15. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Alabama Sheriffs Association". Retrieved 2017-04-02.
Jump up ^ "1968 Presidential General Election Results – Alabama". Uselectionatlas.org. 1968-11-05. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ "Birmingham state senator switches to Republicans". The Gadsden Times. 1989-02-08. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Stevenson, Tommy (2002-01-06). "After 12 years, Parker won't seek 4th term". The Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Strope, Leigh (2000-05-14). "Democrats warm to idea of Republicans jumping ship". Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Beyerle, Dana (2001-09-07). "Galliher makes party switch official". The Gadsden Times. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ Beyerle, Dana (2005-02-15). "New Republican PAC files finance report after deadline". The Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Yoshinaka, Antoine. "Crossing the Aisle: Party Switching by U.S. Legislators in the Postwar Era". p. 88. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Mask's win a sign of things to come". Shelby County Reporter. 2006-03-07. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Cook, Jim (2008-01-11). "Jimmy Holley switches to Republican party". Dothan Eagle. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ Lyman, Brian (2014-02-07). "Charles Newton, longtime Democratic representative, switches to GOP". Montgomery Advertiser. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
External links[edit]
Alabama at Ballotpedia
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Japan during World War I
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Japan participated in World War I from 1914 to 1918 in an alliance with Entente Powers and played an important role in securing the sea lanes in the West Pacific and Indian Oceans against the Imperial German Navy as the member of the Allies. Politically, the Japanese Empire seized the opportunity to expand its sphere of influence in China, and to gain recognition as a great power in postwar geopolitics.
Japan's military, taking advantage of the great distances and Imperial Germany's preoccupation with the war in Europe, seized German possessions in the Pacific and East Asia, but there was no large-scale mobilization of the economy.[1] Foreign Minister Katō Takaaki and Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu wanted to use the opportunity to expand Japanese influence in China. They enlisted Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), then in exile in Japan, but they had little success.[2] The Imperial Japanese Navy, a nearly autonomous bureaucratic institution, made its own decision to undertake expansion in the Pacific. It captured Germany's Micronesian territories north of the equator, and ruled the islands until they were transitioned to civilian control in 1921. The operation gave the Navy a rationale for enlarging its budget to double the Army budget and expanding the fleet. The Navy thus gained significant political influence over national and international affairs.[3]
Contents
1 Events of 1914
2 Events of 1915–16
3 Events of 1917
4 Events of 1918
5 Events of 1919
6 Further reading
7 See also
8 External links
9 References
Events of 1914[edit]
Further information: Japanese entry into World War I
Japanese seaplane carrier Wakamiya (1913)
Japanese troops landing near Tsingtao.
In the first week of World War I Japan proposed to the United Kingdom, its ally since 1902, that Japan would enter the war if it could take Germany's Pacific territories.[4] On 7 August 1914, the British government officially asked Japan for assistance in destroying the raiders from the Imperial German Navy in and around Chinese waters. Japan sent Germany an ultimatum on 23 August 1914, which went unanswered; Japan then formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914 in the name of the Emperor Taishō.[5] As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Qingdao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, too, on 25 August 1914.[6]
Japanese forces quickly occupied German-leased territories in the Far East. On 2 September 1914, Japanese forces landed on China's Shandong province and surrounded the German settlement at Tsingtao (Qingdao). During October, acting virtually independently of the civil government, the Imperial Japanese Navy seized several of Germany's island colonies in the Pacific - the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands - with virtually no resistance. The Japanese Navy conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids against German-held land targets in Shandong province and ships in Qiaozhou Bay from the seaplane-carrier Wakamiya. On 6 September 1914 a seaplane launched by Wakamiya unsuccessfully attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth and the German gunboat Jaguar with bombs.[7]
The Siege of Tsingtao concluded with the surrender of German colonial forces on 7 November 1914.
Events of 1915–16[edit]
In February 1915, marines from the Imperial Japanese Navy ships based in Singapore helped suppress a mutiny by Indian troops against the British government. With Japan's European allies heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands to Chinese President Yuan Shikai in January 1915. If achieved, the Twenty-One Demands would have essentially reduced China to a Japanese protectorate, and at the expense of numerous privileges already enjoyed by the European powers in their respective spheres of influence within China. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread and increasing anti-Japanese sentiments, and international condemnation (particularly from the United States), Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and a treaty was signed by China on 25 May 1915.
Throughout 1915–1916, German efforts to negotiate a separate peace with Japan failed. On 3 July 1916, Japan and Russia signed a treaty whereby each pledged not to make a separate peace with Germany, and agreed to consultation and common action should the territory or interests of each in China be threatened by an outside third party. Although Russia had a claim to Chinese territory by the Kyakhta and other treaties, Japan discouraged Russia from annexing Heilongjiang and began to slowly push the other powers out, such as the Germans in the Twenty-One Demands (1915). The delineating line between Russian (north) and Japanese (south) spheres of influences in China was the Chinese Eastern Railway.[8]
Events of 1917[edit]
On 18 December 1916 the British Admiralty again requested naval assistance from Japan. Two of the four cruisers of the First Special Squadron at Singapore were sent to Cape Town, South Africa, and four destroyers were sent to the Mediterranean for basing out of Malta. Rear-Admiral Sato Kozo on the cruiser Akashi and 10th and 11th destroyer units (eight destroyers) arrived in Malta on 13 April 1917 via Colombo and Port Said. Eventually this Second Special Squadron totalled during the war 3 cruisers (Akashi, Izumo, Nisshin), 14 destroyers (8 Kaba-class, 4 Momo-class, 2 ex-British Acorn-class), 2 sloops, 1 tender (Kanto).
The Second Special Squadron carried out escort duties for troop transports and anti-submarine operations. No ship was lost, but on 11 June 1917 a Kaba-class destroyer (Sakaki) was hit by a torpedo from an Austro-Hungarian submarine (U 27) off Crete; 59 Japanese sailors died. The Japanese squadron made a total of 348 escort sorties from Malta, escorting 788 ships containing around 700,000 soldiers, thus contributing greatly to the war effort, for a total loss of 72 Japanese sailors killed in action. A further 7,075 people were rescued from damaged and sinking ships. In return for this assistance, Great Britain recognized Japan's territorial gains in Shantung and in the Pacific islands north of the equator.
With the American entry into World War I on 6 April 1917, the United States and Japan found themselves on the same side, despite their increasingly acrimonious relations over China and competition for influence in the Pacific. This led to the Lansing–Ishii Agreement of 2 November 1917 to help reduce tensions.
On July 9, Commander Kyōsuke Eto, military attaché with the Royal Navy, was killed in the HMS Vanguard disaster.
In late 1917, Japan exported 12 Arabe-class destroyers, based on Kaba-class design, to France.
Events of 1918[edit]
Main articles: Russian Civil War and Siberian Intervention
In 1918, Japan continued to extend its influence and privileges in China via the Nishihara Loans. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, Japan and the United States sent forces to Siberia in 1918 to bolster the armies of the White movement leader Admiral Alexander Kolchak against the Bolshevik Red Army. In this Siberian Intervention, the Imperial Japanese Army initially planned to send more than 70,000 troops to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal. The plan was scaled back considerably due to opposition from the United States.[9]
Toward the end of the war, Japan increasingly filled orders for needed war material for its European allies. The wartime boom helped to diversify the country's industry, increase its exports, and transform Japan from a debtor to a creditor nation for the first time. Exports quadrupled from 1913 to 1918. The massive capital influx into Japan and the subsequent industrial boom led to rapid inflation. In August 1918, rice riots caused by this inflation erupted in towns and cities throughout Japan.
Events of 1919[edit]
The year 1919 saw Japan's representative Saionji Kinmochi sitting alongside the "Big Four" (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau, Orlando) leaders at the Versailles Peace Conference. Tokyo gained a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations, and the Paris Peace Conference confirmed the transfer to Japan of Germany's rights in Shandong. Similarly, Germany's more northerly Pacific islands came under a Japanese mandate, called the South Pacific Mandate. Despite Japan’s prowess on a global scale, and its sizable contribution to the allied war effort in response to British pleas for assistance in the Mediterranean and East Asia, the Western powers present at the Treaty of Versailles rejected Japan's bid for a racial equality clause in subsequent Treaty of Versailles. Japan nevertheless was not doubted to have emerged as a great power in international politics by the close of the war.
The prosperity brought on by World War I did not last. Although Japan's light industry had secured a share of the world market, Japan returned to debtor-nation status soon after the end of the war. The ease of Japan’s victory, the negative impact of the Showa recession in 1926, and internal political instabilities helped contribute to the rise of Japanese militarism in the late 1920s to 1930s.
Further reading[edit]
Best, Antony, and Oliviero Frattolillo, eds. Japan and the Great War (Springer, 2015) online.
Dickinson, Frederick R. War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914-1919 (Harvard U. Asia Center, 1999). 363pp
Duus, Peter, ed. The Cambridge history of Japan: The twentieth century (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Saxon, Timothy D. "Anglo-Japanese Naval Cooperation, 1914–1918." Naval War College Review, 53, 1 (2000): 62–92.
Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (Oxford University Press, 2003) 455-94.
See also[edit]
World War I portal
Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I
Diplomatic history of the First World War
Home front during World War I#Japan
External links[edit]
Melzer, Jürgen: Warfare 1914-1918 (Japan), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Dickinson, Frederick R.: Civilian and Military Power (Japan) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Dickinson, Frederick R.: Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Japan) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Schiltz, Michael: Wartime and Post-war Economies (Japan) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Sakamoto, Yuichiro: War Finance (Japan) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Frederick R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1913–1919 (1999)
Jump up ^ Albert A. Altman and Harold Z. Schiffrin, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Japanese, 1914–16", Modern Asian Studies, (July 1972) 6#4 pp 385–400
Jump up ^ J. C. Schencking, "Bureaucratic Politics, Military Budgets and Japan's Southern Advance: The Imperial Navy’s Seizure of German Micronesia in the First World War", War in History, (July 1998) 5#3 pp 308–326
Jump up ^ O'Neill, Robert (1993). "Churchill, Japan, and British Security in the Pacific 1904–1942". In Blake, Robert B.; Louis, William Roger. Churchill. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 276. ISBN 0-19-820626-7.
Jump up ^ "宣戦の詔書 [Sensen no shōsho, Imperial Rescript on Declaration of War] (Aug. 23, 1914), Kanpō, Extra ed., Aug. 23, 1914" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Mizokami, Kyle, "Japan’s baptism of fire: World War I put country on a collision course with West", The Japan Times, 27 July 2014
Jump up ^ Donko, Wilhelm M. (2013), Österreichs Kriegsmarine in Fernost: Alle Fahrten von Schiffen der k.(u.)k. Kriegsmarine nach Ostasien, Australien und Ozeanien von 1820 bis 1914, Berlin: epubli, pp. 4, 156–162, 427
Jump up ^ Price, Ernest Batson. "The Russo-Japanese Treaties of 1907–1916 concerning Manchuria and Mongolia". Review by: A. E. Hindmarsh. Harvard Law Review Vol. 47, No. 3 (Jan., 1934) , pp. 547–550
Jump up ^ Paul E. Dunscomb (2012). Japan's Siberian Intervention, 1918–1922: 'A Great Disobedience Against the People'. Lexington Books. pp. 5, 83.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/. - Japan
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan_during_World_War_I&oldid=865792622"
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20th-century military history of Japan
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