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Roman concrete
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The Pantheon in Rome is an example of Roman concrete construction.
Roman concrete, also called opus caementicium, was a material used in construction during the late Roman Republic until the fading of the Roman Empire. Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement. Recently, it has been found that it materially differs in several ways from modern concrete which is based on Portland cement. Roman concrete is durable due to its incorporation of volcanic ash, which prevents cracks from spreading. By the middle of the 1st century, the material was used frequently, often brick-faced, although variations in aggregate allowed different arrangements of materials. Further innovative developments in the material, called the Concrete Revolution, contributed to structurally complicated forms, such as the Pantheon dome, the world's largest and oldest unreinforced concrete dome.[1]
Roman concrete was normally faced with stone or brick, and interiors might be further decorated by stucco, fresco paintings, or thin slabs of fancy colored marbles. Made up of aggregate and cement, like modern concrete, it differed in that the aggregate pieces were typically far larger than in modern concrete, often amounting to rubble, and as a result it was laid rather than poured.[2] Some Roman concretes were able to be set underwater, which was useful for bridges and other waterside construction.
It is uncertain when Roman concrete was developed, but it was clearly in widespread and customary use from about 150 BC; some scholars believe it was developed a century before that.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historic references
2 Material properties
3 Seismic technology
4 Modern use
5 See also
6 Literature
7 References
8 External links
Historic references[edit]
Caesarea is the earliest known example to have used underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale.
Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana (pulvis puteolanus in Latin), the volcanic sand from the beds of Pozzuoli, which are brownish-yellow-gray in color in that area around Naples, and reddish-brown near Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cement used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pozzolana for underwater work, essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used in marine locations.[4]
By the middle of the first century, the principles of underwater construction in concrete were well known to Roman builders. The city of Caesarea was the earliest known example to have made use of underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale.[5]
For rebuilding Rome after the fire in 64 AD, which destroyed large portions of the city, Nero's new building code largely called for brick-faced concrete. This appears to have encouraged the development of the brick and concrete industries.[5]
Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed.
Material properties[edit]
Roman concrete, like any concrete, consists of an aggregate and hydraulic mortar – a binder mixed with water that hardens over time. The aggregate varied, and included pieces of rock, ceramic tile, and brick rubble from the remains of previously demolished buildings.
Gypsum and quicklime were used as binders. Volcanic dusts, called pozzolana or "pit sand", were favored where they could be obtained. Pozzolana makes the concrete more resistant to salt water than modern-day concrete.[6] The pozzolanic mortar used had a high content of alumina and silica. Tuff was often used as an aggregate.[7]
Concrete, and in particular, the hydraulic mortar responsible for its cohesion, was a type of structural ceramic whose utility derived largely from its rheological plasticity in the paste state. The setting and hardening of hydraulic cements derived from hydration of materials and the subsequent chemical and physical interaction of these hydration products. This differed from the setting of slaked lime mortars, the most common cements of the pre-Roman world. Once set, Roman concrete exhibited little plasticity, although it retained some resistance to tensile stresses.
The setting of pozzolanic cements has much in common with setting of their modern counterpart, Portland cement. The high silica composition of Roman pozzolana cements is very close to that of modern cement to which blast furnace slag, fly ash, or silica fume have been added.
The strength and longevity of Roman marine concrete is understood to benefit from a reaction of seawater with a mixture of volcanic ash and quicklime to create a rare crystal called tobermorite, which may resist fracturing. As seawater percolated within the tiny cracks in the Roman concrete, it reacted with phillipsite naturally found in the volcanic rock and created aluminous tobermorite crystals. The result is a candidate for "the most durable building material in human history." In contrast, modern concrete exposed to saltwater deteriorates within decades.[8][9][10]
Crystal structure of tobermorite: elementary unit cell
Compressive strengths for modern Portland cements are typically at the 50 MPa level and have improved almost ten-fold since 1860.[11] There are no comparable mechanical data for ancient mortars, although some information about tensile strength may be inferred from the cracking of Roman concrete domes. These tensile strengths vary substantially from the water/cement ratio used in the initial mix. At present, there is no way of ascertaining what water/cement ratios the Romans used, nor are there extensive data for the effects of this ratio on the strengths of pozzolanic cements.[12]
Seismic technology[edit]
For an environment as prone to earthquakes as the Italian peninsula, interruptions and internal constructions within walls and domes created discontinuities in the concrete mass. Portions of the building could then shift slightly when there was movement of the earth to accommodate such stresses, enhancing the overall strength of the structure. It was in this sense that bricks and concrete were flexible. It may have been precisely for this reason that, although many buildings sustained serious cracking from a variety of causes, they continue to stand to this day.[13]
Another technology used to improve the strength and stability of concrete was its gradation in domes. One example is the Pantheon, where the aggregate of the upper dome region consists of alternating layers of light tuff and pumice, giving the concrete a density of 1,350 kg/m3. The foundation of the structure used travertine as an aggregate, having a much higher density of 2,200 kg/m3.[14]
Modern use[edit]
Recent scientific breakthroughs examining Roman concrete have been gathering media and industry attention.[15][16] Because of its unusual durability, longevity and lessened environmental footprint, corporations and municipalities are starting to explore the use of Roman-style concrete in North America, substituting the coal fly ash with volcanic ash that has similar properties. Proponents claim that concrete made with volcanic ash can cost up to 60% less because it requires less cement, and that it has a smaller environmental footprint due to its lower cooking temperature and much longer lifespan.[17] Usable examples of Roman concrete exposed to harsh marine environments have been found to be 2000 years old with little or no wear.[18]
See also[edit]
Energetically modified cement (EMC)
Geopolymer
Roman brick
Pozzolanic reaction
Tobermorite
Literature[edit]
Jean-Pierre Adam, Anthony Mathews, Roman Building, 1994
Lynne C. Lancaster, Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome, Cambridge University Press, 2005
Heather N. Lechtman & Linn W. Hobbs, “Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution,” Ceramics and Civilization Volume 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future, edited by W.D. Kingery and published by the American Ceramics Society, 1986
W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Moore, David (February 1993). "The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete". S Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. www.romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art, p. 30, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140
Jump up ^ Boëthius, Axel, Ling, Roger, Rasmussen, Tom, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture, pp. 128-129, Yale/Pelican history of art, 1978, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300052901, 9780300052909, Google Books
Jump up ^ Heather Lechtman and Linn Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution", Ceramics and Civilization Volume 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future, edited by W.D. Kingery and published by the American Ceramics Society, 1986; and Vitruvius, Book II:v,1; Book V:xii2
^ Jump up to: a b Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
Jump up ^ Wayman, Erin. “The Secrets of Ancient Rome’s Buildings.” Smithsonian.com. 16 November 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Rome's Invisible City - BBC One". BBC. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Guarino, Ben (4 July 2017). "Ancient Romans made world's 'most durable' concrete. We might use it to stop rising seas". Washington Post. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Jackson, Marie D.; Mulcahy, Sean R.; Chen, Heng; Li, Yao; Li, Qinfei; Cappelletti, Piergiulio; Wenk, Hans-Rudolf (2017). "Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete". American Mineralogist. 102 (7): 1435–1450. doi:10.2138/am-2017-5993CCBY. ISSN 0003-004X.
Jump up ^ McGrath, Matt (4 July 2017). "Scientists explain ancient Rome's long-lasting concrete". Retrieved 6 July 2017 – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ N. B. Eden and J.E. Bailey, "Mechanical Properties and Tensile Failure Mechanism of a High Strength Polymer Modified Portland Cement," J. Mater. Sci., 19, 2677–85 (1984); and Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
Jump up ^ Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"; see also: C. A. Langton and D. M. Roy, "Longevity of Borehole and Shaft Sealing Materials: Characterization of Ancient Cement Based Building Materials," Mat. Res. Soc. SYmp. Proc. 26, 543–49 (1984); and Topical Report ONWI-202, Battelle Memorial Institute, Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation, Distribution Category UC-70, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1982.)
Jump up ^ W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982, fig. 131B; Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
Jump up ^ K. de Fine Licht, The Rotunda in Rome: A Study of Hadrian's Pantheon. Jutland Archaeological Society, Copenhagen, 1968, pp. 89–94, 134–35; and Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
Jump up ^ Sezen Soyer-Uzun, Sejung Rosie Chae, Chris J. Benmore, Hans-Rudolf Wenk, Paulo J. M. Monteiro, "Compositional Evolution of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) Structures by Total X-Ray Scattering", Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Volume: 95 Issue: 2 Pages: 793-798, February 2012
Jump up ^ "Fixing Canada's Infrastructure with Volcanoes". Trebuchet Capital Partners Research. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Compositional Evolution of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) Structures by Total X-Ray Scattering
Jump up ^ M. D. Jackson, S. R. Chae, R. Taylor, C. Meral, J. Moon, S. Yoon, P. Li, A. M. Emwas, G. Vola, H.-R. Wenk, and P. J. M. Monteiro, Unlocking the secrets of Al-tobermorite in Roman seawater concrete, American Mineralogist, Volume 98, pages 1669–1687, 2013.
External links[edit]
The Secrets of Ancient Rome's Buildings – article on Smithsonian.com
Roman Seawater Concrete Holds the Secret to Cutting Carbon Emissions – article on Berkeley Lab website
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Procedures of the United States Congress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Procedures of the United States Congress are established ways of doing legislative business. Congress has two-year terms with one session each year. There are rules and procedures, often complex, which guide how it converts ideas for legislation into laws.
How U. S. federal legislation is made[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Sessions
2 Joint sessions
3 Bills and resolutions
4 How bills become laws
5 Quorum and vote
6 References
7 External links
Sessions[edit]
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions", one for each year; Congress has occasionally also been called into an extra, (or special) session (the Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year). A new session commences on January 3 (or another date, if Congress so chooses) each year. Before the Twentieth Amendment, Congress met from the first Monday in December to April or May in the first session of their term (the "long session"); and from December to March 4 in the second "short session". (The new Congress would then meet for some days, for the inauguration, swearing in new members, and organization.)
The southwest corner of the United States Capital in Washington. The Constitution forbids Congress from meeting elsewhere.
The Constitution forbids either house from meeting any place outside the Capital, or from adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The consent of both bodies is required for Congress's final adjournment, or adjournment sine die, at the end of each congressional session. If the two houses cannot agree on a date, the Constitution permits the President to settle the dispute.
Joint sessions[edit]
Main article: Joint session of the United States Congress
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the President's State of the Union address. Other meetings of both House and Senate are called Joint Meetings of Congress, held after unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations may also be Joint Sessions, if both House and Senate are in session at the time, otherwise they are formal joint gatherings.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt delivers his annual State of the Union speech to Congress in 1941. The annual speech is a custom re-established by President Woodrow Wilson.
At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines his legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States—though it is not necessarily required to be delivered each year or in the customary manner. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since.
Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except for the joint session to count electoral votes for President, when the Constitution requires the President of the Senate (the Vice President of the United States) to preside.
Bills and resolutions[edit]
House Financial Services committee members sit in the tiers of raised chairs, while those testifying and audience members sit below.
Ideas for legislation can come from many areas, including members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, an executive agency such as the president or cabinet officer or executive agency, and the usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review.[2] A proposal has usually one of four principal forms: the bill, the joint resolution, the concurrent resolution, and the simple resolution.[3]
House representatives at a press conference announcing H.R. 3004 in 2005.
Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses.[3] It is presented to the president after both Houses agree.[3]
Joint resolutions There is little practical difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number.[3]
Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate, and accordingly aren't presented to the president for approval later. In the House, it begins with "H.Con.Res."[3]
Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res."[3]
Any member of Congress may introduce a bill at any time while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk.[3] A sponsor's signature is required, and there can be many co-sponsors. It's assigned a number by the Clerk. Then it's referred to a committee.[3] Committees study each bill intensely at this stage.[3]
Here is the draft of a bill called the Coinage Act of 1873 passed by the House of Representatives ready to be considered by the Senate in 1873. The wording of the final statute is most likely different from this one.
The most important executive communication is usually the president's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal.[2] Drafting statutes is an art that requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience."[2] Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more.[2] A proposal may be introduced in Congress as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Most legislative proposals are introduced as bills, but some are introduced as joint resolutions. There is little practical difference between the two, except that joint resolutions may include preambles but bills may not. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment or to declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of Congress, or to regulate procedure. In many cases, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Congressional lobbyists are legally required to be registered in a central database.
How bills become laws[edit]
Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, whenever the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. Nevertheless, while the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills, it does retain the power to amend or reject them. A congressional act in 1974 established procedures to try to establish appropriate annual spending levels.[4]
The Government Accountability Office is an important information-gathering agency for Congress.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a committee which often seeks input from relevant departments as well as requests feedback from the Government Accountability Office.[5] Most legislation is considered by standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month.[6] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting.[6] Open committee meetings may be covered by the media.[6] In some cases, bills may be sent to select committees, which tend to have more narrow jurisdictions than standing committees. If a bill is important, the committee may set a date for public hearings announced by the committee's chairman.[7] Each standing and select committee is led by a chair (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill.[3] Sometimes transcripts of these meetings are made public.[3] Then, a bill may go to what's called a mark-up session where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.[3] Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. Not reporting a bill or tabling it means it has been rejected. If amendments to a bill are extensive, then sometimes a new bill with all the amendments built in will be written, sometimes known as a clean bill with a new number.[3]
Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but they are rarely used. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house which considers it. This can be simple or complex.[3] Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution hammering out the particulars of debate––time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such.[3] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak.[3] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it.[3] Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.[8]
The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill.[3] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives.[3] One mechanism Congress uses to work within revenue constraints is called the reconciliation process which is a multiple step way to keep new budgets within the bounds of existing ones.[4] In addition, both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.[4]
In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added unrequested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions. President Ronald Reagan once quipped, "If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear."[9] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes; otherwise, it fails.
There are a variety of means for members to vote on bills, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting.[10] Most votes, including quorum votes, are done electronically, and allow members to vote yea or nay or present.[10] They light up when the vote is in process.[10] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions (yea indicated by the color green, nay by red.)[10] To conduct a voice vote the chairman asks As many as are in favor say Aye, as many as are opposed, say No.[10] Rules permit live media coverage of voting, although prohibit use of these broadcasts for political purposes or political advertisements.[10] House rules require a three-fifths vote to pass a ruling that contains a specified federal income tax rate increase.[10] One member can't cast a vote for another member.[10] It's possible for citizens to learn how congresspersons voted by consulting an online database.[11]
This second floor committee room in Congress Hall in Philadelphia has a portrait of Marie Antoinette which was presented as a gift from the French monarch following the American Revolution.
After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval.[3] The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Every Act of Congress or joint resolution begins with an enacting formula or resolving formula stipulated by law. These are:
Act of Congress: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."
Joint resolution: "Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."
Quorum and vote[edit]
See also: Voting methods in deliberative assemblies
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Representatives and senators rarely force the presence of a quorum by demanding quorum calls; thus, in most cases, debates continue even if a majority is not present.
Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye" or "no," and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one-fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll-call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll-call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Senate, the Vice President may (if present) cast the tiebreaking vote.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ “How Our Laws Are Made” infographic by Mike Wirth and Dr. Suzanne Cooper-Guasco for Sunlight Foundation “Design for America Competition” 2010, sources: “How Our Laws Are Made” by John V. Sullivan (Rev. 6.24.07 thomas.loc.gov) and What is a Lobbyist? - wiseGEEK and Reconciliation in the Senate - Brookings Institution Archived 2012-01-18 at the Wayback Machine..
^ Jump up to: a b c d John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Sources of ideas for legislation are unlimited and proposed drafts of bills originate in many diverse quarters.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t 111th Congress, 2nd session (2010). "Tying It All Together: Learn about the Legislative Process". United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original on 2011-04-20. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The chief function of Congress is the making of laws.
^ Jump up to: a b c John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, as amended, provides Congress with a procedure to establish appropriate spending and revenue levels for each year. The congressional budget process, as set out in that Act, is designed to coordinate decisions on sources and levels of revenues and on objects and levels of expenditures.
Jump up ^ John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. One of the first actions taken by a committee is to seek the input of the relevant departments and agencies about a bill. Frequently, the bill is also submitted to the Government Accountability Office with a request for an official report of views on the necessity or desirability of enacting the bill into law. Normally, ample time is given for the submission of the reports and they are accorded serious consideration.
^ Jump up to: a b c John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Standing committees are required to have regular meeting days at least once a month.
Jump up ^ John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. If the bill is of sufficient importance, the committee may set a date for public hearings. The chairman of each committee, except for the Committee on Rules, is required to make public announcement of the date, place, and subject matter of any hearing at least one week before the commencement of that hearing, unless the committee chairman with the concurrence of the ranking minority member or the committee by majority vote determines that there is good cause to begin the hearing at an earlier date. If that determination is made, the chairman must make a public announcement to that effect at the earliest possible date.
Jump up ^ "NEWS FROM WASHINGTON". The New York Times. December 3, 1861. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Congress assembled to-day, and contrary to expectations, more than a quorum was present in each House. From the Senate, BRECKINRIDGE, of Kentucky, and JOHNSON, of Missouri, were absent -- both now holding commands in the rebel army. Senators POWELL, BAYARD and POLK, whose sympathy with the rebellion during the extra session and since were too apparent to be consistent with their resuming their seats, were nevertheless present. JOHNSON, of Tennessee, was absent, being now near his home looking after the interests of his constituents.
Jump up ^ "The 7-step towards formalisation of Indo-US nuke Bill". Yahoo! News India. ANI. 2006-11-17. Retrieved 2007-08-04. If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. System of Lights and Bells -- Due to the diverse nature of daily tasks that they have to perform, it is not practicable for Members to be present in the House or Senate Chamber at every minute that the body is in session. Furthermore, many of the routine matters do not require the personal attendance of all the Members. A system consisting of electric lights and bells or buzzers located in various parts of the Capitol Building and House and Senate Office Buildings alerts Members to certain occurrences in the House and Senate Chambers. In the House, the Speaker has ordered that the bells and lights comprising the system be utilized as follows....
Jump up ^ United States government. "Recent Votes". United States Senate. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Congress.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Procedures of the United States Congress
How Laws Are Made, via U.S. Government Printing Office
How Our Laws Are Made by John V. Sullivan, 2007. Detailed information about rules and procedures of the Congress.
Congressional Glossary, via C-SPAN
Selected Congressional Research Service Reports on Congress and Its Procedures, via Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C.
Thomas Legislative Information via Library of Congress
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Procedures_of_the_United_States_Congress&oldid=833606891"
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Ross University School of Medicine
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Not to be confused with Ross Medical Education Center.
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Ross University School of Medicine
Motto
Dedita scientiae medendi
Motto in English
Dedicated to the science of healing
Type
Private, for-profit
Established
1978 (1978)
Dean
William Owen, M.D.
Students
3551+[1]
Location
Bridgetown, Barbados
Nickname
Ross
Website
medical.rossu.edu
Ross University School of Medicine (RUSM) is a private international medical school located in Bridgetown, Barbados as of August 2018. Its main campus is now located in Barbados, and separate administrative bases are located in Iselin, New Jersey and Miramar, Florida in the United States. It is owned by Adtalem Global Education Inc., formerly DeVry Education Group, which purchased it in 2003.
Contents
1 History
2 Accreditation
3 Campus
3.1 Housing
4 Curriculum
4.1 Clinical training
4.2 Internal Medicine Foundations (IMF)
4.3 Clerkships
5 Academic outcomes
6 Alumni
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
The medical school was founded in 1978 as The University of Dominica School of Medicine by Robert Ross, an entrepreneur.[2][3] At the time, it was housed in leased facilities at The Castaways Hotel, with an inaugural class of 11 students. In 1982, the University of Dominica School of Medicine formally changed its name to Ross University School of Medicine at the request of the government of Dominica.
In 1985 California state medical licensing officials (the Board of Medical Quality Assurance), began investigating RUSM, along with other medical schools located in the Caribbean.[4] The officials released a report stating that RUSM at that time had nearly no admissions standards, and that the school was in the business of providing medical degrees to "everyone that wants one."[4] RUSM agreed to implement a number of changes recommended by the board and has since graduated over 11,000 practicing physicians.[4]
In the late 1990s, RUSM expressed interest in opening a new medical school in Casper, in the U.S. state of Wyoming, but accreditation was denied by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education, the organization that accredits MD-granting medical schools in the United States.[5] Some local individuals welcomed the economic impact of a new medical school on the town, but critics questioned the quality of education at a for-profit institution.[5] In 2003, RUSM was acquired by DeVry Education Group,[6] which has since renamed itself Adtalem Global Education.
The school was impacted by Hurricane Maria in 2017, when the Category 5 storm made landfall on the island of Dominica. The hurricane knocked out communications, effectively isolating RUSM from the outside world. The campus suffered moderate damage from the effects of Maria. Students and faculty were located through a university-initiated roll call, and then were evacuated from the campus to the U.S. mainland.[7]
In October 2017, the university announced that classes for the fall semester would resume mid-October aboard the GNV Excellent, an Italian ferry that would be docked off the coast of the island of St. Kitts. The ship was reconfigured as an educational venue. [7]
In November 2017, Ross University School of Medicine announced plans to relocate temporarily to Knoxville, Tennessee for continuation of medical school classes. Lincoln Memorial University (LMU), based in Harrogate, Tennessee and with operations in Knoxville, will provide the necessary operational capacity and the technical capabilities to support RUSM faculty, students, and staff. [8]
Ross University School of Medicine has announced that the main campus will be relocated from Dominica to Barbados for the beginning of the 2019 Spring semester. [9] [10]
Accreditation[edit]
According to the university's website, RUSM has been accredited and recognized by the following agencies:[11]
National Committee on Foreign Medical Education and Accreditation (NCFMEA) through the U.S. Department of Education, allowing American students to participate in the U.S. Federal Direct Student Loan Program
Barbados Medical Council (BMC)
Caribbean Accreditation Authority for Education in Medicine and other Health Professions (CAAM-HP)
General Medical Council of Great Britain
The university has also received state-specific accreditation from California, New York, New Jersey, and Florida.[11]
Campus[edit]
The Ross University School of Medicine pre-clinical campus will be located at the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre at Two Mile Hill in Barbados. The campus is expected to feature a medical and anatomical imaging laboratory, a simulation center, and classrooms equipped with several plasma screens and projection equipment, similar to the previous campus in Dominica.[12] [13]
Housing[edit]
The university does not offer traditional dormitory housing options. Most students typically live in off-campus university-approved apartment buildings and complexes, selected from an internal housing database. The university also oversees a housing complex known as Ross University Housing, which features studio-style single-occupancy units.
Curriculum[edit]
The university accepts students for three different entering classes per year: September, January and May. The fall entering class is typically the largest each year.Since September 2010, the university has followed an organ systems-based curriculum for its basic sciences.[14] This is divided into two different tracks, known as "Accelerated Curriculum" and "Curriculum" as of May 2013. The accelerated curriculum track covers the basic sciences in 60 weeks of study (four semesters), while the Curriculum track covers the same material in 75 weeks (five semesters) with integrated study breaks. Both tracks share identical first semesters, allowing students more time to decide on the track they wish to pursue.
Clinical training[edit]
Unlike many American medical schools, Ross University does not own or affiliate with any particular primary teaching hospital. The university contracts with hospitals throughout the U.S. to accept and place students in clinical rotations.[15] The Bakersfield Californian reported that Ross and Kern County in California agreed to a $35 million deal to enable Ross students to complete clinical rotations at Kern Medical Center.[16] Upon completion of the curriculum, similar to that of U.S. medical schools, students must pass the USMLE Step 2 CS and USMLE Step 2 CK, prior to graduation.
Internal Medicine Foundations (IMF)[edit]
Prior to starting clerkships for the third and fourth years of the MD program, students are required to complete a six-week clinical semester known as Internal Medicine Foundations (IMF) in Miramar, Florida. Successful completion of this pre-clinical program is required prior to entry into a clerkship.
Clerkships[edit]
The university requires students to enter into "track" programs for clerkships, which would have most students complete core rotations at a single teaching hospital affiliate. The clerkship component of the program is currently composed of 48 weeks of required core rotations and 30 weeks of electives.[17] Students have to option to enter clerkships in the United States, Canada or the United Kingdom.
Academic outcomes[edit]
In 2013, the attrition rate at Ross University was reported to be approximately 20-27%, which was significantly higher than that of U.S. medical schools (3%).[18] According to the university's Gainful Employment data, 77% of students completed the program in four years in 2014-2015.[19] According to the US Department of Education, 70% of students completed the program on time in 2016 with a mean combined loan debt of $268,134.00 for U.S. borrowers.[20] In 2016, the university reported a residency match rate of 86% among first-time eligible applicants.[21] In 2016, the university reported first-time pass rates for the USMLE Step 1, USMLE Step 2 CK, and USMLE Step 2 CS were 93%, 87%, and 94%, respectively.[22]
Alumni[edit]
Since opening in 1978, over 13,000 students have graduated from the university.[23]
Henry Bello - shooter in the Bronx Lebanon Hospital attack on June 30, 2017[24]
Michael R. Williams - president of the University of North Texas Health Science Center[25]
See also[edit]
International medical graduate
List of medical schools in the Caribbean
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Student Consumer Information". rossu.edu. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Beall, Pat (21 March 2011). "Entrepreneur, part-time Palm Beacher Robert Ross dies at age 92". The Palm Beach Post.
Jump up ^ Martin, Douglas (21 March 2011). "Robert Ross, Global Deal Maker, Dies at 92". The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jacobs, Paul (13 September 1985). "State Dubious, Will Monitor Caribbean Medical Schools". The Los Angeles Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Elizabeth (June 27, 1999). "U.S. Resists For-Profit Medical School". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Roach, Ronald (8 May 2003). "DeVry to Purchase Caribbean Medical School". Diverse Education. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ross University Blog". Ross University. 26 September 2017. Archived from the original on 20 September 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Schencker, Lisa. "Displaced medical school will relocate from Caribbean cruise ship to Tennessee". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Medical school relocates to Barbados after hurricane". washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
Jump up ^ "Adtalem Global Education Announces Barbados as New Location for Ross University School of Medicine". Adtalem Global Education. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Accreditation and Approvals". medical.rossu.edu. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ross University Opens New Student Center". Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica. May 19, 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Blog - Ross University School of Medicine - CAMPUS EXPANSION: Officials Tour New Student Center Site". Ross University School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 2016-04-24.
Jump up ^ "Ross University School of Medicine - Caribbean Medical Schools". Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Hundley, Kris (25 December 2009). "Investigators want to know if the quality of offshore medical schools justifies the cost". Tampa Bay Times. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Schmitt, Kellie (29 May 2002). "Supervisors approve $35 million deal with Caribbean medical school". Retrieved 9 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ross University School of Medicine - Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine". Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Lorin, Janet (11 September 2013). "DeVry Lures Medical School Rejects as Taxpayers Fund Debt". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2015-05-21.
Jump up ^ "ED Gainful Employment Disclosure Template". Retrieved 3 February 2017.
Jump up ^ https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/sites/default/files/ross-university-school-medicine.pdf
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2017. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "FAQ". medical.rossu.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
Jump up ^ "Facts and figures". Ross University School of Medicine. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Foderaro, Lisa (2017-07-01). "For Gunman at Bronx Hospital, Fleeting Success and Persistent Strife". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
Jump up ^ "Michael Williams Officially Named President of UNT Health Science Center". Market Watch. 12 July 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
External links[edit]
Ross University School of Medicine official site
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Adtalem Global Education (formerly DeVry)
Divisions
American University of the Caribbean
Becker Professional Education
Carrington College
Chamberlain University
DeVry University
Ibmec
Ross University School of Medicine
Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine
Related
Bell & Howell
EduPristine
Coordinates: 15°33′25″N 61°27′30″W / 15.556995°N 61.458431°W / 15.556995; -61.458431
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ross_University_School_of_Medicine&oldid=858957712"
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This page was last edited on 10 September 2018, at 19:28 (UTC).
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