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Mare's Leg
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Mare's Leg
Rossi Ranch Hand
Type
cut-down lever-action rifle
Place of origin
United States
Production history
Designer
Kenny "Von Dutch" Howard
Designed
1958
Produced
1958, 1993
No. built
3 (1958), ~2 (1993)
Specifications
Length
~2 ft (61 cm)[1]
Barrel length
~12 in (30 cm)[1]
Cartridge
44-40 (actual)
45-70 (fictional)
.30 WCF (fictional; according to script dialogue in season one)
.44 Magnum (actual)
.38 Special/.357 Magnum (actual)
.22 Long Rifle (actual)
Action
Lever-action
Feed system
6-round Tubular magazine
The Mare's Leg (aka Mare's Laig; both sometimes spelled without the apostrophe) is the name given to a customized shortened rifle used by Steve McQueen's character on the television series Wanted: Dead or Alive (1958–1961). McQueen's character was named Josh Randall, and the gun has also been referred to as a Winchester Randall, or a Randall Special. "Mare's leg" is now a generic term for a Winchester Model 1892 (or modern derivative) with a shortened barrel and stock.[2]
Contents
1 Prop gun
1.1 Other appearances
2 Manufactured replicas
2.1 Carbine
2.2 Pistol
2.3 Shotgun
3 Legal status
4 See also
5 References
Prop gun[edit]
The term "mare's leg" was introduced in 1957 in the TV series Trackdown, where Steve McQueen first appeared as a bounty hunter.[3] Steve McQueen and his "mare's leg" went on to star in the CBS TV series Wanted Dead or Alive.[4]
Designed by Kenny "Von Dutch" Howard, an experienced artist and gunsmith,[5] the original mare's leg was made by cutting down a .44-40 caliber Winchester Model 1892 rifle to a size that could be worn in a large leg holster and used with one hand. The barrel was cut to a length of nine inches,[1] and much of the butt-stock was removed. The original mare's leg did not have sights. McQueen was involved in the final design, suggesting the duck-bill hammer and enlarged lever loop, and initiating a redesign of the custom holster.[1] The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms was not consulted before the program aired and producers had to pay taxes totalling $1100.[1]
During filming three guns were made, each with an enlarged loop on the cocking lever. After filming started, the size of the levers was made smaller on all 3 guns. The second and third guns bore octagonal barrels instead of a round one. In a continuity oversight, a gun sometimes changed partway through a given scene. While the guns were chambered for the .44-40 round, McQueen wore more impressive looking .45-70 rounds in the loops of his gun belt. In season one a doctor, after removing a bullet fired from the Mare's Leg from the back of a criminal, identified the removed bullet as a 30-30 round.[6]
As of the 1980s, one of the original guns was on display at the Fort Spaghetti Restaurant and Museum (999 Ball Road, Anaheim, California).[7] Another is in the Autry National Center of the American West.[8] There have been a number of toys based on the Mare's Leg, from small cap guns to larger detailed toys complete with a holster.
Other appearances[edit]
In the 1987 film Wanted: Dead or Alive, a sequel to the series starring Rutger Hauer as Nick Randall, the grandson of Josh Randall, Nick keeps his grandfather's Mare's Leg in a display case in his office.
This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018)
Similar shortened rifles have appeared in:
Once Upon a Time in the West (1968 film) used by Woody Strode in a cameo, when sent to kill Charles Bronson's character "Harmonica".[9]
My Name Is Nobody (1973) Used by a rustler 18 minutes into the film.
Boss Nigger (1975 blaxploitation western) used by the main character.
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. (1993–1994 television series) featured Crystal Hawks, a bounty hunter played by Sheena Easton, who used a Mare's Leg.[9]
Resident Evil 3: Nemesis (1999 survival horror video game) had main character Jill Valentine use this weapon as an unlockable item after defeating the Nemesis a certain amount of times. Here, it is treated as a shotgun, and is given the designation M-37.
The Magnificent Seven (1998–2000 television series) featured Eric Close as Mare's Leg wielding Vin Tanner, reminiscent of McQueen's character Vin in the original film.
Firefly (2002 television series) and Serenity (2005 film) starred Gina Torres as Zoe Alleyne Washburne, who used the same Mare's Leg prop created for Brisco County, Jr.[9]
Umineko no Naku Koro ni (2007-2010 visual novel) had appearances of this specific rifle in nearly all of the episodes.
Fistful of Frags (2007 first person shooter video game) as a low-tier starter weapon with high damage and low rate of fire.
Zombieland (2009 film) used by Woody Harrelson throughout the film.[10]
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009) as the Model 1887, a shotgun unlocked in multiplayer when the player reaches Level 67.
Archer (TV series) (Season 5, Episode 3) Archer uses this gun in this episode.
Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes (2014) Antagonist Skull Face uses this weapon.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain (2015) Antagonist Skull Face uses this weapon.
Battlefield 4 (2013) A modernised .44 Magnum Winchester Model 1892, available via an expansion pack, is referred to by this name.
State of Decay (video game) (2013 survival horror game) The rifle is one of several accessible weapons used by the survivors.
Warframe has the Grinlok rifle and the cut down version, known as the Marelok.
In 2016 Pawan Kalyan a popular Indian film actor used mare's leg rifle as a stylish weapon in his film Sardaar Gabbar Singh
The Magnificent Seven (2016) remake Faraday grabs one out of a leg holster from one of Bogue's dead henchmen
Westworld (2017) Hector uses this weapon in season 1 and 2
Manufactured replicas[edit]
A number of companies have marketed functional reproductions of the Mare's Leg, making them the same way as the original, by cutting down Winchester rifles. These reproductions also have the same legal restrictions as the original: a rifle may not have a barrel length less than 16 inches (41 cm) without obtaining a tax stamp from the ATF, in accordance with the National Firearms Act.[11]
Other companies have marketed reproductions originally made and sold as handguns. Because of the legal restrictions, non-functional prop-quality replicas have been produced by some of the same companies that make functional copies.
Carbine[edit]
Since before 2000, Eagle Squadron Productions has produced and sold an authentic 1892 Winchester Mare's Leg carbine. It uses a Winchester 1892 carbine in the correct caliber of .44-40, and is based on one of the original prop guns. They also produce replica gun belt and a non-firing replica carbine.[12]
Pistol[edit]
1892 Mares Leg Lever Action Pistol
Type
Lever action pistol
Place of origin
United States
Production history
Designer
Jim Buchanan
Designed
2005
Manufacturer
J.B. Custom
Produced
2005—
No. built
~50
Specifications
Length
24 in (61 cm)
Barrel length
12 in (30 cm)
Cartridge
.45 Colt,
.44-40 Winchester,
.38-40 Winchester,
.44 Magnum, or
.357 Magnum
Action
Lever-action
Feed system
6-round Tubular magazine
In 2005, J.B. Custom began marketing a "1892 Mares Leg Lever Action Pistol". This pistol is a fully functional copy of Randall's weapon, available in a number of calibers. Since they are newly manufactured as pistols and sold subject to handgun regulations, rather than cut down rifles, they avoid legal difficulties. Like the original weapon, the J.B. Custom version has a 12-inch (30 cm) barrel, and an overall length of 24 inches (61 cm).[13]
The pistol was available in .45 Colt, .44-40 Winchester, and .38-40 Winchester. Early promotional material specified a limited production run of 50 units based on the number of available 1892 actions that could be used legally. Later versions of the weapons use a slightly different action that while not exactly like the 1892 model, cycles more reliably, and is commercially available. This version is available in .44 Magnum, and .357 Magnum.[13]
In 2008, Legacy Sports International introduced their version of the Mare's Leg, made by Chiappa in Italy, imported for Legacy, and sold under the brand name "Puma". This Puma 92 pistol is named the Bounty Hunter. It is available in several calibers including; .44 Magnum, .45 Colt, and .44-40. With a 12-inch (30 cm) barrel, no shoulder stock, and a receiver that has never been built into a rifle, it is considered a pistol by the ATF.[13]
In 2010 Rossi Firearms began offering a Mare's Leg under the name "Ranch Hand". The Rossi version is chambered in .45 Colt, .44 Magnum/.44 Special, and .357 Magnum/.38 Special.[14] The Rossi Ranch Hand is manufactured by Taurus in Brazil.[15]
Henry Repeating Arms manufactures two versions of the Mare's Leg. The rimfire model has a blued receiver and barrel and chambers .22 Long Rifle, .22 Long, and .22 Short. The centerfire model has a brass receiver and blued barrel and is available in .357 Mag, .44 Mag, and .45 Colt.[16]
Shotgun[edit]
A full-length 30 in. barrel Winchester M1887 lever action shotgun (top) in comparison to its shortened 18 in. barrel "Mare's Leg" variant (bottom).
The Italian firms, such as Chiappa Firearms, manufacture modern reproductions of the Winchester Model 1887 series shotguns. The shotguns appeared on the Australian and the European firearms markets in late 2008. Chiappa’s replicas are offered with barrels ranging from 28 to 18.5 inches. They also offer a model with a rifled barrel and two models with pistol grips.[17]
The Model 1887 Mare's Leg was prominently used by the title character in the film Terminator 2: Judgment Day, portrayed by Arnold Schwarzenegger. One of the guns used in the film was modified with a pistol grip and an oversized loop on the trigger guard, allowing the character to fire and cycle the action with a one hand reverse spin.[17] This in turn has popularised the gun's portrayal in various pop culture, mostly in shooter video games, where they mimic the cycling and reloding actions from the movie.
Legal status[edit]
In the United States under the National Firearms Act, to make a short barreled rifle from a firearm originally made and sold as a rifle requires payment of $200 for a tax stamp, approval from the BATFE and federal registration.[18] However, a "lever action pistol" made and sold subject to BATFE regulations is treated as a pistol by federal law. While most states allow the purchase of Mare's Leg lever action pistols, New York State has banned this gun from being sold there. They are also not approved for sale in Massachusetts. It is hard to get in California since most stores believe it is not legal to sell there (including Henry USA)[citation needed].
See also[edit]
Look up mare's leg in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lachuk's detailed Guns Quarterly article states that the gun is 19 inches long with a nine-inch barrel. (Lachuk, John. "The Gun That Brings 'Em Back 'Dead or Alive'" Guns Quarterly, Volume Five. ©1961.) John Taffin, Senior Field Editor for Guns, describes the gun as having a 12-inch barrel, and being about two feet in overall length. Detailed replicas, available from multiple sources, have 12-inch barrels and overall lengths of 22–24 inches.
Jump up ^ "Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Records". Cancellation No. 92053336. USPTO. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bounty Hunter Special". History. Eagle Squadron Productions. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Correspondence". American Rifleman (2): 22. February 2011.
Jump up ^ Adler, Dennis (19 April 2016). "Chiappa 1892 Von Dutch Mare's Leg". Guns of the Old West.
Jump up ^ Mueller, Jim (2001). "Blasters From The Past". American Cowboy. Active Interest Media, Inc. 7 (6): 59–62. ISSN 1079-3690.
Jump up ^ Wilson, R.L. (1992). "Arming the Fictional West". The Peacemakers: Arms and Adventures in the American West. Random House. ISBN 978-0-7858-1892-2.
Jump up ^ Steve McQueen's Carbine Archived 2015-12-25 at the Wayback Machine. Autry National Center
^ Jump up to: a b c Johnson, Michael K. (23 January 2014). Hoo-Doo Cowboys and Bronze Buckaroos: Conceptions of the African American West. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-61703-928-7.
Jump up ^ Patrick, Brian Anse (28 May 2014). Zombology: Zombies and the Decline of the West (and Guns). Arktos. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-1-907166-91-4.
Jump up ^ Bounty Hunter Special (A Class 3, Mare's Leg reproduction)
Jump up ^ Bounty Hunter Special 2006 Eagle Squadron Productions
^ Jump up to: a b c Taffin, John (2006). Gun Digest Book of the .44. Gun Digest Books. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-89689-416-7.
Jump up ^ Ranch Hand product page at Rossi USA
Jump up ^ Rackley, Paul (2010). "Rossi and Taurus Unite Legacies: When Taurus bought the rights to Rossi, their legacies united and opened the future for both". American Rifleman. NRA. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Mare's Leg Lever Action Pistol". Henry Repeating Arms.
^ Jump up to: a b Sadowski, Robert A. (27 October 2015). Gun Trader's Guide to Shotguns: A Comprehensive, Fully Illustrated Reference for Modern Shotguns with Current Market Values. Skyhorse Publishing. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-63450-965-7.
Jump up ^ Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. "NFA Handbook, Chapter 4: Taxes Imposed By The NFA" ATF Online. (June 21, 2007)
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text:
Diogenes and Alexander
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Alexander visits Diogenes in Corinth - Diogenes asks him to stand out of his sun (engraving)
The meeting of Diogenes of Sinope and Alexander the Great is one of the most well-discussed anecdotes from philosophical history. Many versions of it exist. The most popular relate it as evidence of Diogenes' disregard for honor, wealth, and respect.[1]
Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius report that Alexander and Diogenes died on the same day, in 323 BC.[2] Although this coincidence is suspect (it possibly being an invention), the anecdote, and the relationship between the two people, has been the subject of many literary and artistic works over the centuries, from the writings of Diogenes Laërtius to David Pinski's 1930 dramatic reconstruction of the encounter, Aleḳsander un Dyogenes; including writings from the Middle Ages, several works of Henry Fielding, and possibly even Shakespeare's King Lear along the way. The literature and artwork is extensive.[3]
Versions upon versions of the anecdote exist, with the origins of most appearing to be, either directly or indirectly, in the account of the meeting given by Plutarch, whose actual historicity has also been questioned.[3] Several of the embellished versions of the anecdote do not name either one or both of the protagonists, and some indeed substitute Socrates for Diogenes.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 The original anecdote
1.1 Interpretation by Dio Chrysostom
1.2 Interpretation by Peter Sloterdijk
1.3 Interpretation by Samuel Johnson
1.4 Modern interpretations
2 Medieval restructuring and reinterpretation
3 Henry Fielding's Dialogue
4 François Rabelais' allusion
5 Visual arts
5.1 Puget's La rencontre
5.2 Landseer's Alexander and Diogenes
6 References
7 Further reading
8 See also
The original anecdote[edit]
Alexander und Diogenes by Lovis Corinth, 1894, at the Graphische Sammlung Albertina
Alexander and Diogenes, lithograph illustration by Louis Loeb in Century Magazine, 1898
According to legend, Alexander the Great came to visit the Greek philosopher Diogenes of Sinope. Alexander wanted to fulfill a wish for Diogenes and asked him what he desired.[5] According to the version recounted by Diogenes Laërtius, Diogenes replied "Stand out of my light."[6] Plutarch provides a longer version of the story:
Thereupon many statesmen and philosophers came to Alexander with their congratulations, and he expected that Diogenes of Sinope also, who was tarrying in Corinth, would do likewise. But since that philosopher took not the slightest notice of Alexander, and continued to enjoy his leisure in the suburb Craneion, Alexander went in person to see him; and he found him lying in the sun. Diogenes raised himself up a little when he saw so many people coming towards him, and fixed his eyes upon Alexander. And when that monarch addressed him with greetings, and asked if he wanted anything, "Yes," said Diogenes, "stand a little out of my sun."[7] It is said that Alexander was so struck by this, and admired so much the haughtiness and grandeur of the man who had nothing but scorn for him, that he said to his followers, who were laughing and jesting about the philosopher as they went away, "But truly, if I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."[8]
There are many minor variants of what Diogenes is supposed to have replied to Alexander. According to Cicero, Diogenes answered Alexander with the words, "Now move at least a little out of the sun"[9] According to Valerius Maximus, Diogenes answered: "To this later, for now I just want you not to stand in the sun."[10] The statement by Alexander, "if I were not Alexander the Great, I would like to be Diogenes," also crops up in some other versions of the anecdote.[5]
In his biography of Alexander, Robin Lane Fox[11] sets the encounter in 336, the only time Alexander was in Corinth. The Alexander of the story is not the king of kings, ruler of Greece and Asia, but the promising but brash 20-year-old son of Philip of Macedon, first proving his mettle in Greece. One of Diogenes' pupils, Onesicritus, later joined Alexander and will have been the original source of this story, embellished in the retelling, which appears in Ptolemy (14.2),[clarification needed] Arrian, (Anabasis Alexandri, 7.2.1) and "Plutarch" Moralia, 331.[12][13] The other major accounts of the tale are Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 5.32.92; Valerius Maximus Dictorum factorumque memorabilium 4.3. ext. 4; Plutarch Alexander 14; and Diogenes Laërtius 6.32, 38, 60, and 68.[14]
The historicity of the accounts by Plutarch and others has been questioned, not least by G. E. Lynch in his article on Diogenes in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Lynch points out the problem that Alexander did not have the title given to him until after he had left Greece, and considers this enough of a problem with the anecdote such that it (alongside the notion that Diogenes lived in a barrel) should be "banish[ed …] from the domain of history". "[C]onsidering what rich materials so peculiar a person as Diogenes must have afforded for amusing stories," he continues, "we need not wonder if a few have come down to us of somewhat doubtful genuineness.".[3][15] A. M. Pizzagalli suggests that the account has its origins in the meeting between Alexander and the Gymnosophists in India, and was handed down in Buddhist circles.[3][16]
There are significant variations of fact amongst the accounts. Some have Diogenes and Alexander meeting at Corinth, some in Athens, and some at the Metroön. Further, as noted earlier, Diogenes Laërtius' rendition of the account is broken up into two parts. At 6.38 there is Alexander's request and Diogenes's "Stand out of my light!" reply. Alexander's aside to his followers is, however, at 6.32. At 6.68, D.L. has a third version of the anecdote, with Alexander responding that he is "a good thing" to an inquiry by Diogenes. At 6.60, D.L. has yet a fourth version, this time with the two exchanging introductions: "I am Alexander the great king." "I am Diogenes the dog.".[3]
In his Dialogues of the Dead (13), Lucian imagines a meeting between Alexander and Diogenes in the underworld. The philosopher once more punctures Alexander's pretensions and prescribes him a stiff draught from the water of Lethe.
Interpretation by Dio Chrysostom[edit]
Dio Chrysostom, in his fourth oration on kingship,[17] ascribes a simple moral to the anecdote: People who are naturally outspoken and forthright respect others like themselves, whereas cowards regard such people as enemies. A good king will respect and tolerate the candour of a morally sincere critic (albeit that they must take care to determine which critics truly are sincere, and which are simply feigning sincerity), and Diogenes' remark to Alexander is a test of Diogenes. His bravery in risking offending Alexander, without knowing whether he would be tolerant of such behaviour beforehand, marks him as honest.[18]
Interpretation by Peter Sloterdijk[edit]
According to Peter Sloterdijk, in his Critique of Cynical Reason, this is "perhaps the most well known anecdote from Greek antiquity, and not without justice". He states that "It demonstrates in one stroke what antiquity understands by philosophical wisdom — not so much a theoretical knowledge but rather an unerring sovereign spirit [… T]he wise man […] turns his back on the subjective principle of power, ambition, and the urge to be recognized. He is the first one who is uninhibited enough to say the truth to the prince. Diogenes' answer negates not only the desire for power, but the power of desire as such."[19]
Interpretation by Samuel Johnson[edit]
Samuel Johnson wrote about this anecdote. Rather than relating it to Diogenes' cynicism, Johnson relates the story to time, relating the taking away of the sunlight by Alexander to the wasting of people's time by other people.[1] "But if the opportunities of beneficence be denied by fortune," wrote Johnson, "innocence should at least be vigilantly preserved. […] Time […] ought, above all other kinds of property, to be free from invasion; and yet there is no man who does not claim the power of wasting that time which is the right of others."[20]
Modern interpretations[edit]
In 2005, Ineke Sluiter analysed the proxemics of the encounter, observing that a common feature of the anecdotes was that Alexander approached Diogenes, reversing the usual stances of royalty and commoner in which the latter would be physically submissive. By such means, Diogenes communicated his cynical indifference to convention and status in a non-verbal way.[21]
Medieval restructuring and reinterpretation[edit]
16th century Alexandre et Diogène Urbino majolica in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon
The anecdote was popular amongst medieval scholars, because of its mention in the writings of authors who were popular in that period: Cicero, Valerius Maximus, and Seneca. Valerius Maximus comments "Alexander Diogenem gradu suo diuitiis pellere temptat, celerius Darium armis" (4.3. ext. 4). Seneca says "multo potentior, multo locupletior fuit [Diogenes] omnia tunc possidente Alexandro: plus enim erat, quod hic nollet accipere quam quod ille posset dare.", and adds "Alexander Macedonum rex gloriari solebat a nullo se beneficiis uictum." (De beneficiis 5.4.3; 5.6.1).[22]
These comments were widely reproduced. Philosophical thought in the Middle Ages agreed with Seneca in particular: Alexander, who boasted that no-one could surpass him when it came to liberality, was surpassed by Diogenes, who proved himself the better man by refusing to accept from Alexander everything except those things that Alexander could not give. Diogenes requests that Alexander return the sunshine to him, it being something that Alexander cannot give to him in the first place.[4][22]
Will is my man and my servant,
And evere hath ben and evere schal.
And thi will is thi principal,
And hath the lordschipe of thi witt,
So that thou cowthest nevere yit
Take o dai rests of thi labour;
Bot forto ben a conquerour
Of worldes good, which mai noght laste,
Thou hiest evere aliche faste,
Wher thou no reson hast to winne.
Confessio Amantis, John Gower, III, 1280–1289[4]
A different version of the anecdote, which included new material, changed the focus of the story. This version reached Europe through the Disciplina Clericalis and is also to be found in the Gesta Romanorum. In it, the incident of the sunlight is pushed into a subordinate position, with the main focus instead being upon Diogenes identifying Alexander as "the servant of his servant". In this modified anecdote, Diogenes states to Alexander that his (Diogenes') own will is subject to his reason, whereas Alexander's reason is subject to his will. Therefore, Alexander is the servant of his servant. The story of blocking the sunlight, in this version, is a brief introductory matter only; and, indeed, the tale is not even told as a meeting between Diogenes and Alexander, but as a meeting between Diogenes and Alexander's servants.[4][22]
It was this latter form of the anecdote that became popular outside of scholarly circles in the Middle Ages. The former form, focused on the sunlight incident, was primarily confined to popularity amongst scholars.[22] John Gower presents this form of the anecdote in his Confessio Amantis. In the Confessio the meeting is a meeting of opposites. Alexander embodies a driven, restless, worldly, conqueror. Whereas Diogenes is the embodiment of philosophical virtue: rational control, patience, and sufficiency. Alexander covets the world and laments the fact that he has no more to conquer ("al the world ne mai suffise To will which is noght reasonable" — Confessio Amantis III 2436–2437) whereas Diogenes is content with no more than the few necessities of nature.[4]
Gower's re-telling of the anecdote names Diogenes and Alexander, and these are the two characters in most medieval versions of the anecdote. However, this is not the case for the Disciplina Clericalis nor for the Gesta Romanorum, this modified anecdote's earliest appearances. In the former, the meeting is between an unnamed king and Socrates; in the latter, it is between Socrates and Alexander. According to John David Burnley, this suggests that the anecdote, at least in this form, is meant to be an exemplar, rather than a literal truth. It does not matter precisely which characters are involved, as they are idealised forms rather than literal historical figures. They symbolize the conflict between a philosopher/critic and a king/conqueror, and it is the structure of the anecdote that is important, rather than the specific identities of the participants. Socrates is as good as Diogenes for this purpose; although Alexander is favoured as the king simply because by the Middle Ages he had already become the archetypical conqueror, and was considered the most famous one in history.[4]
The encounter appears in numerous Elizabethan works such as John Lyly's play Campaspe. Shakespeare's play King Lear may have been intended to parody this when the King meets Edgar, son of Gloucester, dressed in rags and says "Let me talk with this philosopher".[3][23]
Henry Fielding's Dialogue[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
A Dialogue between Alexander the Great, and Diogenes the Cynic
Henry Fielding retells the anecdote as A Dialogue between Alexander the Great, and Diogenes the Cynic, printed in his Miscellanies in 1743.[24][25] Fielding's version of the story again uses Alexander as an idealistic representation of power and Diogenes as an idealistic representation of intellectual reflection. However, he portrays both men as fallible. Both are verbally adept, and engage one another, but both are dependent from the support of others for their weight of argument.[24] Fielding likes neither character, and in his version of the anecdote each serves to highlight the cruelty and meanness of the other.[26] The false greatness of the conqueror is shown opposed to the false greatness of the do-nothing philosopher, whose rhetoric is not carried through to action.[27]
François Rabelais' allusion[edit]
In the Chapter XXX of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c.1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had his head cut off after a battle. After he had his head reattached and was brought back to life, he recounts his experience of the damned in hell: "Their estate and condition of living is but only changed after a very strange manner; for I saw Alexander the Great there amending and patching on clouts upon old breeches and stockings, whereby he got but a very poor living."..."After this manner, those that had been great lords and ladies here, got but a poor scurvy wretched living there below. And, on the contrary, the philosophers and others, who in this world had been altogether indigent and wanting, were great lords there in their turn. I saw Diogenes there strut it out most pompously, and in great magnificence, with a rich purple gown on him, and a golden sceptre in his right hand. And, which is more, he would now and then make Alexander the Great mad, so enormously would he abuse him when he had not well patched his breeches; for he used to pay his skin with sound bastinadoes."
Visual arts[edit]
La rencontre d'Alexandre et de Diogène de Sinope by Pierre Paul Puget, 1680, in the Musée du Louvre
Puget's La rencontre[edit]
Puget's bas relief, pictured at right, is widely regarded as a chef d'oeuvre.[28] Étienne Maurice Falconet described it as Puget's "sublime error".[29] Daniel Cady Eaton, art historian and professor of the History and Criticism of Art at Yale University, observed that the work is not in keeping with the anecdote, with Diogenes portrayed as a pitiable old man extending his arms and Alexander portrayed as mounted on a horse with a hand to his breast in mockery. The horses are too small for the riders, and the chain by which the dog is held is "big enough for a ship's anchor".[30] Eugène Delacroix wrote of the work:
If the great Puget had had as much of common sense as he had of the intensity and science which fill this work, he would have perceived before beginning that his subject was the strangest sculpture could choose. He forgot that in the mass of men, weapons, horses, and even edifices, he could not introduce the most essential actor; that is the sun's ray intercepted by Alexander; without which the composition has no sense.[30]
Victor Duruy made the same point, writing:
Son bas-relief […] est malgré la science qu'il y montra, une preuve de l'impuissance de la statuaire à rivaliser avec la peinture. Combien sont lourds ces nuages et ces drapeaux de marbre qui flotteraient si bien dans l'air libre d'un tableau! Et où est le principal acteur de cette scène, le rayon de soleil qu'Alexandre intercepte?[31]
Others, such as Gonse, praised Puget:
I do not hesitate to proclaim the bas-relief of Alexandre de Diogène one of the most striking creations of modern sculpture. Everything that is most rare and most difficult in the art of sculpture are there united as by a miracle: concentrated plastic effect, play of lights and shadows, selections of plans, ease of modelling; nervous, fine, lively, and iridescent execution. What more can be said? There is not a secondary detail that is not treated with a marvelous assurance.[30]
Alexander and Diogenes by Edwin Landseer, 1848, in the Tate collection
Landseer's Alexander and Diogenes[edit]
Edwin Landseer's Alexander and Diogenes presents the encounter between the twain as between two dogs.[32] Alexander is a white bulldog with a military collar who looks down haughtily upon Diogenes, represented as a scruffy farrier's dog in a barrel.[33][34] Landseer was inspired to create the painting when he encountered two dogs in the street, one observing the other from within a barrel, and was reminded of the encounter between Alexander and Diogenes.[35] The painting in turn was to become the inspiration for the anthropomorphic dogs in Disney's Lady and the Tramp.[36] Charles Darwin and Briton Rivière agreed with each other that the hair of the Alexander dog was inaccurately represented.[37]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Liang Shiqiu (2007). "On Time". In Joseph S. M. Lau; Howard Goldblatt. The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Modern Asian literature. translated by King-fai Tam (2nd ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 665 et seq. ISBN 978-0-231-13841-3.
Jump up ^ Plutarch, Moralia, 717c; Diogenes Laërtius vi. 79, citing Demetrius of Magnesia as his source. It is also reported by the Suda, Diogenes δ1143
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Luis E. Navia (1996). Classical cynicism: a critical study. Contributions in philosophy. 58. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 85,98–100,115–116. ISBN 978-0-313-30015-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f John David Burnley (1979). "The Philosopher". Chaucer's language and the philosophers' tradition. Chaucer studies. 2. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0-85991-051-4.
^ Jump up to: a b John M. Dillon (2004). Morality and custom in ancient Greece. Indiana University Press. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0-253-34526-4.
Jump up ^ Greek: "ἀποσκότησόν μου". Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 38
Jump up ^ Greek: "ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι"
Jump up ^ Plutarch, Alexander 14
Jump up ^ Latin: "Nunc quidem paululum a sole." Cicero, Tusculanae disputationes, 5. 92
Jump up ^ Latin: "Mox ... de ceteris, interim velim a sole mihi non obstes." Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia
Jump up ^ Fox, Alexander the Great 1973:71.
Jump up ^ Robin Lane Fox's notes.
Jump up ^ S.L. Radt (1967). "Zu Plutarchs Vita Alexandri". Mnemosyne. 20 (2): 120–126. doi:10.1163/156852567x01464.
Jump up ^ Henry Fielding (1972). Henry Knight Miller, ed. Miscellanies. Oxford University Press US. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-19-812435-1.
Jump up ^ G. E. Lynch (1853). "Diogenes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. London: John Murray. pp. 1021–1022.
Jump up ^ A. M. Pizzagalli (1942–1943). "Influssi buddhistica nella leggenda di Alessandro". Rendiconti dell'Istituto Lombardo. 76: 154–160.
Jump up ^ Dio Chrysostom, Oration 4
Jump up ^ David Konstan (2004). "Parrhēsia: Ancient Philosophy in Opposition". In Albert A. Anderson; Steven V. Hicks; Lech Witkowski. Mythos and logos: how to regain the love of wisdom. Value inquiry book series. 155. Rodopi. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-90-420-1020-8.
Jump up ^ Ross Posnock (2010). "The Earth Must Resume Its Rights". In John J. Stuhr. 100 Years of Pragmatism: William James's Revolutionary Philosophy. American Philosophy. Indiana University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-253-22142-1.
Jump up ^ Samuel Johnson (1840). "The Idler: No. 14 Saturday July 15, 1758". In Arthur Murphy. The works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. 1. New York: Alexander V. Blake. pp. 369–370.
Jump up ^ Ineke Sluiter (2005), "Communicating Cynicism: Diogenes' Gangsta Rap", Language and learning: philosophy of language in the Hellenistic age, Cambridge University Press, p. 143, ISBN 978-0-521-84181-8
^ Jump up to: a b c d George Cary (1956). "The Most Popular Moral Anecdotes of Alexander, and their Medieval History and Usage: Alexander and Diogenes". In David J.A. Ross. The Medieval Alexander. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–85. ISBN 978-0-521-07085-0.
Jump up ^ Steven Doloff (1991), ""Let Me Talk with This Philosopher": The Alexander/Diogenes Paradigm in "King Lear"", Huntington Library Quarterly, 54 (3): 253–255, JSTOR 3817709
^ Jump up to: a b David Mazella (2007). The making of modern cynicism. University of Virginia Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-0-8139-2615-5.
Jump up ^ Henry Fielding (1967). W. B. Coley, ed. Contributions to The champion and related writings (2003 reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-19-818510-9.
Jump up ^ Wilbur Lucius Cross (1918). The History of Henry Fielding. 1 (2007 Read Books reprint ed.). Yale University Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-1-4086-0433-5.
Jump up ^ Ronald Paulson (2000). The life of Henry Fielding: a critical biography. Blackwell critical biographies. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-631-19146-9.
Jump up ^ Henry Redhead Yorke (1804). Letters from France, in 1802. 1. H.D. Symonds. p. 177.
Jump up ^ Anne Betty Weinshenker (1966). Falconet: his writings and his friend Diderot. Histoire des idées et critique littéraire. 66. Librairie Droz. p. 32. ISBN 978-2-600-03476-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Daniel Cady Eaton (1913). A Handbook of Modern French Sculpture (republished Read Books, 2009 ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4446-3981-0.
Jump up ^ Victor Duruy (1868). Histoire de France (in French). 2. Paris: Hachette. pp. 323–324.
Jump up ^ "The Royal Academy: The Eighteenth Exhibition (No. 208)". The Art Journal: 168. 1848-06-01.
Jump up ^ Esther Singleton (1911). How to Visit the Great Picture Galleries (Reprinted by READ BOOKS, 2008 ed.). p. 43. ISBN 978-1-4437-6963-1.
Jump up ^ Moses Foster Sweetser (2009). Landseer. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-103-07178-4.
Jump up ^ "Edwin Landseer: Alexander and Diogenes". Jacob Bell. Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Retrieved 2010-08-16. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ J. Griffin (2007-03-07). "Disney's artistic Fantasia". The Montreal Gazette. CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-06-11.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Smith (2006). Charles Darwin and Victorian visual culture. Cambridge studies in nineteenth-century literature and culture. 50. Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-521-85690-4.
Further reading[edit]
Maurizio Buora (1973–1974). "L'incontro tra Alessandro e Diogenes. Tradizione e significato.". Atti dell 'Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti (in Italian). 132: 243–264.
Walther Amelung (1927). Notes on representations of Socrates and of Diogenes and other cynics. Archaeological Institute of America. pp. 281–296.
David Pinski (1930). Aleḳsander un Dyogenes (in Yiddish) (republished 2002 by National Yiddish Book Center ed.). Ṿilne: Ṿilner farlag fun B. Ḳletsḳin. ISBN 978-0-657-09260-3.
J. Servais (1959). "Alexandre-Dionysos et Diogène-Sarapis: À propos de Diogène Laërce, VI, 63". Antiquité Classique. 28: 98–106.
See also[edit]
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Last Post
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the musical call. For other uses, see Last Post (disambiguation).
"The Last Post" redirects here. For other uses, see The Last Post (disambiguation).
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A synthesised performance of the "Last Post".
The "Last Post"
The "Last Post" is either a B♭ bugle call within British infantry regiments or an E♭ cavalry trumpet call in British cavalry and Royal Regiment of Artillery (Royal Horse Artillery and Royal Artillery) used at Commonwealth military funerals and ceremonies commemorating those who have been killed in war. Its duration varies typically from a little over one minute to nearly three minutes.[1] For ceremonial use, the Last Post is often followed by "The Rouse", or less usually the longer "Reveille".[2][3]
The two regimental traditions have separate music for the call (see Trumpet & Bugle Calls for the British Army 1966). While the B♭ infantry bugle version is better known, the E♭ cavalry trumpet version is used by the state trumpeters of the Household Cavalry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and wartime use
2 Memorial usage
3 Menin Gate
4 Other uses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Origin and wartime use[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The "First Post" call signals the start of the duty officer's inspection of a British Army camp's sentry posts, sounding a call at each one. The "Last Post" call originally signalled merely that the final sentry post had been inspected, and the camp was secure for the night.[4] In addition to its normal garrison use, the Last Post call had another function at the close of a day of battle. It signalled to those who were still out and wounded or separated that the fighting was done, and to follow the sound of the call to find safety and rest.
Its use in Remembrance Day ceremonies in Commonwealth nations has two generally unexpressed purposes: the first is an implied summoning of the spirits of the Fallen to the cenotaph, the second is to symbolically end the day, so that the period of silence before the Rouse is blown becomes in effect a ritualised night vigil. The Last Post as played at the end of inspection typically lasted for about 45 seconds; when played ceremonially with notes held for longer, pauses extended, and the expression mournful, typical duration could be 75 seconds or more.[5]
This custom dates from the 17th century or earlier. It originated with British troops stationed in the Netherlands, where it drew on an older Dutch custom, called taptoe, from which comes the term Tattoo as in Military tattoo. The taptoe was also used to signal the end of the day, but originated from a signal that beer taps had to be shut, hence that the day had ended. It comes from the Dutch phrase Doe den tap toe, meaning "Close the tap". The Dutch bugle call Taptoesignaal, now used for remembrance events, is not the same tune as the Last Post.
The "Last Post" was used by British forces in North America in colonial times, but was replaced by the different "Taps" by the United States Army, first used in 1862 and officially recognized in 1874.
Memorial usage[edit]
Memorial stained glass window, Class of 1934, Royal Military College of Canada showing officer cadet playing the bugle call for the "Last Post" or "The Rouse".
During the 19th century, the "Last Post" was also carried to the various countries of the British Empire. In all these countries, it has been incorporated into military funerals, where it is played as a final farewell, symbolising the fact that the duty of the dead soldier is over and that they can rest in peace.
"Last Post" is used in public ceremonials commemorating the war dead, particularly on Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth of Nations. In Australia and New Zealand it is also played on Anzac Day, usually before the two-minute silence, which concludes with "The Rouse".
When the post is played during services such as Anzac Day, it is required of all current serving military members to salute for the duration of the call. During services organised by the Royal British Legion, it is expected that no salute is given during the "Last Post" and Silence, as all personnel will have removed head dress as in church service prayer, have heads bowed, weapons inverted, and flags and standards lowered.
Menin Gate[edit]
Last Post plaque, Menin Gate, Ypres, Belgium
Since 1928, the "Last Post" has been played every evening at 8 p.m. by buglers of the local Last Post association at the war memorial at Ypres in Belgium known as the Menin Gate, commemorating the British Empire dead at the Battle of Ypres during the First World War. The only exception to this was during the four years of the German occupation of Ypres from 20 May 1940 to 6 September 1944, when the ceremony moved to Brookwood Cemetery in England. On the evening that Polish forces liberated Ypres, the ceremony was resumed at the Menin Gate, in spite of the heavy fighting still going on in other parts of the town. These buglers or trumpeters are quite often mistaken as being from the local fire brigade; however, they are present every day representing the Last Post Committee. They are indeed members of the fire brigade, and can sometimes be seen wearing the uniforms, but it is not the Fire Brigade that organises "Last Post". The Last Post Committee have both silver B♭ bugles and E♭ cavalry trumpets with either British Army tradition being respected at services at the gate.
The Last Post ceremony has now been held more than 30,000 times. On 9 July 2015, a ceremony titled A tribute to the tribute.[6] took place to commemorate the 30,000th ceremony.
Other uses[edit]
The "Last Post" was incorporated into the finale of Robert Steadman's In Memoriam, a choral work on the subject of remembrance. It is also incorporated into Karl Jenkins's orchestral mass The Armed Man and Peter Sculthorpe's chamber orchestra work, Small Town from the Fifth Continent. A slightly altered version forms part of the slow movement of the Pastoral Symphony of Ralph Vaughan Williams and the ending of Mike Sammes' choral setting of Laurence Binyon's poem For the Fallen.
Robert Graves's poem "The Last Post" describes a soldier's funeral during World War I. Ford Madox Ford used The Last Post as title for part of his tetralogy Parade's End.
In 2015, Lee Kernaghan recorded a version for his album Spirit of the Anzacs.
"The Last Post" is the title of a theatre play by David Owen Smith and Peter Came performed during Armistice Week at Lincoln Drill Hall, Lincoln in November 2014. The play concerns the Beechey family of Lincoln, UK. Amy Beechey had eight sons who all enlisted to fight during WW1; only three of them survived. The bugle call is played during the final moments of the play. The play was directed by Janie Smith and performed by people of Lincoln.
See also[edit]
"Ich hatt' einen Kameraden" ("I had a comrade"), the German and Austrian equivalent for military funerals
"Il Silenzio" ("Silence"), the Italian equivalent
"La muerte no es el final" ("Death is not the end"), the Spanish Armed Forces equivalent
"Reveille", the United States bugle song sounded at sunrise
"sonnerie aux morts", the French Armed Forces equivalent
"Taps", the United States Armed Forces equivalent
"The Rouse"
Antoon Verschoot
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Last Post Association recording (see External Links) is 1 min 23 s; the Queen's Own Hussars version is 2 min 40 s
Jump up ^ "The Rouse and the Reveille (with MP3 audio)". Australian War memorial Web site. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Rouse and the Reveille (explanation)". Australian War memorial Web site. 27 August 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Last Post - Australian War Memorial". www.awm.gov.au.
Jump up ^ "The story of the Last Post - BBC News". 11 November 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Last Post Association". www.lastpost.be. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Last Post.
The Last Post Association website relating to the Menin Gate (a recording of "Last Post" can be heard at this website)
Sheet music for the "Last Post" (from an Australian site commemorating ANZAC Day)
Last Post website run by a trumpet player, with music, MIDI files and notes on performance and nomenclature.
"Last Post" played at a ANZAC Day service in New Zealand, Flash sound player, listen online
Last Post as described in The Queen's (King's) regulations and orders for the army, 1868
Recording (WMA) of cavalry version of Last Post, Regimental Band of the Queen's Own Hussars
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Modulation (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Modulating" redirects here. For other uses, see Modulation (disambiguation).
Example of modulation from the tonic to the dominant.[1] Play (help·info)
Key signature change example: C major to C minor.
In music, modulation is most commonly the act or process of changing from one key (tonic, or tonal center) to another. This may or may not be accompanied by a change in key signature. Modulations articulate or create the structure or form of many pieces, as well as add interest. Treatment of a chord as the tonic for less than a phrase is considered tonicization.
Modulation is the essential part of the art. Without it there is little music, for a piece derives its true beauty not from the large number of fixed modes which it embraces but rather from the subtle fabric of its modulation.
—  Charles-Henri Blainville (1767)[2]
Contents
1 Requirements
2 Types
2.1 Common-chord modulation
2.2 Enharmonic modulation
2.3 Common-tone modulation
2.4 Chromatic modulation
2.5 Phrase modulation
2.6 Sequential modulation
2.7 Chain modulation
2.8 Parallel key modulation
3 Common modulations
4 Significance
5 Other types
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 References
9 External links
Requirements[edit]
Harmonic: quasi-tonic, modulating dominant, pivot chord[3]
Melodic: recognizable segment of the scale of the quasi-tonic or strategically placed leading-tone[3]
Metric & rhythmic: quasi-tonic and modulating dominant on metrically accented beats, prominent pivot chord[3]
The quasi-tonic is the tonic of the new key established by the modulation. The modulating dominant is the dominant of the quasi-tonic. The pivot chord is a predominant to the modulating dominant and a chord common to both the keys of the tonic and the quasi-tonic. For example, in a modulation to the dominant, ii/V–V/V–V could be a pivot chord, modulating dominant, and quasi-tonic.
Types[edit]
Common-chord modulation[edit]
Common-chord modulation in the opening of Chopin's Prelude in C minor, Op. 28, No. 20.[4] Play (help·info)
Common-chord modulation in Tchaikovsky's Album pour enfants (1887), Op. 39, No. 10, Mazurka[5] Play (help·info)
Common-chord modulation in the opening of Mozart's, Sonata in D Major, K. 284, III[6] Play (help·info)
Common-chord modulation (also known as diatonic-pivot-chord modulation) moves from the original key to the destination key (usually a closely related key) by way of a chord both keys share: "Most modulations are made smoother by using one or more chords that are common to both keys."[7] For example, G major and D major share four chords in common: G major, B minor, D major and E minor. This can be easily determined by a chart similar to the one below, which compares triad qualities. The I chord in G major—a G major chord—is also the IV chord in D major, so I in G major and IV in D major are aligned on the chart.
G major
I
G ii
Am iii
Bm IV
C V
D vi
Em viio
F♯o
D major
IV
G V
A vi
Bm viio
C♯o I
D ii
Em iii
F♯m
Any chord with the same root note and chord quality (major, minor, diminished) can be used as the pivot chord. However, chords that are not generally found in the style of the piece (for example, major VII chords in a J. S. Bach-style chorale) are also not likely to be chosen as the pivot chord. The most common pivot chords are the predominant chords (ii and IV) in the new key. In analysis of a piece that uses this style of modulation, the common chord is labeled with its function in both the original and the destination keys, as it can be heard either way.
Where an altered chord is used as a pivot chord in either the old or new key (or both), this would be referred to as altered common chord modulation, in order to distinguish the chromaticism that would be introduced from the otherwise, diatonic method.
Enharmonic modulation[edit]
Modulation from D major to D♭ major in Schubert's Op. 9, No. 14, D. 365, mm. 17–24, using the German sixth, in the new key, that is enharmonic to the dominant seventh in the old key.[8] Play (help·info)
Modulation from A minor to E♭ minor in Schubert's Op.29, D. 804, I, mm.144-49, using viio7: G♯o7 ≡ Do7 (≡ Bo7 ≡ Fo7)[9] Play (help·info)
An enharmonic modulation takes place when one treats a chord as if it were spelled enharmonically as a functional chord in the destination key, and then proceeds in the destination key. There are two main types of enharmonic modulations: dominant seventh/augmented sixth, and (fully) diminished seventh. Any dominant seventh or German sixth can be reinterpreted as the other by respelling the m7 or A6 chord tone (respectively) in order to modulate to a key a half-step away (descending or ascending); if the fifth from root chord tone of a German sixth is omitted, the result is an Italian sixth. A diminished seventh chord meanwhile, can be respelled in multiple other ways to form a diminished seventh chord in a key a minor third (m3 as root), tritone (d5 as root) or major sixth (d7 as root) away.[10] Where the dominant seventh is found in all diatonic scales, the diminished seventh is found only in the harmonic scale naturally; an augmented sixth is itself an altered chord, relying on the raised fourth scale degree.
By combining the diminished seventh with a dominant seventh and/or augmented sixth, altering only one pivot note (by a half tone), it is possible to modulate quite smoothly from any key to any other in at most three chords, no matter how distant the starting and ending keys (be aware that, only when modulating between key signatures featuring double-sharps/flats, may the need to respell natural notes enharmonically arise); however, this may or may not require the use of altered chords (operating in the harmonic minor without augmented sixth would not) where the effect can be less subtle than other modulations. The following are examples used to describe this in chord progressions starting from the key of D minor (these chords may instead be used in other keys as borrowed chords, such as the parallel major, or other forms of the minor):
C♯–E–G–B♭ (dim. 7th), C–E–G–B♭ (lowering the root a semitone to a modulating dom. 7th), F–A–C (quasi-tonic) takes us to F major—a relative major modulation (though not enharmonic); but exactly the same progression enharmonically C♯–E–G–B♭, C–E–G–A♯ (Ger. aug. 6th), E–G–B–E (quasi-tonic) takes us somewhat unexpectedly to E natural/harmonic minor—a half-step modulation (ascending).
C♯–E–G–B♭ (dim. 7th), A–C♯–E–G (lowering the 7th a semitone and respelling as a modulating dom. 7th), D–F♯–A (quasi-tonic) takes us to the key of D major—a parallel modulation (though not enharmonic). Enharmonically: C♯–E–G–B♭, A–C♯–E–F (Ger. aug. 6th), C♯–E–G♯ (quasi-tonic) modulates to C♯ minor—a major seventh modulation/half-step descending.
C♯–E–G–B♭ (dim. 7th), C♯–E♭–G–B♭ ≡ E♭–G–B♭–D♭ (lowering the major third a half tone and respelling as a modulating dom. 7th), A♭–C–E♭ (quasi-tonic) leads to A♭ major—a minor third and relative modulation (or tritone modulation if starting in D Major).
Note that in standard voice leading practice, any type of augmented sixth chord favours a resolution to the dominant chord (see: augmented sixth chord), with the exception of the German sixth, where it is difficult to avoid incurring parallel fifths; to prevent this, a cadential six four is commonly introduced before the dominant chord (which would then typically resolve to the tonic to establish tonality in the new key), or an Italian/French sixth is used instead.
In short, lowering any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a dominant seventh chord (or German sixth enharmonically), the lowered note being the root of the new chord. Raising any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a half-diminished seventh chord, the root of which is a whole step above the raised note. This means that any diminished chord can be modulated to eight different chords by simply lowering or raising any of its notes. If also employing enharmonic respelling of the diminished seventh chord, such as that beginning the modulation in the above examples (allowing for three other possible diminished seventh chords in other keys), it quickly becomes apparent the versatility of this combination technique and the wide range of available options in key modulation.
This type of modulation is particularly common in Romantic music, in which chromaticism rose to prominence.
Other types of enharmonic modulation include the augmented triad (III+) and French sixth (Fr+6). Augmented triad modulation occurs in the same fashion as the diminished seventh, that is, to modulate to another augmented triad in a key: a major third (M3 as root) or minor sixth (A5 as root) away. French augmented sixth (Fr+6) modulation is achieved similarly but by respelling both notes of either the top or bottom major third (i.e. root and major third or diminished fifth and augmented sixth) enharmonically and inverting with the other major third (i.e. diminished fifth and augmented sixth becomes root and major third of the new Fr+6); either choice results in the same chord and key modulation (a tritone away), as the diminished fifth always becomes the new root.
Common-tone modulation[edit]
Modulation between relative keys, C minor and E♭ major, using a common tone, G, in Schubert's Op. 163 (D. 956).[11] Play (help·info)
Common-tone modulation between chromatic mediants in Mozart's K.475[12] Play (help·info)
Common-tone modulation uses a sustained or repeated pitch from the old key as a bridge between it and the new key (common tone). Usually, this pitch will be held alone before the music continues in the new key. For example, a held F from a section in B♭ major could be used to transition to F major. This is used, for example, in Schubert's Unfinished Symphony. "If all of the notes in the chord are common to both scales (major or minor), then we call it a common chord modulation. If only one or two of the notes are common, then we call it common tone modulation."[13]
Starting from a major chord, for example G major (G–B–D), there are twelve potential goals using a common-tone modulation: G minor, G♯ minor, B♭ major, B major, B minor, C major, C minor, D minor, D major, E♭ major, E major, E minor.[14] Thus common-tone modulations are convenient for modulation by diatonic or chromatic third.
Chromatic modulation[edit]
Chromatic modulation in Bach's Du grosser Schmerzensmann, BWV 300, mm. 5–6[15] ( Play (help·info) with half cadence, Play (help·info) with PAC) transitions from F major to D minor through the inflection of C♮ to C♯ between the second and third chords. Note that there is no common chord.
A chromatic modulation is so named because it occurs at the point of a chromatic progression, one which involves the chromatic inflection of one or more notes whose letter name, thus, remains the same though altered through an accidental.[15] Chromatic modulations are often between keys which are not closely related.[15] A secondary dominant or other chromatically altered chord may be used to lead one voice chromatically up or down on the way to the new key. (In standard four-part chorale-style writing, this chromatic line will most often be in one voice.) For example, a chromatic modulation from C major to D minor:
C major
IV
F V/ii
A ii
Dm
D minor
i
Dm (...)
In this case, the IV chord in C major (F major) would be spelled F–A–C, the V/ii chord in C major (A major) spelled A–C♯–E, and the ii chord in C major (D minor), D–F–A. Thus the chromaticism, C–C♯–D, along the three chords; this could easily be part-written so those notes all occurred in one voice. Despite the common chord (ii in C major or i in D minor), this modulation is chromatic due to this inflection.
In the example pictured, a chromatic modulation from F major to D minor:
F major
I
F V
C
D minor
V
A i
Dm iv
Gm V
A
In this case, the V chord in F major (C major) would be spelled C–E–G, the V in D minor (A major) would be spelled A–C♯–E. Thus the chromaticism, C–C♯–D, which is here split between voices but may often easily be part-written so that all three notes occur in one voice.
The combination of chromatic modulation with enharmonic modulation in late Romantic music led to extremely complex progressions in the music of such composers as César Franck, in which two or three key shifts may occur in the space of a single bar, each phrase ends in a key harmonically remote from its beginning, and great dramatic tension is built while all sense of underlying tonality is temporarily in abeyance. Good examples are to be found in the opening of his Symphony in D minor, of which he himself said (see Wikiquote) "I dared much, but the next time, you will see, I will dare even more..."; and his Trois Chorals for organ, especially the first and third of these, indeed fulfill that promise.
Phrase modulation[edit]
Phrase modulation in Mozart's Sonata in A major, K.331, III (Alla turca), mm. 6–10.[16] Play (help·info)
Phrase (also called direct, static, or abrupt) modulation is a modulation in which one phrase ends with a cadence in the original key, and begins the next phrase in the destination key without any transition material linking the two keys. This type of modulation is frequently done to a closely related key—particularly the dominant or the relative major/minor key.
An unprepared modulation is a modulation "without any harmonic bridge", characteristic of impressionism.[17]
For example:
A E A F B♭ F
A major
I V I
F major
I IV I
Sequential modulation[edit]
Sequential modulation in Beethoven's Sonata Op. 53, movement I[18] Play (help·info)
Sequential modulation in Schubert's Piano Sonata in E Major, D. 459, movement III[18] Play (help·info)
"A passage in a given key ending in a cadence might be followed by the same passage transposed (up or down) to another key," this being known as sequential modulation.[19] Although a sequence does not have to modulate, it is also possible to modulate by way of a sequence. A sequential modulation is also called rosalia. The sequential passage will begin in the home key, and may move either diatonically or chromatically. Harmonic function is generally disregarded in a sequence, or, at least, it is far less important than the sequential motion. For this reason, a sequence may end at a point that suggests a different tonality than the home key, and the composition may continue naturally in that key.
Chain modulation[edit]
See also: Circle progression
Sequential modulation through the circle of fifths in Quartet Op. 3, No. 3, IV, Hob. III:15,[20] formerly attributed to Haydn (ca. 1840) Play (help·info)
Distant keys may be reached sequentially through closely related keys by chain modulation, for example C to G to D or C to C minor to E♭ major.[21] A common technique is the addition of the minor seventh after each tonic is reached, thus turning it into a dominant seventh chord:
D → D7 G → G7 C → C7 F
I → V7 I → V7 I → V7 I
Parallel key modulation[edit]
A parallel key modulation is a change of mode, but maintains the same tonal center. For example, one section of a composition may be in the key of E major and then modulate to E minor. This can be done directly or facilitated by the various modulation techniques described above. Depending on the length of the modulation and whether or not it returns to the original key, it may or may not be designated by a change of key signature.
Common modulations[edit]
The circle of fifths drawn within the chromatic circle as a dodecagram[22]
Modulation up a whole step at the end of "Because the Night" Play (help·info)
The most common modulations are to closely related keys (I, V, IV, vi, iii, ii).[23] V (dominant) is the most frequent goal and, in minor, III (relative key) is also a common goal.[24] Modulation to the dominant or the subdominant is relatively simple as they are adjacent steps on the circle of fifths. Modulations to the relative major or minor are also simple, as these keys share all pitches in common. Modulation to distantly related keys is often done smoothly through using chords in successive related keys, such as through the circle of fifths, the entirety of which may be used in either direction:
D – A – E – B/C♭ – F♯/G♭ – C♯/D♭ – G♯/A♭ – D♯/E♭ – A♯/B♭ – F – C – G – D
If a given key were G major, the following chart could be used:
C — G — D
From G (which is the given key), a musician would go P5 (a perfect fifth) above G (which is D) and also P5 below G (which is C).
From this, the musician would go to G major's relative minor which is E minor, and potentially to C major and D major's related minor as well (a musician who does not know the related minor for C and D major may also go P5 below or above E minor).
C — G — D
| | |
Am Em Bm
By using the relative minor keys one can find the specific key that the key can modulate into.
Many musicians use the circle of fifths to find these keys and make similar charts to help with the modulation.
Significance[edit]
In certain classical music forms, a modulation can have structural significance. In sonata form, for example, a modulation separates the first subject from the second subject. Frequent changes of key characterize the development section of sonatas. Moving to the subdominant is a standard practice in the trio section of a march in a major key, while a minor march will typically move to the relative major.
Changes of key may also represent changes in mood. In many genres of music, moving from a lower key to a higher often indicates an increase in energy.
Change of key is not possible in the full chromatic or the twelve tone technique, as the modulatory space is completely filled; i.e., if every pitch is equal and ubiquitous there is nowhere else to go. Thus other differentiating methods are used, most importantly ordering and permutation. However, certain pitch formations may be used as a "tonic" or home area.
Other types[edit]
Though modulation generally refers to changes of key, any parameter may be modulated, particularly in music of the 20th and 21st century. Metric modulation (known also as tempo modulation) is the most common, while timbral modulation (gradual changes in tone color), and spatial modulation (changing the location from which sound occurs) are also used.
Modulation may also occur from a single tonality to a polytonality, often by beginning with a duplicated tonic chord and modulating the chords in contrary motion until the desired polytonality is reached.
See also[edit]
Level (music)
Modulating subject
Polytonality
Progressive tonality
Graha bhedam
Further reading[edit]
Vincent Persichetti, Twentieth-Century Harmony. W.W. Norton and Company, 1961. ISBN 0-393-09539-8.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Boston Academy of Music, Lowell Mason (1836). The Boston Academy's Collection of Church Music, pp. 16–18. Fourth edition. J. H. Wilkins and R. B. Carter.
Jump up ^ Forte, Allen (1979). Tonal Harmony in Concept & Practice, p. 265. ISBN 0-03-020756-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Forte (1979), p. 267.
Jump up ^ Benward and Saker (2009). Music in Theory and Practice, Vol. II, p. 214. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
Jump up ^ Forte (1979), p. 307.
Jump up ^ Benward and Saker (2009), p. 244.
Jump up ^ Forte (1979), p. 305.
Jump up ^ Benward & Saker (2009), pp. 214–15.
Jump up ^ Benward & Saker (2009), p.220.
Jump up ^ "Enharmonic Reinterpretation" (PDF). Feezell, M. Retrieved 2016-04-05.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Leonard B. (1989). Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology, p. 299. ISBN 9780226521527.
Jump up ^ Kostka, Stefan and Payne, Dorothy (1995). Tonal Harmony, p. 321. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-035874-5.
Jump up ^ Briggs, Kendall Durelle (2014). The Language and Materials of Music, p. 198. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781257996148.
Jump up ^ Kopp, David (2006). Chromatic Transformations in Nineteenth-Century Music, p. 50. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521028493. After Marx, Adolph Bernard. Theory and Practice (1837). Trans. Saroni.
^ Jump up to: a b c Benward and Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, p. 245. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
Jump up ^ Benward and Saker (2003), Vol. I, p. 244.
Jump up ^ Reti, Rudolph (1978). Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-20478-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Forte (1979), p.319.
Jump up ^ Heussenstamm, George (2011). Hal Leonard Harmony & Theory – Part 2: Chromatic. ISBN 9781476841212.
Jump up ^ Forte (1979), p.320.
Jump up ^ Jones, George T. (1994). HarperCollins College Outline Music Theory, p. 217. ISBN 0-06-467168-2.
Jump up ^ "Prelude to Musical Geometry", p. 364, Brian J. McCartin, The College Mathematics Journal, Vol. 29, No. 5 (Nov., 1998), pp. 354–70. (abstract) (JSTOR).
Jump up ^ Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, p. 243. 7th edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0. "Most modulations occur between closely related keys, which are those keys that differ by no more than one accidental in the key signature."
Jump up ^ Forte (1979), p. 269.
External links[edit]
Theory on the Web: Modulation
Modulation Types for Musical Analysis
A generalized system for musical modulation
Common-tone Modulation
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Modulation (disambiguation)

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values: Modulation vocal music example duple.mid

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Wikipedia:Media help

values: File:Modulation vocal music example duple.mid

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Pivot chord

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Meter (music)

values: File:Chopin - Prelude in C minor opening modulation.mid

values: File:Common-chord modulation in Tchaikovsky, Mazurka Op. 39, No. 10.mid

values: File:Common chord modulation in Mozart, Sonata in D Major, K. 284, III, m. 1-8.mid

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Common-chord (music)

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German sixth

values: File:Schubert - op.9 D.365, mm.17-24 German sixth modulation.mid

values: File:Schubert - op. 29, D.804, I, mm.144-49 enharmonic modulation.mid

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/wiki/Italian_sixth
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Italian sixth

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Parallel major

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double sharp

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Parallel fifths

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Cadential six four

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French sixth

values: File:Schubert - Op.163 (D.956), i common-tone modulation.mid

values: File:Common tone modulation between chromatic mediants in Mozart K 475.mid

values: File:Chromatic modulation in Bach BWV 300, m. 5-6.mid

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Half cadence

values: File:Chromatic modulation in Bach BWV 300, m. 5-6 with resolution.mid

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Secondary dominant

values: File:Mozart - K.331, III, mm.6-10 phrase modulation.mid

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Impressionist music

values: File:Sequential modulation in Beethoven, Sonata Op. 53, movement I.mid

values: Piano Sonata in E major, D 459 (Schubert)

values: File:Sequential modulation in Schubert, Sonata in E Major, movement III.mid

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Circle progression

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Josef Haydn

values: File:Sequential modulation through the circle of fifths in Haydn, Quartet Op. 3, No. 3, IV.mid

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Musical mode

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Relative major or minor

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European classical music

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Full chromatic

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Twelve tone technique

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Modulating subject

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Leonard Meyer

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http://www.maa.org/pubs/cmj_Nov98.html

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/2687250

values: Template talk:Key (music) (page does not exist)

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values: Модулация (музика) – Bulgarian

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