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Christianity in Europe
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< 1%
Turkey
2–4%
Azerbaijan
5–10%
Kosovo
10–20%
Albania
Kazakhstan
20–30%
Czech Republic
30–40%
Estonia
50–60%
Netherlands
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Latvia
Macedonia
60–70%
France
Belgium
United Kingdom
Sweden
Germany
70–80%
Luxembourg
Belarus
Switzerland
Cyprus
Russia
Montenegro
Slovenia
Spain
80–90%
Finland
Austria
Hungary
Bulgaria
Italy
Denmark
Ukraine
Norway
Slovakia
Monaco
Greece
Georgia
Andorra
Lithuania
90–95%
San Marino
Portugal
Liechtenstein
Ireland
Serbia
Croatia
Poland
Iceland
95–100%
Malta
Moldova
Armenia
Romania
Vatican City
Christianity is the largest religion in Europe. Christianity has been practiced in Europe since the 1st century, and a number of the Pauline Epistles were addressed to Christians living in Greece, as well as other parts of the Roman Empire.
According to a 2010 study by the Pew Research Center, 76.2% of the European population identified themselves as Christians.[2]
As 2010 Catholics were the largest Christian group in Europe, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians.[2] The second-largest Christian group in Europe were the Orthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians.[2] About 19% of European Christians were part of the Protestant tradition.[2] Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed by Germany and Italy.[2]
Since at least the legalization of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the 4th century, Europe has been an important centre of Christian culture, even though the religion was inherited from Africa and the Middle East and important Christian communities have thrived outside Europe such as Oriental Orthodoxy and the Church of the East since the time of Christ. Christian culture has been an important force in Western civilization, influencing the course of philosophy, art, and science.[3][4]
Europe has a rich Christian culture, especially as numerous saints, martyrs and popes were European themselves. All of the Roman Catholic popes from 741 to 2013 were from Europe.[5] Europe brought together many of the Christian holy sites and heritage and religious centers.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early history
1.2 East–West Schism and Protestant Reformation
2 Cultural influences
3 Denominations
4 References
5 See also
History[edit]
Main article: Christendom
Early history[edit]
See also: Early centers of Christianity
Patron saints of Europe.
Historians believe that St. Paul probably wrote his first epistle to the Christians of Thessaloniki (Thessalonians) around AD 52.[7] His Epistle to the Galatians was perhaps written even earlier, between AD 48 and 50.[8] Other epistles written by Paul were directed to Christians living in Greece (1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philemon, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians) and Rome (Romans) between the 50s and 70s of the first century.
The Record of Saint Dorotheus Bishop of Tyre is that the Church at Tyre sent Saint Aristobulus (of the seventy) to Britain as bishop in AD 37. The Church seems to have been begun by him around the Bristol Channel area and 150 years later we have names of bishops recorded. By AD 550 there are recorded 120 bishops spread throughout the British Isles.
St. Peter's Basilica
Armenia was the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as its state religion in AD 301. The oldest state-built church in the world, Etchmiadzin Cathedral, was built between AD 301-303. It is the seat of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianisation, a process essentially complete with the Baltic Christianization in the 15th century. The emergence of the notion of "Europe" or the "Western World" is intimately connected with the idea of "Christendom", especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 7th century, a constellation that led to the Crusades, which although unsuccessful militarily were an important step in the emergence of a religious identity of Europe. At all times, traditions of folk religion existed largely independent from official denominations or dogmatic theology.
From the Middle Ages onwards, as the centralized Roman power waned in southern and central Europe, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.[3]
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow
Movements in art and philosophy, such as the Humanist movement of the Renaissance and the Scholastic movement of the High Middle Ages, were motivated by a drive to connect Catholicism with Greek thought imported by Christian pilgrims.[9][10][11]
East–West Schism and Protestant Reformation[edit]
The East–West Schism of the 11th century and the Protestant Reformation of the 16th tore "Christendom" into hostile factions. Following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism became widespread in Western Europe. 19th century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism.[12]
Cultural influences[edit]
Further information: Christian culture, Role of the Christian Church in civilization, and Protestant culture
Notes Towards the Definition of Culture
I am talking about the common tradition of Christianity which has made Europe what it is, and about the common cultural elements which this common Christianity has brought with it. If Asia were converted to Christianity tomorrow, it would not thereby become a part of Europe. It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted. It is against a background of Christianity that all our thought has significance. An individual European may not believe that the Christian Faith is true, and yet what he says, and makes, and does, will all spring out of his heritage of Christian culture and depend upon that culture for its meaning. Only a Christian culture could have produced a Voltaire or a Nietzsche. I do not believe that the culture of Europe could survive the complete disappearance of the Christian Faith.[. . .] The Western World has its unity in this heritage, in Christianity and in the ancient civilisations of Greece, Rome, and Israel, from which, owing to two thousand years of Christianity, we trace our descent.
Thomas Stearns Eliot[13]
Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.[14]
Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Europe.[3] Until the Age of Enlightenment,[15] Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.[3][16] Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature etc.
Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,[17] and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.[18][19] Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science.[20][21][22] The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,[23] founding hospitals,[24] economics (as the Protestant work ethic),[25][26] politics,[27] architecture,[28] literature[29] and family life.[30]
Although the Protestant reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of European life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[31]
Denominations[edit]
Christianity by country
Africa[show]
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Asia[show]
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Burma
Cambodia
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Japan
Kazakhstan
Korea
Laos
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Nepal
North Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Middle East
[show]
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syria
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Europe[show]
Albania
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Denmark
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Jersey
Kosovo
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Netherlands
Norway
Malta
Moldova
Montenegro
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Ukraine
United Kingdom
North America[show]
Antigua & Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
South America[show]
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Oceania[show]
Australia
East Timor
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Full list
v
t
e
Catholic Church: European countries or areas with significant Catholic populations are Andorra, Austria, western Belarus, Belgium, Croatia, France, western and southern Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latgale region in Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Poland, Portugal, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, central and southern Switzerland, western Ukraine and Vatican City.[32] There are also large Catholic minorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (13-17%), Albania (10-15%),[33] the United Kingdom and the Netherlands (25%).[34] In the Czech Republic, Catholics are 10% of the population. In Serbia and Romania, Catholics constitute over 5% of the overall population.
Eastern-Rite Catholicism is found mostly in western Ukraine, southern Italy, eastern Slovakia and Hungary. It also exists in very small numbers in Russia, Serbia, Poland, France (especially Corsica).
Eastern Orthodox Christianity: European countries or areas with significant Eastern Orthodox populations are Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, and the European parts of Kazakhstan.[32] Eastern Orthodox Christians are a large minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania. Small minorities of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in Finland (especially Karelia), Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, and Poland.
Oriental Orthodox Christianity: Armenia has a large Oriental Orthodox majority.
Protestantism: European countries or areas with significant Protestant populations are Denmark, Estonia, Finland, the central, eastern and northern parts of Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the eastern, northern and western parts of Switzerland.[32] There are significant Protestant minorities in France, the northeastern Piedmont region of Italy, Slovakia, the western and southern parts of Germany, the eastern part of Hungary, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, the Netherlands, Ireland, Serbia and Romania.
Anglicanism (or Episcopalianism, in Scotland) is the largest denomination in the United Kingdom (England and Wales), with a large minority in Northern Ireland, and smaller numbers in the Republic of Ireland, Malta, Scotland,[32] Spain and Portugal. Communities also exist throughout Europe, particularly in large cities and other regions where British ex-pat communities live (see Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe).
Calvinism in forms of Continental Reformed Church, Presbyterianism and Congregationalism is predominant in North and West Switzerland, and there are minorities in Germany and Hungary. It is the main religion in Scotland and a large minority in Northern Ireland, and smaller numbers in England and Wales, Ireland and Malta.
Lutheranism is prevalent in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Northern and Western Germany. There are also minorities throughout Europe, particularly in Southern Germany, Hungary and Alsace and Lorraine (France), with smaller numbers in Austria, Poland, and the Netherlands, Romania (among the German and Hungarian ethnic groups), Switzerland, Italy and the United Kingdom.
Methodism is an important minority denomination in both Great Britain and Ireland.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pew Forum, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Christianity in Europe, including the Asian part of Russia, excluding the European part of Turkey
^ Jump up to: a b c d Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
Jump up ^ "After Benedict: who will be the next Pope?". Speroforum.com. 12 February 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
Jump up ^ Quoted in Robin Lane Fox, The Unauthorized Version, 1992:235.
Jump up ^ Johannes Schade (2006), The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Foreign Media Books, ISBN 978-1-60136-000-7
Jump up ^ Howard Clark Kee, Franklin W. Young (1957), Understanding the New Testament, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-948266-3
Jump up ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. High Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 9780884892984.
Jump up ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Renaissance: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 9780884892984.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 25. ISBN 9780813216836.
Jump up ^ Henkel, Reinhard and Hans Knippenberg "The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe" edited by Knippenberg published by Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam 2005 ISBN 90-5589-248-3, pages 7-9
Jump up ^ Selected T.S. Eliot on Tradition, Poetry, Faith, and Culture
Jump up ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 108. ISBN 9780813216836.
Jump up ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. The Age of Enlightenment: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Christopher; Olsen, Glenn (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Forms of Christian education
Jump up ^ Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX
Jump up ^ Verger, Jacques (1999). Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles (in French) (1st ed.). Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes. ISBN 286847344X. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Susan Elizabeth Hough, Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man, Princeton University Press, 2007, ISBN 0691128073, p. 68.
Jump up ^ Woods 2005, p. 109.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Jesuit
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and social welfare
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Care for the sick
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Property, poverty, and the poor,
Jump up ^ Weber, Max (1905). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and state
Jump up ^ Sir Banister Fletcher, History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.
Jump up ^ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage
Jump up ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317-319, 325-326
^ Jump up to: a b c d Predominant Religions
Jump up ^ Summary of Religious Bodies in Albania Archived 2013-05-30 at the Wayback Machine. (Source: World Christian Encyclopedia, 2001, Oxford University Press. Vol 1: p. 51)
Jump up ^ (in Dutch) roman catholic church 4 million members out of a total Dutch population of 16,5 million
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christianity in Europe.
Antemurale Christianitatis
Catholic Church in Europe
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Conference of European Churches
Islam in Europe
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Religion in the European Union
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Religion in North America
Religion in South America
Irreligion in Europe
List of religious populations
Major world religions
[hide]
v
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Christianity in Europe
Sovereign states
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States with limited
recognition
Abkhazia
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Dependencies and
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text:
Surgical staple
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
34 surgical staples closing scalp following craniotomy
Projectional radiograph of surgical staples
Surgical staples are specialized staples used in surgery in place of sutures to close skin wounds, connect or remove parts of the bowels or lungs. A more recent development, from the 1990s, uses clips instead of staples for some applications; this does not require the staple to penetrate.
Stapling is much faster than suturing by hand, and also more accurate and consistent.[citation needed] Staples are primarily used in bowel and lung surgery, because staple lines are more consistent and therefore less likely to leak blood, air or bowel contents. Still, several randomized controlled trials have shown no significant difference in bowel leakage after anastomoses performed either manually with suture by experienced surgeons, or after mechanical anastomoses with staples. In skin closure, dermal adhesives (skin glues) are also an increasingly common alternative.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Types and applications
3 Removal of skin staples
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Staplers were originally developed to address the perceived problem of patency (security against stenosis or occlusion of the lumen) and tightness (security against leaks of blood or bowel contents) as well as easiness and quickness in performing the anastomosis. Leaks from poor suturing of bowel anastomoses was at that time[when?] a significant cause of post-surgical mortality. More recent studies have shown that with current suturing techniques there is no significant difference in outcome between hand sutured and mechanical anastomoses, but mechanical anastomoses are significantly quicker to perform.[1]
The technique was pioneered by a Hungarian surgeon, Humor Hultl,[2] known as the "father of surgical stapling".[3] Hultl's prototype stapler of 1908 weighed eight pounds (3.6 kg), and required two hours to assemble and load. Many hours were spent trying to achieve a consistent staple line and reliably patent anastomoses.
The early instruments, by developers including Hultl, von Petz, Friedrich and Nakayama, were complex and cumbersome to use. The technology was refined in the 1950s in the Soviet Union, allowing for the first commercially produced re-usable stapling devices for creation of bowel and vascular anastomoses.[4] Mark M. Ravitch, brought a sample of stapling device after attending a surgical conference in USSR, and introduced it to entrepreneur Leon C. Hirsch, who founded the United States Surgical Corporation in 1964 to manufacture surgical staplers under its Auto Suture brand.[5] Until the late 1970s USSC had the market essentially to itself, but in 1977 Johnson & Johnson's Ethicon brand entered the market and today both are widely used, along with competitors from the Far East. USSC was bought by Tyco Healthcare in 1998, which became Covidien on June 29, 2007.
Safety and patency of mechanical (stapled) bowel anastomoses has been widely studied. It is generally the case in such studies that sutured anastomoses are either comparable or less prone to leakage.[6] It is possible that this is the result of recent advances in suture technology, along with increasingly risk-conscious surgical practice. Certainly modern synthetic sutures are more predictable and less prone to infection than catgut, silk and linen, which were the main suture materials used up to the 1990s.
One key feature of intestinal staplers is that the edges of the stapler act as a haemostat, compressing the edges of the wound and closing blood vessels during the stapling process.
Types and applications[edit]
This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding or removing subheadings. (June 2014)
Laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
Close-up demonstration of a surgical skin stapler.
The first commercial staplers were made of stainless steel with titanium staples loaded into reloadable staple cartridges.
Modern surgical staplers are either disposable and made of plastic, or reusable and made of stainless steel. Both types are generally loaded using disposable cartridges.
The staple line may be straight, curved or circular. Circular staplers are used for end-to-end anastomosis after bowel resection or, somewhat more controversially, in esophagogastric surgery.[7] The instruments may be used in either open or laparoscopic surgery, different instruments are used for each application. Laparoscopic staplers are longer, thinner, and may be articulated to allow for access from a restricted number of trocar ports.
Some staplers incorporate a knife, to complete excision and anastomosis in a single operation. Staplers are used to close both internal and skin wounds. Skin staples are usually applied using a disposable stapler, and removed with a specialized staple remover. Staplers are also used in vertical banded gastroplasty surgery (popularly known as "stomach stapling").
Vascular stapler for reducing warm ischemia in organ transplantation. With this model each stapler end can be mounted on donor and recipient by independent surgical teams without care for reciprocal orientation, being the maximal possible vascular axis torsion ≤30°. Activating guide-wire is connected just immediately before firing (video)
While devices for circular end-to-end anastomosis of digestive tract are widely used, in spite of intensive research [8][9][10] circular staplers for vascular anastomosis never had yet significant impact on standard hand (Carrel) suture technique. Apart from the different modality of coupling of vascular (everted) in respect to digestive (inverted) stumps, the main basic reason could be that, particularly for small vessels, the manuality and precision required just for positioning on vascular stumps and actioning any device cannot be significantly inferior to that required to carry out the standard hand suture, then making of little utility the use of any device. An exception to that however could be organ transplantation where these two phases, i.e.device positioning at the vascular stumps and device actioning, can be carried out in different time, by different surgical team, in safe conditions when the time required does not influence donor organ preservation, i.e. at the back table in cold ischemia condition for the donor organ and after native organ removal in the recipient. This is finalized to make as brief as possible the donor organ dangerous warm ischemia phase that can be contained in the couple of minutes or less necessary just to connect the device's ends and actioning the stapler.
Although most surgical staples are made of titanium, stainless steel is more often used in some skin staples and clips. Titanium produces less reaction with the immune system and, being non-ferrous, does not interfere significantly with MRI scanners, although some imaging artifacts may result. Synthetic absorbable (bioabsorbable) staples are also now becoming available, based on polyglycolic acid, as with many synthetic absorbable sutures.
Titanium staples are not suspected of causing nickel reactions because nickel is rarely if ever used in titanium alloys.[dubious – discuss]
Removal of skin staples[edit]
Where skin staples are used to seal a skin wound it will be necessary to remove the staples after an appropriate healing period, usually between 5 and 10 days, depending on the location of the wound and other factors. The skin staple remover is a small manual device which consists of a shoe or plate that is sufficiently narrow and thin to insert under the skin staple. The active part is a small blade that when hand-pressure is exerted it pushes down on the staple and pushes it through a slot in the shoe and deforms the staple into an 'M' shape to facilitate its removal, although in an emergency it is possible to remove them with a pair of artery forceps.[11] Skin staple removers are manufactured in many shapes and forms,[12] some disposable and some reusable.
See also[edit]
Instruments used in general surgery
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Surgery Today, Volume 34, Number 2 / February, 2004
Jump up ^ Non-suture methods of vascular anastomosis, British Journal of Surgery, 19 Feb 2003: Volume 90, Issue 3, Pages 261 - 271
Jump up ^ Circular vascular stapling in coronary surgery, Konstantinov, Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 2004; 78: 369-373
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ History of United States Surgical Corporation
Jump up ^ "Stapled versus Sutured Gastrointestinal Anastomoses in the Trauma Patient: A Multicenter Trial". Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection & Critical Care. 51 (6): 1054–1061. 2001. doi:10.1097/00005373-200112000-00005.
Jump up ^ European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, Volume 25, Issue 6, June 2004, Pages 1097-1101
Jump up ^ Nazari S et al. A new vascular stapler for pulmonary artery anastomosis in experimental single lung trasnplantation.Video, Proceedings of the 4th Annual Meeting of The Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, Naples, Sept 16-19, 1990
Jump up ^ "Evaluation of an aortic stapler for an open aortic anastomosis". The Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery (Torino). 48 (5): 659–65. Oct 2007 – via Minerva Medica.
Jump up ^ "Intravascular Stapler for "Open" Aortic Surgery: Preliminary Results". European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 33 (4): 408–11. Apr 2007 – via Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Teoh, MK; Bird, DA (1 September 1987), "Removal of skin staples in an emergency", Ann R Coll Surg Engl, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 69: 222–4, PMC 2498551  , PMID 3314634
Jump up ^ https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=skin+staple+removers&biw=1173&bih=813&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAmoVChMI8_nK9aTsxgIViXI-Ch21EAPc#imgrc=EgdRfi49foQSwM%3A
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text:
United States presidential line of succession
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947[1] as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural-born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency,[2] and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Current order
2 Eligibility
2.1 Eligibility requirements
2.2 Acting officers
3 Motivation for changes to the succession in 1945
4 Constitutional provisions
5 Acting President and President
6 History of succession law set by Congress
6.1 Presidential Succession Act 1792
6.2 Presidential Succession Act 1886
6.3 Presidential Succession Act 1947
6.4 Postmaster General removed 1971
6.5 Secretary of Homeland Security added 2006
7 Successions beyond Vice President
8 Constitutional concerns
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Current order[edit]
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:[4]
Key
Eligible Democrat (D)
Eligible Republican (R)
Eligible Independent (I)
Eligible unknown
Not eligible
No.
Office
Current officer
1
Vice President Mike Pence (R)
2
Speaker of the House of Representatives Paul Ryan (R)
3
President pro tempore of the Senate Orrin Hatch (R)
4
Secretary of State Rex Tillerson (R)
5
Secretary of the Treasury Steven Mnuchin (R)
6
Secretary of Defense James Mattis (I)
7
Attorney General Jeff Sessions (R)
8
Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke (R)
9
Secretary of Agriculture Sonny Perdue (R)
10
Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross (R)
11
Secretary of Labor Alex Acosta (R)
12
Secretary of Health and Human Services Eric Hargan (R)[a]
Acting
13
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Ben Carson (R)
–
Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao (R)[b]
14
Secretary of Energy Rick Perry (R)
15
Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos (R)
16
Secretary of Veterans Affairs David Shulkin (I)
17
Secretary of Homeland Security Elaine Duke (I)[a]
Acting
^ Jump up to: a b This listing assumes that acting officers whose prior appointment required Senate confirmation are eligible for the line of succession. See Acting officers below.
Jump up ^ Not a natural-born citizen (acquired U.S. citizenship by naturalization) and thus ineligible for the Presidency.
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).[a]
Eligibility[edit]
Eligibility requirements[edit]
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural-born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19(e)).
Acting officers[edit]
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named..." The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate." Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)[5]
Motivation for changes to the succession in 1945[edit]
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.[6]
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.[7]
Some of Truman's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then-current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar.[8] Further motivation may have been provided by Truman's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.[7]
Constitutional provisions[edit]
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 makes the Vice President first in the line of succession and allows the Congress to provide by law for cases in which neither the President nor Vice President can serve. The current such law governing succession is the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19).
Section 3 of the 20th Amendment provides that if the President-elect dies before his term begins, the Vice President-elect becomes President on Inauguration Day and serves for the full term to which the President-elect was elected. The section also provides that if, on Inauguration Day, a president has not been chosen or the President-elect does not qualify for the presidency, the Vice President-elect acts as president until a president is chosen or the President-elect qualifies. Finally, Section 3 allows the Congress to provide by law for cases in which neither a President-elect nor a Vice President-elect is eligible or available to serve.
The 25th Amendment, ratified in 1967, clarified Article II, Section 1: that the Vice President is the direct successor of the President. He or she becomes President if the President dies, resigns or is removed from office. The amendment also provides for the situation where the President is temporarily disabled, such as if the President has a surgical procedure or becomes mentally unfit.
The amendment also provides for Vice Presidential succession, by requiring Vice Presidential vacancies to be filled by the President and confirmed by both houses of the Congress. Previously, whenever a Vice President had succeeded to the Presidency or had otherwise left the office empty (through death, resignation, or removal from office), the Vice Presidency remained vacant until the next Presidential and Vice Presidential terms began.
Acting President and President[edit]
Main article: Acting President of the United States
New President Lyndon Johnson was sworn in aboard Air Force One, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963.
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President ... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same" refers to "the said office" or only "the powers and duties of the said office." Some historians, including Edward Corwin[9] and John D. Feerick,[9] have argued that the framers' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
The Senate shall chuse [sic] their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability.[original research?] Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
In 1841, John Tyler became the first person to succeed to the presidency.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories—including John Quincy Adams,[9][10] Henry Clay[11] and other members of Congress[10][11] Whig party leaders[11] and even Tyler's own cabinet[10][11]—believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States" sent by his detractors.[12] Tyler's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President,"[11] and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President." The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
History of succession law set by Congress[edit]
Presidential Succession Act 1792[edit]
Main article: Presidential Succession Act
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Presidential Succession Act 1792
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic-Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected." The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four-year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
Presidential Succession Act 1886[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Presidential Succession Act 1886
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either,[13] leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.[citation needed]
Presidential Succession Act 1947[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Presidential Succession Act 1947
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today[update]. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet-level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Postmaster General removed 1971[edit]
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.[14]
Secretary of Homeland Security added 2006[edit]
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub.L. 109–177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list – below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense – because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries.[citation needed] Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security" follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs" in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.[15]
Successions beyond Vice President[edit]
David Rice Atchison's tombstone (Plattsburg, Missouri), including the claim "President of the United States for One Day"
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.[16][17]
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade's "guilty" vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one-vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.[18]
New President Gerald Ford is sworn in following the resignation of Richard Nixon on August 9, 1974.
Since the 25th Amendment's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and—under Title 3, Section 19(c) of the U.S. Code—would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term" on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty-fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first-in-line during the first four months of Ford's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller,[citation needed] which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H. W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.[19]
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest-ranking officer of the Executive branch on-site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.[citation needed]
Constitutional concerns[edit]
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency.[20] James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton.[21] Two of these issues can be summarized:
The term "Officer" in the relevant clause of the Constitution is most plausibly interpreted to mean an "Officer of the United States", who must be a member of the Executive or Judicial Branch. The Speaker and the President pro tempore are not officers in this sense.
Under the principle of separation of powers, the Constitution specifically disallows legislative officials from also serving in the executive branch. For the Speaker or the Senate President pro tempore to become Acting President, they must resign their position, at which point they are no longer in the line of succession. This is seen by some to form a constitutional paradox. However, the current Act specifies that the Speaker becomes President "upon his resignation as Speaker" and as a member of Congress,[22] allowing for a seamless transition.
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues ... that warrant attention", specifically:[23]
The reality that all figures in the current line of succession work and reside in the vicinity of Washington, D.C. In the event of a nuclear, chemical, or biological attack, it is possible that everyone on the list would be killed or incapacitated.
Doubt (such as those expressed above by James Madison) that congressional leaders are eligible to act as President.
A concern about the wisdom of including the President pro tempore in the line of succession as the "largely honorific post traditionally held by the longest-serving Senator of the majority party". For example, from January 20, 2001, to June 6, 2001, the President pro tempore was then-98-year-old Strom Thurmond of South Carolina.
A concern that the current line of succession can force the presidency to abruptly switch parties mid-term, as the President, Speaker, and the President pro tempore are not necessarily of the same party as each other.
A concern that the succession line is ordered by the dates of creation of the various executive departments, without regard to the skills or capacities of the persons serving as their Secretary.
The fact that, should a Cabinet member begin to act as President, the law allows the House to elect a new Speaker (or the Senate, a new President pro tempore), who could in effect remove the Cabinet member and assume the office themselves at any time.
The absence of a provision where a President is disabled and the vice presidency is vacant (for example, if an assassination attempt simultaneously wounded the President and killed the Vice President).
See also[edit]
Central Locator System
Designated survivor
List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
United States presidential line of succession in fiction
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 3 U.S.C. § 19
Jump up ^ "Is the Presidential Succession Law Constitutional?", Akhil Reed Amar, Stanford Law Review, November 1995.
Jump up ^ First Report p. 4, continuityofgovernment.org Retrieved December 28, 2010 via Internet Archive to repair dead link
Jump up ^ Wilson, Reid (October 20, 2013). "The Presidential order of succession". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Continuity of the Presidency," Continuity of Government Commission, June 2009, p. 34. (Archived by WebCite at [1] Accessed: 2012-05-23)
Jump up ^ "Special Message to the Congress on the Succession to the Presidency. June 19, 1945" by President Harry S. Truman; from the American Presidency Project archives
^ Jump up to: a b Wildavsky, Aaron B. (2003). Horowitz, Irving, ed. The revolt against the masses and other essays on politics and public policy (Google Books). Transaction Publishers. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-7658-0960-5. Retrieved July 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ "kipnotes.com - Nachrichten zum trading -". kipnotes.com - Nachrichten zum trading.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. (Autumn 1974). "On the Presidential Succession". Political Science Quarterly. 89 (3): 475, 495–496. JSTOR 2148451.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rankin, Robert S. (Feb 1946). "Presidential Succession in the United States". The Journal of Politics. 8 (1): 44–56. JSTOR 2125607. doi:10.2307/2125607.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Abbott, Philip (Dec 2005). "Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 627, 638. JSTOR 27552721. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x.
Jump up ^ Crapol, Edward P. (2006). John Tyler: the accidental president. UNC Press Books. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8078-3041-3. OCLC 469686610.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Charlton Thomas; Willsey, Joseph H. (1895). Harper's Book of Facts: a Classified History of the World; Embracing Science, Literature, and Art. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 884. LCCN 01020386. Retrieved April 24, 2011.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Postmasters General". postalmuseum.si.edu. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ US Congress (2005). USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act OF 2005. 109th Congress Public Law 177. Retrieved on October 29, 2015 from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ177/html/PLAW-109publ177.htm.
Jump up ^ "1801: President for a Day -- March 4, 1849". May 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ David Mikkelson (October 8, 2007). "President for a Day". snopes.
Jump up ^ Medved, Michael (1979). The Shadow Presidents: The Secret History of the Chief Executives and Their Top Aides. New York, U.S.A.: Times Books. p. 149. ISBN 0-8129-0816-3.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Haig", Time, April 2, 1984
Jump up ^ "Is the Presidential Succession Law Constitutional?", Akhil Reed Amar, Stanford Law Review, November 1995.
Jump up ^ "Article 2, Section 1, Clause 6: James Madison to Edmund Pendleton".
Jump up ^ Wikisource:Presidential Succession Act 1947
Jump up ^ First Report p. 4, continuityofgovernment.org Retrieved December 28, 2010 via Internet Archive to repair dead link
Further reading[edit]
Ask Gleaves: Presidential Succession from the website of Grand Valley State University
3 U.S.C. § 19 – "Vacancy in offices of both President and Vice President; officers eligible to act"
Presidential Succession Act of 1792, 1 Stat. 239 (from the American Memory website of the Library of Congress
"Presidential Line of Succession Examined", a September 20, 2003 article from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
"WI Presidential Succession Act of 1947 held unconstitutional", David Tenner, Usenet group: soc.history.what-if, January 14, 2003.
Fools, Drunkards, & Presidential Succession from the Federalist Society website
Testimony of M. Miller Baker from the U.S. Senate website
External links[edit]
The Presidency: Preserving Our Institutions Second report of the Continuity of Government Commission, June 2009 (includes the text of the Presidential Succession Acts of 1792, 1886 and 1947)
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Jump up ^ Never confirmed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and thus ineligible for the presidential line of succession.
Jump up ^ Although Elaine Chao is the current Secretary of Transportation, she is not a natural-born citizen (acquired U.S. citizenship by naturalization) and thus ineligible for the Presidency.
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values: خط الخلافة الرئاسية في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic

values: Наследаванне прэзідэнцкіх паўнамоцтваў у ЗША – Belarusian

values: Поредност на заместниците на президента на САЩ – Bulgarian

values: Nástupnictví na úřad prezidenta Spojených států amerických – Czech

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values: Ordre de succession présidentielle des États-Unis – French

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values: Linea di successione presidenziale negli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian

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values: Actuala listă a liniei de succesiune prezidențiale SUA, 2006 – Romanian

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