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Listeria monocytogenes
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Listeria monocytogenes
Scanning electron micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes.
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Kingdom: Eubacteria
Phylum: Firmicutes
Class: Bacilli
Order: Bacillales
Family: Listeriaceae
Genus: Listeria
Species: L. monocytogenes
Binomial name
Listeria monocytogenes
(E. Murray et al. 1926) Pirie 1940
Listeria monocytogenes is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host's cells and is one of the most virulent foodborne pathogens, with 20 to 30% of food borne listeriosis infections in high-risk individuals may be fatal.[1] Responsible for an estimated 1,600 illnesses and 260 deaths in the United States (U.S.) annually, listeriosis ranks third in total number of deaths among food borne bacterial pathogens, with fatality rates exceeding even Salmonella and Clostridium botulinum. In the European Union listeriosis follows an upward trend that began in 2008, causing 2,161 confirmed cases and 210 reported deaths in 2014, 16% more than in 2013. Listeriosis mortality rates are also in the EU higher than for other food-borne pathogens.[2][3]
Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive bacterium, in the division Firmicutes, named after Joseph Lister. Its ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C permits multiplication at typical refrigeration temperatures, greatly increasing its ability to evade control in human foodstuffs. Motile via flagella at 30 °C and below, but usually not at 37 °C,[4] L. monocytogenes can instead move within eukaryotic cells by explosive polymerization of actin filaments (known as comet tails or actin rockets).
Studies suggest up to 10% of human gastrointestinal tracts may be colonized by Listeria monocytogenes.[1]
Nevertheless, clinical diseases due to Listeria monocytogenes are more frequently recognized by veterinarians, especially as meningoencephalitis in ruminants. See: listeriosis in animals.
Due to its frequent pathogenicity, causing meningitis in newborns (acquired transvaginally), pregnant mothers are often advised not to eat soft cheeses such as Brie, Camembert, feta, and queso blanco fresco, which may be contaminated with and permit growth of Listeria monocytogenes.[5] It is the third-most-common cause of meningitis in newborns. Listeria monocytogenes can infect the brain, spinal cord membranes and/or the bloodstream of the host[6] through the ingestion of contaminated food such as unpasteurized dairy or raw foods.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
2 History
3 Pathogenesis
3.1 Regulation of pathogenesis
3.2 Pathogenicity of lineages
4 Detection
5 Treatment
6 Use as a transfection vector
6.1 Cancer treatment
7 Epidemiology
8 Routes of infection
9 Infectious cycle
10 References
11 External links
Classification[edit]
Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, non spore-forming, motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, and expresses a beta hemolysin, which causes destruction of red blood cells. This bacterium exhibits characteristic tumbling motility when viewed with light microscopy.[8] Although L. monocytogenes is actively motile by means of peritrichous flagella at room temperature (20−25 °C), the organism does not synthesize flagella at body temperatures (37 °C).[9]
The genus Listeria belongs to the class Bacilli and the order Bacillales, which also includes Bacillus and Staphylococcus. The genus Listeria currently contains 10 species: L. fleischmannii, L. grayi, L. innocua, L. ivanovii, L. marthii, L. monocytogenes, L. rocourtiae, L. seeligeri, L. weihenstephanensis and L. welshimeri. L. denitrificans, previously thought to be part of the Listeria genus, was reclassified into the new genus Jonesia.[10] Both L. ivanovii and L. monocytogenes are pathogenic in mice, but only L. monocytogenes is consistently associated with human illness.[11] The 13 serotypes of L. monocytogenes can cause disease, but more than 90% of human isolates belong to only three serotypes: 1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b. L. monocytogenes serotype 4b strains are responsible for 33 to 5% of sporadic human cases worldwide and for all major foodborne outbreaks in Europe and North America since the 1980s.[12]
History[edit]
Listeria monocytogenes was first described by E.G.D. Murray in 1924 based on six cases of sudden death in young rabbits, and published a description with his colleagues in 1926 .[13] Murray referred to the organism as Bacterium monocytogenes before Harvey Pirie changed the genus name to Listeria in 1940.[14] Although clinical descriptions of L. monocytogenes infection in both animals and humans were published in the 1920s, it was not recognized as a significant cause of neonatal infection, sepsis and meningitis until 1952 in East Germany.[15] Listeriosis in adults would later be associated with patients living with compromised immune systems, such as individuals taking immunosuppressant drugs and corticosteroids for malignancies or organ transplants, and those with HIV infection.[16]
L. monocytogenes was not identified as a cause of foodborne illness until 1981, however. An outbreak of listeriosis in Halifax, Nova Scotia, involving 41 cases and 18 deaths, mostly in pregnant women and neonates, was epidemiologically linked to the consumption of coleslaw containing cabbage that had been contaminated with L. monocytogenes-contaminated sheep manure.[17] Since then, a number of cases of foodborne listeriosis have been reported, and L. monocytogenes is now widely recognized as an important hazard in the food industry.[18]
Pathogenesis[edit]
Stages in the intracellular lifecycle of L. monocytogenes. (Center) Cartoon depicting entry, escape from a vacuole, actin nucleation, actin-based motility, and cell-to-cell spread. (Outside) Representative electron micrographs from which the cartoon was derived. LLO, PLCs, and ActA are all described in the text. The cartoon and micrographs were adapted from Tilney and Portnoy (1989).
Main article: Listeriosis
Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. When the infection is not invasive, any illness as a consequence of infection is termed febrile gastroenteritis. The manifestations of listeriosis include septicemia,[19] meningitis (or meningoencephalitis),[19] encephalitis,[20] corneal ulcer,[21] pneumonia,[22] and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion (second to third trimester) or stillbirth. Surviving neonates of fetomaternal listeriosis may suffer granulomatosis infantiseptica — pyogenic granulomas distributed over the whole body — and may suffer from physical retardation. Influenza-like symptoms, including persistent fever, usually precede the onset of the aforementioned disorders. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, may precede more serious forms of listeriosis or may be the only symptoms expressed. Gastrointestinal symptoms were epidemiologically associated with use of antacids or cimetidine. The onset time to serious forms of listeriosis is unknown, but may range from a few days to three weeks. The onset time to gastrointestinal symptoms is unknown but probably exceeds 12 hours. An early study suggested that L. monocytogenes is unique among Gram-positive bacteria in that it might possess lipopolysaccharide,[23] which serves as an endotoxin. Later, it was found to not be a true endotoxin. Listeria cell walls consistently contain lipoteichoic acids, in which a glycolipid moiety, such as a galactosyl-glucosyl-diglyceride, is covalently linked to the terminal phosphomonoester of the teichoic acid. This lipid region anchors the polymer chain to the cytoplasmic membrane. These lipoteichoic acids resemble the lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria in both structure and function, being the only amphipathic polymers at the cell surface.[24][25]
L. monocytogenes has D-galactose residues on its surface that can attach to D-galactose receptors on the host cell walls. These host cells are generally M cells and Peyer's patches of the intestinal mucosa. Once attached to this cells, L. monocytogenes can translocate past the intestinal membrane and into the body.
The infective dose of L. monocytogenes varies with the strain and with the susceptibility of the victim. From cases contracted through raw or supposedly pasteurized milk, one may safely assume that, in susceptible persons, fewer than 1,000 total organisms may cause disease. L. monocytogenes may invade the gastrointestinal epithelium. Once the bacterium enters the host's monocytes, macrophages, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, it becomes bloodborne (septicemic) and can grow. Its presence intracellularly in phagocytic cells also permits access to the brain and probably transplacental migration to the fetus in pregnant women. The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. It seems that Listeria originally evolved to invade membranes of the intestines, as an intracellular infection, and developed a chemical mechanism to do so. This involves a bacterial protein "internalin"(InlA/InlB) which attaches to a protein on the intestinal cell membrane "cadherin" and allows the bacteria to invade the cells through a zipper mechanism. Once inside the cell, Listeria is able to escape the vacuole and enter the cytosol through the use of listeriolysin O (LLO). LLO reduces the pH inside the cell, and this acidity disrupts the vacuole membrane and creates pores, freeing the pathogen. These adhesion molecules are also to be found in two other unusually tough barriers in humans — the blood-brain barrier and the fetal–placental barrier, and this may explain the apparent affinity that Listeria has for causing meningitis and affecting babies in utero. Listeria bacteria escape phagosomes formed by the host cell, allowing motility in the intracellular space. This motility in the intracellular space is due to actin assembly-inducing protein (ActA) which allows the bacteria to use the host cell's actin polymerization machinery to polymerize the cytoskeleton to give a "boost" to the bacterial cell so it can move in the cell. The same ActA mechanism also allows the bacteria to travel from cell to cell.
Regulation of pathogenesis[edit]
L. monocytogenes can act as a saprophyte or a pathogen, depending on its environment. When this bacterium is present within a host organism, quorum sensing causes the up-regulation of several virulence genes. Depending on the location of the bacterium within the host organism, different activators up-regulate the virulence genes. SigB, an alternative sigma factor, up-regulates Vir genes in the intestines, whereas PrfA up-regulates gene expression when the bacterium is present in blood.[26][27][28][29] Little is known about how this bacterium switches between acting as a saprophyte and a pathogen; however, several noncoding RNAs are thought to be required to induce this change.
Pathogenicity of lineages[edit]
L. monocytogenes has three distinct lineages, with differing evolutionary histories and pathogenic potentials.[30] Lineage I strains contain the majority of human clinical isolates and all human epidemic clones, but are underrepresented in animal clinical isolates.[30] Lineage II strains are overrepresented in animal cases and underrepresented in human clinical cases, and are more prevalent in environmental and food samples.[31] Lineage III isolates are very rare, but significantly more common in animal than human isolates.[30]
Detection[edit]
Colonies of typical L. monocytogenes as they appear when grown on Listeria-selective agar
The Anton test is used in the identification of L. monocytogenes; instillation of a culture into the conjunctival sac of a rabbit or guinea pig causes severe keratoconjunctivitis within 24 hours.[32][33]
Listeria species grow on media such as Mueller-Hinton agar. Identification is enhanced if the primary cultures are done on agar containing sheep blood, because the characteristic small zone of hemolysis can be observed around and under colonies. Isolation can be enhanced if the tissue is kept at 4 °C for some days before inoculation into bacteriologic media. The organism is a facultative anaerobe and is catalase-positive and motile. Listeria produces acid, but not gas, in a variety of carbohydrates.[34] The motility at room temperature and hemolysin production are primary findings that help differentiate listeria from coryneform bacteria.
The methods for analysis of food are complex and time-consuming. The present U.S. FDA method, revised in September 1990, requires 24 and 48 hours of enrichment, followed by a variety of other tests. Total time to identification takes five to seven days, but the announcement of specific nonradiolabelled DNA probes should soon allow a simpler and faster confirmation of suspect isolates.[35]
Recombinant DNA technology may even permit two- to three-day positive analysis in the future. Currently, the FDA is collaborating in adapting its methodology to quantitate very low numbers of the organisms in foods.[citation needed]
Treatment[edit]
When listeric meningitis occurs, the overall mortality may reach 70%, from septicemia 50%, and from perinatal/neonatal infections greater than 80%. In infections during pregnancy, the mother usually survives. Reports of successful treatment with parenteral penicillin or ampicillin exist.[36] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole has been shown effective in patients allergic to penicillin.[36]
A bacteriophage, Listeria phage P100, has been proposed as food additive to control L. monocytogenes.[37] Bacteriophage treatments have been developed by several companies. EBI Food Safety and Intralytix both have products suitable for treatment of the bacterium. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a cocktail of six bacteriophages from Intralytix, and a one-type phage product from EBI Food Safety designed to kill L. monocytogenes. Uses would potentially include spraying it on fruits and ready-to-eat meat such as sliced ham and turkey.[38]
Use as a transfection vector[edit]
Because L. monocytogenes is an intracellular bacterium, some studies have used this bacterium as a vector to deliver genes in vitro. Current transfection efficiency remains poor. One example of the successful use of L. monocytogenes in in vitro transfer technologies is in the delivery of gene therapies for cystic fibrosis cases.[39]
Cancer treatment[edit]
Listeria monocytogenes is being investigated as a cancer immunotherapy for several types of cancer.[40][41]
A live attenuated Listeria monocytogenes cancer vaccine, ADXS11-001, is under development as a possible treatment for cervical carcinoma.[42]
Epidemiology[edit]
Researchers have found Listeria monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian species, both domesticated and feral, as well as in at least 17 species of birds and possibly in some species of fish and shellfish. Laboratories can isolate Listeria monocytogenes from soil, silage, and other environmental sources. Listeria monocytogenes is quite hardy and resists the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat remarkably well for a bacterium that does not form spores. Most Listeria monocytogenes strains are pathogenic to some degree.[citation needed]
Routes of infection[edit]
Listeria monocytogenes has been associated with such foods as raw milk, pasteurized fluid milk,[43] cheeses (particularly soft-ripened varieties), ice cream (such as Blue Bell), raw vegetables, fermented raw-meat sausages, raw and cooked poultry, raw meats (of all types), and raw and smoked fish. Most bacteria can survive near freezing temperatures, but cannot absorb nutrients, grow or replicate. L. monocytogenes ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C permits exponential multiplication in refrigerated foods. At refrigeration temperature, such as 4 °C, the amount of ferric iron can affect the growth of L. monocytogenes.[44]
Infectious cycle[edit]
The primary site of infection is the intestinal epithelium, where the bacteria invade nonphagocytic cells via the "zipper" mechanism. Uptake is stimulated by the binding of listerial internalins (Inl) to E-cadherin, a host cell adhesion factor, or Met (c-Met), hepatocyte growth factor. This binding activates certain Rho-GTPases, which subsequently bind and stabilize Wiskott Aldrich syndrome protein (WAsp). WAsp can then bind the Arp2/3 complex and serve as an actin nucleation point. Subsequent actin polymerization creates a "phagocytic cup", an actin-based structure normally formed around foreign materials by phagocytes prior to endocytosis. The net effect of internalin binding is to exploit the junction-forming apparatus of the host into internalizing the bacterium. L. monocytogenes can also invade phagocytic cells (e.g., macrophages), but requires only internalins for invasion of nonphagocytic cells.
Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO-encoded by hly) phospholipase A (encoded by plcA) and phospholipase B (plcB).[45][46] Secretion of LLO and PlcA disrupts the vacuolar membrane and allows the bacterium to escape into the cytoplasm, where it may proliferate.
Once in the cytoplasm, L. monocytogenes exploits host actin for the second time. ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole (being a bacillus, L. monocytogenes septates in the middle of the cell, thus has one new pole and one old pole) are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. Actin polymerization then propels the bacterium unidirectionally into the host cell membrane. The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB. This mode of direct cell-to-cell spread involves a cellular mechanism known as paracytophagy.[47]
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External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to: Listeria monocytogenes
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Listeria monocytogenes.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: Listeria monocytogenes
Public Health Agency of Canada
Type strain of Listeria monocytogenes at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
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Firmicutes (low-G+C) Infectious diseases
Bacterial diseases: G+
primarily A00–A79, 001–041, 080–109
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B
bacitracin resistant, CAMP test+: S. agalactiae
Group B streptococcal infection
ungrouped
Streptococcus iniae
Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection
γ
D
BEA+: Streptococcus bovis
Enterococcus
BEA+: Enterococcus faecalis
Urinary tract infection
Enterococcus faecium
Bacillales
(Cat+)
Staphylococcus
Cg+
S. aureus
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome
MRSA
Cg-
novobiocin susceptible
S. epidermidis
novobiocin resistant
S. saprophyticus
Bacillus
Bacillus anthracis
Anthrax
Bacillus cereus
Food poisoning
Listeria
Listeria monocytogenes
Listeriosis
Clostridia
Clostridium (spore-forming)
motile:
Clostridium difficile
Pseudomembranous colitis
Clostridium botulinum
Botulism
Clostridium tetani
Tetanus
nonmotile:
Clostridium perfringens
Gas gangrene
Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
Peptostreptococcus (non-spore forming)
Peptostreptococcus magnus
Mollicutes
Mycoplasmataceae
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Ureaplasma infection
Mycoplasma genitalium
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumonia
Anaeroplasmatales
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Erysipeloid
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q292015
BacDive: 6875
EoL: 974245
GBIF: 5428162
ITIS: 963001
NCBI: 1639
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Listeria_monocytogenes&oldid=801281616"
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Bacteria described in 1940
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Futures exchange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A futures exchange or futures market is a central financial exchange where people can trade standardized futures contracts; that is, a contract to buy specific quantities of a commodity or financial instrument at a specified price with delivery set at a specified time in the future. These types of contracts fall into the category of derivatives. The opposite of the futures market is the spots market, where trades will occur immediately (2 business days) after a transaction agreement has been made, rather than at a predetermined time in the future. Futures instruments are priced according to the movement of the underlying asset (stock, physical commodity, index, etc.). The aforementioned category is named "derivatives" because the value of these instruments are derived from another asset class.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 History
2.1 Ancient times
2.2 Modern era
2.3 Recent developments
3 Nature of contracts
4 Standardization
5 Clearing and settlement
6 Central counterparty
7 Margin and Mark-to-Market
8 Regulators
9 Futures Data
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
Definition[edit]
According to The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (Newbery 2008), futures markets "provide partial income risk insurance to producers whose output is risky, but very effective insurance to commodity stockholders at remarkably low cost. Speculators absorb some of the risk but hedging appears to drive most commodity markets. The equilibrium futures price can be either below or above the (rationally) expected future price (backwardation or contango)...Rollover hedges can extend insurance from short-horizon contracts over longer periods."[1]
History[edit]
Ancient times[edit]
In Ancient Mesopotamia, around 1750 BC, the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, created one of the first legal codes: the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi’s Code allowed sales of goods and assets to be delivered for an agreed price, at a future date; required contracts to be in writing and witnessed; and allowed assignment of contracts. The code facilitated the first derivatives, in the form of forward and futures contracts. An active derivatives market existed, with trading carried out at temples.[2]
One of the earliest written records of futures trading is in Aristotle's Politics. He tells the story of Thales, a poor philosopher from Miletus who developed a "financial device, which involves a principle of universal application". Thales used his skill in forecasting and predicted that the olive harvest would be exceptionally good the next autumn. Confident in his prediction, he made agreements with local olive-press owners to deposit his money with them to guarantee him exclusive use of their olive presses when the harvest was ready. Thales successfully negotiated low prices because the harvest was in the future and no one knew whether the harvest would be plentiful or pathetic and because the olive-press owners were willing to hedge against the possibility of a poor yield. When the harvest-time came, and a sharp increase in demand for the use of the olive presses outstripped supply (availability of the presses), he sold his future use contracts of the olive presses at a rate of his choosing, and made a large quantity of money.[3] It should be noted, however, that this is a very loose example of futures trading and, in fact, more closely resembles an option contract, given that Thales was not obliged to use the olive presses if the yield was poor.
Modern era[edit]
The first modern organized futures exchange began in 1710 at the Dojima Rice Exchange in Osaka, Japan.[4]
The London Metal Market and Exchange Company (London Metal Exchange) was founded in 1877, but the market traces its origins back to 1571 and the opening of the Royal Exchange, London. Before the exchange was created, business was conducted by traders in London coffee houses using a makeshift ring drawn in chalk on the floor.[5] At first only copper was traded. Lead and zinc were soon added but only gained official trading status in 1920. The exchange was closed during World War II and did not re-open until 1952.[6] The range of metals traded was extended to include aluminium (1978), nickel (1979), tin (1989), aluminium alloy (1992), steel (2008), and minor metals cobalt and molybdenum (2010). The exchange ceased trading plastics in 2011. The total value of the trade is around $US 11.6 trillion annually.[7]
The United States followed in the early 19th century. Chicago has the largest future exchange in the world, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. Chicago is located at the base of the Great Lakes, close to the farmlands and cattle country of the Midwest, making it a natural center for transportation, distribution, and trading of agricultural produce. Gluts and shortages of these products caused chaotic fluctuations in price, and this led to the development of a market enabling grain merchants, processors, and agriculture companies to trade in "to arrive" or "cash forward" contracts to insulate them from the risk of adverse price change and enable them to hedge. In March 2008 the Chicago Mercantile Exchange announced its acquisition of NYMEX Holdings, Inc., the parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange. CME's acquisition of NYMEX was completed in August 2008.
For most exchanges, forward contracts were standard at the time. However, most forward contracts were not honored by both the buyer and the seller. For instance, if the buyer of a corn forward contract made an agreement to buy corn, and at the time of delivery the price of corn differed dramatically from the original contract price, either the buyer or the seller would back out. Additionally, the forward contracts market was very illiquid and an exchange was needed that would bring together a market to find potential buyers and sellers of a commodity instead of making people bear the burden of finding a buyer or seller.
In 1848 the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was formed. Trading was originally in forward contracts; the first contract (on corn) was written on March 13, 1851. In 1865 standardized futures contracts were introduced.
The Chicago Produce Exchange was established in 1874, renamed the Chicago Butter and Egg Board in 1898 and then reorganised into the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1919. Following the end of the postwar international gold standard, in 1972 the CME formed a division called the International Monetary Market (IMM) to offer futures contracts in foreign currencies: British pound, Canadian dollar, German mark, Japanese yen, Mexican peso, and Swiss franc.
In 1881 a regional market was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 introduced futures for the first time. Trading continuously since then, today the Minneapolis Grain Exchange (MGEX) is the only exchange for hard red spring wheat futures and options.[8]
Futures trading used to be very active in India in the early to late 19th Century in the Marwari businessmen community.[9] Several business families made their fortunes in regular Opium futures trading in Calcutta and Bombay. There are records available of standardized Opium futures contracts done in 1870-1880's in Calcutta.[10] There are strong grounds to believe that Commodity futures could have existed in India for thousands of years before that with references to the existence of market operations similar to the modern day Futures market in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra” written in 2nd century BCE. The first organised futures market was established only in 1875 by the Bombay Cotton Trade Association to trade in cotton contracts. This occurred soon after the establishment of trading in Cotton Futures in UK, as Bombay was a very important hub for Cotton Trade in the British Empire.[11] Futures trading in Raw Jute and Jute Goods began in Calcutta with the establishment of the Calcutta Hessian Exchange Ltd., in 1919. In modern times, most of the futures trading happens in the National Multi commodity Exchange (NMCE) which commenced futures trading in 24 commodities on 26 November 2002 on a national scale. Currently (August 2007) 62 commodities are being traded in NMCE.
Recent developments[edit]
The 1970s saw the development of the financial futures contracts, which allowed trading in the future value of interest rates. These (in particular the 90‑day Eurodollar contract introduced in 1981) had an enormous impact on the development of the interest rate swap market.
Today, the futures markets have far outgrown their agricultural origins. With the addition of the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) the trading and hedging of financial products using futures dwarfs the traditional commodity markets, and plays a major role in the global financial system, trading over $1.5 trillion per day in 2005.[12]
The recent history of these exchanges (Aug 2006) finds the Chicago Mercantile Exchange trading more than 70% of its Futures contracts on its "Globex" trading platform and this trend is rising daily. It counts for over $45.5 billion of nominal trade (over 1 million contracts) every single day in "electronic trading" as opposed to open outcry trading of futures, options and derivatives.
In June 2001 Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) acquired the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE), now ICE Futures, which operated Europe’s leading open-outcry energy futures exchange. Since 2003 ICE has partnered with the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) to host its electronic marketplace. In April 2005 the entire ICE portfolio of energy futures became fully electronic.
In 2005, The Africa Mercantile Exchange (AfMX®) became the first African commodities market to implement an automated system for the dissemination of market data and information online in real-time through a wide network of computer terminals. As at the end of 2007, AfMX® had developed a system of secure data storage providing online services for brokerage firms. The year 2010, saw the exchange unveil a novel system of electronic trading, known as After®. After® extends the potential volume of processing of information and allows the Exchange to increase its overall volume of trading activities.
In 2006 the New York Stock Exchange teamed up with the Amsterdam-Brussels-Lisbon-Paris Exchanges "Euronext" electronic exchange to form the first transcontinental futures and options exchange. These two developments as well as the sharp growth of internet futures trading platforms developed by a number of trading companies clearly points to a race to total internet trading of futures and options in the coming years.[original research?]
In terms of trading volume, the National Stock Exchange of India in Mumbai is the largest stock futures trading exchange in the world, followed by JSE Limited in Sandton, Gauteng, South Africa.[13]
Nature of contracts[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Futures contract.
Exchange-traded contracts are standardized by the exchanges where they trade. The contract details what asset is to be bought or sold, and how, when, where and in what quantity it is to be delivered. The terms also specify the currency in which the contract will trade, minimum tick value, and the last trading day and expiry or delivery month. Standardized commodity futures contracts may also contain provisions for adjusting the contracted price based on deviations from the "standard" commodity, for example, a contract might specify delivery of heavier USDA Number 1 oats at par value but permit delivery of Number 2 oats for a certain seller's penalty per bushel.
Before the market opens on the first day of trading a new futures contract, there is a specification but no actual contracts exist. Futures contracts are not issued like other securities, but are "created" whenever Open interest increases; that is, when one party first buys (goes long) a contract from another party (who goes short). Contracts are also "destroyed" in the opposite manner whenever Open interest decreases because traders resell to reduce their long positions or rebuy to reduce their short positions.
Speculators on futures price fluctuations who do not intend to make or take ultimate delivery must take care to "zero their positions" prior to the contract's expiry. After expiry, each contract will be settled, either by physical delivery (typically for commodity underlyings) or by a cash settlement (typically for financial underlyings). The contracts ultimately are not between the original buyer and the original seller, but between the holders at expiry and the exchange. Because a contract may pass through many hands after it is created by its initial purchase and sale, or even be liquidated, settling parties do not know with whom they have ultimately traded.
Compare this with other securities, in which there is a primary market when an issuer issues the security, and a secondary market where the security is later traded independently of the issuer. Legally, the security represents an obligation of the issuer rather than the buyer and seller; even if the issuer buys back some securities, they still exist. Only if they are legally cancelled can they disappear.
Standardization[edit]
The contracts traded on futures exchanges are always standardized. In principle, the parameters to define a contract are endless (see for instance in futures contract). To make sure liquidity is high, there is only a limited number of standardized contracts.
Clearing and settlement[edit]
Most large derivatives exchanges operate their own clearing houses, allowing them to take revenues from post-trade processing as well as trading itself. By netting off the different positions traded, a smaller amount of capital is required as security to cover the trades. Of the big derivatives venues Chicago Mercantile Exchange, ICE and Eurex all clear trades themselves. There is sometimes a division of responsibility between provision of trading facility, and that of clearing and settlement of those trades. Derivative exchanges like the CBOE and LIFFE take responsibility for providing the trading environments, settlement of the resulting trades are usually handled by clearing houses that serve as central counterparties to trades done in the respective exchanges. The Options Clearing Corporation (OCC) and LCH.Clearnet (London Clearing House) respectively are the clearing corporations for CBOE and LIFFE, although LIFFE and parent NYSE Euronext has long stated its desire to develop its own clearing service.
Central counterparty[edit]
Derivative contracts are leveraged positions whose value is volatile. They are usually more volatile than their underlying asset. This can lead to credit risk, in particular counterparty risk: a situation in which one party to a trade loses such a large sum of money that it is unable to honor its settlement obligation. In a safe trading environment, the parties to a trade need to be assured that the counterparties will honor the trade, no matter how the market has moved. This requirement can lead to complex arrangements like credit assessments and the setting of trading limits for each counterparty, thus removing many of the advantages of a centralised trading facility. To prevent this, a clearing house interposes itself as a counterparty to every trade, in order to extend a guarantee that the trade will be settled as originally intended. This action is called novation. As a result, trading firms take no risk on the actual counterparty to the trade, but instead the risk falls on the clearing corporation performing a service called central counterparty clearing. The clearing corporation is able to take on this risk by adopting an efficient margining process.[14]
Margin and Mark-to-Market[edit]
A margin is collateral that the holder of a financial instrument has to deposit to cover some or all of the credit risk of their counterparty, in this case the central counterparty clearing houses. Clearing houses charge two types of margins: the Initial Margin and the Mark-To-Market margin (also referred to as Variation Margin).
The Initial Margin is the sum of money (or collateral) to be deposited by a firm to the clearing corporation to cover possible future loss in the positions (the set of positions held is also called the portfolio) held by a firm. Several popular methods are used to compute initial margins. They include the CME-owned SPAN (a grid simulation method used by the CME and about 70 other exchanges), STANS (a Monte Carlo simulation based methodology used by the OCC), TIMS (earlier used by the OCC, and still being used by a few other exchanges).
The Mark-to-Market Margin (MTM margin) on the other hand is the margin collected to offset losses (if any) that have already been incurred on the positions held by a firm. This is computed as the difference between the cost of the position held and the current market value of that position. If the resulting amount is a loss, the amount is collected from the firm; else, the amount may be returned to the firm (the case with most clearing houses) or kept in reserve depending on local practice. In either case, the positions are 'marked-to-market' by setting their new cost to the market value used in computing this difference. The positions held by the clients of the exchange are marked-to-market daily and the MTM difference computation for the next day would use the new cost figure in its calculation.
Clients hold a margin account with the exchange, and every day the swings in the value of their positions is added to or deducted from their margin account. If the margin account gets too low, they have to replenish it. In this way it is highly unlikely that the client will not be able to fulfill his obligations arising from the contracts. As the clearing house is the counterparty to all their trades, they only have to have one margin account. This is in contrast with OTC derivatives, where issues such as margin accounts have to be negotiated with all counterparties.
Regulators[edit]
Each exchange is normally regulated by a national governmental (or semi-governmental) regulatory agency:
In Australia, this role is performed by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission.
In the Chinese mainland, by the China Securities Regulatory Commission.
In Hong Kong, by the Securities and Futures Commission.
In India, by the Securities and Exchange Board of India and Forward Markets Commission
In South Korea, by the Financial Supervisory Service.
In Japan, by the Financial Services Agency.
In Pakistan, by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.
In Singapore by the Monetary Authority of Singapore.
In the UK, futures exchanges are regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority.
In the USA, by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.
In Malaysia, by the Securities Commission Malaysia.
In Spain, by the Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores (CNMV).
In Brazil, by the Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM).
In South Africa, by the Financial Services Board (South Africa).
In Mauritius, by the Financial Services Commission (FSC)
Futures Data[edit]
There are several sources of futures data on the internet which can be used by professional traders, analysts and individual investors. The largest collection of futures data online can be found on Quandl and can be downloaded in any format.[15] Barchart Market Data also offers futures data and has been providing market data to finance professionals since the 1930s.[16] Other sources of futures data include websites like the Moore Research Center[17] and Turtletrader.com which has historical futures prices on contracts traded in US futures exchanges.[18]
See also[edit]
Bond market
Commodity markets
Currency market
List of futures exchanges
List of traded commodities
Paper trading
Prediction market
Stock market
Trader (finance)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Newbery, David M. (2008). Steven N. Durlauf; Lawrence E. Blume, eds. Futures markets, hedging and speculation. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2 ed.). Retrieved 22 July 2013.
Jump up ^ A History of Derivatives: Ancient Mesopotamia to Trading Places, by Edmund Parker & Geoffrey Parker. YouTube. 17 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett, vol. 2, The Great Books of the Western World, book 1, chap. 11, p. 453.
Jump up ^ Private ordering at the world's first futures exchange. (Dojima Rice Exchange in Osaka, Japan) - Michigan Law Review | Encyclopedia.com
Jump up ^ BBC Radio 4 Today, broadcast 25 October 2011.
Jump up ^ The exchange was closed during World War II and did not re-open until 1952 http://blog.steinerelectric.com/2014/04/what-is-the-london-metals-exchange/
Jump up ^ "LME achieves another year of record volume". London Metal Exchange. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
Jump up ^ MGEX via U.S. Futures Exchange (2007). "Minneapolis Grain Exchange". and Minter, Adam (August 2006). "Gimme Grain!". The Rake. and "Buyers & Processors". North Dakota Wheat Commission. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
Jump up ^ http://marwarienterprise.blogspot.sg/2013/09/occupations-commodities-trading.html
Jump up ^ https://tradingpithistory.com/2014/09/opium-futures/
Jump up ^ http://rbgcommodities.com/commodity_future_india.html
Jump up ^ Notional volume in interest rate derivatives for 2005 was nearly $1.5 trillion, 85% of which came from 260 institutions trading more than $1 billion each http://www.investopedia.com/articles/optioninvestor/07/derivatives_retail.asp
Jump up ^ "NSE world's top bourse in futures trading". tribuneindia.com.
Jump up ^ "Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure". chicagofed.org.
Jump up ^ "Futures - Data from Quandl". www.quandl.com. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "Barchart Market Data | Financial Technology Solutions". www.barchartmarketdata.com. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Moore Research Center". www.mrci.com. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "Original Turtle Trading Rules and Stories from TurtleTrader® and Michael Covel". turtletrader.com. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Further reading[edit]
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Futures_exchange&oldid=802122274"
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Sierra Leonean leone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Sierra Leonean leone
ISO 4217
Code
SLL
Denominations
Subunit
1/100
cent
Symbol
Le
Banknotes
1000, 2000, 5000, 10 000 leones
Coins
10, 50, 100, 500 leones
Demographics
User(s)
Sierra Leone
Issuance
Central bank
Bank of Sierra Leone
Website
www.bsl.gov.sl
Valuation
Inflation
11.1%
Source
The World Factbook, 2013 est.
The leone is the currency of Sierra Leone. It is subdivided into 100 cents. The ISO 4217 code is SLL and the leone is abbreviated as Le placed before the amount.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Coins
3 Banknotes
4 Specimen notes
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The leone was introduced on 4 August 1964. It replaced the British West African pound at a rate of 1 pound = 2 leones (i.e., 1 leone = 10 shillings).[1]
For an earlier Sierra Leone currency, see Sierra Leonean dollar.
Coins[edit]
In 1964, decimal coins were introduced in denominations of ½, 1, 5, 10 and 20 cents. The coins size and compositions were based in part on those of the former colonial state British West Africa. All bore the portrait of the first president of Sierra Leone, Sir Milton Margai. In 1972, 50 cents coins were introduced which carried the portrait of the succeeding president Dr. Siaka Stevens.
In 1974, round cupro-nickel one leone coins were introduced and in 1976, seven sided cupro-nickel 2 leone coins commemorating FAO were introduced. These latter two denominations, however, did not circulate as frequently as the lower cent denominations. The portrait of Stevens also appeared on a new, slightly smaller series of coins introduced in 1980 in denominations of ½, 1, 5, 10 and 20 cents. In 1987, octagonal, nickel-bronze 1 leone coins were introduced with a bust portrait of General Joseph Saidu Momoh. This coin effectively replaced the one leone note.
Following a period of economic collapse and the following Sierra Leone Civil War inflation became rampant, devaluing older coins. A new coin series was introduced in 1996 for 10, 50 and 100 leones. The 50 leones is octagonal while the other two are round. These coins were struck in nickel-plated steel and feature important figures in Sierra Leone's political history. Ten sided, bimetallic 500 leones coins were first introduced in 2004. Of the four coins in circulation, only the 100 leones is available in small quantity due to their low valuation and shortage of supply.
500 leones coins and the two lowest denominations are rarely encountered due to rampant metal theft in the impoverished country.
1 leone 1987
Coat of arms Joseph Saidu Momoh
Banknotes[edit]
With the introduction of decimal currency in 1964, a new series of Banknotes was introduced by the Bank of Sierra Leone. Originally called Shillings, the unit name "Leone" was finally decided upon. After considering (and subsequently rejecting) several new designs, including a particularly attractive multi-coloured design, notes were issued in the 1, 2 and 5 Leone denominations. These officially replaced notes of the British West African pound at a two leone to one pound exchange ratio. 50 cents notes were introduced in 1979, followed by 10 leones in 1980 and 20 leones notes in 1982. Throughout this period the value of the currency was fixed and remained relatively stable despite inherent economic problems.
100 leones notes were introduced in 1988, followed by 500 leones in 1991, 1000 and 5000 leones in 1993, 2000 leones in the year 2000 and 10,000 Leone in 2004.
The original series of notes (1964-1974) depicted the famous 300 year old Cottonwood Tree and Court building in central Freetown. The reverses showed Diamond Mining (1 Leone), a Village market scene (2 Leones) and the Dockside in Freetown (5 Leones). Subsequent issues (1974-1991) depicted the head of state during the time of issue. The first series depicting Sir Milton Margai and later issues depicting either Siaka and Momoh. This practice ended with the ascension of the NPRC regime and has remained so despite the return to civilian government.
Prior to June 2010, bank notes in circulation were 500, 1000, 2000, 5000 and 10,000 leones. 10,000 leones notes were in circulation for less than ten years and were infrequently encountered. This meant that most transactions took place in bundles of 5000 leones notes.
In June 2010, the Bank of Sierra Leone issued new notes which were slightly smaller in size than the earlier series and intended to be more secure and durable. The new bank notes are: Le10,000, Le5,000, Le2,000 and Le1,000.[2] Coins are still used, but because of their low value are less common.
Because of inflation, a 20,000 leone banknote has been suggested[by whom?]. As of May 20th, 2017, 20,000 leones are equivalent to about $2.68 USD.[3]
2010 Series
Image
Value
Dimensions
Main Color
Description
Date of issue
Date of first issue
Watermark
Obverse
Reverse
1000 leones 135 x 67 mm Red Bai Bureh; Coat of arms of Sierra Leone Telecommunications satellite dish 27th April 2010 May 14, 2010 Lion head and electrotype 1000
[1] 2000 leones 140 x 69 mm Brown Isaac Theophilus Akunna Wallace-Johnson, cargo ship; Coat of arms of Sierra Leone Bank of Sierra Leone building, Freetown 27th April 2010 May 14, 2010 Lion head and electrotype 2000
[2] 5000 leones 145 x 71 mm Purple Sengbe Pieh; Coat of arms of Sierra Leone Bumbuna Dam 27th April 2010 May 14, 2010 Lion head and electrotype 5000
[3] 10,000 leones 153 x 73 mm Blue and Green Dove flying over the map of Sierra Leone, Flag of Sierra Leone White silk-cotton tree; Coat of arms of Sierra Leone 27th April 2010 May 14, 2010 Lion head and electrotype 10000
Specimen notes[edit]
Specimen notes are issued to banks to familiarize the local inhabitants with any currency changes. These are issued by Thomas De La Rue of the UK.
Current SLL exchange rates
From Google Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD
From Yahoo! Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD
From XE: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD
From OANDA: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD
From fxtop.com: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD
See also[edit]
Economy of Sierra Leone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Linzmayer, Owen (2012). "Sierra Leone". The Banknote Book. San Francisco, CA: www.BanknoteNews.com.
Jump up ^ Sierra Leone resized note family confirmed BanknoteNews.com. Retrieved 2012-03-12.
Jump up ^ http://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=20000&From=SLL&To=USD
Krause, Chester L.; Clifford Mishler (1991). Standard Catalog of World Coins: 1801–1991 (18th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 0873411501.
Pick, Albert (1994). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money: General Issues. Colin R. Bruce II and Neil Shafer (editors) (7th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87341-207-9.
External links[edit]
banknote serie
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values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone
Leone – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: ליאון (מטבע) – Hebrew

values: सियेरा लिओनन लिओन – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone
Leone – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone
Leone – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Леоне (денежная единица) – Russian

values: Леоне – Sakha

values: Сијералеонски леоне – Serbian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone
Leone – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: Леони Сиерра Лион – Tajik

values: Леоне (грошова одиниця) – Ukrainian

values: 塞拉利昂利昂 – Chinese

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