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Citizenship
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This article is about being a member of a country. For other uses, see Citizen (disambiguation).
Legal status of persons
Concepts
Administrative detention
Citizenship
Immigration (illegal)
Jus sanguinis
Jus soli
Nationality
Naturalization
Permanent residency
Statelessness
Designations
Administrative detainee
Alien
enemy
Citizen (dual / multiple
naturalized)
Illegal immigrant
Migrant worker
Political prisoner
Refugee
Stateless person
Social politics
Illegal immigration
Immigration law
Nationalism
Nationality law
Nativism
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Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state or belonging to a nation.
A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said to be stateless.
Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English[1] – notably in international law – although the term is sometimes understood as denoting a person's membership of a nation (a large ethnic group).[2] In some countries, e.g. the United States, the United Kingdom, nationality and citizenship can have different meanings (for more information, see Nationality versus citizenship).
Contents
[hide]
1 Determining factors
2 History
2.1 Polis
2.2 Roman ideas
2.3 Middle Ages
2.4 Renaissance
2.5 Modern times
2.5.1 United States
2.5.2 Soviet Union
2.5.3 National Socialism
3 Different senses
4 International
4.1 European Union
4.2 Commonwealth
5 Subnational
6 Education
6.1 Republic of Ireland
6.2 United Kingdom
7 Criticism of citizenship education in schools
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Determining factors[edit]
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Further information: Nationality law
Each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to its citizenship. A person can be recognized or granted citizenship on a number of bases. Usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic, but in other cases an application may be required.
Citizenship by birth (jus sanguinis). If one or both of a person's parents are citizens of a given state, then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well.[a] Formerly this might only have applied through the paternal line, but sex equality became common since the late twentieth century. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity and is related to the concept of a nation state common in Europe. Where jus sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally[citation needed] limit the right to citizenship by descent to a certain number of generations born outside the state, although some do not.[clarification needed] This form of citizenship is common in civil law countries.
Born within a country (jus soli). Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the realm were subjects of the monarch (a concept pre-dating citizenship) and is common in common law countries.
In many cases, both jus soli and jus sanguinis hold citizenship either by place or parentage (or both).
Citizenship by marriage (jus matrimonii). Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of a person to a citizen. Countries which are destinations for such immigration often have regulations to try to detect sham marriages, where a citizen marries a non-citizen typically for payment, without them having the intention of living together.[5]
Naturalization. States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legally and been granted permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specified period. In some countries, naturalization is subject to conditions which may include passing a test demonstrating reasonable knowledge of the language or way of life of the host country, good conduct (no serious criminal record) and moral character (such as drunkenness, or gambling), vowing allegiance to their new state or its ruler and renouncing their prior citizenship. Some states allow dual citizenship and do not require naturalized citizens to formally renounce any other citizenship.
Excluded categories. In the past there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, and free status (not being a slave). Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some Arab countries which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g. Qatar is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the Islamic faith in order to receive citizenship. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983 even though their parents meet citizenship criteria.
History[edit]
Main article: History of citizenship
Polis[edit]
Main article: Polis
Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for mankind, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society.[6] Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon.[7] There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny.[8] The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.[9]
Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom.[10] Hosking explained:
It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.
—  Geoffrey Hosking, 2005[10]
Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek woman being served by a slave-child.
Slavery permitted slaveowners to have substantial free time, and enabled participation in public life.[10] Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης politēs < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners (metics).[11][12] The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen as a separate activity from the private life of the individual person, in the sense that there was not a distinction between public and private life. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one's everyday life in the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life was not separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.
Roman ideas[edit]
In the Roman Empire, citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entire empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law.[13] Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long",[14] but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship.[14] If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things",[15] the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained:
The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person.
—  J. G. A. Pocock, 1998[16]
Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class.[14] A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community".[17] Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason".[17] The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people.[18] Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications.[18]
Middle Ages[edit]
During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns, and applied mainly to middle class folk. Titles such as burgher, grand burgher (German Großbürger) and bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens.
During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution, abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.
Renaissance[edit]
During the Renaissance, people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation.[19]:p.161 Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration.[20] And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials.[20] City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status, but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship.[21] Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially.[22] The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism, according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power.[23] Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept,[9] and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties.[9]
Modern times[edit]
The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy.[8] Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act.[8] Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities, and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.[8]
United States[edit]
Portrait of Dred Scott, plaintiff in the infamous Dred Scott v. Sandford case at the Supreme Court of the United States, commissioned by a "group of Negro citizens" and presented to the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, in 1888
From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become a naturalized citizen.[24] The Naturalization Act of 1790, the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any Alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen thereof."[25]
Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford, which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guarantied to citizens do not apply to them."[26]
It was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."[27] Two years later, the Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent".[28]
Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans, Asians, and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in 1906, 1917, and 1924, would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories.[29] Supreme Court cases such as Ozawa v. United States (1922) and U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law.
Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans.[30]
It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship, and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920".[31] It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system.
Soviet Union[edit]
The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within Russia, so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class."[32] It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of election."[33] The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics[34][35] in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia.
National Socialism[edit]
National Socialism or "Nazism", the German variant of twentieth century fascism whose precepts were laid out in Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf, classified inhabitants of the nation into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights and duties in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship would be conferred only on males of German (or so-called "Aryan") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich, and because of this law Jews and others who could not prove "German" racial heritage were stripped of their citizenship.[36]
The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany).
The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights.
"The People's State will classify its population in three groups: Citizens, subjects of the State, and aliens.
The principle is that birth within the confines of the State gives only the status of a subject. It does not carry with it the right to fill any position under the State or to participate in political life, such as taking an active or passive part in elections. Another principle is that the race and nationality of every subject of the State will have to be proved. A subject is at any time free to cease being a subject and to become a citizen of that country to which he belongs in virtue of his nationality. The only difference between an alien and a subject of the State is that the former is a citizen of another country.
The young boy or girl who is of German nationality and is a subject of the German State is bound to complete the period of school education which is obligatory for every German. Thereby he submits to the system of training which will make him conscious of his race and a member of the folk-community. Then he has to fulfil all those requirements laid down by the State in regard to physical training after he has left school; and finally he enters the army. The training in the army is of a general kind. It must be given to each individual German and will render him competent to fulfil the physical and mental requirements of military service. The rights of citizenship shall be conferred on every young man whose health and character have been certified as good, after having completed his period of military service. This act of inauguration in citizenship shall be a solemn ceremony.
And the diploma conferring the rights of citizenship will be preserved by the young man as the most precious testimonial of his whole life. It entitles him to exercise all the rights of a citizen and to enjoy all the privileges attached thereto. For the State must draw a sharp line of distinction between those who, as members of the nation, are the foundation and the support of its existence and greatness, and those who are domiciled in the State simply as earners of their livelihood there.
On the occasion of conferring a diploma of citizenship the new citizen must take a solemn oath of loyalty to the national community and the State. This diploma must be a bond which unites together all the various classes and sections of the nation. It shall be a greater honour to be a citizen of this Reich, even as a street-sweeper, than to be the King of a foreign State.
The citizen has privileges which are not accorded to the alien. He is the master in the Reich. But this high honour has also its obligations. Those who show themselves without personal honour or character, or common criminals, or traitors to the fatherland, can at any time be deprived of the rights of citizenship. Therewith they become merely subjects of the State.
The German girl is a subject of the State but will become a citizen when she marries. At the same time those women who earn their livelihood independently have the right to acquire citizenship if they are German subjects."
—  Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, Volume II: The National Socialist Movement, Chapter III: Subjects and Citizens
Different senses[edit]
Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and a political one. For further information, see History of citizenship.
Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties. In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations."[37] Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time.[8] In China, for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship".[38]
How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on, or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government.
Citizenship is a status in society. It is an ideal state as well. It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens, and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions, since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right and wrong, ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society.[19] When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond which unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identity as a legal member of a specific nation.[39]
Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:[40]
The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have entitlements necessary for human dignity.[41] It assumes people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest. According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack,[41] but are essentially passive politically,[40] and their primary focus is on economic betterment. This idea began to appear around the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and became stronger over time, according to one view.[9] According to this formulation, the state exists for the benefit of citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens, including civil rights and political rights.[9] It was later that so-called social rights became part of the obligation for the state.[9]
The civic-republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of citizenship emphasizes man's political nature, and sees citizenship as an active process, not a passive state or legal marker.[40] It is relatively more concerned that government will interfere with popular places to practice citizenship in the public sphere. Citizenship means being active in government affairs.[41] According to one view, most people today live as citizens according to the liberal-individualist conception but wished they lived more according to the civic-republican ideal.[40] An ideal citizen is one who exhibits "good civic behavior".[9] Free citizens and a republic government are "mutually interrelated."[9] Citizenship suggested a commitment to "duty and civic virtue".[9]
Further information: Civic engagement
Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean.[9] Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights.[9] Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship.[9] Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well.[9] Citizenship can be seen as a special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses.[9] According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe, citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group.[19]:p.150 One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by his or her consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by his or her descent.[11]
International[edit]
See also: Global citizenship
Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level,[42] where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship.
European Union[edit]
Main article: Citizenship of the European Union
The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union[43] stated that:
Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship.[44]
An agreement known as the amended EC Treaty[44] established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided a limited right to free movement and residence in Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights.
Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States[45] which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.[46]
Commonwealth[edit]
The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries:
Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries.
In some Commonwealth countries resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election.
In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except for certain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, Governor-General or President or Prime Minister.
Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland".[47] Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom.
Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth.[48] The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1947 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act of 1948.
Subnational[edit]
Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy a special provincial citizenship within Finland, hembygdsrätt.
The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as New Jersey or California, as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what are granted under the United States Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization.
Diagram of relationship between; Citizens, Politicians + Laws
Education[edit]
Main article: Citizenship education (subject)
"Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries. By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depth-less, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils. The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e. their vote) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them.
Republic of Ireland[edit]
It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.[49]
United Kingdom[edit]
Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools in the United Kingdom. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.
Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for all pupils aged 11–16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level. All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in citizenship to parents.[50]
In Wales the model used is Personal and Social Education.[51][52]
Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in Scottish schools, but is a cross-curricular strand of the Curriculum for Excellence. However they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues.[53]
Citizenship is taught as a standalone subject in all state schools in Northern Ireland and most other schools in some forms from year 8 to 10 prior to GCSEs. Components of Citizenship are then also incorporated into GCSE courses such as 'Learning for Life and Work'.
Criticism of citizenship education in schools[edit]
There are two kinds of criticism of citizenship education in schools. Firstly, some philosophers of education argue that most governments and mainstream policies stimulate and advocate questionable approaches of citizenship education. These approaches aim to develop specific dispositions in students, dispositions conducive to political participation and solidarity. But there are radically different views on the nature of good citizenship and education should involve and develop autonomy and open-mindedness. Therefore, it requires a more critical approach than is possible when political participation and solidarity are conceived of as goals of education.[54] Secondly, some educationalists argue that merely teaching children about the theory of citizenship is ineffective, unless schools themselves reflect democratic practices by giving children the opportunity to have a say in decision making. They suggest that schools are fundamentally undemocratic institutions, and that such a setting cannot instill in children the commitment and belief in democratic values that is necessary for citizenship education to have a proper impact.[55] Some educationalists relate this criticism to John Dewey (see critical comments on this interpretation of Dewey: Van der Ploeg, 2016).[56]
See also[edit]
Citizenship in Canada
Citizenship in Germany
Citizenship in the United States
Citizen in uniform
Global citizenship
History of citizenship
Honorary citizenship
Honorary Canadian citizenship
Honorary citizen of the United States
Nationalism
Non-citizens (Latvia)
Spatial citizenship
Transnational citizenship
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Examples: Philippines,[3] United States.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Votruba, Martin. "Nationality, ethnicity in Slovakia". Slovak Studies Program. University of Pittsburgh.
Jump up ^ Weis, Paul (1979). Nationality and Statelessness in International Law. Sijthoff & Noordhoff. p. 3. ISBN 9789028603295.
Jump up ^ Article IV of the Philippine Constitution.
Jump up ^ 8 USC Part I - Nationality at Birth and Collective Naturalization8 USC Part I - Nationality at Birth and Collective Naturalization
Jump up ^ UK government Web site: Bishops act to tackle sham marriages - New UK Border Agency approved guidance for clergy should help prevent weddings for visas, 11 April 2011
Jump up ^ Pocock 1998, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Zarrow 1997, p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Isin, Engin F.; Bryan S. Turner, eds. (2002). Handbook of Citizenship Studies. Chapter 5 -- David Burchell -- Ancient Citizenship and its Inheritors; Chapter 6 -- Rogers M. Smith -- Modern Citizenship. London: Sage. pp. 89–104, 105. ISBN 0-7619-6858-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Heater, Derek (2004). A Brief History of Citizenship. New York City: New York University Press. p. 157. ISBN 0-8147-3671-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hosking, Geoffrey (2005). Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance. Lecture 3: Ancient Greece. United Kingdom: The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books. pp. 1, 2 (tracks). ISBN 1-4025-8360-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Hebert (editor), Yvonne M. (2002). Citizenship in transformation in Canada. chapters by Veronica Strong-Boag, Yvonne Hebert, Lori Wilkinson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 3, 4, 5. ISBN 0-8020-0850-X. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Pocock 1998, p. 33.
Jump up ^ See Civis romanus sum.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hosking, Geoffrey (2005). Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance. Lecture 5: Rome as a city-state. United Kingdom: The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books. pp. tracks 1 through 9. ISBN 1-4025-8360-5.
Jump up ^ Pocock 1998, p. 35.
Jump up ^ Pocock 1998, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b Pocock 1998, p. 37.
^ Jump up to: a b Pocock 1998, p. 38.
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor, David (1994). Bryan Turner; Peter Hamilton, eds. Citizenship: Critical Concepts. United States and Canada: Routledge. pp. 476 pages total;. ISBN 0-415-07036-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Weber 1998, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Weber 1998, p. 46.
Jump up ^ Weber 1998, pp. 46-47.
Jump up ^ Zarrow 1997, p. 3.
Jump up ^ "A History of U.S. Citizenship". The Los Angeles Times. July 4, 1997. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Scott v. Sandford". Legal Information Institute. Cornell University Law School. 1857. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the United States: Amendment XIV". The Charters of Freedom. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 1868. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Naturalization Act of 1870". Wikisource. U.S. Congress.
Jump up ^ "1917 Immigration Act". US Immigration Legislation Online. University of Washington-Bothell Library.
Jump up ^ "Elections: Native Americans". Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (The McCarran-Walter Act)". The Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State.
Jump up ^ "1918 Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Article Two: General Provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federated Soviet Republic".
Jump up ^ "1918 Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Article Four: The Right to Vote".
Jump up ^ "1936 Constitution of the USSR. Chapter II: The Organization of the Soviet State".
Jump up ^ "1977 Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. II. The State and the Individual. Chapter 6: Citizenship of the USSR/Equality of Citizens' Rights".
Jump up ^ "The Nuremberg Laws: The Reich Citizenship Law (September 15, 1935)". Jewish Virtual Library.
Jump up ^ Virginia Leary (2000). "Citizenship. Human rights, and Diversity". In Alan C. Cairns, John C. Courtney, Peter MacKinnon, Hans J. Michelmann, David E. Smith. Citizenship, Diversity, and Pluralism: Canadian and Comparative Perspectives. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 247–264. ISBN 978-0-7735-1893-3. ... The concept of 'citizenship' has long acquired the connotation of a bundle of rights... . CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Xiao, Y (2013). "China's peopleship education: Conceptual issues and policy analysis". Citizenship Teaching and Learning. 8 (1): 21–39.
Jump up ^ Gross, Feliks (1999). Citizenship and ethnicity: the growth and development of a democratic multiethnic institution. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. xi, xii, xiii,4. ISBN 0-313-30932-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Beiner (editor), Ronald (1995). Theorizing Citizenship. J. G. A. Pocock, Michael Ignatieff. USA: State University of New York, Albany. pp. 29, 54. ISBN 0-7914-2335-2. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Oldfield, Adrian (1994). Bryan Turner; Peter Hamilton, eds. Citizenship: Critical Concepts. United States and Canada: Routledge. pp. 476 pages total; source: The Political Quarterly, 1990 vol.61, pp. 177–187; in the book, pages 188+.
Jump up ^ Daniele Archibugi, "The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy", Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2008
Jump up ^ Note: the consolidated version.
^ Jump up to: a b Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union
Jump up ^ Note: Articles 39, 43, 49 EC.
Jump up ^ Violaine Hacker, « Citoyenneté culturelle et politique européenne des médias : entre compétitivité et promotion des valeurs », NATIONS, CULTURES ET ENTREPRISES EN EUROPE, sous la direction de Gilles Rouet, Collection Local et Global, L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 163-184
Jump up ^ The Commonwealth Countries and Ireland (Immunities and Privileges) (Amendment) Order 2005
Jump up ^ Murray v Parkes [1942] All ER 123.
Jump up ^ http://www.ncca.ie/en/Publications/Reports/Senior_Cycle_Politics_and_Society_Report_on_the_consultation.pdf
Jump up ^ "National curriculum". British Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
Jump up ^ "NAFWC 13/2003 Personal and Social Education (PSE) and Work-Related Education (WRE) in the Basic Curriculum. Education (WRE) in the Basic Curriculum". Welsh Assembly Government. 15 June 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-09.
Jump up ^ "Personal and Social Education Framework: Key Stages 1 to 4 in Wales". Welsh Assembly Government. Retrieved 2007-06-09.
Jump up ^ "Modern Studies Association". Retrieved 2007-08-09.
Jump up ^ Van der Ploeg, P.A. & L.J.F. Guérin (2016) Questioning Participation and Solidarity as Goals of Citizenship Education. Critical Review, DOI: 10.1080/08913811.2016.1191191 [1]
Jump up ^ Greenberg, D. (1992), Education in America - A View from Sudbury Valley, "Democracy Must be Experienced to be Learned." Retrieved 14 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Van der Ploeg, P.A. (2016) Dewey versus ‘Dewey’ on democracy and education, Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, DOI: 10.1177/1746197916648283 [2]
Further reading[edit]
Weber, Max (1998). Citizenship in Ancient and Medieval Cities. Chapter 3. Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. pp. 43–49. ISBN 0-8166-2880-7.
Zarrow, Peter (1997), Fogel, Joshua A.; Zarrow, Peter G., eds., Imagining the People: Chinese Intellectuals and the Concept of Citizenship, 1890-1920, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, p. 3, ISBN 0-7656-0098-6
Pocock, J. G. A. (1998). Shafir, Gershon, ed. The Citizenship Debates. Chapter 2 -- The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in Queen's Quarterly 99, no. 1). Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. p. 31. ISBN 0-8166-2880-7.
Archibugi, Daniele (2008). The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2976-7.
Brooks, Thom (2016). Becoming British: UK Citizenship Examined. Biteback.
Beaven, Brad, and John Griffiths. "Creating the Exemplary Citizen: The Changing Notion of Citizenship in Britain 1870–1939," Contemporary British History (2008) 22#2 pp 203–225 doi:10.1080/13619460701189559
Carens, Joseph (2000). Culture, Citizenship, and Community: A Contextual Exploration of Justice as Evenhandedness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829768-0.
Heater, Derek (2004). A Brief History of Citizenship. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3672-2.
Kymlicka, Will (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829091-9.
Maas, Willem (2007). Creating European Citizens. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5486-3.
Marshall, T.H. (1950). Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. Cambridge University Press.
Shue, Henry (1950). Basic Rights.
Smith, Rogers (2003). Stories of Peoplehood: The Politics and Morals of Political Membership. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52003-4.
Somers, Margaret (2008). Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79394-0.
Soysal, Yasemin (1994). Limits of Citizenship. Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe. University of Chicago Press.
Turner, Bryan S. (1994). Citizenship and Social Theory. Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-8611-4.
Young, Iris Marion (January 1989). "Polity and group difference: A critique of the ideal of universal citizenship". Ethics. University of Chicago Press. 99 (2): 250–274. JSTOR 2381434.
External links[edit]
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Look up citizenship in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
BBC PSHE & Citizenship
The Life in the UK Citizenship Test Report by Thom Brooks
Leydet, Dominique. "Citizenship". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Citizenship Laws of the World" (PDF). United States Office of Personnel Management Investigations Service. March 2001. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2006-04-04. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
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Commemorative Marriage Scarab for Queen Tiye from Amenhotep III. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
Scarabs were popular amulets and impression seals in Ancient Egypt. They survive in large numbers and, through their inscriptions and typology, they are an important source of information for archaeologists and historians of the ancient world. They also represent a significant body of ancient art.
For reasons that are not clear (although no doubt connected to the religious significance of the Egyptian god Khepri), amulets in the form of scarab beetles had become enormously popular in Ancient Egypt by the early Middle Kingdom (approx. 2000 BCE) and remained popular for the rest of the pharaonic period and beyond. During that long period the function of scarabs repeatedly changed. Primarily amulets, they were also inscribed for use as personal or administrative seals or were incorporated into jewelry. Some scarabs were apparently created for political or diplomatic purposes to commemorate or advertise royal achievements. By the early New Kingdom, heart scarabs had become part of the battery of amulets protecting mummies.
From the middle Bronze Age, other ancient peoples of the Mediterranean and the Middle East imported scarabs from Egypt and also produced scarabs in Egyptian or local styles, especially in the Levant.
Contents
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1 Description
2 Religious significance of the scarab beetle
3 Historical development
4 Commemorative scarabs
5 Funerary scarabs
6 Scarabs with royal names
7 Literary and popular culture reference
8 Scarabs showing top and inscriptions
9 See also
10 References
11 Sources
12 External links
Description[edit]
Scarabs are usually identified as the dung beetle Scarabaeus sacer, here rolling a ball of dung.
Scarabs (beetles) were produced in vast numbers for many centuries and many thousands have survived. They were generally intended to be worn or carried by the living. They were typically carved or moulded in the form of a scarab beetle (usually identified as Scarabaeus sacer) with varying degrees of naturalism but usually at least indicating the head, wing case and legs but with a flat base. The base was usually inscribed with designs and/or hieroglyphs to form an impression seal. Scarabs were usually drilled from end to end to allow them to be strung on a thread or incorporated into a swivel ring. The most common of sizes for scarabs is from 6mm to 4 cm (length) and most are probably between 1 cm and 2 cm long. Larger scarabs were made from time to time for particular purposes (such as the commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III). Heart scarabs (typically 5 cm to 9 cm long, made of dark hardstone and not pierced for suspension) were made for a specific funerary purpose and should be considered separately.
Scarabs were generally either carved from stone or moulded from Egyptian faience. Once carved, they would typically be glazed blue or green and then fired. The most common stone used for scarabs was a form of steatite, a soft stone which becomes hard when fired (forming enstatite). Hardstone scarabs were also made and the stones most commonly used were green jasper, amethyst and carnelian.
While the majority of scarabs would originally have been green or blue the coloured glazes used have often either become discoloured or have been lost, leaving most steatite scarabs appearing white or brown.A scarab was often very light colors.
Religious significance of the scarab beetle[edit]
In ancient Egyptian religion, the sun god Ra is seen to roll across the sky each day, transforming bodies and souls. Beetles of the Scarabaeidae family (dung beetle) roll dung into a ball as food and as a brood chamber in which to lay eggs; this way, the larvae hatch and are immediately surrounded by food. For these reasons the scarab was seen as a symbol of this heavenly cycle and of the idea of rebirth or regeneration. The Egyptian god Khepri, Ra as the rising sun, was often depicted as a scarab beetle or as a scarab beetle-headed man. The ancient Egyptians believed that Khepri renewed the sun every day before rolling it above the horizon, then carried it through the other world after sunset, only to renew it, again, the next day. A golden scarab of Nefertiti was discovered in the Uluburun wreck.[1]
Historical development[edit]
Scaraboid seals are small impression seals, some 1.5 cm long.
By the end of the First Intermediate Period (about 2055 BCE) scarabs had become extremely common.[2] They largely replaced cylinder seals and circular "button seals" with simple geometric designs.[3] Throughout the period in which they were made, Scarabs were often engraved with the names of pharaohs and other royal persons. In the Middle Kingdom scarabs were also engraved with the names and titles of officials and used as official seals.[4] From the New Kingdom scarabs bearing the names and titles of officials became rarer, while scarabs bearing the names of gods, often combined with short prayers or mottos, like "With Ra behind there is nothing to fear" became more popular. These "wish" scarabs are often difficult to translate.
Commemorative scarabs[edit]
Amenhotep III (immediate predecessor of Akhnaten) is famous for having commemorative scarabs made. These were large (mostly between 3.5 cm and 10 cm long) and made of steatite. They are beautifully crafted scarabs, apparently created under royal supervision or control and carry lengthy inscriptions describing one of five important events in his reign (and all of which mention his queen, Tiye). More than 200 examples have survived and they have been found in locations that suggest they were sent out as royal gifts/propaganda in support of Egyptian diplomatic activities. These large scarabs continued and developed an earlier Eighteenth Dynasty tradition of making scarabs celebrating specific royal achievements, such as the erection of obelisks at major temples during the reign of Thuthmosis III. The tradition was revived centuries later during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, when the Kushite pharaoh Shabaka (721-707 BCE) had large scarabs made commemorating his victories in imitation of those produced for Amenhotep III.[5][6][7]
Funerary scarabs[edit]
Two heart scarabs beside Queen Mernua's coffin.
Although scarab amulets were sometimes placed in tombs as part of the deceased's personal effects or as jewelry, generally they have no particular association with ancient Egyptian funerary rites. There are, however, three types of specifically funerary scarabs, heart scarabs, pectoral scarabs and naturalistic scarabs.
Scarab with Separate Wings, ca. 712-342 B.C.E., 49.28a-c, Brooklyn Museum
Heart scarabs became popular in the early New Kingdom and remained in use until the Third Intermediate Period. They are large scarabs (typically 4 cm-12 cm long) often made from dark green or black stone and are not pierced for suspension. The base of a heart scarab was usually carved, either directly or on a gold plate fixed to the base, with hieroglyphs which name the deceased and repeat some or all of spell 30B from the Egyptian Book of the Dead. The spell commands the deceased's heart (typically left in the mummy's chest cavity, unlike the other viscera) not to give evidence against the deceased, when the deceased is being judged by the gods of the underworld. It is often suggested that the heart is being commanded not to give false evidence but the opposite may be true. The Book of the Dead requires the heart scarab to be made of green nemehef stone but a variety of green or dark coloured stones were used.[8] Heart scarabs were often hung around the mummy's neck with a gold wire and the scarab itself was held in a gold frame.
From the Twenty-fifth Dynasty onwards large (typically 3 cm-8 cm long) relatively flat uninscribed pectoral scarabs were sewn, via holes formed at the edge of the scarab, onto the chests of mummies, together with a pair of separately made outstretched wings. These were mainly made from faience and glazed blue. The association of pectoral scarabs appears to be with the god Khepri, who is often depicted in the same form.
A third kind of funerary scarab is the naturalistic scarab. These were relatively small scarabs (typically 2 cm to 3 cm long) made from a wide variety of hardstones and faience and are distinguished from other scarabs by having naturalistic carved "3D" bases, which often also include an integral suspension loop running widthways. Groups of these funerary scarabs, often made from different materials, formed part of the battery of amulets which protected mummies in the Late Period.[9]
When a person died and went to their final judgment, the gods of the underworld would ask many detailed and intricate questions which had to be answered precisely and ritually, according to "The Egyptian Book of the Dead." Since many people of those days were illiterate, even placing a copy of this scroll in their coffin would not be enough to protect them from being sent to Hell for giving a wrong answer. As a result, the priests would read the questions and their appropriate answers to the beetle, which would then be killed, mummified, and placed in the ear of the deceased. When the gods then asked their questions, the ghostly scarab would whisper the correct answer into the ear of the supplicant, who could then answer the gods wisely and correctly.[10]
Scarabs with royal names[edit]
Two sides of a scarab inscribed with the name of Senwosret II
Scarabs are often found inscribed with the names of pharaohs and more rarely with the names of their queens and other members of the royal family. Generally, the better established and longer reigning a king was, the more scarabs are found bearing one or more of his names.
Most scarabs bearing a royal name can reasonably be dated to the period in which the person named lived. However, there are a number of important exceptions.
Scarabs are found bearing the names of pharaohs of the Old Kingdom (particularly of well-known kings such as Khufu, Khafra and Unas). It is now believed these were produced in later periods, most probably during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty or Twenty-sixth Dynasty, when there was considerable interest in and imitation of the works of great kings of the past.
Scarabs are also found in vast numbers which appear to bear the throne name of the New Kingdom king Thuthmosis III (1504-1450 BCE) Men Kheper Re ("the appearance of Ra is established"). Many of these scarabs do date from the long and successful reign of this great warrior pharaoh, or shortly thereafter but many, perhaps the majority, probably do not. Like all pharaohs, Thuthmosis was regarded as a god after his death. Unlike most pharaohs his cult, centered on his mortuary temple, seems to have continued for years, if not centuries. As a result, many scarabs bearing the inscription Men Kheper Re are likely to commemorate Thuthmosis III but may have been produced hundreds of years later. Later pharaohs adopted the same throne name (including Piye of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, 747-716 BCE) and this can lead to confusion. The hieroglyphs making Men Kheper Re seem to have become regarded as a protective charm in themselves and were inscribed on scarabs without any specific reference to Thuthmosis III. It can be doubted that in many cases the carver understood the meaning of the inscription but reproduced it blindly. On a lesser scale the same may be true of the throne name of Rameses II (1279-1212 BCE) User Maat Re ("the justice of Ra is powerful"), which is commonly found on scarabs which otherwise do not appear to date from his reign.
The birth names of pharaohs were also popular names among private individuals and so, for example, a scarab simply bearing the name "Amenhotep" need not be associated with any particular king who also bore that name.
The significance of a scarab bearing a royal name is unclear and probably changed over time and from scarab to scarab. Many may simply have been made privately in honour of a ruler during or after his lifetime. Some may also have been royal gifts. In some cases scarabs with royal names may have been official seals or badges of office, perhaps connected with the royal estates or household, others, although relatively few, may have been personal seals owned by the royal individual named on them. As the king fulfilled many different roles in ancient Egyptian society, so scarabs naming a pharaoh may have had a direct or indirect connection with a wide range of private and public activities.
Literary and popular culture reference[edit]
P.G. Wodehouse's first Blandings novel — Something Fresh (1915) — involves the pilfering of a rare Egyptian scarab (a "Cheops of the Fourth Dynasty") as a key plot device.
In the British crime novelist Dorothy L. Sayers` novel Murder Must Advertise a scarab, catapulted, is the murder weapon.
The rock band Journey uses various types of scarabs as their main logo and in the cover art of the albums Departure, Captured, Escape, Greatest Hits, Arrival, Generations, Revelation, and The Essential Journey
The Egyptian death metal band Scarab takes their name from these artifacts.
The famous Dutch print-maker, M. C. Escher (1898–1972) created a wood engraving in 1935 depicting two scarabs or dung beetles.
In Stephen Sommers' The Mummy (1999), the scarab is used as a deadly, ancient, beetle that eats the internal and external organs, killing whom ever it comes into contact with.
In The Twilight Zone episode Queen of the Nile season 5, episode 23 (1964), the main character Pamela Morris has an ancient scarab beetle amulet that can drain the youth of anyone she places it on, enabling her to remain young forever. Ms. Morris tells her final victim that she got it from "the pharaohs, who understood its power."
Scarabs showing top and inscriptions[edit]
Back of scarab amulet
Amulets: Scarab and Papyrus
Scarab with a cartouche
Scarab: top, and engravings.
Signet ring, with cartouche of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun :
'Perfect God, Lord of the Two Lands'–('Neter-Nefer, Neb-taui')
Faience pectoral scarab with spread wings, The Walters Art Museum.
Faience pectoral scarab with spread wings and bead net, Royal Pump Room, Harrogate
A modern scarab produced for the tourist trade.
Amenophis III lion hunt Scarab - top view, Royal Pump Room, Harrogate
Amenophis III lion hunt Scarab - base view, Royal Pump Room, Harrogate
See also[edit]
Cylinder seal
Dung beetle
Khepri
Impression seal
Stamp seal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Liz Burlingame (Aug 23, 2013). "Sunken Treasures: The World's Most Valuable Shipwreck Discoveries". The Weather Channel.
Jump up ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, A Reflection of Ancient Egypt, Jerusalem 1989 ISBN 965-278-083-9, p. 8
Jump up ^ Ward, William. "Beetles in Stone: The Egyptian Scarab". Manufacture. The Biblical Archaeologist. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Ben-Tor, Daphna (1989). Scarabs, A Reflection of Ancient Egypt. Jerusalem. p. 8. ISBN 965-278-083-9.
Jump up ^ "ROM Images". rom.on.ca.
Jump up ^ Evans, Elaine. "The Sacred Scarab". McClung Museum. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Ward, John. The Sacred Beetle: A Popular Treatise on Egyptian Scarabs in Art and History. London: John Murray Co. 1902.
Jump up ^ Andrews, p.56ff
Jump up ^ Andrews, p.59
Jump up ^ John Ward. The Sacred Beetle: A Popular Treatise on Egyptian Scarabs in Art and History. London: John Murray Co. 1902.
Sources[edit]
Andrews, Carol, 1994. Amulets of Ancient Egypt, chapter 4: Scarabs for the living and funerary scarabs, pp 50–59, Andrews, Carol, c 1993, University of Texas Press; (softcover, ISBN 0-292-70464-X)
"Ancient Egyptian Scarab Amulet with Wings". australianmuseum.net.au. 22 September 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
Budge, 1977, (1926). The Dwellers on the Nile, E.A.Wallace Budge, (Dover Publications), c 1977, (originally, c 1926, by Religious Tract Society, titled as: The Dwellers on the Nile: Chapter of the Life, History, Religion and Literature of the Ancient-Egyptians); pp 265–68: "account of the hunting of wild cattle by Amenhetep III", "taken from a great scarab"; (there are 16 registers-(lines) of hieroglyphs); (softcover, ISBN 0-486-23501-7)
"Stamp Scarab Seal with Winged Figures [Levant or Syria] (Bequest of W. Gedney Beatty 1941 (41.160.162))". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
Ben-Tor, Daphna. "Egyptian-Levantine Relations And Chronology In The Middle Bronze Age: Scarab Research." The Synchronisation Of Civilisations In The Eastern Mediterranean In The Second Millennium B.C. II. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 239". Academia.edu. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Evans, Elaine A. (17 April 1997). "Sacred Scarab". McClung Museum. N.p. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Kerrigan, Michael. "Tiy's Wedding Scarab." The Ancients in Their Own Words. N.p.: Fall River, 2009. 54-55. Print.
Newberry, Percy E. (1908). Scarabs: an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings. London: Archibald Constable & Co; With forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations
Patch, Diana Craig. "Exhibitions: Magic in Miniature: Ancient Egyptian Scarabs, Seals & Amulets". Brooklyn Museum Archive, n.d. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
Schulz, R., Seidel,M. Egypt, The World of the Pharaohs, Eds. Regine Schulz and Matthias Seidel, (w/ 34 contributing Authors), (Konemann, Germany), c 1998. ( 2 ) Scarab seals, (as impression seals), (Top/Bottom, 1.5 cm), and "Commemorative Scarab" of Amenhotep III, (Top/Bottom hieroglyphs), p. 353. (hardcover, ISBN 3-89508-913-3)
Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina. "Ancient Egyptian Seals and Scarabs". The Ancient Seals. Torino, Italy: n.p., 2009. N. pag.: academia.edu. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Ward, John, and F. L. Griffith. The Sacred Beetle: A Popular Treatise on Egyptian Scarabs in Art and History. Five hundred examples of scarabs and cylinders, the translations by F. Llewellyn Griffith. London: John Murray, 1902. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1853124
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scarabs in art.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scarab seal (device).
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Scarab.
a collection of seals and scarabs from international collectors and galleries, accompanied by an archeologist
1.1 cm Scaraboid impression seal. Hapy, Nile god holding Water-vessel, and kneeling on hieroglyph for "Lord", "Lord of the Nile". (Click on picture. Top, and bottom views.)
'Positive-impression' cowrie-scaraboid. Collection of Ten scaraboid seals. (Click on picture. Top, and bottom views.)
Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains a significant amount of material on scarabs (see index)
Scarab beetles and the people of Ancient Egypt Great video on scarab beetles.
Heart Scarab Amulet Picture of a Heart Scarab Amulet from the British Museum
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Plate smashing
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Plate smashing is a Greek custom involving the smashing of plates or glasses during celebratory occasions. In popular culture, the practice is most typical of foreigners' stereotypical image of Greece, and while it occurs more rarely today, it continues to be seen on certain occasions, such as weddings, although plaster plates are more likely to be used.
Contents
[hide]
1 History in Greece
1.1 Ancient and medieval
1.2 Modern times
2 In popular culture
3 See also
4 External links
History in Greece[edit]
Ancient and medieval[edit]
The custom probably derives from an ancient practice of ritually "killing" plates on mourning occasions, as a means of dealing with loss. Breaking plates may also be related to the ancient practise of conspicuous consumption, a display of one's wealth, as plates or glasses are thrown into a fireplace following a banquet instead of being washed and reused.
Modern times[edit]
In 1969, the military dictatorship of Georgios Papadopoulos, that had suspended democracy and ruled Greece autocratically from 1967 to 1974, banned plate smashing to the great disappointment of Greeks and foreign tourists alike. While it is no longer officially allowed at Greek nightclubs, it still happens occasionally. For private celebrations such as weddings, modern Greeks may purchase specially-produced plaster plates, which are less expensive and dangerous, while being more easily broken. Another modern variation on the custom is for diners at small Greek restaurants or tavernas to buy trays of flowers that they can throw at singers and each other.
In popular culture[edit]
In the Three's Company episode "Opening Night," (November 16, 1982) Larry Dallas invites his family, visiting from Greece, to Jacks Bistro. The large family gathering ends with the Greek celebratory custom of the breaking of plates. Reluctant at first because of all the money it will cost to replace the plates, Jack joins in the celebration when Larry says they will cover the bill for each plate. Jack then looks at Janet who shows him the final cost of all the plates that were broken. Jack, while clenching the remaining two plates he owns, throws them up in the air and says "Opa!" and lets them break as well.
In Part I of The Love Boat S6 E18 episode (February 5, 1983) titled: "Isaac's Aegean Affair/The Captain and the Kid/Poor Rich Man/The Dean and the Flunkee," Gopher initiates plate smashing in a Greek restaurant.
In the Full House episode, "Greek Week", there is a scene at a Greek family party where Rebecca Donaldson smashes a one plate. Then Joey Gladstone leads the crowds in plate smashing while Danny Tanner frantically tries to clean up the broken plates off the floor.
In the Frasier episode "Beware of Greeks," (March 17, 1998), Frasier's Greek cousin is getting married and his cousin's mother smashes plates at the wedding reception.
In Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, episode 2.6 (November 12, 2005 ), Coconut Head smashes a plate on his head for his presentation on Greece.
The 2009 Australian stop motion animated dark comedy film Mary and Max features a plate smashing scene.
In Packed to the Rafters, episode 4.1 (February 8, 2011), the character Nick 'Carbo' Karandonis and his fiancée have an engagement party which includes smashing plaster plates and the mistaken smashing of porcelain plates.
In Come Dine with Me Canada, episode 2.16 (October 3, 2011), the evening ended with plate smashing "in keeping with the Greek ritual."
In Kitchen Cabinet, episode 2.3 (July 16, 2013), independent Australian Senator Nick Xenophon and host Annabel Crabb end a dinner discussion at a Greek "yiros" restaurant with an impromptu plate smashing.
See also[edit]
Zeibekiko, a Greek folk dance by the groom
Breaking the glass at Jewish weddings
Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines
Marriage and wedding customs in Greece
Marriage and wedding customs in the Philippines
Nightclubs in Greece
External links[edit]
"Kefi - The Spirit of Greece," about.com.
"Having a Smashing Time in Greece. Why do Greeks break plates?," about.com.
"Breaking Plates in Greek Tavernas," greecetravel.com
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plate_smashing&oldid=793379936"
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