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Plasma (physics)
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Plasma
Top: Lightning and neon lights are commonplace generators of plasma. Bottom left: A plasma globe, illustrating some of the more complex plasma phenomena, including filamentation. Bottom right: A plasma trail from the Space Shuttle Atlantis during re-entry into Earth's atmosphere, as seen from the International Space Station.
Plasma (from Ancient Greek πλάσμα, meaning "moldable substance"[1]) is a state of matter resembling an ionised gas, though partially ionised plasmas also exist. This ionization makes the plasma affected by electromagnetic fields, which heavily influence how the plasma behaves. It is one of the four fundamental states of matter, and was first described by chemist Irving Langmuir[2] in the 1920s.[3]. Unlike the other three states of solid, liquid, and gas, plasma does not freely exist on the Earth under normal surface conditions, and can only be artificially generated by heating neutral gases or by subjecting that gas to a strong electromagnetic field.[4]
Plasma and ionised gases have unique properties and display behaviors unlike those of the other states, and the transition between them is mostly a matter of nomenclature[2] and subject to interpretation.[5] Based on the surrounding environmental temperature and density, partially ionised or fully ionised forms of plasma may be produced. Neon signs or lightning storms are examples of partially ionised plasma,[6] while the interior of the Sun is an example of fully ionised plasma,[7] along with the solar corona[8] and stars.[9]
The positive charge in ions is achieved by stripping away electrons from atomic nuclei. The number of electrons removed is related to either the increase in temperature or the local density of other ionised matter. This also can be accompanied by the dissociation of molecular bonds,[10] though this process is distinctly different from chemical processes of ion interactions in liquids or the behavior of ions existing in metals. The response of plasma to electromagnetic fields can be usefully employed in many modern technological devices, such as plasma televisions or plasma etching.[11]
Plasma may be the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe,[12] although this hypothesis is currently tentative based on the existence and unknown properties of dark matter. Plasma is mostly associated with stars, extending to the rarefied intracluster medium and possibly the intergalactic regions.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Properties and parameters
2.1 Definition
2.2 Degree of ionisation
2.3 Temperatures
2.3.1 Thermal vs. nonthermal plasmas
2.3.2 Complete vs. incomplete ionization
2.4 Plasma potential
2.5 Magnetization
2.6 Comparison of plasma and gas phases
3 Plasmas in astronomy and astrophysics
4 Common plasmas
5 Complex plasma phenomena
5.1 Filamentation
5.2 Non-neutral plasma
5.3 Dusty plasma/grain plasma
5.4 Impermeable plasma
6 Mathematical descriptions
6.1 Fluid model
6.2 Kinetic model
7 Artificial plasmas
7.1 Generation of artificial plasma
7.1.1 Electric arc
7.2 Examples of industrial/commercial plasma
7.2.1 Low-pressure discharges
7.2.2 Atmospheric pressure
8 Research
9 Research examples
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
History[edit]
The word plasma comes from the Ancient Greek πλάσμα, meaning "moldable substance"[14] or "jelly"[2], whose usage describes the behaviour of the ionised atomic nuclei and the electrons within the surrounding region of the plasma. Very simply, each of these nuclei are suspended in a movable sea of electrons.
Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it "radiant matter").[15] The nature of this "cathode ray" matter was subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897.[16] The term "plasma" was coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928,[17] perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the shape of the Crookes tube (Gr. πλάσμα – a thing moulded or formed).[18] Langmuir described the plasma he observed as follows:
"Except near the electrodes, where there are sheaths containing very few electrons, the ionised gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very small. We shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons."[17]
Today, a whole field of physics, plasma physics, is devoted to the study of plasma.
Continuum mechanics
Laws[show]
Conservations
Energy
Mass
Momentum
Inequalities
Clausius–Duhem (entropy)
Solid mechanics[show]
Stress
Deformation
Compatibility
Finite strain
Infinitesimal strain
Elasticity (linear)
Plasticity
Bending
Hooke's law
Material failure theory
Fracture mechanics
Contact mechanics (frictional)
Fluid mechanics[show]
Fluids
Statics · Dynamics
Archimedes' principle · Bernoulli's principle
Navier–Stokes equations
Poiseuille equation · Pascal's law
Viscosity (Newtonian · non-Newtonian)
Buoyancy · Mixing · Pressure
Liquids
Surface tension
Capillary action
Gases
Atmosphere
Boyle's law
Charles's law
Gay-Lussac's law
Combined gas law
Plasma
Rheology[show]
Viscoelasticity
Rheometry
Rheometer
Smart fluids
Magnetorheological
Electrorheological
Ferrofluids
Scientists[show]
Bernoulli
Boyle
Cauchy
Charles
Euler
Gay-Lussac
Hooke
Pascal
Newton
Navier
Stokes
v
t
e
Properties and parameters[edit]
Artist's rendition of the Earth's plasma fountain, showing oxygen, helium, and hydrogen ions that gush into space from regions near the Earth's poles. The faint yellow area shown above the north pole represents gas lost from Earth into space; the green area is the aurora borealis, where plasma energy pours back into the atmosphere.[19]
Definition[edit]
Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionised gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behavior of the matter.[20][21] This state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas. Unlike these other states of matter, plasma mostly does not naturally exist on the Earth's surface under normal conditions, and must be artificially generated from neutral gases.[4]
Plasma is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles (i.e. the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although these particles are unbound, they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing forces. Moving charged particles generate an electric current within a magnetic field; and any movement of a charged plasma particle affects and is affected by the general field created by the motion of other charges. In turn this governs collective behavior with many degrees of variation.[10][22] Three factors are listed in the definition of a plasma stream:[23][24]
The plasma approximation: Charged particles must be close enough together that each particle influences many nearby charged particles, rather than just interacting with the closest particle (these collective effects are a distinguishing feature of a plasma).[25][26] The plasma approximation is valid when the number of charge carriers within the sphere of influence (called the Debye sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length) of a particular particle is higher than unity to provide collective behavior of the charged particles. The average number of particles in the Debye sphere is given by the plasma parameter,[ambiguous] "Λ" (the Greek uppercase letter Lambda).[27]
Bulk interactions: The Debye screening length (defined above) is short compared to the physical size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects may take place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasineutral.[28]
Plasma frequency: The electron plasma frequency (measuring plasma oscillations of the electrons) is large compared to the electron-neutral collision frequency (measuring frequency of collisions between electrons and neutral particles). When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics.[29]
Degree of ionisation[edit]
For plasma to exist, ionization is necessary. The term "plasma density" by itself usually refers to the "electron density", that is, the number of free electrons per unit volume. The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and is controlled mostly by the temperature. Even a partially ionised gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionised can have the characteristics of a plasma (i.e., response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity). The degree of ionization, α {\displaystyle \alpha } , is defined as α = n i n i + n n {\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {n_{i}}{n_{i}+n_{n}}}} , where n i {\displaystyle n_{i}} is the number density of ions and n n {\displaystyle n_{n}} is the number density of neutral atoms. The electron density is related to this by the average charge state ⟨ Z ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle Z\rangle } of the ions through n e = ⟨ Z ⟩ n i {\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}} , where n e {\displaystyle n_{e}} is the number density of electrons.
Temperatures[edit]
See also: Nonthermal plasma and Anisothermal plasma
Plasma temperature is commonly measured in kelvins or electronvolts and is, informally, a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionization, which is a defining feature of a plasma. The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the electron temperature relative to the ionization energy (and more weakly by the density), in a relationship called the Saha equation. At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states—atoms[30]—and the plasma will eventually become a gas.
In most cases the electrons are close enough to thermal equilibrium that their temperature is relatively well-defined, even when there is a significant deviation from a Maxwellian energy distribution function, for example, due to UV radiation, energetic particles, or strong electric fields. Because of the large difference in mass, the electrons come to thermodynamic equilibrium amongst themselves much faster than they come into equilibrium with the ions or neutral atoms. For this reason, the ion temperature may be very different from (usually lower than) the electron temperature. This is especially common in weakly ionised technological plasmas, where the ions are often near the ambient temperature.
Thermal vs. nonthermal plasmas[edit]
Based on the relative temperatures of the electrons, ions and neutrals, plasmas are classified as "thermal" or "non-thermal". Thermal plasmas have electrons and the heavy particles at the same temperature, i.e. they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Nonthermal plasmas on the other hand have the ions and neutrals at a much lower temperature (sometimes room temperature), whereas electrons are much "hotter" ( T e ≫ T n {\displaystyle T_{e}\gg T_{n}} ).[31]
Complete vs. incomplete ionization[edit]
A plasma is sometimes referred to as being "hot" if it is nearly fully ionised, or "cold" if only a small fraction (for example 1%) of the gas molecules are ionised, but other definitions of the terms "hot plasma" and "cold plasma" are common. Even in a "cold" plasma, the electron temperature is still typically several thousand degrees Celsius. Plasmas utilized in "plasma technology" ("technological plasmas") are usually cold plasmas in the sense that only a small fraction of the gas molecules are ionised.[32]
Plasma potential[edit]
Lightning is an example of plasma present at Earth's surface. Typically, lightning discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts, and emits light, radio waves, X-rays and even gamma rays.[33] Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 K (28,000 °C; 50,000 °F) and electron densities may exceed 1024 m−3.
Since plasmas are very good electrical conductors, electric potentials play an important role. The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, independent of the question of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential", or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a Debye sheath. The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma ( n e = ⟨ Z ⟩ n i {\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}} ), but on the scale of the Debye length there can be charge imbalance. In the special case that double layers are formed, the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths.[citation needed]
The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net charge density. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the Boltzmann relation:
n e ∝ e e Φ / k B T e . {\displaystyle n_{e}\propto e^{e\Phi /k_{B}T_{e}}.}
Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density:
E → = ( k B T e / e ) ( ∇ n e / n e ) . {\displaystyle {\vec {E}}=(k_{B}T_{e}/e)(\nabla n_{e}/n_{e}).}
It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral. An electron beam, for example, has only negative charges. The density of a non-neutral plasma must generally be very low, or it must be very small, otherwise it will be dissipated by the repulsive electrostatic force.[34]
In astrophysical plasmas, Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly affecting the plasma over large distances, i.e., greater than the Debye length. However, the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate, and be affected by, magnetic fields. This can and does cause extremely complex behavior, such as the generation of plasma double layers, an object that separates charge over a few tens of Debye lengths. The dynamics of plasmas interacting with external and self-generated magnetic fields are studied in the academic discipline of magnetohydrodynamics.[35]
Magnetization[edit]
Plasma with a magnetic field strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized. A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic field before making a collision, i.e., ω c e / v c o l l > 1 {\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {ce} }/v_{\mathrm {coll} }>1} , where ω c e {\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {ce} }} is the "electron gyrofrequency" and v c o l l {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {coll} }} is the "electron collision rate". It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not. Magnetized plasmas are anisotropic, meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it. While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the high conductivity, the electric field associated with a plasma moving in a magnetic field is given by E = − v × B {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =-v\times \mathbf {B} } (where E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } is the electric field, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } is the velocity, and B {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } is the magnetic field), and is not affected by Debye shielding.[36]
Comparison of plasma and gas phases[edit]
Plasma is often called the fourth state of matter after solid, liquids and gases, despite plasma typically being an ionised gas.[37][38] It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:
Property
Gas
Plasma
Electrical conductivity
Very low: Air is an excellent insulator until it breaks down into plasma at electric field strengths above 30 kilovolts per centimeter.[39] Usually very high: For many purposes, the conductivity of a plasma may be treated as infinite.
Independently acting species
One: All gas particles behave in a similar way, influenced by gravity and by collisions with one another. Two or three: Electrons, ions, protons and neutrons can be distinguished by the sign and value of their charge so that they behave independently in many circumstances, with different bulk velocities and temperatures, allowing phenomena such as new types of waves and instabilities.
Velocity distribution
Maxwellian: Collisions usually lead to a Maxwellian velocity distribution of all gas particles, with very few relatively fast particles. Often non-Maxwellian: Collisional interactions are often weak in hot plasmas and external forcing can drive the plasma far from local equilibrium and lead to a significant population of unusually fast particles.
Interactions
Binary: Two-particle collisions are the rule, three-body collisions extremely rare. Collective: Waves, or organized motion of plasma, are very important because the particles can interact at long ranges through the electric and magnetic forces.
Plasmas in astronomy and astrophysics[edit]
Further information: Astrophysical plasma, Interstellar medium, and Intergalactic space
Plasmas are by far the most common phase of ordinary matter in the universe, both by mass and by volume.[40]
Within our Solar System, interplanetary space is filled with the plasma expelled via the solar wind, extending from the Sun's surface out to the heliopause. Furthermore, all the distant stars, and much of interstellar space or intergalactic space is also likely filled with plasma, albeit at very low densities. Astrophysical plasmas are also observed in Accretion disks around stars or compact objects like white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes in close binary star systems.[41] Plasma is associated with ejection of material in astrophysical jets, which have been observed with accreting black holes[42] or in active galaxies like M87's jet that possibly extends out to 5,000 light-years.[43]
Common plasmas[edit]
Plasmas can appear in nature in various forms and locations, which can be usefully broadly summarised in the following Table:
Common forms of plasma
Artificially produced
Terrestrial plasmas
Space and astrophysical plasmas
Those found in plasma displays, including TV screens.
Inside fluorescent lamps (low energy lighting), neon signs[44]
Rocket exhaust and ion thrusters
The area in front of a spacecraft's heat shield during re-entry into the atmosphere
Inside a corona discharge ozone generator
Fusion energy research
The electric arc in an arc lamp, an arc welder or plasma torch
Plasma ball (sometimes called a plasma sphere or plasma globe)
Arcs produced by Tesla coils (resonant air core transformer or disruptor coil that produces arcs similar to lightning, but with alternating current rather than static electricity)
Plasmas used in semiconductor device fabrication including reactive-ion etching, sputtering, surface cleaning and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
Laser-produced plasmas (LPP), found when high power lasers interact with materials.
Inductively coupled plasmas (ICP), formed typically in argon gas for optical emission spectroscopy or mass spectrometry
Magnetically induced plasmas (MIP), typically produced using microwaves as a resonant coupling method
Static electric sparks
Lightning
The magnetosphere contains plasma in the Earth's surrounding space environment.
The ionosphere
The plasmasphere
The polar aurorae
The polar wind, a plasma fountain
Upper-atmospheric lightning (e.g. Blue jets, Blue starters, Gigantic jets, ELVES)
Sprites
St. Elmo's fire
Stars
(plasmas heated by nuclear fusion)
The solar wind
The interplanetary medium
(space between planets)
The interstellar medium
(space between star systems)
The Intergalactic medium
(space between galaxies)
The Io-Jupiter flux tube
Accretion discs
Interstellar nebulae
Complex plasma phenomena[edit]
Although the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple, plasma behavior is extraordinarily varied and subtle: the emergence of unexpected behavior from a simple model is a typical feature of a complex system. Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behavior and cannot typically be described either by simple, smooth, mathematical functions, or by pure randomness. The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity. The features are interesting, for example, because they are very sharp, spatially intermittent (the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves), or have a fractal form. Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory, and have subsequently been recognized throughout the universe. Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include:
Filamentation[edit]
Striations or string-like structures,[45] also known as Birkeland currents, are seen in many plasmas, like the plasma ball, the aurora,[46] lightning,[47] electric arcs, solar flares,[48] and supernova remnants.[49] They are sometimes associated with larger current densities, and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a magnetic rope structure.[50] High power microwave breakdown at atmospheric pressure also leads to the formation of filamentary structures.[51] (See also Plasma pinch)
Filamentation also refers to the self-focusing of a high power laser pulse. At high powers, the nonlinear part of the index of refraction becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam, where the laser is brighter than at the edges, causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more. The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness (irradiance) that forms a plasma. The plasma has an index of refraction lower than one, and causes a defocusing of the laser beam. The interplay of the focusing index of refraction, and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be micrometers to kilometers in length.[52] One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionised electrons.[53] (See also Filament propagation)
Non-neutral plasma[edit]
The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ("quasineutrality"). A plasma with a significant excess of charge density, or, in the extreme case, is composed of a single species, is called a non-neutral plasma. In such a plasma, electric fields play a dominant role. Examples are charged particle beams, an electron cloud in a Penning trap and positron plasmas.[54]
Dusty plasma/grain plasma[edit]
A dusty plasma contains tiny charged particles of dust (typically found in space). The dust particles acquire high charges and interact with each other. A plasma that contains larger particles is called grain plasma. Under laboratory conditions, dusty plasmas are also called complex plasmas.[55]
Impermeable plasma[edit]
Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed. Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by Hannes Alfvén in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of fusion plasma from the reactor walls.[56] However, later it was found that the external magnetic fields in this configuration could induce kink instabilities in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls.[57] In 2013, a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no magnetic confinement using only an ultrahigh-pressure blanket of cold gas. While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure, the passive effect of plasma on synthesis of different nanostructures clearly suggested the effective confinement. They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds, screening of ions at the plasma-gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating (known as viscous heating) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex nanomaterials.[58]
Mathematical descriptions[edit]
The complex self-constricting magnetic field lines and current paths in a field-aligned Birkeland current that can develop in a plasma.[59]
Main article: Plasma modeling
To completely describe the state of a plasma, all of the particle locations and velocities and describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region would need to be written down. However, it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma. Therefore, plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions, of which there are two main types:
Fluid model[edit]
Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities, like density and averaged velocity around each position (see Plasma parameters). One simple fluid model, magnetohydrodynamics, treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of Maxwell's equations and the Navier–Stokes equations. A more general description is the two-fluid plasma picture, where the ions and electrons are described separately. Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location, they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or double layers, nor resolve wave-particle effects.
Kinetic model[edit]
Kinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma and therefore do not need to assume a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. A kinetic description is often necessary for collisionless plasmas. There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma. One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position. The other, known as the particle-in-cell (PIC) technique, includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles. Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models. The Vlasov equation may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field. In magnetized plasmas, a gyrokinetic approach can substantially reduce the computational expense of a fully kinetic simulation.
Artificial plasmas[edit]
Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and/or magnetic fields through a gas. Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by:
The type of power source used to generate the plasma—DC, RF and microwave
The pressure they operate at—vacuum pressure (< 10 mTorr or 1 Pa), moderate pressure (≈1 Torr or 100 Pa), atmospheric pressure (760 Torr or 100 kPa)
The degree of ionization within the plasma—fully, partially, or weakly ionised
The temperature relationships within the plasma—thermal plasma ( T e = T i = T g a s {\displaystyle T_{e}=T_{i}=T_{gas}} ), non-thermal or "cold" plasma ( T e ≫ T i = T g a s {\displaystyle T_{e}\gg T_{i}=T_{gas}} )
The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma
The magnetization of the particles within the plasma—magnetized (both ion and electrons are trapped in Larmor orbits by the magnetic field), partially magnetized (the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field), non-magnetized (the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate Lorentz forces)[citation needed]
Generation of artificial plasma[edit]
Artificial plasma produced in air by a Jacob's Ladder
Just like the many uses of plasma, there are several means for its generation, however, one principle is common to all of them: there must be energy input to produce and sustain it.[60] For this case, plasma is generated when an electric current is applied across a dielectric gas or fluid (an electrically non-conducting material) as can be seen in the adjacent image, which shows a discharge tube as a simple example (DC used for simplicity).
The potential difference and subsequent electric field pull the bound electrons (negative) toward the anode (positive electrode) while the cathode (negative electrode) pulls the nucleus.[61] As the voltage increases, the current stresses the material (by electric polarization) beyond its dielectric limit (termed strength) into a stage of electrical breakdown, marked by an electric spark, where the material transforms from being an insulator into a conductor (as it becomes increasingly ionized). The underlying process is the Townsend avalanche, where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons (as can be seen in the figure on the right). The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons. Therefore, the number of charged particles increases rapidly (in the millions) only "after about 20 successive sets of collisions",[62] mainly due to a small mean free path (average distance travelled between collisions).
Electric arc[edit]
Cascade process of ionization. Electrons are ‘e−’, neutral atoms ‘o’, and cations ‘+’.
Avalanche effect between two electrodes. The original ionisation event liberates one electron, and each subsequent collision liberates a further electron, so two electrons emerge from each collision: the ionising electron and the liberated electron.
With ample current density and ionization, this forms a luminous electric arc (a continuous electric discharge similar to lightning) between the electrodes.[Note 1] Electrical resistance along the continuous electric arc creates heat, which dissociates more gas molecules and ionizes the resulting atoms (where degree of ionization is determined by temperature), and as per the sequence: solid-liquid-gas-plasma, the gas is gradually turned into a thermal plasma.[Note 2] A thermal plasma is in thermal equilibrium, which is to say that the temperature is relatively homogeneous throughout the heavy particles (i.e. atoms, molecules and ions) and electrons. This is so because when thermal plasmas are generated, electrical energy is given to electrons, which, due to their great mobility and large numbers, are able to disperse it rapidly and by elastic collision (without energy loss) to the heavy particles.[63][Note 3]
Examples of industrial/commercial plasma[edit]
Because of their sizable temperature and density ranges, plasmas find applications in many fields of research, technology and industry. For example, in: industrial and extractive metallurgy,[63] surface treatments such as plasma spraying (coating), etching in microelectronics,[64] metal cutting[65] and welding; as well as in everyday vehicle exhaust cleanup and fluorescent/luminescent lamps,[60] while even playing a part in supersonic combustion engines for aerospace engineering.[66]
Low-pressure discharges[edit]
Glow discharge plasmas: non-thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF (<100 kHz) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes. Probably the most common plasma; this is the type of plasma generated within fluorescent light tubes.[67]
Capacitively coupled plasma (CCP): similar to glow discharge plasmas, but generated with high frequency RF electric fields, typically 13.56 MHz. These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense. These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition.[68]
Cascaded Arc Plasma Source: a device to produce low temperature (≈1eV) high density plasmas (HDP).
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP): similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the chamber where plasma is formed.[69]
Wave heated plasma: similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF (or microwave). Examples include helicon discharge and electron cyclotron resonance (ECR).[70]
Atmospheric pressure[edit]
Arc discharge: this is a high power thermal discharge of very high temperature (≈10,000 K). It can be generated using various power supplies. It is commonly used in metallurgical processes. For example, it is used to smelt minerals containing Al2O3 to produce aluminium.
Corona discharge: this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips. It is commonly used in ozone generators and particle precipitators.
Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD): this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non-conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc. It is often mislabeled 'Corona' discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges. It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics.[71] The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints, glues and similar materials to adhere.[72] The dielectric barrier discharge was used in the mid-1990s to show that low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma is effective in inactivating bacterial cells.[73] This work and later experiments using mammalian cells led to the establishment of a new field of research known as plasma medicine. The dielectric barrier discharge configuration was also used in the design of low temperature plasma jets. These plasma jets are produced by fast propagating guided ionization waves known as plasma bullets.[74]
Capacitive discharge: this is a nonthermal plasma generated by the application of RF power (e.g., 13.56 MHz) to one powered electrode, with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of 1 cm. Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon.[75]
"Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma:" is a nonthermal plasma generated at the high-side of a piezoelectric transformer (PT). This generation variant is particularly suited for high efficient and compact devices where a separate high voltage power supply is not desired.
Research[edit]
Plasmas are the object of study of the academic field of plasma science or plasma physics, including sub-disciplines such as space plasma physics. It currently involves the following fields of active research and features across many journals, whose interest includes:
Plasma theory
Plasma equilibria and stability
Plasma interactions with waves and beams
Guiding center
Adiabatic invariant
Debye sheath
Coulomb collision
Plasmas in nature
The Earth's ionosphere
Northern and southern (polar) lights
Space plasma
Astrophysical plasma
Interplanetary medium
Industrial plasmas
Plasma chemistry
Plasma processing
Plasma spray
Plasma display
Plasma sources
Dusty plasmas
Plasma diagnostics
Thomson scattering
Langmuir probe
Ball-pen probe
Faraday cup
Spectroscopy
Interferometry
Ionospheric heating
Incoherent scatter radar
Plasma applications
Dielectric barrier discharge
Enhanced oil recovery
Fusion power
Magnetic fusion energy (MFE) —
Tokamak
Stellarator
Reversed field pinch
Magnetic mirror
Dense plasma focus
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF)
Plasma weapons
Ion implantation
Ion thruster
MAGPIE (Implosion experiments)
Plasma ashing
Food processing
Nonthermal plasma or "cold plasma"
Plasma arc waste disposal, recycling.
Plasma acceleration
Plasma medicine (e. g. Dentistry[76])
Plasma window
Research examples[edit]
Hall effect thruster. The electric field in a plasma double layer is so effective at accelerating ions that electric fields are used in ion drives.
Play media
Solar plasma
Plasma spraying
See also[edit]
Physics portal
Plasma torch
Ambipolar diffusion
Hannes Alfvén Prize
Plasma channel
Plasma parameters
Plasma nitriding
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
Electric field screening
List of plasma physicists
List of plasma (physics) articles
Important publications in plasma physics
IEEE Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society
Quark-gluon plasma
Nikola Tesla
Space physics
Total electron content
Plasma display
Aurora
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The material undergoes various ‘regimes’ or stages (e.g. saturation, breakdown, glow, transition and thermal arc) as the voltage is increased under the voltage-current relationship. The voltage rises to its maximum value in the saturation stage, and thereafter it undergoes fluctuations of the various stages; while the current progressively increases throughout.[62]
Jump up ^ Across literature, there appears to be no strict definition on where the boundary is between a gas and plasma. Nevertheless, it is enough to say that at 2,000°C the gas molecules become atomized, and ionised at 3,000 °C and "in this state, [the] gas has a liquid like viscosity at atmospheric pressure and the free electric charges confer relatively high electrical conductivities that can approach those of metals."[63]
Jump up ^ Note that non-thermal, or non-equilibrium plasmas are not as ionised and have lower energy densities, and thus the temperature is not dispersed evenly among the particles, where some heavy ones remain ‘cold’.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ πλάσμα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ Jump up to: a b c Goldston, R.J.; Rutherford, P.H. (1995). Introduction to Plasma Physics. Taylor & Francis. p. 1−2. ISBN 978-0-7503-0183-1.
Jump up ^ Morozov, A.I. (2012). Introduction to Plasma Dynamics. CRC Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4398-8132-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Morozov, A.I. (2012). Introduction to Plasma Dynamics. CRC Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-4398-8132-3.
Jump up ^ Morozov, A.I. (2012). Introduction to Plasma Dynamics. CRC Press. p. 4−5. ISBN 978-1-4398-8132-3.
Jump up ^ "How Lightning Works". HowStuffWorks.
Jump up ^ Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
Jump up ^ Aschwanden, M. J. (2004). Physics of the Solar Corona. An Introduction. Praxis Publishing. ISBN 3-540-22321-5.
Jump up ^ Piel, A. (2010). Plasma Physics: An Introduction to Laboratory, Space, and Fusion Plasmas. Springer. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-3-642-10491-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Sturrock, Peter A. (1994). Plasma Physics: An Introduction to the Theory of Astrophysical, Geophysical & Laboratory Plasmas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44810-9.
Jump up ^ Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013). Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-0990-0.
Jump up ^ Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013). Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4665-0990-0.
Jump up ^ Chiuderi, C.; Velli, M. (2015). Basics of Plasma Astrophysics. Springer. p. 17. ISBN 978-88-470-5280-2.
Jump up ^ πλάσμα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
Jump up ^ Crookes presented a lecture to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in Sheffield, on Friday, 22 August 1879 [1] [2]
Jump up ^ Announced in his evening lecture to the Royal Institution on Friday, 30 April 1897, and published in Thomson, J. J. (1897). "J. J. Thomson (1856–1940)". Philosophical Magazine. 44 (269): 293–316. doi:10.1080/14786449708621070.
^ Jump up to: a b Langmuir, I. (1928). "Oscillations in Ionized Gases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 14 (8): 627–637. Bibcode:1928PNAS...14..627L. doi:10.1073/pnas.14.8.627.
Jump up ^ Brown, Sanborn C. (1978). "Chapter 1: A Short History of Gaseous Electronics". In HIRSH, Merle N. e OSKAM, H. J. Gaseous Electronics. 1. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-349701-7. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Plasma fountain Source, press release: Solar Wind Squeezes Some of Earth's Atmosphere into Space
Jump up ^ Chen, Francis F. (2016). Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled fusion. Springer International Publishing. pp. 2–3.
Jump up ^ Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2008). Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
Jump up ^ Hazeltine, R.D.; Waelbroeck, F.L. (2004). The Framework of Plasma Physics. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-7382-0047-7.
Jump up ^ Dendy, R. O. (1990). Plasma Dynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852041-2.
Jump up ^ Hastings, Daniel & Garrett, Henry (2000). Spacecraft-Environment Interactions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47128-2.
Jump up ^ Chen, Francis F. (2016). Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled fusion. Springer International Publishing. pp. 2–3.
Jump up ^ Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2008). Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
Jump up ^ 1929-, Chen, Francis F., (1984). Introduction to plasma physics and controlled fusion. Chen, Francis F., 1929- (2nd ed ed.). New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0306413329. OCLC 9852700. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ "Quasi-neutrality - The Plasma Universe theory (Wikipedia-like Encyclopedia)". www.plasma-universe.com. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
Jump up ^ Merlino, Robert L. (October 3, 2012). "Plasma Oscillations— An application of electrostatics and classical mechanics". homepage.physics.uiowa.edu. pp. See October 3 notes. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
Jump up ^ Nicholson, Dwight R. (1983). Introduction to Plasma Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-09045-8.
Jump up ^ von Engel, A. and Cozens, J.R. (1976) "Flame Plasma" in Advances in electronics and electron physics, L. L. Marton (ed.), Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-014520-1, p. 99
Jump up ^ Plasma scattering of electromagnetic radiation : theory and measurement techniques. Froula, Dustin H. (1st ed., 2nd ed ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic Press/Elsevier. 2011. p. 273. ISBN 0080952038. OCLC 690642377. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning
Jump up ^ Plasma science : from fundamental research to technological applications. National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Opportunities in Plasma Science and Technology. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1995. p. 51. ISBN 9780309052313. OCLC 42854229.
Jump up ^ Dorch, SÃ¸ren (2007-04-13). "Magnetohydrodynamics". Scholarpedia. 2 (4). ISSN 1941-6016. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2295.
Jump up ^ Richard Fitzpatrick, Introduction to Plasma Physics, Magnetized plasmas
Jump up ^ Yaffa Eliezer, Shalom Eliezer, The Fourth State of Matter: An Introduction to the Physics of Plasma, Publisher: Adam Hilger, 1989, ISBN 978-0-85274-164-1, 226 pages, page 5
Jump up ^ Bittencourt, J.A. (2004). Fundamentals of Plasma Physics. Springer. p. 1. ISBN 9780387209753.
Jump up ^ Hong, Alice (2000). "Dielectric Strength of Air". The Physics Factbook.
Jump up ^ It is assumed that more than 99% the visible universe is made of some form of plasma. Gurnett, D. A. & Bhattacharjee, A. (2005). Introduction to Plasma Physics: With Space and Laboratory Applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-36483-6. Scherer, K; Fichtner, H & Heber, B (2005). Space Weather: The Physics Behind a Slogan. Berlin: Springer. p. 138. ISBN 978-3-540-22907-0. .
Jump up ^ Mészáros, Péter (2010) The High Energy Universe: Ultra-High Energy Events in Astrophysics and Cosmology, Publisher: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51700-3, p. 99.
Jump up ^ Raine, Derek J. and Thomas, Edwin George (2010) Black Holes: An Introduction, Publisher: Imperial College Press, ISBN 978-1-84816-382-9, p. 160
Jump up ^ Nemiroff, Robert and Bonnell, Jerry (11 December 2004) Astronomy Picture of the Day, nasa.gov
Jump up ^ IPPEX Glossary of Fusion Terms Archived 8 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. Ippex.pppl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-19.
Jump up ^ Dickel, J. R. (1990). "The Filaments in Supernova Remnants: Sheets, Strings, Ribbons, or?". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 22: 832. Bibcode:1990BAAS...22..832D.
Jump up ^ Grydeland, T. (2003). "Interferometric observations of filamentary structures associated with plasma instability in the auroral ionosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (6): 1338. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1338G. doi:10.1029/2002GL016362.
Jump up ^ Moss, G. D.; Pasko, V. P.; Liu, N.; Veronis, G. (2006). "Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons in streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111: A02307. Bibcode:2006JGRA..111.2307M. doi:10.1029/2005JA011350.
Jump up ^ Doherty, Lowell R.; Menzel, Donald H. (1965). "Filamentary Structure in Solar Prominences". The Astrophysical Journal. 141: 251. Bibcode:1965ApJ...141..251D. doi:10.1086/148107.
Jump up ^ "Hubble views the Crab Nebula M1: The Crab Nebula Filaments". Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link). The University of Arizona
Jump up ^ Zhang, Y. A.; Song, M. T.; Ji, H. S. (2002). "A rope-shaped solar filament and a IIIb flare". Chinese Astronomy and Astrophysics. 26 (4): 442–450. Bibcode:2002ChA&A..26..442Z. doi:10.1016/S0275-1062(02)00095-4.
Jump up ^ Boeuf, J. P.; Chaudhury, B.; Zhu, G. Q. (2010). "Theory and Modeling of Self-Organization and Propagation of Filamentary Plasma Arrays in Microwave Breakdown at Atmospheric Pressure". Physical Review Letters. 104 (1): 015002. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.104a5002B. PMID 20366367. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.015002.
Jump up ^ Chin, S. L. (2006). "Some Fundamental Concepts of Femtosecond Laser Filamentation" (PDF). Journal of the Korean Physical Society. Springer Series in Chemical Physics. 49: 281. Bibcode:2008pui3.book..243C. ISBN 978-3-540-73793-3. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73794-0_12.
Jump up ^ Talebpour, A.; Abdel-Fattah, M.; Chin, S. L. (2000). "Focusing limits of intense ultrafast laser pulses in a high pressure gas: Road to new spectroscopic source". Optics Communications. 183 (5–6): 479–484. Bibcode:2000OptCo.183..479T. doi:10.1016/S0030-4018(00)00903-2.
Jump up ^ Greaves, R. G.; Tinkle, M. D.; Surko, C. M. (1994). "Creation and uses of positron plasmas". Physics of Plasmas. 1 (5): 1439. Bibcode:1994PhPl....1.1439G. doi:10.1063/1.870693.
Jump up ^ Morfill, G. E.; Ivlev, Alexei V. (2009). "Complex plasmas: An interdisciplinary research field". Reviews of Modern Physics. 81 (4): 1353–1404. Bibcode:2009RvMP...81.1353M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1353.
Jump up ^ Alfvén, H.; Smårs, E. (1960). "Gas-Insulation of a Hot Plasma". Nature. 188 (4753): 801–802. Bibcode:1960Natur.188..801A. doi:10.1038/188801a0.
Jump up ^ Braams, C.M. (1966). "Stability of Plasma Confined by a Cold-Gas Blanket". Physical Review Letters. 17 (9): 470–471. Bibcode:1966PhRvL..17..470B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.470.
Jump up ^ Yaghoubi, A.; Mélinon, P. (2013). "Tunable synthesis and in situ growth of silicon-carbon mesostructures using impermeable plasma". Scientific Reports. 3: 1083. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E1083Y. PMC 3547321  . PMID 23330064. doi:10.1038/srep01083.
Jump up ^ See Evolution of the Solar System, 1976
^ Jump up to: a b Hippler, R.; Kersten, H.; Schmidt, M.; Schoenbach, K.M., eds. (2008). "Plasma Sources". Low Temperature Plasmas: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Techniques (2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-40673-9.
Jump up ^ Chen, Francis F. (1984). Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0-306-41332-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Leal-Quirós, Edbertho (2004). "Plasma Processing of Municipal Solid Waste". Brazilian Journal of Physics. 34 (4B): 1587–1593. Bibcode:2004BrJPh..34.1587L. doi:10.1590/S0103-97332004000800015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gomez, E.; Rani, D. A.; Cheeseman, C. R.; Deegan, D.; Wise, M.; Boccaccini, A. R. (2009). "Thermal plasma technology for the treatment of wastes: A critical review". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 161 (2–3): 614–626. PMID 18499345. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.017.
Jump up ^ National Research Council (1991). Plasma Processing of Materials : Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-04597-1.
Jump up ^ Nemchinsky, V. A.; Severance, W. S. (2006). "What we know and what we do not know about plasma arc cutting". Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 39 (22): R423. Bibcode:2006JPhD...39R.423N. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/39/22/R01.
Jump up ^ Peretich, M.A.; O’Brien, W.F.; Schetz, J.A. (2007). "Plasma torch power control for scramjet application" (PDF). Virginia Space Grant Consortium. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Stern, David P. "The Fluorescent Lamp: A plasma you can use". Retrieved 2010-05-19.
Jump up ^ Sobolewski, M.A.; Langan & Felker, J.G. & B.S. (1997). "Electrical optimization of plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition chamber cleaning plasmas" (PDF). Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B. 16 (1): 173–182. Bibcode:1998JVSTB..16..173S. doi:10.1116/1.589774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Okumura, T. (2010). "Inductively Coupled Plasma Sources and Applications". Physics Research International. 2010: 1–14. doi:10.1155/2010/164249.
Jump up ^ Plasma Chemistry. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 229. ISBN 9781139471732.
Jump up ^ Leroux, F.; Perwuelz, A.; Campagne, C.; Behary, N. (2006). "Atmospheric air-plasma treatments of polyester textile structures". Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology. 20 (9): 939–957. doi:10.1163/156856106777657788.
Jump up ^ Leroux, F. D. R.; Campagne, C.; Perwuelz, A.; Gengembre, L. O. (2008). "Polypropylene film chemical and physical modifications by dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment at atmospheric pressure". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 328 (2): 412–420. Bibcode:2008JCIS..328..412L. PMID 18930244. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2008.09.062.
Jump up ^ Laroussi, M. (1996). "Sterilization of contaminated matter with an atmospheric pressure plasma". IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 24 (3): 1188. Bibcode:1996ITPS...24.1188L. doi:10.1109/27.533129.
Jump up ^ Lu, X.; Naidis, G.V.; Laroussi, M.; Ostrikov, K. (2014). "Guided ionization waves: Theory and experiments". Physics Reports. 540 (3): 123. Bibcode:2014PhR...540..123L. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2014.02.006.
Jump up ^ Park, J.; Henins, I.; Herrmann, H. W.; Selwyn, G. S.; Hicks, R. F. (2001). "Discharge phenomena of an atmospheric pressure radio-frequency capacitive plasma source". Journal of Applied Physics. 89: 20. Bibcode:2001JAP....89...20P. doi:10.1063/1.1323753.
Jump up ^ "High-tech dentistry – "St Elmo's frier" – Using a plasma torch to clean your teeth". The Economist print edition. Jun 17, 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
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Aurora borealis

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/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
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Electrical conductivity

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Saha equation

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UV radiation

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/wiki/Electric_fields
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Electric fields

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/wiki/Ambient_temperature
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Ambient temperature

values: Edit section: Thermal vs. nonthermal plasmas

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values: Edit section: Complete vs. incomplete ionization

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/wiki/Double_layer_(plasma)
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Double layer (plasma)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)

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Electrostatic force

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Electric field screening

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Academic discipline

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values: \omega_{\mathrm{ce}} / v_{\mathrm{coll}} > 1

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/wiki/Debye_shielding
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Debye shielding

values: Edit section: Comparison of plasma and gas phases

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/wiki/States_of_matter
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States of matter

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/wiki/Waves_in_plasma
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Waves in plasma

values: Edit section: Plasmas in astronomy and astrophysics

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/wiki/Intergalactic_space
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Intergalactic space

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/wiki/Interplanetary_space
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Interplanetary space

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/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)#Heliopause
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Heliopause (astronomy)

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/wiki/Black_holes
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Black holes

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/wiki/Astrophysical_jets
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Astrophysical jets

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/wiki/Plasma_displays
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Plasma displays

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/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere
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Earth's atmosphere

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/wiki/Fusion_energy
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Fusion energy

values: Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

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/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)
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Aurora (astronomy)

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/wiki/Accretion_disc
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Accretion disc

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/wiki/Solar_flares
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Solar flares

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/wiki/Magnetic_rope
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Magnetic rope

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/wiki/Plasma_pinch
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Plasma pinch

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/wiki/Micrometer_(unit)
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Micrometer (unit)

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/wiki/Magnetic_fields
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Magnetic fields

values: Kink instabilities (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Magnetic_confinement
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Magnetic confinement

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values: Edit section: Generation of artificial plasma

values: Simple representation of a discharge tube - plasma.png

values: Artificial plasma produced in air by a Jacob's Ladder

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/wiki/Discharge_tube
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Discharge tube

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/wiki/Potential_difference
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Potential difference

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/wiki/Electric_polarization
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Electric polarization

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/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)
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Insulator (electrical)

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/wiki/Townsend_avalanche
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Townsend avalanche

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/wiki/Electrical_resistance
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Electrical resistance

values: Edit section: Examples of industrial/commercial plasma

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/wiki/Plasma_spraying
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Plasma spraying

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/wiki/Fluorescent_light
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Fluorescent light

values: Wave heated plasma (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Helicon_discharge
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Helicon discharge

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/wiki/Arc_discharge
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Arc discharge

values: Capacitive discharge (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Academic_field
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Academic field

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/wiki/Space_plasma_physics
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Space plasma physics

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/wiki/Academic_journals
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Academic journals

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/wiki/Plasma_equilibria_and_stability
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Plasma equilibria and stability

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/wiki/Space_plasma
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Space plasma

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/wiki/Plasma_chemistry
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Plasma chemistry

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/wiki/Plasma_spray
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Plasma spray

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/wiki/Plasma_source
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Plasma source

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/wiki/Magnetic_fusion_energy
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Magnetic fusion energy

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/wiki/Plasma_arc_waste_disposal
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Plasma arc waste disposal

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/wiki/Hall_effect_thruster
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Hall effect thruster

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Plasma nitriding

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List of plasma (physics) articles

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http://comphys.narod.ru

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/wiki/Thermal_neutron
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Thermal neutron

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Fast neutron

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Fusion neutron

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/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor
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Kerena boiling water reactor

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Heavy-water reactor

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/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor
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Advanced gas-cooled reactor

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Fast breeder reactor

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values: بلازما (فيزياء) – Arabic

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values: প্লাজমা অৱস্থা – Assamese

values:
https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Guarani
gn
gn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: প্লাজমা – Bangla

values: Плазма – Bashkir

values: Плязма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Πλάσμα (φυσική) – Greek

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmo
Plasmo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: پلاسما (فیزیک) – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values: Պլազմա (ֆիզիկա) – Armenian

values: प्लाज़्मा (भौतिकी) – Hindi

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafgas
Rafgas – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values: פלזמה (מצב צבירה) – Hebrew

values: ಪ್ಲಾಸ್ಮ (ಭೌತಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ) – Kannada

values: Плазма – Kazakh

values: Плазма – Kyrgyz

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: പ്ലാസ്മ (ഭൗതികശാസ്ത്രം) – Malayalam

values: प्लाझ्मा (भौतिकशास्त्र) – Marathi

values: Плазм (физик) – Mongolian

values: ပလာစမာ (ရူပဗေဒ) – Burmese

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: ਪਲਾਜ਼ਮਾ – Punjabi

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values: Плазма – Russian

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values: ප්ලාස්මා (භෞතික විද්‍යාව) – Sinhala

values: Плазма (физика) – Serbian

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: பிளாசுமா (இயற்பியல்) – Tamil

values:
https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Tatar
tt
tt
interlanguage-link-target

values: ప్లాస్మా – Telugu

values: พลาสมา (สถานะของสสาร) – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazma
Plazma – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Плазма (агрегатний стан) – Ukrainian

values: شاکلہ (طبیعیات) – Urdu

values: پلازما – Uyghur

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazm
Plazm – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
Plasma – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

values: פלאזמע – Yiddish

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