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List of Chief Ministers of Maharashtra
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Chief Minister of Maharashtra
Seal of the Government of Maharashtra
Incumbent
Devendra Fadnavis
since 31 October 2014
Style
The Honourable
Status
Head of Government
Abbreviation
CM
Member of
Maharashtra Legislature (Assembly/Council)
Cabinet
Residence
Varsha bungalow, Malabar Hill, Mumbai
Seat
Mantralaya, Mumbai
Appointer
Governor of Maharashtra
constitutionally; based on the appointee's ability to command confidence in the House
Term length
Five years
Precursor
Chief Minister of Bombay State
Inaugural holder
Yashwantrao Chavan (1960-1962)
Formation
1 May 1960; 58 years ago (1960-05-01)
Deputy
Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra
Website
CMO Maharashtra
The Chief Minister (CM) of Maharashtra is the head of the Government of the western Indian state of Maharashtra. Following elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Governor invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government and appoints the CM. If the appointee is not a member of either the Legislative Assembly or the Legislative Council of Maharashtra, then the Constitution stipulates that they need to be elected within six months of being sworn-in.[1] The office of the CM is coterminous with the concurrent Assembly provided the CM commands confidence in the house and hence does not exceed five years. However, it is subject to no term limits.[2]
The state of Maharashtra was formed by dissolution of the Bombay State on 1 May 1960.[3] Yashwantrao Chavan, who was serving as the third CM of Bombay State since 1956, became the first CM of Maharashtra. He belonged to the Indian National Congress and held the office until the 1962 Assembly elections. Marotrao Kannanwar succeeded him and was the only CM to die while in office.[4][5] Vasantrao Naik, who was in office from December 1963 to February 1975 for more than 11 years, has by far been the longest serving CM. He also was the first and only CM to complete his full term of five years (1967-1972). With the exceptions of Manohar Joshi (Shiv Sena), Narayan Rane (Shiv Sena) and Devendra Fadnavis (Bharatiya Janata Party), all other CMs have been from the Congress or its breakaway parties.[6][7][8] So far, President's rule has been imposed twice in the state: first from February to June 1980 and again from September to October 2014.[9][10] Devendra Fadnavis is the incumbent CM since 31 October 2014, the first from the BJP.[11]
Contents
1 Colour key for political parties
2 Chief Ministers of Bombay State
3 Chief Ministers of Maharashtra[c]
4 Explanatory notes
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Colour key for political parties[edit]
Indian National Congress
Indian National Congress (Urs)
Indian National Congress (Socialist)
Shiv Sena
Bharatiya Janata Party
N/A (President's rule)
Chief Ministers of Bombay State[edit]
No
Name
(birth-death)
Portrait
Party
Term of office
Assembly constituency
Took office
Left office
Duration
Chief Ministers of Bombay State [a]
1 B. G. Kher
(1888-1957) - Indian National Congress 15 August 1947 21 April 1952 4 years, 250 days
2 Morarji Desai
(1896-1995)
21 April 1952 31 October 1956 4 years, 193 days Bulsar Chikhli
Chief Ministers of Bombay State (after the States Reorganisation Act, 1956) [b]
3 Yashwantrao Chavan
(1913-1984)
Indian National Congress 1 November 1956 5 April 1957 3 years, 181 days Karad North
5 April 1957 30 April 1960
Chief Ministers of Maharashtra[c][edit]
No
Name
(birth-death)
Portrait
Party
(Alliance)[7]
Term of office
Assembly constituency
Assembly
Took office
Left office
Duration
1 Yashwantrao Chavan
(1913-1984)
Indian National Congress 1 May 1960 19 November 1962 2 years, 202 days Karad North 1st
2 Marotrao Kannamwar
(1900-1963) - 20 November 1962 24 November 1963 1 year, 4 days Saoli 2nd
3 P. K. Sawant - 25 November 1963 4 December 1963 9 days Chiplun
4 Vasantrao Naik
(1913-1979) - 5 December 1963 1 March 1967 11 years, 77 days Pusad
1 March 1967 13 March 1972 3rd
13 March 1972 20 February 1975 4th
5 Shankarrao Chavan
(1920-2004) - 21 February 1975 16 May 1977 2 years, 84 days
(of 4 years, 190 days) Bhokar
6 Vasantdada Patil
(1917-1989)
17 May 1977 5 March 1978 1 year, 62 days
(of 3 years, 181 day) Member of the
Maharashtra Legislative Council[14]
Indian National Congress
(Urs)[15][16]
(Congress (I) - Congress (U))
5 March 1978 18 July 1978 Sangli 5th
7 Sharad Pawar
(born 1940)
Indian National Congress
(Socialist)[17][18]
(Progressive Democratic Front)
18 July 1978 17 February 1980 1 year, 214 days
(of 6 years, 221 days) Baramati
– Vacant[d]
(President's rule) - N/A 17 February 1980 8 June 1980 112 days N/A Dissolved[20]
8 Abdul Rehman Antulay
(1929-2014) - Indian National Congress 9 June 1980 12 January 1982 1 year, 217 days Shrivardhan 6th
9 Babasaheb Bhosale
(1921-2007) - 21 January 1982 1 February 1983 1 year, 11 days Nehrunagar
(6) Vasantdada Patil [3]
(1917-1989)
2 February 1983 1 June 1985 2 years, 119 days
(of 3 years, 181 day) Sangli[21]
(After winning the by-elections on 3 July 1983)
10 Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar
(born 1931) - 3 June 1985 6 March 1986 276 days Nilanga 7th
(5) Shankarrao Chavan [2]
(1920-2004)
- 12 March 1986 26 June 1988 2 years, 106 days
(of 4 years, 190 days) Member of the
Maharashtra Legislative Council[22]
(7) Sharad Pawar [2]
(born 1940)
26 June 1988 3 March 1990 2 years, 364 days
(of 6 years, 221 days) Baramati
4 March 1990 25 June 1991 8th
11 Sudhakarrao Naik
(1934-2001) - 25 June 1991 22 February 1993 1 year, 242 days Pusad
(7) Sharad Pawar [3]
(born 1940)
6 March 1993 14 March 1995 2 years, 8 days
(of 6 years, 221 days) Baramati
12 Manohar Joshi
(born 1937)
Shiv Sena
(Sena-BJP)
14 March 1995 31 January 1999 3 years, 323 days Dadar 9th
13 Narayan Rane
(born 1952)
1 February 1999 17 October 1999 258 days Malvan
14 Vilasrao Deshmukh
(1945-2012)
Indian National Congress
(Congress-NCP)
18 October 1999 16 January 2003 3 years, 90 days
(of 7 years, 123 days) Latur City 10th
15 Sushilkumar Shinde
(born 1941)
18 January 2003 30 October 2004 1 year, 286 days Solapur South[23]
(After winning the by-elections on 24 May 2003)
(14) Vilasrao Deshmukh [2]
(1945-2012)
1 November 2004 4 December 2008 4 years, 33 days
(of 7 years, 123 days) Latur City 11th
16 Ashok Chavan
(born 1958)
8 December 2008 15 October 2009 1 year, 336 days Bhokar
7 November 2009 9 November 2010 12th
17 Prithviraj Chavan
(born 1946)
11 November 2010 26 September 2014 3 years, 319 days Member of the
Maharashtra Legislative Council[24][25]
– Vacant[d]
(President's rule) - N/A 28 September 2014[26] 30 October 2014[27] 32 days N/A
18 Devendra Fadnavis
(born 1970)
Bharatiya Janata Party
(NDA)
31 October 2014 Incumbent 3 years, 269 days Nagpur South West 13th
Explanatory notes[edit]
Jump up ^ After India's Independence, Bombay State was created and its territory underwent constant change in the following years. It comprised Bombay Presidency (roughly equating to the present-day Indian state of Maharashtra, excluding South Maharashtra and Vidarbha), the princely states of the Baroda, Western India and Gujarat (the present-day Indian state of Gujarat) and Deccan States (which included parts of the present-day Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka).[12]
Jump up ^ States Reorganisation Act, 1956: Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, the Marathi-speaking districts of Nagpur Division of Madhya Pradesh and Marathwada region of Hyderabad State. The southernmost districts of the Bombay Presidency were transferred to Mysore State.[13]
Jump up ^ Bombay state was dissolved to form the present-day states of Maharashtra and Gujarat by the Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960, which was enacted by the Parliament of India on 25 April 1960 and came into effect on 1 May 1960. [3]
^ Jump up to: a b Under Article 356 of the Constitution of India, in the event that a state government is unable to function according to constitutional provisions, the Central government can take direct control of the state machinery through the Governor. When President's rule is in force in a state, its council of ministers stands dissolved. The office of chief minister thus lies vacant. At times, the legislative assembly also stands dissolved.[19]
See also[edit]
Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra
List of Governors of Maharashtra
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Chavan elected to Legislative Council". @businessline. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ Durga Das Basu. Introduction to the Constitution of India. 1960. 20th Edition, 2011 Reprint. pp. 241, 245. LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur. ISBN 978-81-8038-559-9. Note: although the text talks about Indian state governments in general, it applies for the specific case of Maharashtra as well.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960" (PDF). India Code - Digital Repository of Legislation. 1960-04-25.
Jump up ^ "Before Jayalalithaa, 16 chief ministers who died in office". The Indian Express. 2016-12-07. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Jayalalithaa is dead: Here are other chief ministers who died while still in office - Firstpost". www.firstpost.com. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Down but not out". The Telegraph India. 2011-07-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Palshikar, Suhas; Birmal, Nitin; Ghotale, Vivek (2010). "Coalitions in Maharashtra Political fragmentation or Social Reconfiguration?" (PDF). Savitribai Phule Pune University.
Jump up ^ "Indira Gandhi installed as president of break-away faction of Congress Party". India Today. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Use of President's Rule peaked on February 17, 1980: Some facts". India Today. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "President's rule: 'Unprecedented but logical'". @businessline. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Ananth, Venkat (28 October 2014). "A brief history of Maharashtra's chief ministers". livemint.com/. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Desai, S. H. (1972). A critical study of the development of secondary education for girls in Gujarat its history and present day problems (PhD Thesis). Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda: Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET. pp. 411–420.
Jump up ^ "The States Reorganisation Act, 1956" (PDF). India Code - Digital Repository of Legislations. 1956-08-31.
Jump up ^ Shinde, A.S. (1985). "Chapter 5 Executive-Legislature relationship". Working of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (1960-1975) - PhD Thesis. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University: Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET. pp. 153–154.
Jump up ^ "I am just running my own state as best as possible: Devraj Urs". India Today. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Statistical Report 1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Elections" (PDF). Election Commission of India. 1978. p. 354.
Jump up ^ "Why Sharad Pawar will never ever go back to the Congress". www.dailyo.in. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Sharad Pawar | Indian politician". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ Amberish K. Diwanji. "A dummy's guide to President's rule". Rediff.com. 15 March 2005. Retrieved on 3 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Information sought under RTI Act, 2005" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs (Government of India). 2014-06-27. p. 7 of 14. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Documentation Monthly July 1983 (Research and Reference Election Commission of India)" (PDF). Election Commission of India. pp. 78–79.
Jump up ^ "S B Chavan: Headmaster of Indian politics - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2018-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Sushilkumar Shinde is sworn in - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2018-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Maha CM elected unopposed to Legislative Council - Rediff.com India News". www.rediff.com. Retrieved 2018-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Chavan elected to Legislative Council". @businessline. Retrieved 2018-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Proclamation of President's Rule" (PDF). Government of Maharashtra. 2014-09-28. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Proclamation to revoke President's rule" (PDF). Government of Maharashtra. 2014-10-30. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chief ministers of Maharashtra.
Legislative bodies in India
show
v
t
e
Chief Ministers of Maharashtra
Yashwantrao Chavan
Marotrao Kannamwar
P. K. Sawant
Vasantrao Naik
Shankarrao Chavan
Vasantdada Patil
Sharad Pawar
A. R. Antulay
Babasaheb Bhosale
Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar
Sudhakarrao Naik
Manohar Joshi
Narayan Rane
Vilasrao Deshmukh
Sushilkumar Shinde
Ashok Chavan
Prithviraj Chavan
Devendra Fadnavis
show
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t
e
Lists of chief ministers of Indian states (and current incumbents)
Andhra Pradesh
N. Chandrababu Naidu
Arunachal Pradesh
Pema Khandu
Assam
Sarbananda Sonowal
Bihar
Nitish Kumar
Chhattisgarh
Raman Singh
Delhi
Arvind Kejriwal
Goa
Manohar Parrikar
Gujarat
Vijay Rupani
Haryana
Manohar Lal Khattar
Himachal Pradesh
Jai Ram Thakur
Jammu and Kashmir
Vacant
Jharkhand
Raghubar Das
Karnataka
H. D. Kumaraswamy
Kerala
Pinarayi Vijayan
Madhya Pradesh
Shivraj Singh Chouhan
Maharashtra
Devendra Fadnavis
Manipur
N. Biren Singh
Meghalaya
Conrad Sangma
Mizoram
Lal Thanhawla
Nagaland
Neiphiu Rio
Odisha
Naveen Patnaik
Puducherry
V. Narayanasamy
Punjab
Amarinder Singh
Rajasthan
Vasundhara Raje
Sikkim
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Tamil Nadu
Edappadi K. Palaniswami
Telangana
K. Chandrashekhar Rao
Tripura
Biplab Kumar Deb
Uttar Pradesh
Yogi Adityanath
Uttarakhand
Trivendra Singh Rawat
West Bengal
Mamata Banerjee
Women chief ministers
From the Bharatiya Janata Party
From the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
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The White Tiger
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This article is about the 2008 novel by Aravind Adiga. For the 1987 novel by Robert Stuart Nathan, see The White Tiger (Nathan novel). For other uses of White Tiger, see White tiger (disambiguation).
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The White Tiger
Author
Aravind Adiga
Country
India
Language
English
Genre
Picaresque novel
Published
2008 Atlantic Books (UK)
2008 HarperCollins (India)
Media type
Print (hardback)
Pages
318
ISBN
1-4165-6259-1
OCLC
166373034
Dewey Decimal
823/.92 22
LC Class
PR9619.4.A35 W47 2008
The White Tiger is the debut novel by Indian author Aravind Adiga. It was first published in 2008 and won the 40th Man Booker Prize in the same year.[1] The novel provides a darkly humorous perspective of India’s class struggle in a globalized world as told through a retrospective narration from Balram Halwai, a village boy. In detailing Balram's journey first to Delhi, where he works as a chauffeur to a rich landlord, and then to Bangalore, the place to which he flees after killing his master and stealing his money, the novel examines issues of religion, caste, loyalty, corruption and poverty in India.[2] Ultimately, Balram transcends his sweet-maker caste and becomes a successful entrepreneur, establishing his own taxi service. In a nation proudly shedding a history of poverty and underdevelopment, he represents, as he himself says, "tomorrow."
The novel has been well-received, making the New York Times bestseller list in addition to winning the Man Booker Prize.[3] Aravind Adiga, 33 at the time, was the second youngest writer as well as the fourth debut writer to win the prize in 2008.[4] Adiga says his novel "attempt[s] to catch the voice of the men you meet as you travel through India — the voice of the colossal underclass."[5] According to Adiga, the exigence for The White Tiger was to capture the unspoken voice of people from "the Darkness" – the impoverished areas of rural India, and he "wanted to do so without sentimentality or portraying them as mirthless humorless weaklings as they are usually."[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Themes
2.1 Globalization
2.2 Individualism
2.3 Freedom
2.4 Social class/caste
2.5 Critical Analysis
3 References
4 External links
Plot summary[edit]
Balram Halwai narrates his life in a letter, written in seven consecutive nights and addressed to the Chinese Premier, Wen Jiabao. In his letter, Balram explains how he, the son of a rickshaw puller, escaped a life of servitude to become a successful businessman, describing himself as an entrepreneur.
Balram was born in the rural village of Laxmangarh, where he lived with his grandmother, parents, brother and extended family. He is a smart child but is forced to leave school in order to help pay for his cousin's dowry and begins to work in a teashop with his brother in Dhanbad. While working there he begins to learn about India's government and economy from the customers' conversations. Balram describes himself as a bad servant but a good listener and decides to become a driver.
After learning how to drive, Balram finds a job driving Ashok, the son of one of Laxmangarh's landlords. He takes over the job of the main driver, from a small car to a heavy-luxury described Honda City. He stops sending money back to his family and disrespects his grandmother during a trip back to his village. Balram moves to New Delhi with Ashok and his wife Pinky Madam. Throughout their time in Delhi, Balram is exposed to extensive corruption, especially in the government. In Delhi, the contrast between the poor and the wealthy is made even more evident by their proximity to one another.
One night Pinky Madam takes the wheel from Balram, while drunk, hits something in the road and drives away; we are left to assume that she has killed a child. Ashok's family puts pressure on Balram to confess that he had been driving alone. Ashok becomes increasingly involved in bribing government officials for the benefit of the family coal business. Balram then decides that killing Ashok will be the only way to escape India's Rooster Coop. After bludgeoning Ashok with a bottle and stealing a large bribe, Balram moves to Bangalore, where he bribes the police in order to help start his own taxi business. Interestingly, Ashok too is portrayed to be trapped in the metaphorical Rooster Coop: his family controls what he does and society dictates how he acts. Just like Ashok, Balram pays off a family whose son one of his taxi drivers hit and killed. Balram explains that his own family was almost certainly killed by Ashok's relatives as retribution for his murder. At the end of the novel, Balram rationalizes his actions and considers that his freedom is worth the lives of his family and of Ashok. And thus ends the letter to Jiabao, letting the reader think of the dark humour of the tale, as well as the idea of life as a trap introduced by the writer.
Themes[edit]
Globalization[edit]
The White Tiger takes place in a time in which increased technology has led to world globalization, and India is no exception. In the past decade, India has had one of the fastest booming economies. Specifically Americanization in India has played its role in the plot, since it provides an outlet for Balram to alter his caste. To satisfy Pinky’s want for American culture, Ashok, Pinky, and Balram simply move to Gurgaon instead of back to America. Globalization has assisted in the creation of an American atmosphere in India. Ashok justifies this move by explaining "Today it’s the modernest suburb of Delhi. American Express, Microsoft, all the big American companies have offices there. The main road is full of shopping malls—each mall has a cinema inside! So if Pinky Madam missed America, this was the best place to bring her".[6] By blackmailing Ram Persad, the other driver, Balram is promoted and drives Ashok and Pinky to their new home.
Ashok is even convinced India is surpassing the USA, "There are so many more things I could do here than in New York now...The way things are changing in India now, this place is going to be like America in ten years".[7] Balram is noticing the rapid growth as well. From the beginning of his story he knows that in order to rise above his caste he should become an entrepreneur. Although his taxi service is not an international business, Balram plans to keep up with the pace of globalization and change his trade when need be. "I‘m always a man who sees ‘tomorrow’ when others see ‘today.’"[8] Balram's recognition of the increasing competition resulting from globalization contributes to his corruption.
Individualism[edit]
Throughout the book, there are references to how Balram is very different from those back in his home environment. He is referred to as the "white tiger"[9] (which also happens to be the title of the book). A white tiger symbolizes power in East Asian cultures,[10] such as in Vietnam. It is also a symbol for freedom and individuality. Balram is seen as different from those he grew up with. He is the one who got out of the "Darkness" and found his way into the "Light".
Freedom[edit]
In an interview with Aravind Adiga, he talked about how "The White Tiger" was a book about a man’s quest for freedom.[11] Balram, the protagonist in the novel, worked his way out of his low social caste (often referred to as "the Darkness") and overcame the social obstacles that limited his family in the past. Climbing up the social ladder, Balram sheds the weights and limits of his past and overcomes the social obstacles that keep him from living life to the fullest that he can. In the book, Balram talks about how he was in a rooster coop and how he broke free from his coop. The novel is somewhat of a memoir of his journey to finding his freedom in India’s modern day capitalist society. Towards the beginning of the novel, Balram cites a poem from the Muslim poet Iqbal where he talks about slaves and says "They remain slaves because they can’t see what is beautiful in this world."[12] Balram sees himself embodying the poem and being the one who sees the world and takes it as he rises through the ranks of society, and in doing so finding his freedom.
Social class/caste[edit]
The book shows a modern day, capitalist Indian society with free market and free business. It also shows how it can create economic division. In India there are not social classes, there are social castes. The novel portrays India’s society as very negative towards the lower social caste.
The novel is based on the disparities of two worlds: darkness, inhabited by poor and underprivileged who cannot even meet their bare minimums; and the lighted world, inhabited by zamindars, politicians, businessmen etc. who shamelessly exploits the ones from darkness, making them even more poor and grows their own grandeur.[13]
Balram refers to it as the "Darkness". When Balram was asked which caste he was from, he knew that it could ultimately cause a biased stance in his employer and determine the future of his employment. There is definitely a big difference seen in Balram’s lower caste from back home and his current higher caste in their lifestyles, habits, and standards of living. This novel is showing how our economic system today creates socioeconomic gaps that create a big division in society. It limits opportunity, social mobility, health, and other rights and pleasures that should be given to all. There is a big difference in the amount of money spread around in society today and this book is alluding to that fact.
Critical Analysis[edit]
Aravind Adiga’s White Tiger tells the story of Balram Halwei. Born in India’s overarching darkness of perpetual servanthood and poverty, Balram seeks a life in the light—a life of freedom and financial prosperity. Balram, a man of many names and of strong conviction, is one of the few who are able to escape the Darkness. Unlike the majority of the poor in India, eternally pent up in the Coop, he is willing to sacrifice his family for his own self gain. His ambition and inner drive propels him to commit murder to achieve freedom. To be one’s own man, one must break free from the darkness and live life being able to choose his own path. When Balram says, “All I wanted was the chance to be a man—and for that, one murder was enough,” he is technically correct. While murdering Ashok will result in the resultant murder of his family, the one murder alone is enough to break free from the Darkness. By murdering Ashok, therefore, Balram becomes his own man, free of the chains of servitude and finally able to control his own destiny.
According to Balram, there are two different types of people in India. There are those in the light—politicians, businessmen, entrepreneurs, to name a few, who prosper financially and sit at the top of society—and there are those in the Darkness, trapped in lives of poverty and subservience. He explains, “Please understand, Your Excellency, that India is two countries in one: an India of Light, and an India of Darkness” (12). To explain this division he uses the metaphor of the Coop: “Go to Old Delhi… Hundred of pale hens and brightly colored roosters, stuffed tightly into wire-mesh cages… They know they are next, yet they cannot rebel. They do not try to get out of the coop. The very same thing is done with humans in this country” (147). The Coop represents life in the Darkness: a life where the “roosters,” or people, cannot choose their own fate, where they live in poverty, where they see their family decimated around them and are unable to intervene, and in which they inevitably will live and die without ever the possibility of escape. Balram’s family is in the Darkness. While they are supposed to be sweetmakers, or Halweis, they live in poverty. His father works tenuously as a rickshaw puller, and his brother works in the local tea shop.
Balram’s father implants in him early on this idea of breaking away from the Darkness, and of becoming his own man. He instates in Balram the goal of becoming one of those men who are in the light. He says, “My whole life, I have been treated like a donkey. All I want is that one son of mine—at least one—should live like a man” (26). In the eyes of Balram’s father, a man should live in the light, free from the grueling life of manual labor and servitude. Balram adopts this goal, and devotes his life towards attaining it. Later, Balram uses the metaphor: “There are just two castes: Men with Big Bellies, and Men with Small Bellies. And only two destinies: eat—or get eaten up” (54). Balram has a big belly, filled with the lust of freedom and of riches—the same belly which will eventually propel him to murder Ashok and give up his family for the sake of becoming a man.
In his childhood, Balram recognizes that he is special. When an official comes to evaluate his school, he singles out Balram because he is the only one who can read and write. He sees great potential in the boy: “You, young man, are an intelligent, honest, vivacious fellow in this crowd of thugs and idiots… You need to go to a real school” (30). The rest of the students are cast into the lowly group of “thugs and idiots, because they will forever remain in the darkness. They do not have the ambition, drive or intelligence that is needed to escape—the same characteristics which the inspector sees in Balram.
The inspector knows that Balram exceeds everyone else within the “jungle” of his lowly school and town. He says, “In any jungle, what is the rarest of animals – the creature that comes along only once in a generation? The white tiger” (30). Balram calls himself White Tiger permanently after this event. He fully takes on and embodies the life of a white tiger. In Balram’s opinion, “[Slaves] remain slaves because they can’t see what is beautiful in this world” (34). A “white tiger” can never be a slave, because it can see and pursue beauty. “Beauty,” in this case, is the life of financial prosperity and freedom of choice that Balram yearns for. Amidst the other animals in the darkness, amidst the other children in his school and the rest of India trapped in lives of Darkness, all who are unable to see beauty, and who carry with them small bellies, Balram, the “White Tiger,” knows that he must escape any means possible.
Balram only faints twice in his life. Each time he faints it is because he realizes that the Darkness is inescapable without some form of resistance. He first faints when he sees his mother’s dead body around the Ganges: “Soon she would become part of the black mound… And then I understood: this was the real god of Benaras—this black mud of the Ganga into which everything died, and decomposed, and was reborn from, and died into again. The same would happen to me when I died and they brought me here. Nothing would get liberated here” (15). Balram cannot fathom the prospect of forever remaining in the Darkness. He sees the overwhelming power that being in the Darkness has on the ones in it: that when surrounded by others marked by a lack of ambition, leading lives of destitute servitude, unable to choose the paths of their own lives, one inevitably surrenders to that same life. Balram faints thinking that this could happen to him.
Balram faints for a second time when he goes to the zoo. He sees the White Tiger trapped in the cage and realizes that he sees himself: “[The tiger] was hypnotizing himself by walking like this - that was the way he could tolerate this cage” (237). Balram’s current predicament of servitude serves as his own cage. Balram was “hypnotizing himself” by buying into his life of servitude. He wholeheartedly embraced his master, with whom he treated with great love, to distract himself from the fact that he was living in a life that he and his father wanted so desperately for him to break free of. “All at once, the tiger vanished” (237). When Balram sees himself in that cage, he has an epiphany. Up to this point, he had never seriously considered rebelling against or killing Ashok. But the tiger vanishes from the cage because, at that moment, the caged version of Balram ceased to exist. A changed man, he realizes that he must kill Ashok to become his own man and enter into a life of Light.
After this epiphany, Balram quickly and deliberately frees himself from the Darkness by killing Ashok. Despite the fact that his family may be murdered, Balram commits this act because it will transport him to the life he has dreamed of and therefore make him a man. Balram has so much disdain for him family, since he sees the harsh ways by which they drain the life out of his father, that they no longer remain a relevant part of his life. Therefore, he is justified in sacrificing them, at least in his eyes. His epiphany at the zoo puts in context that life is not worth living if it is lived in the Darkness. After killing Ashok with the glass shards of a broken liquor bottle, he says, “I’ve made it! I’ve broken out of the coop!” (275). In this India of Light and Darkness, Balram is now in the light. By resisting the life of Darkness and by killing Ashok, he now leads a life in which he can choose his own fate. The difference between “this India,” Laxmangarh, and “that India,” Bangalore, is that in “this India” Balram is a free independent man who can finally control his own destiny (262).
The chandelier embodies Balram’s transformation into a man. Literally, it represents the materialistic success which he has encountered in his entrepreneurial ventures as an independent businessman. Figuratively, it sheds light on him, amidst the Darkness still prevalent in the everyday life of India. It represents Balram's escape from the presence of Darkness which used to dominate his life. By killing Ashok, Balram becomes his own man, freeing himself from servitude and entering a life of independence.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Amitav Ghosh, Aravind Adiga in Booker shortlist". Rediff.com. 2008-09-09. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
Jump up ^ Robins, Peter (2008-08-09). "Review: The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ The White Tiger: A Novel [Deckle Edge] [Hardcover]. amazon. Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. ASIN 1416562591.
Jump up ^ "Aravind Adiga becomes the fourth debut novelist to win the coveted prize". The Man Booker Prize. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, Victoria. "Novel About India Wins Man Booker Prize". Retrieved 8 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 101.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 77.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 274.
Jump up ^ The White Tiger. p. 30.
Jump up ^ "Animal Symbolism".
Jump up ^ "YouTube".
Jump up ^ The White Tiger. p. 34.
Jump up ^ "BOOK REVIEW: THE WHITE TIGER BY ARAVIND ADIGA (WINNER OF THE MAN BOOKER PRIZE 2008)". Stories In Moments. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
External links[edit]
Aravind Adiga Official website
Adam Lively, Review in The Sunday Times
David Mattin, Review in The Independent
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Review in the London Review of Books
Interview with Aravind Adiga in Rediff
Analysis of the novel at Let's talk about Bollywood
The White Tiger – uRead.com
Roy, Pinaki. "Inside Tiger's Jaws: Rereading Aravind Adiga's The White Tiger". Booker Prize Winner Indian English Novels: A Kaleidoscopic Study. Eds. Nawale, A., and V. Bite. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers and Distributors, 2011. Pp. 164–78. ISBN 978-81-7910-341-8.
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90452769
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Limbic system
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Limbic system
Cross section of the human brain showing parts of the limbic system from below.
Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie (1786)
The limbic system largely consists of what was previously known as the limbic lobe.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema limbicum
NeuroNames
ancil-247
Dorlands
/Elsevier
s_33/12787580
FMA
242000
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebrum.[1] It has also been referred to as the paleomammalian cortex. It is not a separate system but a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon.[2] It includes the olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, fornix, columns of fornix, mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular commissure, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and limbic midbrain areas.[3]
The limbic system supports a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction.[4] Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of memories.
Although the term only originated in the 1940s, some neuroscientists, including Joseph LeDoux, have suggested that the concept of a functionally unified limbic system should be abandoned as obsolete because it is grounded mainly in historical concepts of brain anatomy that are no longer accepted as accurate.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
2.1 Hippocampus
2.1.1 Spatial memory
2.1.2 Learning
2.1.3 Hippocampus damage
2.2 Amygdala
2.2.1 Episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks
2.2.2 Attentional and emotional processes
2.2.3 Social processing
3 Evolution
4 Clinical significance
5 Society and culture
5.1 Etymology and history
5.2 Academic dispute
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Anatomical components of the limbic system
The limbic system was originally defined by Paul Broca as a series of cortical structures surrounding the limit between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem: the border, or limbus, of the brain. These structures were known together as the limbic lobe.[6] Further studies began to associate these areas with emotional and motivational processes and linked them to subcortical components that were grouped into the limbic system.[7] The existence of such a system as an isolated entity responsible for the neurological regulation of emotion has gone into disuse and currently it is considered as one of the many parts of the brain that regulate visceral, autonomic processes.[8]
Therefore, the definition of anatomical structures considered part of the limbic system is a controversial subject. The following structures are, or have been considered, part of the limbic system:[9][10]
Cortical areas:
Limbic lobe
Orbitofrontal cortex, a region in the frontal lobe involved in the process of decision-making.
Piriform cortex, part of the olfactory system.
Entorhinal cortex, related with memory and associative components.
Hippocampus and associated structures, which play a central role in the consolidation of new memories.
Fornix, a white matter structure connecting the hippocampus with other brain structures, particularly the mammillary bodies and septal nuclei
Subcortical areas:
Septal nuclei, a set of structures that lie in front of the lamina terminalis, considered a pleasure zone.
Amygdala, located deep within the temporal lobes and related with a number of emotional processes.
Nucleus accumbens: involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction.
Diencephalic structures:
Hypothalamus: a center for the limbic system, connected with the frontal lobes, septal nuclei and the brain stem reticular formation via the medial forebrain bundle, with the hippocampus via the fornix, and with the thalamus via the mammillothalamic fasciculus. It regulates a great number of autonomic processes.
Mammillary bodies, part of the hypothalamus that receives signals from the hippocampus via the fornix and projects them to the thalamus.
Anterior nuclei of thalamus receive input from the mammillary bodies. Involved in memory processing.
Function[edit]
The structures of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex.[1] The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. It is highly interconnected with the nucleus accumbens, which plays a role in sexual arousal and the "high" derived from certain recreational drugs. These responses are heavily modulated by dopaminergic projections from the limbic system. In 1954, Olds and Milner found that rats with metal electrodes implanted into their nucleus accumbens, as well as their septal nuclei, repeatedly pressed a lever activating this region, and did so in preference to eating and drinking, eventually dying of exhaustion.[11] The limbic system also includes the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus. They receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture and movement. Recent studies indicate that, if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine, the striatum is affected, which can lead to visible behavioral symptoms of Parkinson's disease.[1]
The limbic system is also tightly connected to the prefrontal cortex. Some scientists contend that this connection is related to the pleasure obtained from solving problems. To cure severe emotional disorders, this connection was sometimes surgically severed, a procedure of psychosurgery, called a prefrontal lobotomy (this is actually a misnomer). Patients having undergone this procedure often became passive and lacked all motivation.
The limbic system is often classified as a “cerebral structure”. This structure is closely linked to olfaction, emotions, drives, autonomic regulation, memory, and pathologically to encephalopathy, epilepsy, psychotic symptoms, cognitive defects.[12] The functional relevance of the limbic system has proven to serve many different functions such as affects/emotions, memory, sensory processing, time perception, attention, consciousness, instincts, autonomic/vegetative control, and actions/motor behavior. Some of the disorders associated with the limbic system are epilepsy and schizophrenia.[13]
Hippocampus[edit]
Various processes of cognition involve the hippocampus.
Spatial memory[edit]
The first and most widely researched area concerns memory, spatial memory in particular. Spatial memory was found to have many sub-regions in the hippocampus, such as the dentate gyrus (DG) in the dorsal hippocampus, the left hippocampus, and the parahippocampal region. The dorsal hippocampus was found to be an important component for the generation of new neurons, called adult-born granules (GC), in adolescence and adulthood.[14] These new neurons contribute to pattern separation in spatial memory, increasing the firing in cell networks, and overall causing stronger memory formations.
While the dorsal hippocampus is involved in spatial memory formation, the left hippocampus is a participant in the recall of these spatial memories. Eichenbaum[15] and his team found, when studying the hippocampal lesions in rats, that the left hippocampus is “critical for effectively combining the ‘what, ‘when,’ and ‘where’ qualities of each experience to compose the retrieved memory.” This makes the left hippocampus a key component in the retrieval of spatial memory. However, Spreng[16] found that the left hippocampus is, in fact, a general concentrated region for binding together bits and pieces of memory composed not only by the hippocampus, but also by other areas of the brain to be recalled at a later time. Eichenbaum’s research in 2007 also demonstrates that the parahippocampal area of the hippocampus is another specialized region for the retrieval of memories just like the left hippocampus.
Learning[edit]
The hippocampus, over the decades, has also been found to have a huge impact in learning. Curlik and Shors[17] examined the effects of neurogenesis in the hippocampus and its effects on learning. This researcher and his team employed many different types of mental and physical training on their subjects, and found that the hippocampus is highly responsive to these latter tasks. Thus, they discovered an upsurge of new neurons and neural circuits in the hippocampus as a result of the training, causing an overall improvement in the learning of the task. This neurogenesis contributes to the creation of adult-born granules cells (GC), cells also described by Eichenbaum[15] in his own research on neurogenesis and its contributions to learning. The creation of these cells exhibited "enhanced excitability" in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the dorsal hippocampus, impacting the hippocampus and its contribution to the learning process.[15]
Hippocampus damage[edit]
Damage related to the hippocampal region of the brain has reported vast effects on overall cognitive functioning, particularly memory such as spatial memory. As previously mentioned, spatial memory is a cognitive function greatly intertwined with the hippocampus. While damage to the hippocampus may be a result of a brain injury or other injuries of that sort, researchers particularly investigated the effects that high emotional arousal and certain types of drugs had on the recall ability in this specific memory type. In particular, in a study performed by Parkard,[18] rats were given the task of correctly making their way through a maze. In the first condition, rats were stressed by shock or restraint which caused a high emotional arousal. When completing the maze task, these rats had an impaired effect on their hippocampal-dependent memory when compared to the control group. Then, in a second condition, a group of rats were injected with anxiogenic drugs. Like the former these results reported similar outcomes, in that hippocampal-memory was also impaired. Studies such as these reinforce the impact that the hippocampus has on memory processing, in particular the recall function of spatial memory. Furthermore, impairment to the hippocampus can occur from prolonged exposure to stress hormones such as Glucocorticoids (GCs), which target the hippocampus and cause disruption in explicit memory.[19]
In an attempt to curtail life-threatening kepileptic seizures, 27-year-old Henry Gustav Molaison underwent bilateral removal of almost all of his hippocampus in 1953. Over the course of fifty years he participated in thousands of tests and research projects that provided specific information on exactly what he had lost. Semantic and episodic events faded within minutes, having never reached his long term memory, yet emotions, unconnected from the details of causation, were often retained. Dr. Suzanne Corkin, who worked with him for 46 years until his death, described the contribution of this tragic "experiment" in her 2013 book.[20]
Amygdala[edit]
Episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks[edit]
Another integrative part of the limbic system, the amygdala is involved in many cognitive processes. Like the hippocampus, processes in the amygdala seem to impact memory; however, it is not spatial memory as in the hippocampus but episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks. Markowitsch's[21] amygdala research shows it encodes, stores, and retrieves EAM memories. To delve deeper into these types of processes by the amygdala, Markowitsch[21] and his team provided extensive evidence through investigations that the "amygdala's main function is to charge cues so that mnemonic events of a specific emotional significance can be successfully searched within the appropriate neural nets and re-activated." These cues for emotional events created by the amygdala encompass the EAM networks previously mentioned.
Attentional and emotional processes[edit]
Besides memory, the amygdala also seems to be an important brain region involved in attentional and emotional processes. First, to define attention in cognitive terms, attention is the ability to home in on some stimuli while ignoring others. Thus, the amygdala seems to be an important structure in this ability. Foremost, however, this structure was historically thought to be linked to fear, allowing the individual to take action in response to that fear. However, as time has gone by, researchers such as Pessoa,[22] generalized this concept with help from evidence of EEG recordings, and concluded that the amygdala helps an organism to define a stimulus and therefore respond accordingly. However, when the amygdala was initially thought to be linked to fear, this gave way for research in the amygdala for emotional processes. Kheirbek[14] demonstrated research that the amygdala is involved in emotional processes, in particular the ventral hippocampus. He described the ventral hippocampus as having a role in neurogenesis and the creation of adult-born granule cells (GC). These cells not only were a crucial part of neurogenesis and the strengthening of spatial memory and learning in the hippocampus but also appear to be an essential component in the amygdala. A deficit of these cells, as Pessoa (2009) predicted in his studies, would result in low emotional functioning, leading to high retention rate of mental diseases, such as anxiety disorders.
Social processing[edit]
Social processing, specifically the evaluation of faces in social processing, is an area of cognition specific to the amygdala. In a study done by Todorov,[23] fMRI tasks were performed with participants to evaluate whether the amygdala was involved in the general evaluation of faces. After the study, Todorov concluded from his fMRI results that the amygdala did indeed play a key role in the general evaluation of faces. However, in a study performed by researchers Koscik[24] and his team, the trait of trustworthiness was particularly examined in the evaluation of faces. Koscik and his team demonstrated that the amygdala was involved in evaluating the trustworthiness of an individual. They investigated how brain damage to the amygdala played a role in trustworthiness, and found that individuals that suffered damage tended to confuse trust and betrayal, and thus placed trust in those having done them wrong. Furthermore, Rule,[25] along with his colleagues, expanded on the idea of the amygdala in its critique of trustworthiness in others by performing a study in 2009 in which he examined the amygdala's role in evaluating general first impressions and relating them to real-world outcomes. Their study involved first impressions of CEOs. Rule demonstrated that while the amygdala did play a role in the evaluation of trustworthiness, as observed by Koscik in his own research two years later in 2011, the amygdala also played a generalized role in the overall evaluation of first impression of faces. This latter conclusion, along with Todorov's study on the amygdala’s role in general evaluations of faces and Koscik’s research on trustworthiness and the amygdala, further solidified evidence that the amygdala plays a role in overall social processing.
Evolution[edit]
Paul D. MacLean, as part of his triune brain theory, hypothesized that the limbic system is older than other parts of the forebrain, and that it developed to manage circuitry attributed to the fight or flight first identified by Hans Selye [26] in his report of the General Adaptation Syndrome in 1936. It may be considered a part of survival adaptation, leading to what describes evolution adaptation throughout the history of species differentiation in reptiles as well as mammals (including humans). MacLean postulated that the human brain has evolved three components, that evolved successively, with more recent components developing at the top/front. These components are, respectively:
The archipallium or primitive ("reptilian") brain, comprising the structures of the brain stem – medulla, pons, cerebellum, mesencephalon, the oldest basal nuclei – the globus pallidus and the olfactory bulbs.
The paleopallium or intermediate ("old mammalian") brain, comprising the structures of the limbic system.
The neopallium, also known as the superior or rational ("new mammalian") brain, comprises almost the whole of the hemispheres (made up of a more recent type of cortex, called neocortex) and some subcortical neuronal groups. It corresponds to the brain of the superior mammals, thus including the primates and, as a consequence, the human species. It should be noted that similar development of the neocortex in mammalian species unrelated to humans and primates has also occurred, for example in cetaceans and elephants; thus the designation of "superior mammals" is not an evolutionary one, as it has occurred independently in different species. The evolution of higher degrees of intelligence is an example of convergent evolution, and is also seen in non-mammals such as birds.
According to Maclean, each of the components, although connected with the others, retained "their peculiar types of intelligence, subjectivity, sense of time and space, memory, mobility and other less specific functions".
However, while the categorization into structures is reasonable, the recent studies of the limbic system of tetrapods, both living and extinct, have challenged several aspects of this hypothesis, notably the accuracy of the terms "reptilian" and "old mammalian". The common ancestors of reptiles and mammals had a well-developed limbic system in which the basic subdivisions and connections of the amygdalar nuclei were established.[27] Further, birds, which evolved from the dinosaurs, which in turn evolved separately but around the same time as the mammals, have a well-developed limbic system. While the anatomic structures of the limbic system are different in birds and mammals, there are functional equivalents.
Clinical significance[edit]
Damage to the structures of limbic system results in conditions like Alzheimer's disease, anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and Klüver-Bucy syndrome.[citation needed]
Society and culture[edit]
Etymology and history[edit]
The term limbic comes from the Latin limbus, for "border" or "edge", or, particularly in medical terminology, a border of an anatomical component. Paul Broca coined the term based on its physical location in the brain, sandwiched between two functionally different components.
The limbic system is a term that was introduced in 1949 by the American physician and neuroscientist, Paul D. MacLean.[28][29] The French physician Paul Broca first called this part of the brain le grand lobe limbique in 1878.[6] He examined the differentiation between deeply recessed cortical tissue and underlying, subcortical nuclei.[30] However, most of its putative role in emotion was developed only in 1937 when the American physician James Papez described his anatomical model of emotion, the Papez circuit.[31]
The first evidence that the limbic system was responsible for the cortical representation of emotions was discovered in 1939, by Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy. Kluver and Bucy, after much research, demonstrated that the bilateral removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys created an extreme behavioral syndrome. After performing a temporal lobectomy, the monkeys showed a decrease in aggression. The animals revealed a reduced threshold to visual stimuli, and were thus unable to recognize objects that were once familiar.[32] MacLean expanded these ideas to include additional structures in a more dispersed "limbic system", more on the lines of the system described above.[29] MacLean developed the intriguing theory of the "triune brain" to explain its evolution and to try to reconcile rational human behavior with its more primal and violent side. He became interested in the brain's control of emotion and behavior. After initial studies of brain activity in epileptic patients, he turned to cats, monkeys, and other models, using electrodes to stimulate different parts of the brain in conscious animals recording their responses.[33] In the 1950s, he began to trace individual behaviors like aggression and sexual arousal to their physiological sources. He analyzed the brain's center of emotions, the limbic system, and described an area that includes structures called the hippocampus and amygdala. Developing observations made by Papez, he determined that the limbic system had evolved in early mammals to control fight-or-flight responses and react to both emotionally pleasurable and painful sensations. The concept is now broadly accepted in neuroscience.[34] Additionally, MacLean said that the idea of the limbic system leads to a recognition that its presence "represents the history of the evolution of mammals and their distinctive family way of life." In the 1960s, Dr. MacLean enlarged his theory to address the human brain's overall structure and divided its evolution into three parts, an idea that he termed the triune brain. In addition to identifying the limbic system, he pointed to a more primitive brain called the R-complex, related to reptiles, which controls basic functions like muscle movement and breathing. The third part, the neocortex, controls speech and reasoning and is the most recent evolutionary arrival.[35] The concept of the limbic system has since been further expanded and developed by Walle Nauta, Lennart Heimer and others.
Academic dispute[edit]
There is controversy over the use of the term limbic system, with scientists such as LeDoux arguing that the term be considered obsolete and abandoned.[36] Originally, the limbic system was believed to be the emotional center of the brain, with cognition being the business of the neocortex. However, cognition depends on acquisition and retention of memories, in which the hippocampus, a primary limbic structure, is involved: hippocampus damage causes severe cognitive (memory) deficits. More important, the "boundaries" of the limbic system have been repeatedly redefined because of advances in neuroscience. Therefore, while it is true that limbic structures are more closely related to emotion, the brain can be thought of as an integrated whole.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Limbic system.
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (LHPA axis)
Emotional memory
Fundamentals of Neuroscience at Wikiversity
Paralimbic cortex
Triune brain
References[edit]
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values: لىمبىك سىستېما – Uyghur

values: לימביק סיסטעם – Yiddish

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