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High-definition optical disc format war
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The high-definition optical disc format war was between the Blu-ray and HD DVD optical disc standards for storing high-definition video and audio; it took place between 2006 and 2008 and was won by Blu-ray Disc.[1]
The two formats emerged between 2000 and 2003 and attracted both the mutual and exclusive support of major consumer electronics manufacturers, personal computer manufacturers, television and movie producers and distributors, and software developers.[1]
Blu-ray and HD DVD players became commercially available starting in 2006. In early 2008, the war ended when several studios and distributors shifted to Blu-ray disc.[1] On February 19, 2008, Toshiba officially announced that it would stop the development of the HD DVD players, conceding the format war to the Blu-ray Disc format.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Attempts to avoid a format war
3 Alliances
4 Deciding factors
4.1 Studio, distributor alliances
4.2 PlayStation 3
5 AVS Forum shutdown
6 Toshiba announcement and aftermath
7 See also
8 References
Background[edit]
The Blu-ray/HD DVD conflict resembled the earlier videotape format war between VHS and Betamax, partly because of Sony's strong involvement in both episodes. These format wars have often proved destructive to both camps because consumers, afraid of committing to a losing standard, would refrain from purchasing either.[3] Format wars have been avoided in notable cases such as the DVD Forum for the unified DVD standard (except for a minor war from 1998 to 1999 with the DIVX format), the Grand Alliance for the HDTV standard, and the Wi-Fi Alliance for wireless networking standards.[citation needed]
The emergence of high definition players followed the entry of HDTV televisions into the mainstream market in the mid-2000s. Consumer-grade high definition players required an inexpensive storage medium capable of holding the larger amount of data needed for HD video.[4] The breakthrough came with Shuji Nakamura's invention of the blue laser diode, whose shorter wavelength opened the door to higher density optical media following a six-year patent dispute.[5]
Sony started two projects applying the new diodes: Ultra Density Optical and, with Pioneer, DVR Blue.[6] The first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000. On February 19, 2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray,[7] and the Blu-ray Disc Association was founded by a consortium of nine electronics companies.
The DVD Forum, chaired by Toshiba, was deeply split over whether to go with the more expensive blue lasers, whose discs initially required a protective caddy to avoid mishandling, making the medium more expensive and physically different from DVDs.[8] In March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by Warner Bros. and other motion picture studios that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer DVD-9 discs.[9][10] In spite of this decision, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April 2002 that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution. In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc,[11] which was finally adopted by the DVD Forum and renamed "HD DVD" the following year[12] after being voted down twice by Blu-ray Disc Association members, prompting the U.S. Department of Justice to make preliminary investigations.[13] Three new members had to be invited and the voting rules changed before the initiative finally passed.[14]
The competing standards had significant differences that made each incompatible with the other.
Attempts to avoid a format war[edit]
In an attempt to avoid a costly format war, the Blu-ray Disc Association and DVD Forum started to negotiate a compromise in early 2005. One of the issues was that Blu-ray's supporters wanted to use a Java-based platform for interactivity (BD-J), while the DVD Forum was promoting Microsoft's "iHD" (which became HDi).[15] A much larger issue, though, was the physical formats of the discs themselves; the Blu-ray Disc Association's member companies did not want to risk losing billions of dollars in royalties as they had done with standard DVD.[16] An agreement seemed close, but negotiations proceeded slowly.[17]
At the end of June 2005, Sun Microsystems, the developer of Java, announced that the Blu-ray Association had chosen the Java-based BD-J interactivity layer instead of Microsoft's HDi.[18] At the same time, Microsoft and Toshiba jointly announced that they would cooperate in developing high-definition DVD players.[19] In a top-level meeting in July, Microsoft's Bill Gates argued that the Blu-ray standard had to change to "work more smoothly with personal computers". The Blu-ray Disc's representatives defended the technology.[20]
On August 22, 2005, the Blu-ray Disc Association and DVD Forum announced that the negotiations to unify their standards had failed.[21] Rumors surfaced that talks had stalled; publicly, the same reasons of physical format incompatibility were cited.[16][20] At the end of September, Microsoft and Intel jointly announced their support for HD DVD.[22]
Hewlett Packard (HP) proposed an ultimatum for the Blu-ray Disc Association: adopt Microsoft's proprietary HDi (instead of the Java-based system) and a mandatory managed copy feature, or HP would support HD DVD instead.[23] In a research report, Gartner analysts Van Baker, Laura Behrens and Mike McGuire wrote that if HP's proposal were accepted, Blu-ray would become the winner of the format war.[24] Though the Blu-ray Disc group did add mandatory managed copy to Blu-ray, they did not add HDi.[25]
HD DVD players and movies were released in the United States on April 18, 2006.[26] The first Blu-ray Disc titles were released on June 20, 2006 and the first movies using dual layer Blu-ray discs (50 GB) were introduced in October 2006.[27]
Alliances[edit]
The Blu-ray Disc Foundation was formed by Hitachi, LG, Panasonic, Pioneer, Philips, Samsung, Sharp, Sony, and Thomson on May 20, 2002.[28] Other early supporters included Dell, HP, Mitsubishi and TDK.[29] The Blu-ray Disc Association was inaugurated on October 4, 2004 by 14 companies of Board of Directors which added 20th Century Fox to the 13 above-mentioned companies, Contributors of 22 companies, General members of 37 companies, and a total of 73 companies.
Acer, Alpine, Asus, HP, Hitachi Maxell, Kenwood, Lanix, LG, Lite-On, Meridian, Onkyo and Samsung,[30] provided non-exclusive support.
Toshiba, NEC, Sanyo, Memory-Tech Corporation started HD DVD Promotion Group[31] on September 27, 2004. It also included Microsoft, RCA, Intel, Venturer Electronics. In Europe, HD DVD was supported either exclusively or non-exclusively by Medusa Home Entertainment, Studio Canal, Universum Films, Kinowelt Home Entertainment, DVD International, Opus Arte, MK2, Momentum Pictures, Twister Home Video, among others.[citation needed]
During the height of the format war, some studios supported both formats, including Paramount Pictures, BBC,[32] First Look Studios,[33] Image Entertainment (including the Discovery Channel),[34] Magnolia Pictures,[35] Brentwood Home Video, Ryko and Koch/Goldhil Entertainment.[36]
Deciding factors[edit]
The format war's resolution in favour of Blu-ray was primarily decided by two factors: shifting business alliances, including decisions by major film studios and retail distributors,[37] and Sony's decision to include a Blu-ray player in the PlayStation 3 video game console.[38][39]
Studio, distributor alliances[edit]
Studio alliances shifted over time. Before October 2005 and the release of either format, each had the exclusive support of three of the Big Six. HD DVD had Universal Studios, Paramount Pictures, and Warner Bros Pictures, while Blu-ray Disc started out with Columbia Pictures, Walt Disney Pictures, and 20th Century Fox. Disney and Fox were both impressed by the extra DRM (BD+ and region coding) that the Blu-ray Disc format provided on paper. Then HD DVD supporters Warner Bros. and Paramount added support for Blu-ray.[40] But in August 2007, after supporting Blu-ray for over a year, Paramount announced it would release all high-definition content (except titles directed by Steven Spielberg) exclusively on HD DVD. At the same time, DreamWorks Animation SKG, which had not released any high-definition discs, announced it would release exclusively on HD DVD. Explaining their decisions, the companies cited perceived advantages to HD DVD's technology and lower manufacturing costs. The companies together received about $150 million in cash and promotional guarantees, including a Toshiba HD DVD marketing campaign with a tie-in to Shrek the Third.[41][42]
But retail support for HD DVD was eroding. In June 2007, Blockbuster, at the time the largest U.S. movie rental company, moved to Blu-ray exclusively in 1450 stores after test-marketing both formats at 250 stores and finding that more than 70% of high definition rentals were Blu-ray discs.[43][44] In July 2007, Target Corporation, began carrying only Blu-ray standalone players in its stores, promoting them with end cap displays featuring Blu-ray Disc movies from Sony and Disney.[45]
On January 4, 2008, Warner Bros., which has the largest market share of DVDs, announced plans to drop HD DVD support completely as of the beginning of June 2008. At the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, some HD DVD-related events and private meetings with analysts and retailers were canceled, including an event scheduled for the eve of the show sponsored by the North American HD DVD Promotional Group.
Toshiba management expressed disappointment over Warner's decision but said that Toshiba would continue promoting the competing format.[46][47] The following Monday, Toshiba reduced the price of its HD DVD players by 40 to 50 percent, calling the price a "deal breaker for the mainstream consumer".[48] At the time, analyst Roger Kay of Endpoint Technologies Associates likened the price cut to the high-stakes Blackjack bet of "doubling down" in an effort to increase market share and "win back the studios".[49] Richard Greenfield of Pali Capital called the move a gimmick and predicted that HD DVD would not become widely adopted.[50] Gartner analyst Hiroyuki Shimizu predicted that while the price cut might extend HD DVD's life somewhat, the limited title library would ultimately "inflict fatal damage on the format", leaving Blu-ray the victor by the end of 2008.[51]
Warner Bros.' sister studio New Line Cinema followed suit, canceling tentative plans to release titles on HD DVD.[52][53] Other small studios and producers moving exclusively to Blu-ray included National Geographic Society, Constantin Film, and Digital Playground.[54][55][56][57]
Warner's move was echoed by Walmart's February 15, 2008 decision to phase HD DVD out completely by June 2008.[58] Walmart is the largest DVD retailer in the United States, and its decision prompted the New York Times to run a mock obituary for the HD DVD format. The newspaper quoted technology analyst Rob Enderle's contention that if Walmart "says HD DVD is done, you can take that as a fact."[59] Four days earlier, Best Buy began recommending Blu-ray Disc as the customer's digital format choice,[60] and Netflix, the largest online video rental service, began phasing out its HD DVD inventory after stocking both formats since early 2006.[61][62] In January 2008, UK retailer Woolworths Group plc said it would stock only Blu-ray discs in its 820 stores beginning in March 2008.[63]
PlayStation 3[edit]
Sony's decision to incorporate a Blu-ray Disc player as a standard feature of the PlayStation 3 video game console also helped ensure the format's eventual triumph.[39] By the time Toshiba ceded the market, about 10.5 million of the Sony consoles had been sold worldwide versus an estimated 1 million HD DVD players—including both standalone units and the add-on player for Microsoft's Xbox 360 console, which did not use the HD DVD add-on for gaming unlike the PS3 which had games that used the added storage capacity of Blu-ray discs. This equipment gap was a factor in Blu-ray titles (including the ones bundled with the PS3) outselling their HD DVD counterparts two to one in the United States and three or four to one in Europe.
Sony's strategy came at a cost. The company initially priced the PlayStation 3 at $599 for the 60 GB model and $499 for a 20 GB (released outside the PAL region), roughly double the price of the PlayStation 2 and substantially higher than competing consoles. But the PS3 console sold at an estimated loss of more than US$200 per unit, resulting in losses estimated at about $3 billion. But analysts, such as Richard Cooper with Screen Digest, expected Sony to recoup far more than that through the sale of games on the system.[38]
AVS Forum shutdown[edit]
In November 2007 the popular audio-visual discussion site AVS Forum temporarily closed its HD-DVD and Blu-ray discussion forums because of, as the site reported, "physical threats that have involved police and possible legal action" between advocates of the rival formats.[64]
Toshiba announcement and aftermath[edit]
On February 19, 2008, Toshiba announced it would cease developing, manufacturing and marketing HD DVD players and recorders.[65] On that same day, Universal Studios announced it would release its titles in the Blu-ray Disc format, following two years of exclusive HD DVD support.[66] The studio subsequently released its final two HD DVD titles: Fletch on March 13, 2008 and Atonement on March 18.[67] On February 20, 2008, Paramount Pictures announced it would back Blu-ray, becoming the last of the major studios to do so.[68] Paramount ceased HD DVD production on February 28, 2008, with Things We Lost in the Fire and Into the Wild becoming the studio's last HD DVD releases, both released March 4, 2008.[69] The studio scrapped the HD DVD version of Bee Movie, which, on May 20, 2008, joined Face/Off and Next in becoming the studio's first Blu-ray releases since becoming HD DVD exclusive.[70] In April 2009, Warner Home Video announced it would trade up to 25 HD DVDs for the Blu-ray equivalents, charging only for shipping and handling.[71]
Microsoft ceased production of Xbox 360 HD DVD players while considering how its HDi and VC-1 technologies could be applied to other platforms.[72] Microsoft's VC-1 codec is already in use in Blu-ray titles; Warner Bros. encodes the main features of all titles in the format but encodes supplements and bonus content in MPEG-2. Microsoft has since entered into talks with Sony regarding Blu-ray;[73] although, Windows Vista has supported basic filesystem and shell functionality for both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD since launch, relying on third parties to implement movie playback. A Blu-ray drive was not released for the Xbox 360 but its successor, the Xbox One, features a built-in Blu-ray drive for movies and gaming, and the Xbox One S supports Ultra HD Blu-ray for 4K playback.[74]
Toshiba's pull-out did not have an immediate significant effect on stand-alone Blu-ray player sales, which rose 2 percent from February to March 2008, after falling 40 percent between January and February, according to NPD Group. NPD noted that upconverting DVD player sales rose 5 percent in the first quarter of 2008 over the same quarter of 2007 but did not release a comparison of first quarter Blu-ray sales compared to the same quarter of 2007. At the time of the report, upconverting DVD players cost around $70 versus $300 for Blu-ray players.[75] But in spring 2009, the number of Blu-ray players nearly doubled its year to date 2009 sales over the same period 2008: about 9 million high-definition units sold in the U.S. from January through March, up from the 4.8 million that sold during first-quarter 2008, according to Adams Media Research. In April 2008, the firm estimated a total of 10.5 million Blu-ray households, including Blu-ray consoles and Blu-ray-enabled PlayStation 3s.[76]
See also[edit]
Comparison of high definition optical disc formats
De facto standard
Dominant design
Videotape format war
References[edit]
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Chief Justice of the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Chief Justice
of the United States
Incumbent
John Roberts
since September 29, 2005
Judicial branch of the U.S. government
Supreme Court of the United States
Style
The Honorable
(formal)
Mr. Chief Justice
(informal)
Your Honor
(when addressed directly in court)
Status
Chief Justice
Chief Judge
Head of the Court System
Member of
Supreme Court of the United States
Judicial Conference of the United States
Administrative Office of the United States Courts
Residence
Supreme Court Building
Seat
Washington, D.C.
Nominator
President of the United States
Appointer
Presidential nomination with Senate confirmation
Term length
Life tenure
Constituting instrument
United States Constitution
Inaugural holder
John Jay
as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (September 26, 1789)
Formation
March 4, 1789
Website
supremecourt.gov
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States and thus the head of the United States federal court system, which functions as the judicial branch of the nation's federal government. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices; the other eight have the title Associate Justice.
The Chief Justice, as the highest judicial officer in the country, serves as a spokesperson for the federal government's judicial branch, and acts as a chief administrative officer for the federal courts. The Chief Justice is also head of the Judicial Conference of the United States, and in that capacity appoints the director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. By law, the Chief Justice is also a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and by custom is elected chancellor of the board.
The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments. When the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the court's meetings. In the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the U.S. Senate. Additionally, the presidential oath of office is typically administered by the Chief Justice (although the Constitution does not assign this duty to anyone in particular).
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 17 persons have served as chief justice. The first was John Jay (1789–1795). The current chief justice is John Roberts (since 2005). Four—Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan Fiske Stone, and William Rehnquist—were previously confirmed for associate justice and subsequently confirmed for chief justice separately.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin, title, and appointment to office
2 Duties
2.1 Impeachment trials
2.2 Seniority
2.3 Oath of office
2.4 Other duties
3 Disability or vacancy
4 List of Chief Justices
4.1 Notes
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Origin, title, and appointment to office[edit]
John Jay, by Gilbert Stuart
The United States Constitution does not explicitly establish an office of Chief Justice, but presupposes its existence with a single reference in Article I, Section 3, Clause 6: "When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside." Nothing more is said in the Constitution regarding the office. Article III, Section 1, which authorizes the establishment of the Supreme Court, refers to all members of the Court simply as "judges." The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the distinctive titles of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
In 1866, at the urging of Salmon P. Chase, Congress restyled the chief justice's title to the current Chief Justice of the United States. The first person whose Supreme Court commission contained the modified title was Melville Fuller in 1888.[1] The associate justices' title was not altered in 1866, and remains as originally created.
The chief justice, like all federal judges, is nominated by the President and confirmed to office by the U.S. Senate. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution specifies that they "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior". This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, and that, once in office, a justice's tenure ends only when they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process.
The salary of the chief justice is set by Congress; the current (2018) annual salary is $267,000, which is slightly higher than that of associate justices, which is $255,300.[2] The practice of appointing an individual to serve as chief justice is grounded in tradition; while the Constitution mandates that there be a chief justice, it is silent on the subject of how one is chosen and by whom. There is no specific constitutional prohibition against using another method to select the chief justice from among those justices properly appointed and confirmed to the Supreme Court. Constitutional law scholar Todd Pettys has proposed that presidential appointment of chief justices should be done away with, and replaced by a process that permits the Justices to select their own chief justice.[3]
Three incumbent associate justices have been nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate as chief justice: Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, and William Rehnquist in 1986. A fourth, Abe Fortas, was nominated to the position in 1968, but not confirmed. As an associate justice does not have to resign his or her seat on the Court in order to be nominated as chief justice, Fortas remained an associate justice. Similarly, when associate justice William Cushing was nominated and confirmed as chief justice in January 1796, but declined the office, he too remained on the Court. Additionally, two former associate justices subsequently returned to service on the Court as chief justice. John Rutledge was the first. President Washington gave him a recess appointment in 1795. However, his subsequent nomination to the office was not confirmed by the Senate, and he left office and the Court. In 1933, former associate justice Charles Evans Hughes was confirmed as chief justice.
Duties[edit]
Along with his general responsibilities as a member of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice has several unique duties to fulfill.
Impeachment trials[edit]
Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist, have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president – Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. Both presidents were subsequently acquitted.
Seniority[edit]
John Marshall, the fourth and longest serving Chief Justice.
Many of the procedures and inner workings of the Court turn on the seniority of the justices. Traditionally, the chief justice has been regarded as primus inter pares (first among equals)—that is, the chief justice is the highest-ranking and foremost member of the Court, regardless of that officeholder's length of service when compared against that of any associate justice. This seniority and added prestige enables a chief justice to define the Court's culture and norms, and thus influence how it functions. The chief justice sets the agenda for the weekly meetings where the justices review the petitions for certiorari, to decide whether to hear or deny each case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear less than one percent of the cases petitioned to it. While associate justices may append items to the weekly agenda, in practice this initial agenda-setting power of the chief justice has significant influence over the direction of the court. Nonetheless, a chief justice's influence may be limited by circumstances and the associate justices' understanding of legal principles; it is definitely limited by the fact that he has only a single vote of nine on the decision whether to grant or deny certiorari.[4][5]
Despite the chief justice's elevated stature, his vote carries the same legal weight as the vote of each associate justice. Additionally, he has no legal authority to overrule the verdicts or interpretations of the other eight judges or tamper with them.[4] The task of assigning who shall write the opinion for the majority falls to the most senior justice in the majority. Thus, when the chief justice is in the majority, he always assigns the opinion.[6] Early in his tenure, Chief Justice John Marshall insisted upon holdings which the justices could unanimously back as a means to establish and build the Court's national prestige. In doing so, Marshall would often write the opinions himself, and actively discouraged dissenting opinions. Associate Justice William Johnson eventually persuaded Marshall and the rest of the Court to adopt its present practice: one justice writes an opinion for the majority, and the rest are free to write their own separate opinions or not, whether concurring or dissenting.[7]
The chief justice's formal prerogative—when in the majority—to assign which justice will write the Court's opinion is perhaps his most influential power,[5] as this enables him to influence the historical record.[4] He "may assign this task to the individual justice best able to hold together a fragile coalition, to an ideologically amenable colleague, or to himself." Opinion authors can have a big influence on the content of an opinion; two justices in the same majority, given the opportunity, might write very different majority opinions.[5] A chief justice who knows well the associate justices can therefore do much—by the simple act of selecting the justice who writes the opinion of the court—to affect the general character or tone of an opinion, which in turn can affect the interpretation of that opinion in cases before lower courts in the years to come.
Additionally, the chief justice chairs the conferences where cases are discussed and tentatively voted on by the justices. He normally speaks first and so has influence in framing the discussion. Although the chief justice votes first—the Court votes in order of seniority—he may strategically pass in order to ensure membership in the majority if desired.[5] It is reported that:
Chief Justice Warren Burger was renowned, and even vilified in some quarters, for voting strategically during conference discussions on the Supreme Court in order to control the Court’s agenda through opinion assignment. Indeed, Burger is said to have often changed votes to join the majority coalition, cast "phony votes" by voting against his preferred position, and, declined to express a position at conference.[8]
Oath of office[edit]
The Chief Justice typically administers the oath of office at the inauguration of the President of the United States. This is a tradition, rather than a constitutional responsibility of the Chief Justice; the Constitution does not require that the oath be administered by anyone in particular, simply that it be taken by the president. Law empowers any federal and state judge, as well as notaries public (such as John Calvin Coolidge, Sr.), to administer oaths and affirmations.
William Rehnquist (left) takes the oath as Chief Justice from retiring Chief Justice Warren E. Burger in 1986, as his wife, Natalie, holds the Bible and President Ronald Reagan (far right) looks on.
If the Chief Justice is ill or incapacitated, the oath is usually administered by the next senior member of the Supreme Court. Seven times, someone other than the Chief Justice of the United States administered the oath of office to the President.[9] Robert Livingston, as Chancellor of the State of New York (the state's highest ranking judicial office), administered the oath of office to George Washington at his first inauguration; there was no Chief Justice of the United States, nor any other federal judge prior to their appointments by President Washington in the months following his inauguration. William Cushing, an associate justice of the Supreme Court, administered Washington's second oath of office in 1793. Calvin Coolidge's father, a notary public, administered the oath to his son after the death of Warren Harding.[10] This, however, was contested upon Coolidge's return to Washington and his oath was re-administered by Judge Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr. of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia.[11] John Tyler and Millard Fillmore were both sworn in on the death of their predecessors by Chief Justice William Cranch of the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia.[12] Chester A. Arthur and Theodore Roosevelt's initial oaths reflected the unexpected nature of their taking office. On November 22, 1963, after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Judge Sarah T. Hughes, a federal district court judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, administered the oath of office to then Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson aboard the presidential airplane.
In addition, the Chief Justice ordinarily administers the oath of office to newly appointed and confirmed associate justices, whereas the senior associate justice will normally swear in a new Chief Justice or vice president.
Other duties[edit]
Since the tenure of William Howard Taft, the office of the Chief Justice has moved beyond just first among equals.[13] The Chief Justice also:
Serves as the head of the federal judiciary.
Serves as the head of the Judicial Conference of the United States, the chief administrative body of the United States federal courts. The Judicial Conference is empowered by the Rules Enabling Act to propose rules, which are then promulgated by the Supreme Court (subject to disapproval by Congress under the Congressional Review Act), to ensure the smooth operation of the federal courts. Major portions of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Federal Rules of Evidence have been adopted by most state legislatures and are considered canonical by American law schools.
Appoints sitting federal judges to the membership of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC), a "secret court" which oversees requests for surveillance warrants by federal police agencies (primarily the F.B.I.) against suspected foreign intelligence agents inside the United States. (see 50 U.S.C. § 1803).
Appoints the members of the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation, a special tribunal of seven sitting federal judges responsible for selecting the venue for coordinated pretrial proceedings in situations where multiple related federal actions have been filed in different judicial districts.
Serves ex officio as a member of the Board of Regents, and by custom as the Chancellor, of the Smithsonian Institution.
Supervises the acquisition of books for the Law Library of the Library of Congress.[14]
Unlike Senators and Representatives who are constitutionally prohibited from holding any other "office of trust or profit" of the United States or of any state while holding their congressional seats, the Chief Justice and the other members of the federal judiciary are not barred from serving in other positions. Chief Justice John Jay served as a diplomat to negotiate the so-called Jay Treaty (also known as the Treaty of London of 1794), Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed by President Truman to be the U.S. Prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials of leading Nazis, and Chief Justice Earl Warren chaired The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy. As described above, the Chief Justice holds office in the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress.
Disability or vacancy[edit]
Under 28 USC,[15] when the Chief Justice is unable to discharge his functions, or that office is vacant, his duties are carried out by the most senior associate justice who is able to act, until the disability or vacancy ends, as chief justice.[3] As of February 13, 2016, Anthony Kennedy is the most senior associate justice.
List of Chief Justices[edit]
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 17 persons have served as Chief Justice:[16][17]
Chief Justice
Date confirmed
(Vote)
Tenure[a]
Tenure length
Appointed by
Prior position[b]
1 John Jay
(1745–1829) September 26, 1789
(Acclamation) 000000001789-10-19-0000October 19, 1789
–
June 29, 1795
(Resigned) 7003207900000000000♠5 years, 253 days George Washington Acting
United States Secretary of State
(1789–1790)
2 John Rutledge
(1739–1800) December 15, 1795
(10–14)[c] 000000001795-08-12-0000August 12, 1795[d]
–
December 28, 1795
(Resigned, nomination having been rejected) 7002138000000000000♠138 days Chief Justice of the
South Carolina Court of
Common Pleas and Sessions
(1791–1795)
Associate Justice
of the Supreme Court
(1789–1791)
3 Oliver Ellsworth
(1745–1807) March 4, 1796
(21–1) 000000001796-03-08-0000March 8, 1796
–
December 15, 1800
(Resigned) 7003174200000000000♠4 years, 282 days United States Senator
from Connecticut
(1789–1796)
4 John Marshall
(1755–1835) January 27, 1801
(Acclamation) 000000001801-02-04-0000February 4, 1801
–
July 6, 1835
(Died) 7004125700000000000♠34 years, 152 days John Adams 4th
United States Secretary of State
(1800–1801)
5 Roger B. Taney
(1777–1864) March 15, 1836
(29–15) 000000001836-03-28-0000March 28, 1836
–
October 12, 1864
(Died) 7004104250000000000♠28 years, 198 days Andrew Jackson 12th
United States Secretary
of the Treasury
(1833–1834)
6 Salmon P. Chase
(1808–1873) December 6, 1864
(Acclamation) 000000001864-12-15-0000December 15, 1864
–
May 7, 1873
(Died) 7003306500000000000♠8 years, 143 days Abraham Lincoln 25th
United States Secretary
of the Treasury
(1861–1864)
7 Morrison Waite
(1816–1888) January 21, 1874
(63–0) 000000001874-03-04-0000March 4, 1874
–
March 23, 1888
(Died) 7003513300000000000♠14 years, 19 days Ulysses S. Grant Ohio State Senator
(1849–1850)
Presiding officer,
Ohio constitutional convention
(1873)
8 Melville Fuller
(1833–1910) July 20, 1888
(41–20) 000000001888-10-08-0000October 8, 1888
–
July 4, 1910
(Died) 7003793800000000000♠21 years, 269 days Grover Cleveland President,
Illinois State Bar Association
(1886)
Illinois State Representative
(1863–1865)
9 Edward Douglass White
(1845–1921) December 12, 1910[e]
(Acclamation) 000000001910-12-19-0000December 19, 1910
–
May 19, 1921
(Died) 7003380400000000000♠10 years, 151 days William Howard Taft Associate Justice
of the Supreme Court
(1894–1910)
10 William Howard Taft
(1857–1930) June 30, 1921
(Acclamation) 000000001921-07-11-0000July 11, 1921
–
February 3, 1930
(Retired) 7003312900000000000♠8 years, 207 days Warren G. Harding 27th
President of the United States
(1909–1913)
11 Charles Evans Hughes
(1862–1948) February 13, 1930
(52–26) 000000001930-02-24-0000February 24, 1930
–
June 30, 1941
(Retired) 7003414400000000000♠11 years, 126 days Herbert Hoover 44th
United States Secretary of State
(1921–1925)
Associate Justice
of the Supreme Court
(1910–1916)
12 Harlan F. Stone
(1872–1946) June 27, 1941[e]
(Acclamation) 000000001941-07-03-0000July 3, 1941
–
April 22, 1946
(Died) 7003175400000000000♠4 years, 293 days Franklin D. Roosevelt Associate Justice
of the Supreme Court
(1925–1941)
13 Fred M. Vinson
(1890–1953) June 20, 1946
(Acclamation) 000000001946-06-24-0000June 24, 1946
–
September 8, 1953
(Died) 7003263300000000000♠7 years, 76 days Harry S. Truman 53rd
United States Secretary
of the Treasury
(1945–1946)
14 Earl Warren
(1891–1974) March 1, 1954
(Acclamation) 000000001953-10-05-0000October 5, 1953[d]
–
June 23, 1969
(Retired) 7003574000000000000♠15 years, 261 days Dwight D. Eisenhower 30th
Governor of California
(1943–1953)
15 Warren E. Burger
(1907–1995) June 9, 1969
(74–3) 000000001969-06-23-0000June 23, 1969
–
September 26, 1986
(Retired) 7003630400000000000♠17 years, 95 days Richard Nixon Judge of the
United States Court of Appeals
for the District of Columbia Circuit
(1956–1969)
16 William Rehnquist
(1924–2005) September 17, 1986[e]
(65–33) 000000001986-09-26-0000September 26, 1986
–
September 3, 2005
(Died) 7003691700000000000♠18 years, 342 days Ronald Reagan Associate Justice
of the Supreme Court
(1972–1986)
17 John Roberts
(born 1955) September 29, 2005
(78–22) 000000002005-09-29-0000September 29, 2005
–
Incumbent 7003462300000000000♠12 years, 240 days George W. Bush Judge of the
United States Court of Appeals
for the District of Columbia Circuit
(2003–2005)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The start date given here for each chief justice is the day they took the oath of office, and the end date is the day of the justice's death, resignation, or retirement.
Jump up ^ Listed here (unless otherwise noted) is the position—either with a U.S. state or the federal government—held by the individual immediately prior to becoming Chief Justice of the United States.
Jump up ^ This was the first Supreme Court nomination to be rejected by the United States Senate. Rutledge remains the only "recess appointed" justice not to be subsequently confirmed by the Senate.
^ Jump up to: a b Recess appointment
^ Jump up to: a b c Elevated from associate justice to chief justice while serving on the Supreme Court. The nomination of a sitting associate justice to be chief justice is subject to a separate confirmation process.
See also[edit]
Lists of United States Supreme Court cases
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Administrative Agencies: Office of the Chief Justice, 1789–present". Washington, D.C.: Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Judicial Compensation". Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Pettys, Todd E. (2006). "Choosing a Chief Justice: Presidential Prerogative or a Job for the Court?". Journal of Law & Politics. The University of Iowa College of Law. 22 (3): 231–281. SSRN 958829  .
^ Jump up to: a b c "Judiciary". Ithaca, New York: Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. Retrieved May 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cross, Frank B.; Lindquist, Stefanie (June 2006). "The decisional significance of the Chief Justice" (PDF). University of Pennsylvania Law Review. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Law School. 154 (6): 1665–1707.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Timothy R.; Spriggs II, James F.; Wahlbeck, Paul J. (June 2005). "Passing and Strategic Voting on the U.S. Supreme Court". Law & Society Review. Law and Society Association, through Wiley. 39 (2): 349–377. Retrieved May 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Inaugurations: Presidential Oaths of Office". Memory.loc.gov. Retrieved June 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Excerpt from Coolidge's autobiography". Historicvermont.org. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Prologue: Selected Articles". Archives.gov. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Swearing-In Ceremony, Part 5 of 6". Inaugural.senate.gov. Archived from the original on February 3, 2011. Retrieved August 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-393-93218-8.
Jump up ^ "Jefferson's Legacy: A Brief History of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. March 6, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ "28 U.S. Code § 3 – Vacancy in office of Chief Justice; disability | LII / Legal Information Institute". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved June 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations: 1789–Present". www.senate.gov. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Justices 1789 to Present". www.supremecourt.gov. Retrieved January 11, 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3.
Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7.
Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books.
Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4.
Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6.
Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 0-87187-554-3.
Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1.
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Chief Justices of the United States
John Jay (1789–1795; cases)
John Rutledge (1795; cases)
Oliver Ellsworth (1796–1800; cases)
John Marshall (1801–1835; cases)
Roger B. Taney (1836–1864; cases)
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Morrison Waite (1874–1888; cases)
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Fred M. Vinson (1946–1953; cases)
Earl Warren (1953–1969; cases)
Warren E. Burger (1969–1986; cases)
William Rehnquist (1986–2005; cases)
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