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History of water supply and sanitation
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Aqueduct in Petra, Jordan.
The history of water supply and sanitation is one of a logistical challenge to provide clean water and sanitation systems since the dawn of civilization. Where water resources, infrastructure or sanitation systems were insufficient, diseases spread and people fell sick or died prematurely.
Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers or natural springs. Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting water into their communities and households, and disposing (and later also treating) wastewater more convenient.[1]
The historical focus of sewage treatment was on the conveyance of raw sewage to a natural body of water, e.g. a river or ocean, where it would be diluted and dissipated. Early human habitations were often built next to water sources. Rivers would often serve as a crude form of natural sewage disposal.
Over the millennia, technology has dramatically increased the distances across which water can be relocated. Furthermore, treatment processes to purify drinking water and to treat wastewater have been improved.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prehistory
1.1 Indus Valley Civilization
1.2 Wastewater reuse activities
2 Bronze Age
2.1 Ancient East Asia
2.1.1 Ancient China
2.2 Ancient Europe
2.2.1 Ancient Greece
2.2.2 Ancient Rome
2.3 Ancient Near East
2.3.1 Mesopotamia
2.3.2 Ancient Persia
3 Middle and early modern age
3.1 Classic and Early Modern Mesoamerica
3.2 Sewage farms for disposal and irrigation
4 Modern age
4.1 Sewer systems
4.1.1 London and other cities, UK
4.1.2 Paris, France
4.1.3 Hamburg and Frankfurt, Germany
4.1.4 USA
4.2 Sewage treatment plants
4.3 Toilets
4.4 Water supply
4.5 Water treatment
4.5.1 Sand filter
4.5.2 Water chlorination
4.5.3 Fluoridation
5 Today (21st century and beyond)
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
Prehistory[edit]
Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland with home furnishings including water-flushing toilets 3180 BC–2500 BC
During the Neolithic, humans dug the first permanent water wells, from where vessels could be filled and carried by hand. Wells dug around 6500 BC have been found in the Jezreel Valley.[2] The size of human settlements was largely dependent on nearby available water.
A primitive indoor, tree bark lined, two-channel, stone, fresh and wastewater system appears to have featured in the houses of in Skara Brae, from around 3000 BCE, along with a cell-like enclave in a number of houses, that it has been suggested may have functioned as an early indoor toilet.[3]
Indus Valley Civilization[edit]
Further information: Sanitation in the Indus Valley Civilization
A large well and bathing platforms at Harappa, remains of the city's final phase of occupation from 2200 to 1900 BC.
The Indus Valley Civilization in Asia shows early evidence of public water supply and sanitation. The system the Indus developed and managed included a number of advanced features. A typical example is the Indus city of Lothal (c. 2350 BCE). In Lothal all houses had their own private toilet which was connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with a gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits, the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned.[4][5]
The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included public and private baths. Sewage was disposed through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains.[6]
The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
Devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins from the Indus Valley Civilization like Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient world's most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts.
Stepwells have mainly been used in the Indian subcontinent.
The earliest covered sewers uncovered by archaeologists are in the regularly planned cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.[citation needed]
Wastewater reuse activities[edit]
Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has been applied since the dawn of human history, and is connected to the development of sanitation provision.[7] Reuse of untreated municipal wastewater has been practiced for many centuries with the objective of diverting human waste outside of urban settlements. Likewise, land application of domestic wastewater is an old and common practice, which has gone through different stages of development.
Domestic wastewater was used for irrigation by prehistoric civilizations (e.g. Mesopotamian, Indus valley, and Minoan) since the Bronze Age (ca. 3200-1100 BC).[8] Thereafter, wastewater was used for disposal, irrigation, and fertilization purposes by Hellenic civilizations and later by Romans in areas surrounding cities (e.g. Athens and Rome).[9] Moreover, in China, use of human excreta for fertilizing agricultural crops has been practiced since ancient time.[10][11]
Bronze Age[edit]
Ancient East Asia[edit]
Ancient China[edit]
A Chinese ceramic model of a well with a water pulley system, excavated from a tomb of the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) period
Some of the earliest evidence of water wells are located in China. The Neolithic Chinese discovered and made extensive use of deep drilled groundwater for drinking. The Chinese text The Book of Changes, originally a divination text of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -771 BC), contains an entry describing how the ancient Chinese maintained their wells and protected their sources of water.[12] Archaeological evidence and old Chinese documents reveal that the prehistoric and ancient Chinese had the aptitude and skills for digging deep water wells for drinking water as early as 6000 to 7000 years ago. A well excavated at the Hemedu excavation site was believed to have been built during the Neolithic era.[13] The well was caused by four rows of logs with a square frame attached to them at the top of the well. 60 additional tile wells southwest of Beijing are also believed to have been built around 600 BC for drinking and irrigation.[14][15] Plumbing is also known to have been used in East Asia since the Qin and Han Dynasties of China.[16]
Ancient Europe[edit]
Ancient Greece[edit]
The ancient Greek civilization of Crete, known as the Minoan civilization, was the first civilization to use underground clay pipes for sanitation and water supply.[17] Their capital, Knossos, had a well-organized water system for bringing in clean water, taking out waste water and storm sewage canals for overflow when there was heavy rain. It was also one of the first uses of a flush toilet, dating back to 18th century BC.[18] The Minoan civilization had stone sewers that were periodically flushed with clean water.[citation needed] In addition to sophisticated water and sewer systems they devised elaborate heating systems. The Ancient Greeks of Athens and Asia Minor also used an indoor plumbing system, used for pressurized showers.[19] The Greek inventor Heron used pressurized piping for fire fighting purposes in the City of Alexandria.[20] The Mayans were the third earliest civilization to have employed a system of indoor plumbing using pressurized water.
An inverted siphon system, along with glass covered clay pipes, was used for the first time in the palaces of Crete, Greece. It is still in working condition, after about 3000 years.[citation needed]
Ancient Rome[edit]
Further information: Sanitation in Ancient Rome
Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct in France.
In ancient Rome, the Cloaca Maxima, considered a marvel of engineering,[citation needed] disgorged into the Tiber.
Public latrines were built over the Cloaca Maxima.[21]
The Roman Empire had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use. Rome and other nations used lead pipes; while commonly thought to be the cause of lead poisoning in the Roman Empire, the combination of running water which did not stay in contact with the pipe for long and the deposition of precipitation scale actually mitigated the risk from lead pipes.[22][23]
Roman towns and garrisons in the United Kingdom between 46 BC and 400 AD had complex sewer networks sometimes constructed out of hollowed-out elm logs, which were shaped so that they butted together with the down-stream pipe providing a socket for the upstream pipe.[citation needed]
Ancient Near East[edit]
Mesopotamia[edit]
The Babylonians introduced the world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna, Babylonia.[24]
Ancient Persia[edit]
Main article: Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity
See also: Qanat, Ab anbar, Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System, and Pillar of Gor
The first sanitation systems were built in prehistoric Iran, near the city of Zabol.[24] Persian Qanats and ab anbars have been used for water supply and cooling.
Middle and early modern age[edit]
A 1939 conceptual illustration showing various ways that typhoid bacteria can contaminate a water well (center)
Waterworks (Wasserkunst) and fountain from 1602 in Wismar, Germany.
In medieval European cities, small natural waterways used for carrying off wastewater were eventually covered over and functioned as sewers. London's River Fleet is such a system. Open drains, or gutters, for waste water run-off ran along the center of some streets. These were known as "kennels" (i.e., canals, channels), and in Paris were sometimes known as “split streets,” as the waste water running along the middle physically split the streets into two halves. The first closed sewer constructed in Paris was designed by Hugues Aubird in 1370 on Monmartre Street, and was 300 meters long. The original purpose of designing and constructing a closed sewer in Paris was less-so for waste management as much as it was to hold back the stench coming from the odorous waste water.[25]
Pail closets, outhouses, and cesspits were used to collect human waste. The use of human waste as fertilizer was especially important in China and Japan, where cattle manure was less available. However, most cities did not have a functioning sewer system before the Industrial era, relying instead on nearby rivers or occasional rain showers to wash away the sewage from the streets. In some places, waste water simply ran down the streets, which had stepping stones to keep pedestrians out of the muck, and eventually drained as runoff into the local watershed.
In the 16th century, Sir John Harington invented a flush toilet as a device for Queen Elizabeth I (his godmother) that released wastes into cesspools.[citation needed]
After the adoption of gunpowder, municipal outhouses became an important source of raw material for the making of saltpeter in European countries.[26]
In London, the contents of the city's outhouses were collected every night by commissioned wagons and delivered to the nitrite beds where it was laid into specially designed soil beds to produce earth rich in mineral nitrates. The nitrate rich-earth would be then further processed to produce saltpeter, or potassium nitrate, an important ingredient in black powder that played a part in the making of gunpower.[27]
Classic and Early Modern Mesoamerica[edit]
The Classic Maya at Palenque had underground aqueducts and flush toilets; the Classic Maya even used household water filters using locally abundant limestone carved into a porous cylinder, made so as to work in a manner strikingly similar to Modern ceramic water filters.[28][29]
Sewage farms for disposal and irrigation[edit]
“Sewage farms” (i.e. wastewater application to the land for disposal and agricultural use) were operated in Bunzlau (Silesia) in 1531, in Edinburgh (Scotland) in 1650, in Paris (France) in 1868, in Berlin (Germany) in 1876 and in different parts of the USA since 1871, where wastewater was used for beneficial crop production.[30][31] In the following centuries (16th and 18th centuries) in many rapidly growing countries/cities of Europe (e.g. Germany, France) and the United States, “sewage farms” were increasingly seen as a solution for the disposal of large volumes of the wastewater, some of which are still in operation today.[32] Irrigation with sewage and other wastewater effluents has a long history also in China and India;[33] while also a large “sewage farm” was established in Melbourne, Australia in 1897.[34]
Modern age[edit]
Sewer systems[edit]
Further information: Combined_sewer § History
Many industrialized cities had incomplete public sanitation well into the 20th century. Outhouses in Brisbane, Australia, around 1950.
A significant development was the construction of a network of sewers to collect wastewater. In some cities, including Rome, Istanbul (Constantinople) and Fustat, networked ancient sewer systems continue to function today as collection systems for those cities' modernized sewer systems. Instead of flowing to a river or the sea, the pipes have been re-routed to modern sewer treatment facilities.
However, until the Enlightenment era, little progress was made in water supply and sanitation and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. This began to change in the 17th and 18th centuries with a rapid expansion in waterworks and pumping systems.
The tremendous growth of cities during the Industrial Revolution quickly led to terribly overpolluted streets, which acted as a constant source for the outbreak of disease.[35]
People wealthy enough to enjoy 19th century flush toilets often had the political power to allow them to drain into public sewers; and the practice became the norm as indoor plumbing became more common, based on large-scale supply networks such as the Croton Aqueduct in New York.
As cities grew in the 19th century, increasing concerns were raised about public health.[36]:33–62 As part of a trend of municipal sanitation programs in the late 19th and 20th centuries, many cities constructed extensive sewer systems to help control outbreaks of disease such as typhoid and cholera.[37]:29–34
Initially these systems discharged sewage directly to surface waters without treatment.[38] Later, cities attempted to treat the sewage before discharge in order to prevent water pollution and waterborne diseases. During the half-century around 1900, these public health interventions succeeded in drastically reducing the incidence of water-borne diseases among the urban population, and were an important cause in the increases of life expectancy experienced at the time.[39]
Early techniques involved land application of sewage on agricultural land.[38] The use of the land treatment systems continued into the nineteenth/twentieth century in central Europe, USA, and other locations all over the world, but not without causing serious public health concerns and negative environmental impacts. During 1840s and 1850s, this practice resulted in disastrous spread of waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid.[40] However, when the water supply links with these diseases became clear, engineering solutions were implemented that include the development of alternative water sources using reservoirs and aqueduct systems, relocation of water intakes, and water and wastewater treatment systems.[41]
In the late 19th century some cities began to add chemical treatment and sedimentation systems to their sewers.[42]:28 Most cities in the Western world added more expensive systems for sewage treatment in the 20th century, after scientists at the University of Manchester discovered the sewage treatment process of activated sludge in 1912.[43]
Storm and sanitary sewers were necessarily developed along with the growth of cities. By the 1840s the luxury of indoor plumbing, which mixes human waste with water and flushes it away, eliminated the need for cesspools. Odor was considered the big problem in waste disposal and to address it, sewage could be drained to a lagoon, or "settled" and the solids removed, to be disposed of separately. This process is now called "primary treatment" and the settled solids are called "sludge."
London and other cities, UK[edit]
As recently as the late 19th century sewerage systems in some parts of the rapidly industrializing United Kingdom were so inadequate that water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid remained a risk.
From as early as 1535 there were efforts to stop polluting the River Thames in London. Beginning with an Act passed that year that was to prohibit the dumping of excrement into the river. Leading up to the Industrial Revolution the River Thames was identified as being thick and black due to sewage, and it was even said that the river “smells like death.”[44] As Britain was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to experience the disastrous consequences of major urbanisation and was the first to construct a modern sewerage system to mitigate the resultant unsanitary conditions.[citation needed] During the early 19th century, the River Thames was effectively an open sewer, leading to frequent outbreaks of cholera epidemics. Proposals to modernise the sewerage system had been made during 1856, but were neglected due to lack of funds. However, after the Great Stink of 1858, Parliament realised the urgency of the problem and resolved to create a modern sewerage system.[45]
Joseph Bazalgette, a civil engineer and Chief Engineer of the Metropolitan Board of Works, was given responsibility for the work. He designed an extensive underground sewerage system that diverted waste to the Thames Estuary, downstream of the main centre of population. Six main interceptor sewers, totalling almost 100 miles (160 km) in length, were constructed, some incorporating stretches of London's 'lost' rivers. Three of these sewers were north of the river, the southernmost, low-level one being incorporated in the Thames Embankment. The Embankment also allowed new roads, new public gardens, and the Circle Line of the London Underground.
The intercepting sewers, constructed between 1859 and 1865, were fed by 450 miles (720 km) of main sewers that, in turn, conveyed the contents of some 13,000 miles (21,000 km) of smaller local sewers. Construction of the interceptor system required 318 million bricks, 2.7 million cubic metres of excavated earth and 670,000 cubic metres of concrete.[46] Gravity allowed the sewage to flow eastwards, but in places such as Chelsea, Deptford and Abbey Mills, pumping stations were built to raise the water and provide sufficient flow. Sewers north of the Thames feed into the Northern Outfall Sewer, which fed into a major treatment works at Beckton. South of the river, the Southern Outfall Sewer extended to a similar facility at Crossness. With only minor modifications, Bazalgette's engineering achievement remains the basis for sewerage design up into the present day.[47]
In Merthyr Tydfil, a large town in South Wales, most houses discharged their sewage to individual cess-pits which persistently overflowed causing the pavements to be awash with foul sewage.[48]
Paris, France[edit]
Main article: Paris_sewers § History
In 1802 Napoleon built the Ourcq canal which brought 70,000 cubic meters of water a day to Paris, while the Seine river received up to 100,000 cubic meters of wastewater per day. The Paris cholera epidemic of 1832 sharpened the public awareness of the necessity for some sort of drainage system to deal with sewage and waste water in a better and healthier way. Between 1865 and 1920 Eugene Belgrand lead the development of a large scale system for water supply and waste water management. Between these years approximately 600 kilometres of aqueducts were built to bring in potable spring water, which freed the poor quality water to be used for flushing streets and sewers. By 1894 laws were passed which made drainage mandatory. The treatment of Paris sewage, though, was left to natural devices as 5,000 hectares of land were used to spread the waste out to be naturally purified. Further, the lack of sewage treatment left Parisian sewage pollution to become concentrated downstream in the town of Clichy, effectively forcing residents to pack up and move elsewhere.[25]
The 19th century brick-vaulted Paris sewers serve as a tourist attraction nowadays.
Hamburg and Frankfurt, Germany[edit]
The first comprehensive sewer system in a German city was built in Hamburg, Germany in the mid-19th century.[42]:2[49]:43[50]
In 1863, work began on the construction of a modern sewerage system for the rapidly growing city of Frankfurt am Main, based on design work by William Lindley. 20 years after the system's completion, the death rate from typhoid had fallen from 80 to 10 per 100,000 inhabitants.[42][49]:43[51]
Map of the sewer system of Memphis, Tennessee in 1880
USA[edit]
The first sewer systems in the United States were built in the late 1850s in Chicago and Brooklyn.[49]:43
In the United States, the first sewage treatment plant using chemical precipitation was built in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1890.[42]:29
Sewage treatment plants[edit]
At the end of the 19th century, since primary treatment still left odor problems, it was discovered that bad odors could be prevented by introducing oxygen into the decomposing sewage. This was the beginning of the biological aerobic and anaerobic treatments which are fundamental to waste water processes.
As pollution of water bodies became a concern, cities attempted to treat the sewage before discharge.[52] In the late 19th century some cities began to add chemical treatment and sedimentation systems to their sewers.[42]:28 In the United States, the first sewage treatment plant using chemical precipitation was built in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1890.[42]:29 Most cities in the Western world added more expensive systems for sewage treatment in the early 20th century, after scientists at the University of Manchester discovered the sewage treatment process of activated sludge in 1912.[43] During the half-century around 1900, these public health interventions succeeded in drastically reducing the incidence of water-borne diseases among the urban population, and were an important cause in the increases of life expectancy experienced at the time.[39]
Toilets[edit]
Further information: Toilet § History
With the onset of the industrial revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. It needs to be connected to a sewer system though. Where this is not feasible or desired, dry toilets are an alternative option.
Water supply[edit]
Chelsea Waterworks, 1752. Two Newcomen beam engines pumped Thames water from a canal to reservoirs at Green Park and Hyde Park.
An ambitious engineering project to bring fresh water from Hertfordshire to London was undertaken by Hugh Myddleton who oversaw the construction of the New River between 1609 and 1613. The New River Company became one of the largest private water companies of the time, supplying the City of London and other central areas.[53]
It was in the 18th century that a rapidly growing population fueled a boom in the establishment of private water supply networks in London. The Chelsea Waterworks Company was established in 1723 "for the better supplying the City and Liberties of Westminster and parts adjacent with water".[54][55] The company created extensive ponds in the area bordering Chelsea and Pimlico using water from the tidal Thames. Other waterworks were established in London, including at West Ham in 1743, at Lea Bridge before 1767, Lambeth Waterworks Company in 1785, West Middlesex Waterworks Company in 1806[56] and Grand Junction Waterworks Company in 1811.[57]
The S-bend pipe was invented by Alexander Cummings in 1775 but became known as the U-bend following the introduction of the U-shaped trap by Thomas Crapper in 1880. The first screw-down water tap was patented in 1845 by Guest and Chrimes, a brass foundry in Rotherham.[58]
Water treatment[edit]
Founders of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the newly invented microscope to observe for the first time small material particles that were suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens and waterborne diseases.[59]
Sand filter[edit]
Original map by John Snow showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854.
Sir Francis Bacon attempted to desalinate sea water by passing the flow through a sand filter. Although his experiment didn't succeed, it marked the beginning of a new interest in the field.
The first documented use of sand filters to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery in Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, installed an experimental filter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public.[60][61] This method was refined in the following two decades by engineers working for private water companies, and it culminated in the first treated public water supply in the world, installed by engineer James Simpson for the Chelsea Waterworks Company in London in 1829.[62][63] This installation provided filtered water for every resident of the area, and the network design was widely copied throughout the United Kingdom in the ensuing decades.
The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician John Snow during the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak. Snow was sceptical of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious "bad airs". Although the germ theory of disease had not yet been developed, Snow's observations led him to discount the prevailing theory. His 1855 essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera conclusively demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic in Soho,[64] with the use of a dot distribution map and statistical proof to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. His data convinced the local council to disable the water pump, which promptly ended the outbreak.
The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. The Act "made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water", and required that all water be "effectually filtered" from 31 December 1855.[65] This was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the same time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock. Automatic pressure filters, where the water is forced under pressure through the filtration system, were innovated in 1899 in England.[60]
Water chlorination[edit]
In what may have been one of the first attempts to use chlorine, William Soper used chlorinated lime to treat the sewage produced by typhoid patients in 1879.
In a paper published in 1894, Moritz Traube formally proposed the addition of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) to water to render it "germ-free." Two other investigators confirmed Traube’s findings and published their papers in 1895.[66] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany and in 1897 the city of Maidstone England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine.[67]
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply led to a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England.[68] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stem the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of chloride of lime to the water being treated. The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.[69]
Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purification, early 20th century. From Chlorination of Water by Joseph Race, 1918.
The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey.[70] Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller.[71] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world.[72]
The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, "It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts."[73]
U.S. Army Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910. Shortly thereafter, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water. For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification.
Fluoridation[edit]
Further information: History of water fluoridation
Water fluoridation is a practice that has been carried out since the early 20th century for the purpose of decreasing tooth decay.
Today (21st century and beyond)[edit]
Decentralization of water infrastructure has grown extensively as a viable solution including rainwater harvesting and stormwater harvesting where policies are eventually tending towards a more rational use and sourcing of water incorporation concepts such as "Fit for Purpose".
The Sustainable Development Goals formulated in 2015 include targets on access to water supply and sanitation at a global level.
During the beginning of the 21st century, especially in areas of urban and suburban population centres, traditional centralized infrastructure has not been able to supply sufficient quantities of water to keep up with growing demand. One option is the use of desalination technology; this is especially prevalent in coastal areas and in "dry" countries like Australia.
See also[edit]
List of water supply and sanitation by country
Night soil
Water industry
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b George Commair, "The Waste Water Network: and underground view of Paris," in Great Rivers History: Proceedings and Invited Papers for the EWRI Congress and History Symposium, May 17–19, 2009, Kansas City, Missouri, ed. Jerry R. Roger, (Reston: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2009), 91-96
Jump up ^ Firearms: A Global History to 1700, Kenneth Chase
Jump up ^ Instructions for the Manufacture of Saltpetre, Joseph LeConte, 1823-1901
Jump up ^ Environmental and Water Resources Milestones in Engineering History. Tampa, Florida, USA: ASCE Publications. March 15–19, 2007. ISBN 9780784471968.
Jump up ^ "Maya plumbing: First pressurized water feature found in New World". Science Daily. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Shuval, H.I; Adin, A; Fattal, B. Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries: Health Effects and Technical Solutions (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Evolution of sanitation and wastewater technologies through the centuries. [S.l.]: IWA (International Water Association). 2014. ISBN 9781780404844.
Jump up ^ Kamizoulis, G; Bahri, A; Brissaud, F; Angelakis, A. N. "Wastewater Recycling and Reuse Practices in Mediterranean Region: Recommended Guidelines 2003" (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Vigneswaran, S.; Sundaravadivel, M. "RECYCLE AND REUSE OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER" (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, Sherwood; Crites, Ronald; Middlebrooks, E. Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071346627.
Jump up ^ Abellán 2017, pp. 4-8.
Jump up ^ Burian, Steven J.; Nix, Stephan J.; Pitt, Robert E.; Durrans, S. Rocky (2000). "Urban Wastewater Management in the United States: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). Journal of Urban Technology. London: Routledge. 7 (3): 33. doi:10.1080/713684134.
Jump up ^ Staley, Cady; Pierson, George S. (1899). The Separate System of Sewerage, Its Theory and Construction. New York: Van Nostrand.
^ Jump up to: a b Abellán 2017, p. 12.
^ Jump up to: a b Cutler, David M.; Miller, Grant (2005). "The Role of Public Health Improvements in Health Advances: The 20th Century United States". Demography. 42 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1353/dem.2005.0002.
Jump up ^ Asano, T (1998-06-15). "Wastewater reclamation and reuse, Water Quality Management Library". ISBN 9781566766203. Retrieved 29 July 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Vigneswaran, S; Sundaravadivel, M. RECYCLE AND REUSE OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Metcalf, Leonard; Eddy, Harrison P. (1914). American Sewerage Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Vol. I: Design of Sewers.
^ Jump up to: a b Benidickson, Jamie (2011). The Culture of Flushing: A Social and Legal History of Sewage. UBC Press. ISBN 9780774841382. Retrieved 2013-02-07.
Jump up ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2007). "Filthy River" in Thames: Sacred River. New York: Nan A. Talese/Doubleday. pp. 270–275.
Jump up ^ Abellán 2017, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Goodman, David C.; Chant, Colin (1999). European Cities and Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415200790.
Jump up ^ Kendall F. Haven (2006). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time. Libraries Unlimited. pp. 148–149. ISBN 9781591582649.
Jump up ^ Report of the Principal Officer of Health, Glamorgan County Council, 1889
^ Jump up to: a b c Burian, Steven J.; Nix, Stephan J.; Pitt, Robert E.; Durrans, S. Rocky (2000). "Urban Wastewater Management in the United States: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). Journal of Urban Technology. London: Routledge. 7 (3): 33. doi:10.1080/713684134.
Jump up ^ Abellán 2017, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Lee, Sidney, ed. (1901). "Lindley, William". Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Jump up ^ Abellán 2017, p. 12-13.
Jump up ^ "Water-related Infrastructure in Medieval London". waterhistory.org. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
Jump up ^ The London Encyclopaedia, Ben Weinreb & Christopher Hibbert, Macmillan, 1995, ISBN 0-333-57688-8
Jump up ^ Royal Charters, Privy Council website Archived 2007-08-24 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ UCLA Department of Epidemiology West Middlesex Waterworks history
Jump up ^ UCLA Department of Epidemiology Lambeth Waterwork history
Jump up ^ "A Little About Tap History". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ "The Use of the Microscope in Water Filter History". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Filtration of water supplies (PDF), World Health Organization
Jump up ^ Buchan, James. (2003). Crowded with genius: the Scottish enlightenment: Edinburgh's moment of the mind. New York: Harper Collins.
Jump up ^ History of the Chelsea Waterworks
Jump up ^ Christman, Keith. (1998). The history of chlorine. Waterworld, 14 (8), 66-67.
Jump up ^ Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis ISBN 0-387-72263-7 [1]
Jump up ^ An Act to make better Provision respecting the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, (15 & 16 Vict. C.84)
Jump up ^ Turneaure, F.E.; H.L. Russell (1901). Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 493.
Jump up ^ "Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone". Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 18: 388. October 1897.
Jump up ^ "A miracle for public health?". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ Reece, R.J. (1907). "Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5." In Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905-6. London:Local Government Board.
Jump up ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100-9.
Jump up ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir." Proceedings AWWA. pp. 110-34.
Jump up ^ Hazen, Allen. (1916). Clean Water and How to Get It. New York:Wiley. p. 102.
Jump up ^ V. B. Nesfield (1902). "A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting its Potability". Public Health: 601–3. doi:10.1016/s0033-3506(02)80142-1.
Bibliography[edit]
Abellán, Javier (2017). Water supply and sanitation services in modern Europe: developments in 19th-20th centuries. 12th International Conference of the Spanish Association of Economic History. University of Salamanca.
Blake, Nelson M. Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the US (1956).
Cain, Louis P. Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago (1978)
Cain, Louis P. "Sanitation in Chicago: A Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis," Encyclopedia of Chicago (2004) online
Galishoff, Stuart. Newark: the nation's unhealthiest city, 1832-1895 (1988). in USA
Hammer, Mark J., and Paul A. Chadik. Water supply and pollution control (Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009)
Juuti, Petri S., Tapio S. Katko, and Heikki S. Vuorinen. Environmental history of water: global views on community water supply and sanitation (IWA Publishing, 2007)
Teresi, Dick; et al. (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science--from the Babylonians to the Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 352. ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
Weidner, Charles H. Water for a city: A history of New York City's problem from the beginning to the Delaware River system (Rutgers University Press, 1974)
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Hap and Leonard (TV series)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Hap and Leonard
Hap and Leonard TV poster for season 2
Genre
Crime drama
Mystery
Dark comedy
Based on
Hap and Leonard novels
by Joe R. Lansdale
Developed by
Jim Mickle
Nick Damici
Directed by
Jim Mickle
Starring
James Purefoy
Michael K. Williams
Jimmi Simpson
Bill Sage
Composer(s)
Jeff Grace
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
2
No. of episodes
12 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Nick Shumaker
Jeremy Platt
Location(s)
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
42-44 minutes
Production company(s)
Nightshade
Plattform
AMC Studios
Release
Original network
SundanceTV
Picture format
1080i (HDTV)
Original release
March 2, 2016 (2016-03-02) – present
External links
www.sundance.tv/series/hap-and-leonard
Hap and Leonard is an American television drama series based on the characters Hap and Leonard, created by novelist Joe R. Lansdale[1] and adapted from his series of novels of the same name.[2] The series was written and developed by Nick Damici and Jim Mickle, who had previously adapted Lansdale's Cold in July and was directed by Mickle.[1] The series premiered on the American cable network SundanceTV on March 2, 2016.[1][3] So far, the series has received favorable reviews.[4][5][6]
According to various sources including Variety the series has been renewed for Season 3 on SundanceTV. The show is currently SundanceTV’s highest-rated original series, and will return for six episodes in 2018. The third season of “Hap and Leonard,” will take inspiration from “The Two-Bear Mambo,” the third installment of Lansdale’s book series.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Recurring cast
2 Production
3 Episodes
3.1 Season 1 (2016)
3.2 Season 2 (2017)
4 Tie-in
5 References
6 External links
Cast[edit]
Main cast[edit]
James Purefoy[7] as Hap Collins, a white working class laborer who spent time in federal prison as a young man for refusing to be drafted into the military and serve in the Vietnam War[8]
Michael Kenneth Williams[7] as Leonard Pine, a gay black Vietnam vet with serious anger issues[8]
Jimmi Simpson[9] as Soldier, a local drug dealer (season 1)
Bill Sage[10] as Howard (season 1)
Christina Hendricks[11] as Trudy Fawst, Hap's ex-wife (season 1)
Pollyanna McIntosh[12] as Angel
Enrique Murciano as Raoul (season 1 & 2)
Tiffany Mack as Florida Grange (season 2)
Cranston Johnson as Detective Hanson (season 2)
Brian Dennehy as Sheriff Valentine Otis (season 2)
Recurring cast[edit]
Neil Sandilands as Paco
Ron Roggé as Bud Collins
Trace Masters as Little Hap
Kaden Washington Lewis as Little Leonard
Florence Young as Kay
Kari Shemwell as Trudy Double
Production[edit]
Filming of the show took place in Baton Rouge, Louisiana,[13] although the series is set in 1980s in the fictional town of LaBorde in East Texas.[14] One of the locations used was an old Woman's Hospital in Baton Rouge[15] as well as the Celtic Media Centre.[16]
Episodes[edit]
The second episode "The Bottoms" was released online on March 2, 2016, a week before its scheduled airing.[17]
Season 1 (2016)[edit]
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
"Savage Season" Jim Mickle Nick Damici & Jim Mickle March 2, 2016 (2016-03-02) 0.429[18]
2
"The Bottoms" Jim Mickle Nick Damici & Jim Mickle March 9, 2016 (2016-03-09) 0.271[19]
3
"The Dive" Nick Gomez E. L. Katz March 16, 2016 (2016-03-16) 0.197[20]
4
"Trudy" Nick Gomez Nick Damici & Jim Mickle March 23, 2016 (2016-03-23) 0.208[21]
5
"War" Jim Mickle Nick Damici March 30, 2016 (2016-03-30) 0.274[22]
6
"Eskimos" Jim Mickle Jim Mickle April 6, 2016 (2016-04-06) 0.192[23]
Season 2 (2017)[edit]
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
"Mucho Mojo" Maurice Marable Nick Damici and Jim Mickle March 15, 2017 (2017-03-15) N/A
2
"Tickling Mojo" Maurice Marable Abe Sylvia March 22, 2017 (2017-03-22) N/A
3
"Holy Mojo" Abe Sylvia John Wirth March 29, 2017 (2017-03-29) N/A
4
"Bad Mojo" Abe Sylvia Abe Sylvia & Ione Lloyd April 5, 2017 (2017-04-05) N/A
5
"Pie a la Mojo" Tim Southam Joe R. Lansdale April 12, 2017 (2017-04-12) N/A
6
"No Mo' Mojo" Tim Southam Nick Damici and Jim Mickle April 19, 2017 (2017-04-19) N/A
Tie-in[edit]
A collection called Hap and Leonard made up of previously published short stories (Hyenas, Veil’s Visit, Dead Aim) by Joe Lansdale as well as new content was published by Tachyon Publications in March 2016 as a tie-in to the TV series.[24]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (November 10, 2014). "SundanceTV Expands Original Scripted Slate and Greenlights Drama 'Hap and Leonard'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kickham, Dylan (December 17, 2015). "See the first teaser for Christina Hendricks-led dark comedy Hap and Leonard". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ SundanceTV press release (January 8, 2016). "SundanceTV Announces Premiere Dates for Q1 and Q2 '16, Designating Wednesdays as Its Night for Original Programming".
Jump up ^ Fienberg, Daniel. "'Hap and Leonard': TV Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Patten, Dominic. "‘Hap And Leonard’ Review: SundanceTV’s Texas Noir Series Shines". Deadline. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hap and Leonard. "Rolling Stone Review". Rollingstone.com. Retrieved March 3, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Petski, Denise (April 29, 2015). "James Purefoy To Co-Star In Sundance Series ‘Hap And Leonard’". Deadline.com. Retrieved July 13, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Obenson, Tambay A. (December 8, 2015). "This Is What Michael K. Williams & James Purefoy Will Look Like in 'Hap and Leonard'". Indiewire. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (April 22, 2015). "Jimmi Simpson Joins ‘Hap & Leonard’". Deadline.com. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (March 16, 2015). "Bill Sage Joins Sundance Series ‘Hap And Leonard’, Mary Lynn Rajskub In Judah Miller Pilot". Deadline.com. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Roots, Kimberly (July 15, 2015). "Christina Hendricks Joins Sundance's '80s Drama Hap and Leonard". TV Line. Retrieved July 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Abrams, Jon (December 17, 2015). "Teaser Trailer! Hap & Leonard (2016)". Daily Grindhouse. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Brasted, Chelsea (March 5, 2015). "AMC to film 'Hap & Leonard' for Sundance in Baton Rouge; 7 episodes already ordered". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved December 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "AMC’s ‘Hap & Leonard’ Open Casting Call". Project Casting. June 25, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gallo, Andrea (March 12, 2015). "Baton Rouge will not receive money for hosting TV show". The Advocate: City Hall Buzz. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Boone, Timothy (June 10, 2015). "Crescent Crown sells land to Celtic Media Centre movie studio". The Advocate. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Obenson, Tambay (March 3, 2016). "Watch Episodes 1 and 2 of SundanceTV's New Series 'Hap and Leonard'". Indiewire. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 3, 2016). "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 3.2.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 10, 2016). "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Update: 3.9.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 17, 2016). "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Update: 3.16.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 24, 2016). "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Update: 3.23.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (March 31, 2016). "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Update: 3.30.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved March 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 7, 2016). "SHOWBUZZDAILY's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Update: 4.6.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved April 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lansdale, Joe R. (March 15, 2016). "Hap and Leonard". Tachyon Publications. ISBN 978-1-616-96191-6. OCLC 919104536. Retrieved December 15, 2015.
External links[edit]
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List of female Nobel laureates
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All Nobel Prizes won by women
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The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institute, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals who make outstanding contributions in the fields of Chemistry, Physics, Literature, Peace, Physiology or Medicine and Economics.[1] All but the economics prize were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation. The Nobel prize in Economics, or The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank, the central bank of Sweden, for outstanding contributions in the field of Economics.[2] Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics, the Swedish Academy awards the Prize in Literature, the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace.[3] Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a cash prize that has varied throughout the years.[2]
As of 2017, Nobel Prizes have been awarded to 844 men, 48 women (Marie Curie won it twice), and 27 organizations.[4][5][6] Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, fourteen have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, twelve have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, four have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, two have won the Nobel Prize in Physics and one, Elinor Ostrom, has won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.[5][7] The first woman to win a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel.[5][8] Curie is also the only woman to have won multiple Nobel Prizes; in 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Curie's daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, making the two the only mother-daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes.[5] The most Nobel Prizes awarded to women in a single year was in 2009, when five women became laureates. The most recent women to be awarded a Nobel Prize were Tu Youyou and Svetlana Alexievich (2015).
Laureates[edit]
Year
Image
Laureate
Country
Category
Rationale
1903 Curie, Marie SkłodowskaMarie Skłodowska Curie
(shared with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel) Poland and France Physics "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"[8]
1905 Suttner, Bertha vonBertha von Suttner Austria–Hungary Peace Honorary President of Permanent International Peace Bureau, Bern, Switzerland; Author of Lay Down Your Arms.[9]
1909 Lagerlof, SelmaSelma Lagerlöf Sweden Literature "in appreciation of the lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterize her writings"[10]
1911 Curie, Marie SkłodowskaMarie Skłodowska Curie Poland and France Chemistry "for her discovery of radium and polonium"[11]
1926 Deledda, GraziaGrazia Deledda Italy Literature "for her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general"[12]
1928 Undset, SigridSigrid Undset Norway Literature "principally for her powerful descriptions of Northern life during the Middle Ages"[13]
1931 Addams, JaneJane Addams
(shared with Nicholas Murray Butler) United States Peace Sociologist; International President, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.[14]
1935 Joliot-Curie, IreneIrène Joliot-Curie
(shared with Frédéric Joliot-Curie) France Chemistry "for their synthesis of new radioactive elements"[15]
1938 Buck, Pearl S.Pearl S. Buck United States Literature "for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and for her biographical masterpieces"[16]
1945 Mistral, GabrielaGabriela Mistral Chile Literature "for her lyric poetry which, inspired by powerful emotions, has made her name a symbol of the idealistic aspirations of the entire Latin American world"[17]
1946 Balch, Emily GreeneEmily Greene Balch
(shared with John Raleigh Mott) United States Peace Formerly Professor of History and Sociology; Honorary International President, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.[18]
1947 Cori, Gerty TheresaGerty Theresa Cori
(shared with Carl Ferdinand Cori and Bernardo Houssay) United States Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"[19]
1963 Goeppert-Mayer, MariaMaria Goeppert-Mayer
(shared with J. Hans D. Jensen and Eugene Wigner) United States Physics "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"[20]
1964 Hodgkin, Dorothy CrowfootDorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin United Kingdom Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances"[21]
1966 Sachs, NellyNelly Sachs
(shared with Samuel Agnon) Sweden and Germany Literature "for her outstanding lyrical and dramatic writing, which interprets Israel's destiny with touching strength"[22]
1976 Williams, BettyBetty Williams United Kingdom Peace Founder of the Northern Ireland Peace Movement (later renamed Community of Peace People)[23]
Maguire, MaireadMairead Maguire
1977 Sussman Yalow, RosalynRosalyn Sussman Yalow
(shared with Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally) United States Physiology or Medicine "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"[24]
1979 Teresa, MotherMother Teresa India and
Yugoslavia Peace Leader of Missionaries of Charity, Calcutta.[25]
1982 Myrdal, AlvaAlva Myrdal
(shared with Alfonso García Robles) Sweden Peace Former Cabinet Minister; Diplomat; Writer.[26]
1983 McClintock, BarbaraBarbara McClintock United States Physiology or Medicine "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"[27]
1986 Levi-Montalcini, RitaRita Levi-Montalcini
(shared with Stanley Cohen) Italy and
United States Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of growth factors"[28]
1988 Elion, Gertrude B.Gertrude B. Elion
(shared with James W. Black and George H. Hitchings) United States Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"[29]
1991 Gordimer, NadineNadine Gordimer South Africa Literature "who through her magnificent epic writing has - in the words of Alfred Nobel - been of very great benefit to humanity"[30]
Suu Kyi, Aung SanAung San Suu Kyi Burma Peace "for her non-violent struggle for democracy and human rights"[31]
1992 Menchu, RigobertaRigoberta Menchú Guatemala Peace "in recognition of her work for social justice and ethno-cultural reconciliation based on respect for the rights of indigenous peoples"[32]
1993 Morrison, ToniToni Morrison United States Literature "who in novels characterized by visionary force and poetic import, gives life to an essential aspect of American reality"[33]
1995 Nusslein-Volhard, ChristianeChristiane Nüsslein-Volhard
(shared with Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. Wieschaus) Germany Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"[34]
1996 Szymborska, WislawaWisława Szymborska Poland Literature "for poetry that with ironic precision allows the historical and biological context to come to light in fragments of human reality"[35]
1997 Williams, JodyJody Williams
(shared with the International Campaign to Ban Landmines) United States Peace "for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines"[36]
2003 Ebadi, ShirinShirin Ebadi Iran Peace "for her efforts for democracy and human rights. She has focused especially on the struggle for the rights of women and children"[37]
2004 Jelinek, ElfriedeElfriede Jelinek Austria Literature "for her musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that with extraordinary linguistic zeal reveal the absurdity of society's clichés and their subjugating power"[38]
Maathai, WangariWangari Maathai Kenya Peace "for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace"[39]
Buck, Linda B.Linda B. Buck
(shared with Richard Axel) United States Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"[40]
2007 Lessing, DorisDoris Lessing United Kingdom Literature "that epicist of the female experience, who with scepticism, fire and visionary power has subjected a divided civilisation to scrutiny"[41]
2008 Barre-Sinoussi, FrancoiseFrançoise Barré-Sinoussi
(shared with Harald zur Hausen and Luc Montagnier) France Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of HIV, human immunodeficiency virus"[42]
2009 Blackburn, ElizabethElizabeth Blackburn
(shared with Jack W. Szostak) Australia and United States Physiology or Medicine "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"[43]
Greider, Carol W.Carol W. Greider
(shared with Jack W. Szostak) United States
Yonath, Ada E.Ada E. Yonath
(shared with Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas A. Steitz) Israel Chemistry "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"[44]
Muller, HertaHerta Müller Germany and Romania Literature "who, with the concentration of poetry and the frankness of prose, depicts the landscape of the dispossessed"[45]
Ostrom, ElinorElinor Ostrom
(shared with Oliver E. Williamson) United States Economics "for her analysis of economic governance, especially the commons"[46]
2011 Johnson Sirleaf, EllenEllen Johnson Sirleaf Liberia Peace "For their non-violent struggle for the safety of women and for women's rights to full participation in peace-building work"[47]
Gbowee, LeymahLeymah Gbowee
Karman, TawakelTawakel Karman Yemen
2013
Munro, AliceAlice Munro Canada Literature "master of the contemporary short story"[48]
2014
Moser, May-BrittMay-Britt Moser
(shared with Edvard Moser and John O'Keefe) Norway Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"[49]
Yousafzai, MalalaMalala Yousafzai
(shared with Kailash Satyarthi) Pakistan and India Peace "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education".[50]
2015 Youyou, TuTu Youyou
(shared with William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura) China Physiology or Medicine "for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria"[51]
Alexievich, SvetlanaSvetlana Alexievich Belarus Literature "for her polyphonic writings, a monument to suffering and courage in our time"[52]
References[edit]
General
"Women Nobel Laureates". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
Specific
Jump up ^ "Alfred Nobel – The Man Behind the Nobel Prize". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Nobel Prize". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize Awarders". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-10-15. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Laureates Facts". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Nobel Laureates Facts - Women". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2017-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Laureates Facts - Organizations". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
Jump up ^ "Economics 2009". Nobel Foundation. 2009-10-12. Retrieved 2009-10-12.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nobel Prize in Physics 1903". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1905". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1909". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1926". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1928". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1931". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1935". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1938". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1945". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1946". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1966". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1976". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1979". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1982". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1991". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1991". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1992". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1993". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1996". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 1997". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 2003". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 2004". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Peace Prize 2004". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 2007". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 2009". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Economics 2009". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-12.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2011". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 2013" (PDF). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2013-10-10.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2014-10-07.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2014" (PDF). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2014-10-10. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 2015" (PDF). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2015-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 2015". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
External links[edit]
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
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