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List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
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The Mississippi drainage basin includes the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers, the two longest main-stem rivers in the United States, as well as 18 more of the rivers on this list. The Mississippi main stem is highlighted in dark blue.
The main stems of 38 rivers in the United States are at least 500 miles (800 km) long. The main stem is "the primary downstream segment of a river, as contrasted to its tributaries".[1] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines a main-stem segment by listing coordinates for its two end points, called the source and the mouth. Well-known rivers like the Atchafalaya,[2] Willamette,[3] and Susquehanna[4] are not included in this list because their main stems are shorter than 500 miles.
Seven rivers in this list cross or form international boundaries. Two—the Yukon and Columbia rivers—begin in Canada and flow into the United States. Three—the Milk and Saint Lawrence rivers and the Red River of the North—begin in the United States and flow into Canada. Of these, only the Milk River crosses the international border twice, leaving and then re-entering the United States.[5] Two rivers, the Colorado and the Rio Grande, begin in the United States and flow into or form a border with Mexico.[5] In addition, the drainage basins of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers extend into Canada,[6][7] and the basin of the Gila River extends into Mexico.[8]
Sources report hydrological quantities with varied precision. Biologist and author Ruth Patrick, describing a table of high-discharge U.S. rivers, wrote that data on discharge, drainage area, and length varied widely among authors whose works she consulted. "It seems," she said, "that the wisest course is to regard data tables such as the present one as showing the general ranks of rivers, and not to place too much importance on minor (10–20%) differences in figures."[9]
Contents
1 Table
2 Map
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Works cited
Table[edit]
The primary source for watershed and discharge data in the table below is Rivers of North America. Conflicting data from other sources, if the difference is greater than 10 percent, is reported in the notes. Discharge refers to the flow at the mouth.[n 1] In the "States, provinces, and image" column, the superscripts "s" and "m" indicate "source" and "mouth". Non-U.S. states appear in italics. Except in the "States, provinces, and image" column, abbreviations are as follows: "km" for "kilometer", "mi" for "mile", "s" for "second", "m" for "meter", and "ft" for "foot".
Key
River is not entirely within the United States.
Watershed is not entirely within the United States.
Longest main-stem rivers of the United States
#
Name
Mouth[5]
Length
Source
coordinates[11]
Mouth
coordinates[11]
Watershed
area[12]
Discharge[12]
States, provinces, and image[5][11]
1
Missouri River Mississippi River 7003234100000000000♠2,341 mi
3,768 km[13] 45°55′39″N 111°30′29″W / 45.92750°N 111.50806°W / 45.92750; -111.50806 (Missouri River (source))[14] 38°48′49″N 90°07′11″W / 38.81361°N 90.11972°W / 38.81361; -90.11972 (Missouri River (mouth)) 7005529353000000000♠529,353 mi2
1,371,017 km2[15]
[n 2] 7004691000000000000♠69,100 ft3/s
1,956 m3/s
[n 3] Montanas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missourim
2
Mississippi River Gulf of Mexico 7003220200000000000♠2,202 mi
3,544 km[17]
[n 4] 47°14′22″N 95°12′29″W / 47.23944°N 95.20806°W / 47.23944; -95.20806 (Mississippi River (source))[18] 29°09′04″N 89°15′12″W / 29.15111°N 89.25333°W / 29.15111; -89.25333 (Mississippi River (mouth)) 7006126000000000000♠1,260,000 mi2
3,270,000 km2[19]
[n 5] 7005650000000000000♠650,000 ft3/s
18,400 m3/s Minnesotas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisianam
3
Yukon River Bering Sea 7003197900000000000♠1,979 mi
3,185 km[6]
[n 6] 59°35′00″N 133°47′00″W / 59.58333°N 133.78333°W / 59.58333; -133.78333 (Yukon River (source))[20] 62°35′55″N 164°48′00″W / 62.59861°N 164.80000°W / 62.59861; -164.80000 (Yukon River (mouth))[21] 7005324000000000000♠324,000 mi2
839,200 km2[22]
[n 7] 7005224000000000000♠224,000 ft3/s
6,340 m3/s British Columbias, Yukon Territory, Alaskam
4
Rio Grande Gulf of Mexico 7003175900000000000♠1,759 mi
2,830 km[23]
[n 8] 37°47′52″N 107°32′18″W / 37.79778°N 107.53833°W / 37.79778; -107.53833 (Rio Grande (source))[25] 25°57′22″N 97°08′43″W / 25.95611°N 97.14528°W / 25.95611; -97.14528 (Rio Grande (mouth)) 7005340000000000000♠340,000 mi2
870,000 km2[26]
[n 9] 7003130000000000000♠1,300 ft3/s
37 m3/s Colorados, New Mexico, Texasm, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipasm
5
Colorado River Gulf of California 7003145000000000000♠1,450 mi
2,330 km[16]
[n 10] 40°28′20″N 105°49′34″W / 40.47222°N 105.82611°W / 40.47222; -105.82611 (Colorado River (source))[29] 31°48′57″N 114°48′22″W / 31.81583°N 114.80611°W / 31.81583; -114.80611 (Colorado River (mouth))[30] 7005248000000000000♠248,000 mi2
642,000 km2[10]
[n 11] 7003140000000000000♠1,400 ft3/s
40 m3/s Colorados, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, California, Sonoram, Baja Californiam
6
Arkansas River Mississippi River 7003144300000000000♠1,443 mi
2,322 km
[n 12] 39°15′30″N 106°20′38″W / 39.25833°N 106.34389°W / 39.25833; -106.34389 (Arkansas River (source))[32] 33°46′30″N 91°04′15″W / 33.77500°N 91.07083°W / 33.77500; -91.07083 (Arkansas River (mouth)) 7005160200000000000♠160,200 mi2
414,910 km2[33] 7004355000000000000♠35,500 ft3/s
1,004 m3/s Colorados, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansasm
7
Columbia River Pacific Ocean 7003124300000000000♠1,243 mi[6]
2,000 km
[n 13] 50°13′00″N 115°51′00″W / 50.21667°N 115.85000°W / 50.21667; -115.85000 (Columbia River (source))[34] 46°14′39″N 124°03′29″W / 46.24417°N 124.05806°W / 46.24417; -124.05806 (Columbia River (mouth))[35] 7005279548000000000♠279,548 mi2
724,024 km2[36]
[n 14] 7005273000000000000♠273,000 ft3/s
7,730 m3/s British Columbias, Washingtonm, Oregonm
8
Red River Atchafalaya and Mississippi rivers 7003112500000000000♠1,125 mi
1,811 km
[n 15] 34°34′35″N 99°57′54″W / 34.57639°N 99.96500°W / 34.57639; -99.96500 (Red River (source))[40] 31°01′10″N 91°44′52″W / 31.01944°N 91.74778°W / 31.01944; -91.74778 (Red River (mouth)) 7004655900000000000♠65,590 mi2
169,890 km2[41]
[n 16] 7004301000000000000♠30,100 ft3/s
852 m3/s
[n 17] Oklahomas, Texas, Arkansas, Louisianam
9
Snake River Columbia River 7003104000000000000♠1,040 mi
1,674 km[16] 44°07′49″N 110°13′10″W / 44.13028°N 110.21944°W / 44.13028; -110.21944 (Snake River (source))[42] 46°11′10″N 119°01′43″W / 46.18611°N 119.02861°W / 46.18611; -119.02861 (Snake River (mouth)) 7005108000000000000♠108,000 mi2
281,000 km2[43] 7004553000000000000♠55,300 ft3/s
1,565 m3/s Wyomings, Idaho, Oregon, Washingtonm
10
Ohio River Mississippi River 7002979000000000000♠979 mi
1,575 km[44] 40°26′34″N 80°01′02″W / 40.44278°N 80.01722°W / 40.44278; -80.01722 (Ohio River (source))[45] 36°59′12″N 89°07′50″W / 36.98667°N 89.13056°W / 36.98667; -89.13056 (Ohio River (mouth)) 7005204000000000000♠204,000 mi2
529,000 km2[46] 7005308400000000000♠308,400 ft3/s
8,733 m3/s Pennsylvanias, Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Kentuckym
11
Colorado River of Texas Gulf of Mexico 7002970000000000000♠970 mi
1,560 km[47] 32°40′47″N 101°43′51″W / 32.67972°N 101.73083°W / 32.67972; -101.73083 (Colorado River of Texas (source)))[48] 28°35′41″N 95°58′59″W / 28.59472°N 95.98306°W / 28.59472; -95.98306 (Colorado River of Texas (mouth)) 7004399000000000000♠39,900 mi2
103,341 km2[49] 7003260000000000000♠2,600 ft3/s
75 m3/s Texass, m
12
Tennessee River Ohio River 7002935000000000000♠935 mi
1,504 km[50] 35°57′33″N 83°51′01″W / 35.95917°N 83.85028°W / 35.95917; -83.85028 (Tennessee River (source))[51] 37°04′02″N 88°33′53″W / 37.06722°N 88.56472°W / 37.06722; -88.56472 (Tennessee River (mouth)) 7004408800000000000♠40,880 mi2
105,870 km2[52] 7004710000000000000♠71,000 ft3/s
2,000 m3/s Tennessees, Alabama, Kentuckym
13
Canadian River Arkansas River 7002906000000000000♠906 mi
1,458 km[16] 37°01′11″N 105°04′33″W / 37.01972°N 105.07583°W / 37.01972; -105.07583 (Canadian River (source))[53] 35°27′12″N 95°01′58″W / 35.45333°N 95.03278°W / 35.45333; -95.03278 (Canadian River (mouth)) 7004471300000000000♠47,130 mi2
122,070 km2[54] 7003610000000000000♠6,100 ft3/s
174 m3/s Colorados, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahomam
14
Brazos River Gulf of Mexico 7002860000000000000♠860 mi
1,390 km[55] 33°16′07″N 100°00′37″W / 33.26861°N 100.01028°W / 33.26861; -100.01028 (Brazos River (source))[56] 28°52′33″N 95°22′42″W / 28.87583°N 95.37833°W / 28.87583; -95.37833 (Brazos River (mouth)) 7004446200000000000♠44,620 mi2
115,566 km2[57] 7003880000000000000♠8,800 ft3/s
249 m3/s Texass, m
15
Green River Colorado River 7002760000000000000♠760 mi
1,230 km[58] 43°09′13″N 109°40′18″W / 43.15361°N 109.67167°W / 43.15361; -109.67167 (Green River (source))[59] 38°11′21″N 109°53′07″W / 38.18917°N 109.88528°W / 38.18917; -109.88528 (Green River (mouth)) 7004449000000000000♠44,900 mi2
116,200 km2[60] 7003610000000000000♠6,100 ft3/s
172 m3/s Wyomings, Colorado, Utahm
16
Pecos River Rio Grande 7002730000000000000♠730 mi
1,175 km[61] 35°58′34″N 105°33′29″W / 35.97611°N 105.55806°W / 35.97611; -105.55806 (Pecos River (source))[62] 29°41′59″N 101°22′17″W / 29.69972°N 101.37139°W / 29.69972; -101.37139 (Pecos River (mouth)) 7004440000000000000♠44,000 mi2
113,960 km2[63] 7001710000000000000♠71 ft3/s
2 m3/s New Mexicos, Texasm
17
White River (Arkansas) Mississippi River 7002720000000000000♠720 mi
1,159 km[64] 35°50′20″N 93°36′16″W / 35.83889°N 93.60444°W / 35.83889; -93.60444 (White River (source))[65] 33°57′05″N 91°04′53″W / 33.95139°N 91.08139°W / 33.95139; -91.08139 (White River (mouth)) 7004278720000000000♠27,872 mi2
72,189 km2[66] 7004346000000000000♠34,600 ft3/s
979 m3/s Arkansass, m, Missouri
18
James River
[n 18] Missouri River 7002710000000000000♠710 mi
1,140 km[67] 47°28′53″N 99°51′32″W / 47.48139°N 99.85889°W / 47.48139; -99.85889 (James River (source))[68] 42°52′17″N 97°17′26″W / 42.87139°N 97.29056°W / 42.87139; -97.29056 (James River (mouth)) 7004209420000000000♠20,942 mi2
54,240 km2[69] 7002854000000000000♠854 ft3/s
24.2 m3/s[69]
[n 19] North Dakotas, South Dakotam
19
Kuskokwim River Bering Sea 7002702000000000000♠702 mi
1,130 km[70] 63°05′16″N 154°38′33″W / 63.08778°N 154.64250°W / 63.08778; -154.64250 (Kuskokwim River (source))[71] 60°04′59″N 162°20′02″W / 60.08306°N 162.33389°W / 60.08306; -162.33389 (Kuskokwim River (mouth)) 7004480000000000000♠48,000 mi2
124,319 km2[72] 7004670000000000000♠67,000 ft3s
1,900 m3/s Alaskas, m
20
Cimarron River Arkansas River 7002698000000000000♠698 mi
1,123 km[73] 36°54′24″N 102°59′12″W / 36.90667°N 102.98667°W / 36.90667; -102.98667 ("Cimarron River (source))[74] 36°10′14″N 96°16′19″W / 36.17056°N 96.27194°W / 36.17056; -96.27194 (Cimarron River (mouth)) 7004195100000000000♠19,510 mi2
50,540 km2[75] 7003150000000000000♠1,500 ft3/s
42 m3/s Oklahomas, m, Colorado, Kansas
21
Cumberland River Ohio River 7002696000000000000♠696 mi
1,120 km[76] 36°50′42″N 83°19′26″W / 36.84500°N 83.32389°W / 36.84500; -83.32389 (Cumberland River (source))[77] 37°08′36″N 88°24′27″W / 37.14333°N 88.40750°W / 37.14333; -88.40750 (Cumberland River (mouth)) 7004179300000000000♠17,930 mi2
46,430 km2[78] 7004304000000000000♠30,400 ft3/s
862 m3/s
Kentuckys, m, Tennessee
22
Yellowstone River Missouri River 7002678000000000000♠678 mi
1,091 km[79] 43°59′18″N 109°55′45″W / 43.98833°N 109.92917°W / 43.98833; -109.92917 (Yellowstone River (source))[80] 47°58′42″N 103°58′56″W / 47.97833°N 103.98222°W / 47.97833; -103.98222 (Yellowstone River (mouth)) 7004704000000000000♠70,400 mi2
182,336 km2[81] 7004128000000000000♠12,800 ft3/s
362 m3/s Wyomings, Montana, North Dakotam
23
North Platte River Platte River 7002665000000000000♠665 mi
1,070 km[82] 40°38′23″N 106°24′19″W / 40.63972°N 106.40528°W / 40.63972; -106.40528 (North Platte River (source))[83] 41°06′50″N 100°40′33″W / 41.11389°N 100.67583°W / 41.11389; -100.67583 (North Platte River (mouth)) 7004348850000000000♠34,885 mi2
90,352 km2[82] 7002770000000000000♠770 ft3/s
21.9 m3/s Colorados, Wyoming, Nebraskam
24
Milk River Missouri River 7002625000000000000♠625 mi
1,005 km[6] [n 20] 48°51′20″N 113°01′10″W / 48.85556°N 113.01944°W / 48.85556; -113.01944 (Milk River (source))[85] 48°03′26″N 106°19′07″W / 48.05722°N 106.31861°W / 48.05722; -106.31861 (Milk River (mouth)) 7004223320000000000♠22,332 mi2
57,839 km2[86]
[n 21] 7002670000000000000♠670 ft3/s
18.9 m3/s Alberta, Montanas, m
25
Ouachita River Black River 7002605000000000000♠605 mi
974 km[87] 31°41′56″N 94°19′57″W / 31.69889°N 94.33250°W / 31.69889; -94.33250 (Ouachita River (source))[88] 31°37′53″N 91°48′25″W / 31.63139°N 91.80694°W / 31.63139; -91.80694 (Ouachita River (mouth)) 7004248860000000000♠24,886 mi2
64,454 km2[89] 7004298000000000000♠29,800 ft3/s
843 m3/s Arkansass, Louisianam
26
Saint Lawrence River Gulf of Saint Lawrence 7002600000000000000♠600 mi
965 km[90]
[n 22] 44°05′55″N 76°23′28″W / 44.09861°N 76.39111°W / 44.09861; -76.39111 (St. Lawrence River (source))[92] 49°40′00″N 64°30′00″W / 49.66667°N 64.50000°W / 49.66667; -64.50000 (Saint Lawrence River (mouth))[93] 7005620000000000000♠620,000 mi2
1,600,000 km2[94]
[n 23] 7005440000000000000♠440,000 ft3/s
12,600 m3/s
[n 24] New Yorks, Ontarios, Quebecm
27
Gila River Colorado River 7002600000000000000♠600 mi
960 km[95] 33°10′47″N 108°12′22″W / 33.17972°N 108.20611°W / 33.17972; -108.20611 (Gila River (source))[96] 32°43′11″N 114°33′19″W / 32.71972°N 114.55528°W / 32.71972; -114.55528 (Gila River (mouth)) 7004578500000000000♠57,850 mi2
149,832 km2[97]
[n 25] 7002210000000000000♠210 ft3/s
6 m3/s
[n 26] New Mexicos, Arizonam
28
Sheyenne River Red River of the North 7002591000000000000♠591 mi
951 km[98] 47°41′46″N 100°29′52″W / 47.69611°N 100.49778°W / 47.69611; -100.49778 (Sheyenne River (source))[99] 47°01′25″N 96°49′31″W / 47.02361°N 96.82528°W / 47.02361; -96.82528 (Sheyenne River (mouth)) 7003880000000000000♠8,800 mi2
23,000 km2
[n 27] 7002288000000000000♠288 ft3/s
8.2 m3/s
[n 28] North Dakotas, m
29
Tanana River Yukon River 7002584000000000000♠584 mi
940 km
[n 29] 63°02′57″N 141°51′52″W / 63.04917°N 141.86444°W / 63.04917; -141.86444 (Tanana River (source))[103] 65°09′38″N 151°57′37″W / 65.16056°N 151.96028°W / 65.16056; -151.96028 (Tanana River (mouth)) 7004440000000000000♠44,000 mi2
114,000 km2[104] 7004418000000000000♠41,800 ft3/s
1,185 m3/s Alaskas, m
30
Smoky Hill River Kansas River 7002576000000000000♠576 mi
927 km[98] 38°57′01″N 102°34′49″W / 38.95028°N 102.58028°W / 38.95028; -102.58028 (Smoky Hill River (source))[105] 39°03′36″N 96°48′04″W / 39.06000°N 96.80111°W / 39.06000; -96.80111 (Smoky Hill (mouth)) 7004192600000000000♠19,260 mi2
49,900 km2
[n 30] 7003154200000000000♠1,542 ft3/s
43.7 m3/s
[n 31] Colorados, Kansasm
31
Niobrara River Missouri River 7002568000000000000♠568 mi
914 km[98] 42°49′15″N 104°38′50″W / 42.82083°N 104.64722°W / 42.82083; -104.64722 (Niobrara River (source))[107] 42°45′58″N 98°02′50″W / 42.76611°N 98.04722°W / 42.76611; -98.04722 (Niobrara River (mouth)) 7004126000000000000♠12,600 mi2
32,600 km2[108] 7003170000000000000♠1,700 ft3/s
49 m3/s Wyomings, Nebraskam
32
Little Missouri River Missouri River 7002560000000000000♠560 mi
900 km[109] 44°32′25″N 104°59′57″W / 44.54028°N 104.99917°W / 44.54028; -104.99917 ("Little Missouri River (source))[110] 47°36′38″N 102°52′24″W / 47.61056°N 102.87333°W / 47.61056; -102.87333 (Little Missouri River (mouth)) 7003831000000000000♠8,310 mi2
21,500 km2[111]
[n 32] 7002450000000000000♠450 ft3/s
13 m3/s[111]
[n 33] Wyomings, Montana, South Dakota, North Dakotam
33
Sabine River Gulf of Mexico 7002553000000000000♠553 mi
890 km[112] 32°48′29″N 95°55′14″W / 32.80806°N 95.92056°W / 32.80806; -95.92056 (Sabine River (source))[113] 29°59′08″N 93°47′26″W / 29.98556°N 93.79056°W / 29.98556; -93.79056 (Sabine River (mouth)) 7003975600000000000♠9,756 mi2
25,268 km2[114] 7003840000000000000♠8,400 ft3/s
238 m3/s Texass, Louisianam
34
Red River of the North Lake Winnipeg 7002550000000000000♠550 mi
890 km[115]
[n 34] 46°15′52″N 96°35′55″W / 46.26444°N 96.59861°W / 46.26444; -96.59861 (Red River of the North (source))[117] 50°23′47″N 96°48′39″W / 50.39639°N 96.81083°W / 50.39639; -96.81083 (Red River (mouth))[118] 7005111000000000000♠111,000 mi2
287,500 km2[119]
[n 35] 7003830000000000000♠8,300 ft3/s
236 m3/s North Dakotas, Minnesotas, Manitobam
35
Des Moines River Mississippi River 7002525000000000000♠525 mi
845 km[120] 44°05′02″N 95°41′17″W / 44.08389°N 95.68806°W / 44.08389; -95.68806 (Des Moines (source))[121] 41°22′52″N 91°25′21″W / 41.38111°N 91.42250°W / 41.38111; -91.42250 (Des Moines River (mouth)) 7004120180000000000♠12,018 mi2
31,127 km2[122] 7003640000000000000♠6,400 ft3/s
182 m3/s Minnesotas, Missouri, Iowam
36
White River (Missouri River) Missouri River 7002506000000000000♠506 mi
815 km[123] 42°41′10″N 103°50′14″W / 42.68611°N 103.83722°W / 42.68611; -103.83722 (White River (source))[124] 43°42′50″N 99°28′01″W / 43.71389°N 99.46694°W / 43.71389; -99.46694 (White River (mouth)) 7004102000000000000♠10,200 mi2
26,418 km2[125] 7002570000000000000♠570 ft3/s
16 m3/s Nebraskas, South Dakotam
37
Trinity River Galveston Bay 7002506000000000000♠506 mi
815 km[126] 32°47′54″N 96°53′52″W / 32.79833°N 96.89778°W / 32.79833; -96.89778 (Trinity River (source))[127] 29°44′35″N 94°42′12″W / 29.74306°N 94.70333°W / 29.74306; -94.70333 (Trinity River (mouth)) 7004179700000000000♠17,970 mi2
46,540 km2[128] 7003780000000000000♠7,800 ft3/s
222 m3/s Texass, m
38
Wabash River Ohio River 7002503000000000000♠503 mi
810 km[98] 40°21′07″N 84°45′57″W / 40.35194°N 84.76583°W / 40.35194; -84.76583 (Wabash River (source))[129] 37°47′53″N 88°01′38″W / 37.79806°N 88.02722°W / 37.79806; -88.02722 (Wabash River (mouth)) 7004329500000000000♠32,950 mi2
85,340 km2[130]</ref> 7003100100000000000♠1,001 ft3/s
28 m3/s Ohios, Indianam, Illinoism
Map[edit]
Map of North America showing all rivers on this list
See also[edit]
List of longest rivers in the United States by state
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Dams, diversions for agriculture, and other human alterations to rivers have greatly affected the discharge of some rivers over time. For example, the virgin discharge of the Colorado River is estimated to have been 20,000 ft3/s (566 m3/s) compared to 1,400 ft3/s (~40 m3/s) in 2005.[10]
Jump up ^ Of the total, 10,700 mi2 (28,000 km2), about two percent of the basin, is in Canada.[6][7]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 76,200 ft3/s (2,160 m3/s).[16]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 2,340 mi (3,770 km).[16] The Atlas of Canada: 2,348 mi (3,779 km).[6]
Jump up ^ Of the total, 10,700 mi2 (27,800 km2), about two percent of the basin, is in Canada.[6][7]
Jump up ^ Of this total, 714 mi (1,149 km) are in Canada. This amounts to about 36 percent of the main-stem length.[6]
Jump up ^ The Atlas of Canada also lists the total basin size at 324,000 mi2 (839,200 km2), split between 125,000 mi2 (323,800 km2), about 39 percent, in Canada and 199,000 mi2 (515,400 km2), about 61 percent, in the United States.[6]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 1,900 mi (3,100 km).[16] University of Texas (UT): 1,799 mi (2,895 km).[24] The river forms the U.S.–Mexico border for 1.251 mi (2,013 km) (about 70 percent of its main-stem length) from El Paso to the Gulf of Mexico.[24]
Jump up ^ Rivers of North America says that of this total only about 170,000 mi2 (450,000 km2) of the basin contribute water to the river.[26] The University of Texas (UT) says, "The river collects rain, snowmelt and spring water from an area [of] about 215,338 mi2 [557,722 km2] including closed basins."[24] It says that 87,020 mi2 (225,380 km2) of the basin (about 48 percent), not counting closed basins, are in Mexico, while 93,821 mi2 (242,994 km2) (about 52 percent) are in the United States.[24] Kammerer cites a total basin size of 336,000 mi2 (870,000 km2).[16]
Jump up ^ According to the Utah Division of Water Resources, 75 mi (121 km) of the river are in Mexico. This amounts to about 5 percent of the main-stem length.[27] Of this, 17 mi (27 km) form the border between Mexico and the United States.[28]
Jump up ^ The United Nations Environment Programme cites a total basin size of 246,000 mi2 (637,000 km2), split between 2,000 mi2 (5,200 km2) (about 1 percent) in Mexico and 244,000 mi2 (632,000 km2) (about 99 percent) in the United States.[28]
Jump up ^ Derived by subtracting the length of the East Fork Arkansas River of roughly 16 mi (26 km)[31] from Kammerer's total of 1,459 mi (2,348 km).[16]
Jump up ^ About 498 mi (801 km) are in Canada.[6] This amounts to about 40 percent of the main-stem length.
Jump up ^ The Atlas of Canada lists the total watershed at 259,200 mi2 (671,300 km2), split between 39,700 mi2 (102,800 km2) (about 15 percent) in Canada and 219,500 mi2 (568,500 km2) (about 85 percent) in the United States.[6] Kammerer's figure for the total watershed is 265,000 mi2 (690,000 km2).[16]
Jump up ^ This is the combined length, 1,360 mi (2,190 km),[37] of the main stem, Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River, and Tierra Blanca Creek minus the lengths of the latter two, 160 mi (260 km)[38] and 75 mi (121 km).[39] Kammerer gives the length as 1,290 mi (2,080 km).[16]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 93,200 mi2.[16]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 56,000 ft3/s (1,600 m3)[16]
Jump up ^ Also known as the Dakota River or Jim River and not to be confused with the James River of Virginia.
Jump up ^ This is the average discharge for the years 1982–94, derived by adding the discharge for each of these years and dividing by 13.
Jump up ^ According to The Canadian Encyclopedia, a 110-mi (170 km) stretch of the river flows through Canada. This amounts to about 18 percent of the main-stem length.[84]
Jump up ^ The Atlas of Canada: 23,600 mi2 (61,200 km2) split between 8,300 mi2 (21,600 km2) (about 35 percent) in Canada and 15,300 mi2 (39,600 km2) (about 65 percent) in the United States.[6]
Jump up ^ According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, a 115-mi (185 km) stretch of the river forms part of the U.S.–Canada border. This amounts to about 19 percent of the main-stem length.[91]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 396,000 mi2 (1,030,000 km2).[16] The Atlas of Canada: 519,000 mi2 (1,344,200 km2), of which 324,000 mi2 (839,200 km2) (about 62 percent) is in Canada and 195,000 mi2 (505,000 km2) (about 38 percent) is in the United States.[6]
Jump up ^ Kammerer: 348,000 ft3/s (9,900 m3/s).[16]
Jump up ^ Of this total, 232 mi2 (600 km2) (about 0.4 percent) are in the Mexican state of Sonora, and the rest is in the United States.[8]
Jump up ^ Rivers of North America describes the discharge as less than 210 ft3/s (6 m3/s.
Jump up ^ This is the size of the basin upstream of a stream gauge near Kindred and at river mile 67.9 (river kilometer 109.3).[100]
Jump up ^ This is the average flow measured by a stream gauge near Kindred and at river mile 67.9 (river kilometer 109.3).[100]
Jump up ^ The main-stem length is calculated by subtracting the length of the Nabesna River from Kammerer's total of 659 mi (1,061 km).[16] The Nabesna River is roughly 75 mi (121 km) long, calculated by adding the 60 mi (97 km) from the Nabesna mouth to Camp Creek[101] to the distance, 15 mi (24 km), from Camp Creek to Nabesna Glacier,[102] Kammerer's most remote source for the Tanana.
Jump up ^ Reflects only that part of the basin above a stream gauge at river mile 43.3 (river kilometer 69.7) near Enterprise.[106]
Jump up ^ Measured by a stream gauge at river mile 43.3 (river kilometer 69.7) near Enterprise.[106]
Jump up ^ This is only a close approximation of the entire basin. It does not include a small fraction of the basin below the river gauge, located about 25 mi (40 km) upstream of the river mouth.
Jump up ^ This is the average discharge for the years 1990–2010, derived by adding the discharge for each of these years and dividing by 21.
Jump up ^ According to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 394 mi (634 km) are in the United States. This amounts to about 72 percent of the main-stem length.[116]
Jump up ^ Of the total basin, 53,500 mi2 (138,600 km2) (about 48 percent) are in Canada and 57,500 mi2 (148,900 km2) (about 52 percent) are in the United States.[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 1137.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 236.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 615.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 50.
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Road Atlas. Chicago, Illinois: Rand McNally & Company. 2008. ISBN 978-0-528-93961-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Rivers". The Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on April 4, 2007. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Missouri River Basin Basic Geography and Natural Features". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b McCord, Marc W. "Gila River". Wind Spirit Community. Archived from the original on March 3, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ Patrick 1995, p. 24.
^ Jump up to: a b Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 527.
^ Jump up to: a b c The mouth coordinates and source coordinates are from the Geographic Names Information System (United States Geological Survey) or the Canadian Geographical Names Data Base except for the coordinates of the mouth of the Colorado River, derived by geolocating with Google Earth.
^ Jump up to: a b From Rivers of North America (ed. Benke and Cushing) unless otherwise noted.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 432.
Jump up ^ "Missouri River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. October 24, 1980. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 469.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Kammerer, J. C. (September 1, 2005). "Largest Rivers in the United States". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, pp. 237, 331.
Jump up ^ "Mississippi River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. June 4, 1980. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 272.
Jump up ^ "Atlin Lake (B.C.)". Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Yukon River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. March 31, 1981. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 796.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 186.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Patino, Carlos; McKinney, Daene C.; Maidment, David R. "Water Management Information System for the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin". University of Texas Center for Research in Water Resources. Archived from the original on April 1, 2015. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Rio Grande". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. March 30, 1979. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 220.
Jump up ^ Anderson, D. Larry (May 2002). "Utah's Perspective: The Colorado River" (PDF). p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 9, 2014. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Arias, E.; Albar, M.; Parra, I; Reza, M. "Regional Definition" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. pp. 20–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 31, 2017. Retrieved May 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Colorado River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. February 8, 1980. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Derived via Google Earth
Jump up ^ Colorado Atlas and Gazetteer (Map). DeLorme. 1998. § 47–48. ISBN 978-0-89933-265-9.
Jump up ^ "Arkansas River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. November 30, 1979. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 315.
Jump up ^ "Columbia Lake". Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Retrieved January 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Columbia River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. November 28, 1980. Retrieved August 5, 2010.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 646.
Jump up ^ Kleiner, Diana J. "Handbook of Texas: Red River". Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on December 23, 2015. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Handbook of Texas: Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River". Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Handbook of Texas: Tierra Blanca Creek". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Red River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. June 4, 1980. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 317.
Jump up ^ "Snake River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. September 10, 1979. Retrieved August 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 643.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 379.
Jump up ^ "Ohio River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. October 24, 1980. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 413.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 198.
Jump up ^ "Colorado River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. November 30, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 222.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 384.
Jump up ^ "Tennessee River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. September 20, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 414.
Jump up ^ "Canadian River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. December 18, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 316.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 203.
Jump up ^ "Brazos River". Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). United States Geological Survey. November 30, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 223.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 497.
Jump up ^ "Green River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). December 31, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 528.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 213.
Jump up ^ "Pecos River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). November 30, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 225.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 246.
Jump up ^ "White River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). April 30, 1980. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 273.
Jump up ^ "River Facts". American Rivers. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "James River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 13, 1980. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "USGS 06478513 James River near Yankton, SD". United States Geological Survey. November 2010. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 741.
Jump up ^ "Kuskokwim River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 1, 2000. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 764.
Jump up ^ "Cimarron River". Oklahoma Historical Society. Archived from the original on December 27, 2014. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cimarron River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). December 18, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 319.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 390.
Jump up ^ "Cumberland River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). September 20, 1979. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 415.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 440.
Jump up ^ "Yellowstone River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 13, 1980. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 470.
^ Jump up to: a b Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 451.
Jump up ^ "North Platte River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). October 13, 1978. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Marsh, James H. (March 4, 2015). "Milk River". Historica Canada. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Milk River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). April 4, 1980. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 475.
Jump up ^ Benke and Cushing, p. 265
Jump up ^ "Ouachita River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 1, 2000. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 279.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 987.
Jump up ^ "St. Lawrence River (International Section)". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit District. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "St. Lawrence River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 1, 2000. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Saint Lawrence River". Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 983.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 511.
Jump up ^ "Gila River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 8, 1980. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 531.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "National Hydrography Dataset". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sheyenne River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 13, 1980. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Water-Data Report 2010: 05059000 Sheyenne River near Kindred, ND" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Irwin, Thomas (October 3, 2005). "Recordable Disclaimer of Interest Application for the Nabesna River" (PDF). U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 19, 2012. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alaska Atlas and Gazetteer (Map) (7th ed.). DeLorme. 2010. p. 98. ISBN 0-89933-289-7.
Jump up ^ "Tanana River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 1, 2000. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 797.
Jump up ^ "Smoky Hill River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). October 13, 1978. Retrieved June 14, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Water-Data Report 2010: 06877600 Smoky Hill River at Enterprise, KS" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Niobrara River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). March 9, 1979. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 478.
Jump up ^ Personius, Robert Giles; Eddy, Samuel (February 18, 1955). "Fishes of the Little Missouri River". Copeia. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. 1955 (1): 41. doi:10.2307/1439450.
Jump up ^ "Little Missouri River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 13, 1980. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "USGS 06337000 Little Missouri River near Watford City, ND". November 2010. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 208.
Jump up ^ "Sabine River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). June 4, 1980. Retrieved February 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 224.
Jump up ^ "Red River of the North". Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2011. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Red River of the North: A Water Trail Guide" (PDF). Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2010. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Red River of the North". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). January 1, 2000. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Red River". Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 896.
Jump up ^ "National Recreation Trails: Des Moines River Water Trail - Polk County, Iowa". American Trails. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Des Moines River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). April 30, 1979. Retrieved February 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 372.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 445.
Jump up ^ "White River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 13, 1980. Retrieved February 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 471.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 215.
Jump up ^ "Trinity River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). November 30, 1979. Retrieved February 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 227.
Jump up ^ "Wabash River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey (USGS). February 14, 1979. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benke & Cushing 2005, p. 396.
Works cited[edit]
Benke, Arthur C.; Cushing, Colbert E. (2005). Rivers of North America. Burlington, Massachusetts: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-088253-3.
Patrick, Ruth (1995). Rivers of the United States: Volume II: Chemical and Physical Characteristics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-471-10752-1.
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Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system, located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves, are sensitive to the pH of their environment.
These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues. An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries, often resulting from decreased CO2 output (hypercapnia), indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma, as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood–brain barrier.
However, a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H+ are not able to diffuse across the blood–brain barrier into the CSF. Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across, reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains, in this way, distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors.
The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia (elevated CO2, decreased O2) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal[1] and in vitro slice preparation. These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term (or emergency) regulation.
This system utilizes a negative feedback system, therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal “set” level, then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed.
Peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid and aortic bodies) and central chemoreceptors (medullary neurons) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity. This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2, pCO2, and pH within appropriate physiological ranges. For example, a fall in arterial pO2 (hypoxemia) or an increase in arterial pCO2 (hypercapnia) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex. Chemoreceptor activity, however, also affects cardiovascular function either directly (by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers) or indirectly (via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity). Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock (these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH, and increase arterial pCO2) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla.
See also[edit]
Chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Vasomotor center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Solomon IC, Edelman NH, Neubauer, JA. Pre-Bötzinger complex functions as a central hypoxia chemosensor for respiration in vivo. J Neurophysiol. 83(5):2854-68, 2000.
External links[edit]
Physiology: 4/4ch6/s4ch6_21 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Overview at cvphysiology.com
[hide]
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Water tower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A water tower in Mondeville, Calvados, France.
A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of potable water, and to provide emergency storage for fire protection. In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower.[1] Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, which store treated water close to where it will be used.[2] Other types of water towers may only store raw (non-potable) water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply.
Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages, because they rely on hydrostatic pressure produced by elevation of water (due to gravity) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems; however, they cannot supply the water for a long time without power, because a pump is typically required to refill the tower. A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day, and then a pump fills it back up during the night. This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather, since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Design and construction
3 Decoration
4 Worldwide
5 Spheres and spheroids
6 Alternatives
7 Tallest
8 Notable
8.1 Austria
8.2 Belgium
8.3 Brazil
8.4 Canada
8.5 Croatia
8.6 Germany
8.7 Italy
8.8 Netherlands
8.9 Slovenia
8.10 United Kingdom
8.11 United States
9 Standpipe
10 Gallery
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
History[edit]
See also: History of water supply and sanitation
Although the use of elevated water storage tanks has existed since ancient times in various forms, the modern use of water towers for pressurized public water systems developed during the mid-19th century, as steam-pumping became more common, and better pipes that could handle higher pressures were developed. In the United Kingdom, standpipes consisted of tall, exposed, n-shaped pipes, used for pressure relief and to provide a fixed elevation for steam-driven pumping engines which tended to produce a pulsing flow, while the pressurized water distribution system required constant pressure. Standpipes also provided a convenient fixed location to measure flow rates. Designers typically enclosed the riser pipes in decorative masonry or wooden structures. By the late 19th-Century, standpipes grew to include storage tanks to meet the ever-increasing demands of growing cities.[1]
Many early water towers are now considered historically significant and have been included in various heritage listings around the world. Some are converted to apartments or exclusive penthouses.[3] In certain areas, such as New York City in the United States, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. In California and some other states, domestic water towers enclosed by siding (tankhouses) were once built (1850s–1930s) to supply individual homes; windmills pumped water from hand-dug wells up into the tank in New York.
Water towers were used to supply water stops for steam locomotives on railroad lines.[4] Early steam locomotives required water stops every 7 to 10 miles (11 to 16 km).
Design and construction[edit]
A variety of materials can be used to construct a typical water tower; steel and reinforced or prestressed concrete are most often used (with wood, fiberglass, or brick also in use), incorporating an interior coating to protect the water from any effects from the lining material. The reservoir in the tower may be spherical, cylindrical, or an ellipsoid, with a minimum height of approximately 6 metres (20 ft) and a minimum of 4 m (13 ft) in diameter.[citation needed] A standard water tower typically has a height of approximately 40 m (130 ft).
Pressurization occurs through the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation of water; for every 10.20 centimetres (4.016 in) of elevation, it produces 1 kilopascal (0.145 psi) of pressure. 30 m (98.43 ft) of elevation produces roughly 300 kPa (43.511 psi), which is enough pressure to operate and provide for most domestic water pressure and distribution system requirements.
Shooter's Hill water tower is a local landmark in London, United Kingdom. Water towers are common around London suburbs.
The height of the tower provides the pressure for the water supply system, and it may be supplemented with a pump. The volume of the reservoir and diameter of the piping provide and sustain flow rate. However, relying on a pump to provide pressure is expensive; to keep up with varying demand, the pump would have to be sized to meet peak demands. During periods of low demand, jockey pumps are used to meet these lower water flow requirements. The water tower reduces the need for electrical consumption of cycling pumps and thus the need for an expensive pump control system, as this system would have to be sized sufficiently to give the same pressure at high flow rates.
Very high volumes and flow rates are needed when fighting fires. With a water tower present, pumps can be sized for average demand, not peak demand; the water tower can provide water pressure during the day and pumps will refill the water tower when demands are lower.
Using wireless sensor networks to monitor water levels inside the tower allows municipalities to automatically monitor and control pumps without installing and maintaining expensive data cables.[5]
Decoration[edit]
Louisville Water Tower, one of the few remaining standpipe water towers in the United States. It was completed in 1860.
Water towers can be surrounded by ornate coverings including fancy brickwork, a large ivy-covered trellis or they can be simply painted. Some city water towers have the name of the city painted in large letters on the roof, as a navigational aid to aviators and motorists. Sometimes the decoration can be humorous. An example of this are water towers built side by side, labeled HOT and COLD. Cities in the United States possessing side-by-side water towers labeled HOT and COLD include Granger, Iowa; Canton, Kansas;Pratt, Kansas and St. Clair, Missouri (Eveleth, Minnesota at one time had two such towers, but no longer does[6]). When a third water tower was built next to the Okemah, Oklahoma set of Hot and Cold towers, the town briefly considered naming it "Running", but eventually decided to use "Home of Woody Guthrie". The House in the Clouds in Thorpeness, located in the English county of Suffolk, was built to resemble a house in order to disguise the eyesore, whilst the lower floors were used for accommodation. When the town was connected to the mains water supply, the water tower was dismantled and converted to additional living space.
The House in the Clouds in Thorpeness functioned as the town's water tower from 1923 until 1977.
Sapp Bros. truck stops use a water tower with a handle and spout – looking like a coffee pot – as the company logo. Many of their facilities have decorated actual water towers (presumably non-functional) on-site.
The first and original "Mushroom" – Svampen in Swedish – was built in Örebro in Sweden in the early 1950s and later copies were built around the world including Saudi-Arabia and Kuwait.[7]
Many small towns in the United States use their water towers to advertise local tourism, their local high school sports teams, or other locally notable facts.[8] Since the water tower is sometimes the highest point in the town, antennas,[9] public address systems, cameras and tornado warning sirens are sometimes placed on them as well.
Many water towers serve manufacturing and other commercial facilities. These are often decorated with the name of the company that the water tower serves.
Tower with local high school mascot, a Tiger (Centerville, Texas).
Worldwide[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)
The technology dates to at least the 19th century, and for a long time New York City required that all buildings higher than six stories be equipped with a rooftop water tower.[10] Two companies in New York build water towers, both of which are family businesses in operation since the 19th century.[10]
Rooftop water towers on apartment buildings on East 57th Street in New York City. The structures seen here illustrate three architectural approaches to incorporating these tanks in the design of a building. From left to right, a fully enclosed and ornately decorated brick structure, a simple unadorned roofless brick structure hiding most of the tank but revealing the top of the tank, and a simple utilitarian structure that makes no effort to hide the tanks or otherwise incorporate them into the design of the building.
The original water tower builders were barrel makers who expanded their craft to meet a modern need as buildings in the city grew taller in height. Even today, no sealant is used to hold the water in. The wooden walls of the water tower are held together with steel cables or straps, but water leaks through the gaps when first filled. As the water saturates the wood, it swells, the gaps close and become impermeable.[11]
The rooftop water towers store 25,000 to 50,000 litres (5,500 to 11,000 imp gal) of water until it is needed in the building below. The upper portion of water is skimmed off the top for everyday use while the water in the bottom of the tower is held in reserve to fight fire. When the water drops below a certain level, a pressure switch, level switch or float valve will activate a pump or open a public water line to refill the water tower.[11]
Architects and builders have taken varied approaches to incorporating water towers into the design of their buildings. On many large commercial buildings, water towers are completely hidden behind an extension of the facade of the building. For cosmetic reasons, apartment buildings often enclose their tanks in rooftop structures, either simple unadorned rooftop boxes, or ornately decorated structures intended to enhance the visual appeal of the building. Many buildings, however, leave their water towers in plain view atop utilitarian framework structures.
The mushroom-shaped concrete water tower of Roihuvuori in Helsinki, Finland was built in the 1970s. It is 52 metres (171 ft) high and can hold around 12,000 cubic metres (420,000 cu ft) of water.
Water towers are common in India, where the electricity supply is erratic in most places.
If the pumps fail (such as during a power outage), then water pressure will be lost, causing potential public health concerns. Many U.S. states require a "boil-water advisory" to be issued if water pressure drops below 20 pounds per square inch (140 kPa).[citation needed] This advisory presumes that the lower pressure might allow pathogens to enter the system.[citation needed]
Water towers are often regarded as monuments of civil engineering.[citation needed] Some are converted to serve modern purposes, as for example, the Wieża Ciśnień (Wrocław water tower) in Wrocław, Poland which is today a restaurant complex. Others have been converted to residential use.[12]
Historically, railroads that used steam locomotives required a means of replenishing the locomotive's tenders. Water towers were common along the railroad. The tenders were usually replenished by water cranes, which were fed by a water tower.
Some water towers are also used as observation towers, and some restaurants, such as the Goldbergturm in Sindelfingen, Germany, or the second of the three Kuwait Towers, in the City-State of Kuwait. It is also common to use water towers as the location of transmission mechanisms in the UHF range with small power, for instance for closed rural broadcasting service, amateur radio, or cellular telephone service.
In hilly regions, local topography can be substituted for structures to elevate the tanks. These tanks are often nothing more than concrete cisterns terraced into the sides of local hills or mountains, but function identically to the traditional water tower. The tops of these tanks can be landscaped or used as park space, if desired.
Spheres and spheroids[edit]
Eindhoven Water Towers
The Chicago Bridge and Iron Company have built many of the water spheres and spheroids found in the United States.[13] The website World's Tallest Water Sphere describes the distinction between a water sphere and water spheroid thus:
A water sphere is a type of water tower that has a large sphere at the top of its post. The sphere looks like a golf ball sitting on a tee or a round lollipop. A cross section of a sphere in any direction (east-west, north-south, or top-bottom) is a perfect circle. A water spheroid looks like a water sphere, but the top is wider than it is tall. A spheroid looks like a round pillow that is somewhat flattened. A cross section of a spheroid in two directions (east-west or north-south) is an ellipse, but in only one direction (top-bottom) is it a perfect circle. Both spheres and spheroids are special-case ellipsoids: spheres have symmetry in 3 directions, spheroids have symmetry in 2 directions. Scalene ellipsoids have 3 unequal length axes and three unequal cross sections.[14]
The Union Watersphere is a water tower topped with a sphere-shaped water tank in Union, New Jersey[15] and characterized as the World's Tallest Water Sphere. A Star Ledger article[16] suggested a water tower in Erwin, North Carolina completed in early 2012, 219.75 ft (66.98 m) tall and holding 500,000 US gallons (1,900 m3),[17] had become the World's Tallest Water Sphere. However photographs of the Erwin water tower revealed the new tower to be a water spheroid.[18] The water tower in Braman, Oklahoma, built by the Kaw Nation and completed in 2010, is 220.6 ft (67.2 m) tall and can hold 350,000 US gallons (1,300 m3).[19] Slightly taller than the Union Watersphere, it is also a spheroid.[20] Another tower in Oklahoma, built in 1986 and billed as the "largest water tower in the country", is 218 ft (66 m) tall, can hold 500,000 US gallons (1,900 m3), and is located in Edmond.[21][22]
The Earthoid, a perfectly spherical tank located in Germantown, Maryland is 100 ft (30 m) tall and holds 2,000,000 US gallons (7,600 m3) of water. The name is taken from it being painted to resemble a globe of the world.[23][24][25][26] The golf ball-shaped tank of the water tower at Gonzales, California is supported by three tubular legs and reaches about 125 ft (38 m) high.[27][28][29] The Watertoren (or Water Towers) in Eindhoven, Netherlands contain three spherical tanks, each 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and capable of holding 500 cubic metres (130,000 US gal) of water, on three 43.45 m (142.6 ft) spires were completed in 1970.[30][31]
Alternatives[edit]
Mechelen-Zuid water tower, one of the tallest in the world[32]
Alternatives to water towers are simple pumps mounted on top of the water pipes to increase the water pressure.[33] This new approach is more straightforward, but also more subject to potential public health risks; if the pumps fail, then loss of water pressure may result in entry of contaminants into the water system.[34] Most large water utilities do not use this approach, given the potential risks.[dubious – discuss][citation needed]
Tallest[edit]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Tower
Year
Country
Town
Pinnacle height
Remarks
Swisscom-Sendeturm St. Chrischona 1984 Switzerland St. Chrischona 250 m
Kuwait Towers, Tower A 1979 Kuwait Kuwait City 187 m
Kuwait Towers, Tower B 1979 Kuwait Kuwait City 146 m
Waldenburg TV Tower 1959 Germany Waldenburg 145 m partially guyed tower consisting of water tower and antenna mast guyed to the ground as pinnacle, antenna mast was dismantled in 2008
Mechelen-Zuid water tower 1978 Belgium Mechelen 143 m combined water and telecommunications tower
Ginosa Water Tower 1915 Italy Ginosa 122 m
Notable[edit]
Austria[edit]
Wolfersberg Water Tower (de) (Water tower with transmission antenna)
Belgium[edit]
Mechelen-Zuid Watertoren
Brazil[edit]
Nave Espacial de Varginha in Varghina
Canada[edit]
Guaranteed Pure Milk bottle in Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Croatia[edit]
Vukovar water tower in Vukovar.
Germany[edit]
Mannheim's landmark
Lüneburg Water Tower
Heidelberg TV Tower ( TV tower with water reservoir)
Mannheim Water Tower (de) (built 1886–1889)
Italy[edit]
Ginosa Water Tower, 122 metres (400 ft) tall[35]
Netherlands[edit]
Eindhoven Water Towers in Eindhoven
Poldertoren in Emmeloord
Water Tower Simpelveld in Simpelveld
Water Tower Hellevoetsluis in Hellevoetsluis
Slovenia[edit]
Brežice Water Tower in Brežice
United Kingdom[edit]
Cardiff Central Station Water Tower
Dock Tower in Grimsby
House in the Clouds in Thorpeness, Suffolk
Jumbo in Colchester, Essex
Norton Water Tower in Norton, Cheshire
Tilehurst Water Tower in Reading
Tower Park in Poole, Dorset
Cranhill, Garthamlock and Drumchapel in Glasgow, and Tannochside just outside the city
United States[edit]
Paul Bunyan's Bobber Water Tower in Pequot Lakes, Minnesota
Brooks Catsup Bottle Water Tower near Collinsville, Illinois
Chicago Water Tower in Chicago, Illinois
Earful Tower at Disney's Hollywood Studios
Florence Y'all Water Tower in Florence, Kentucky
Leaning Water Tower in Groom, Texas
Peachoid next to I-85 on the edge of Gaffney, South Carolina
Union Watersphere in Union Township, New Jersey
Volunteer Park Water Tower in Capitol Hill, Seattle, Washington
Warner Bros. Studios Water Tower in Burbank, California (In the animated TV series Animaniacs, it was used to incarcerate the characters Yakko, Wakko, and Dot, as well as to serve as their home.)
Weehawken Water Tower in Weehawken, New Jersey
Ypsilanti Water Tower (Winner of the Most Phallic Building contest in 2003)[36]
Standpipe[edit]
There were originally over 400 standpipe water towers in the United States, but very few remain today, including:[37][38]
Belton Standpipe in Belton, South Carolina
Bellevue Standpipe (actually a water tank, not a tower), in Boston, Massachusetts
Chicago Water Tower, in Chicago, Illinois
Cochituate standpipe, in Boston, Massachusetts
Eden Park Stand Pipe, in Cincinnati
Evansville Standpipe (a steel tower), in Evansville, Wisconsin
Fall River Waterworks, in Fall River, Massachusetts
Forbes Hill Standpipe, in Quincy, Massachusetts
Louisville Water Tower, in Louisville, Kentucky
North Point Water Tower, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Reading Standpipe (demolished in 1999 and replaced by a modern steel tower), in Reading, Massachusetts
St. Louis, Missouri has three standpipe water towers which are on the National Register of Historic Places.
Bissell Tower (also known as the Red Tower)
Compton Hill Tower
Grand Avenue Water Tower
Thomas Hill Standpipe, in Bangor, Maine
Ypsilanti Water Tower, in Ypsilanti, Michigan
Bremen Historic Standpipe in Bremen, Indiana
Gallery[edit]
Tower Hill Water Tower (1853–4), Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
The Hague water tower and pumping station (1874), the Netherlands
Beaumont St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad Water Tank (1875, restored 2012), Kansas, USA
Water tower in Melbourne, Florida, USA
Water tower (1971) in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
Kuwait Towers (1979), Kuwait
See also[edit]
Water portal
American and Canadian Water Landmark
Caldwell Tanks
Gas holder, a similar utility storage structure
Hyperboloid structure
Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Co.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b New England Water Supplies – A Brief History, Marcis Kempe, MWRA, NEWWA Journal, September 2006, pages 96-99
Jump up ^ The water supply of towns and the construction of waterworks, William Kinninmond Burton, 1894
Jump up ^ 10 Industrial Water Towers Converted Into Awesome, Modern Homes
Jump up ^ Tabern, Robert; Tabern, Kandace. Outside the Rails: A Rail Route Guide from Chicago to Carbondale, IL. Lulu.com. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-365-21429-5. [self-published source]
Jump up ^ Banner Engineering (November 2009), Application Notes
Jump up ^ "Hot and Cold Water Tower". Ohiobarns.com. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
Jump up ^ New Scientist 20 July 1961
Jump up ^ Water tower slogans.
Jump up ^ http://grammarist.com/usage/antennae-antennas/
^ Jump up to: a b Elliott, Debbie (2 December 2006). "Wondering About Water Towers". All Things Considered. National Public Radio.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles, Jacoba (3 June 2007). "Longtime Emblems of City Roofs, Still Going Strong". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ New York Times article of 11 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Waterspheroid" (PDF). CBI. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Water Sphere versus Water Spheroid". World's Tallest Water Sphere. June 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Westerggaard, Barbara, New Jersey A guide to the state, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0-8135-3685-5
Jump up ^ Rose, Lisa (22 February 2012), "Despite challenge, Union Township water tower remains a Jersey landmark", The Star-Ledger, retrieved 21 February 2012
Jump up ^ Philliops, Gregor (11 May 2011). "Erwin's new water tower will be among tallest on East Coast". The Fayetteville Observer. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "World’s Tallest Water Sphere Title Safe for Now". Retrieved 20 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Water Tower – Braman, Oklahoma". waymarking.com. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "World’s Tallest Water Sphere?". worldstallestwatersphere.com. 22 December 2010. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Edmond Huskies". waymarking.com. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Largest Water Tower". Center for Land Use Interpretation. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Gaines, Danielle (2 March 2011). "Germantown's Earthoid water tower could be up for a makeover WSSC to choose new painted design for tank next month". Gazette. Net. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
Jump up ^ ""Earthoid" Water Storage Tank – Germantown MD". Waymarking. 7 September 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Makeover The Earthoid gets a refresh". Germantown Patch. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "A whole new world Earthoid water tank makeover update". Germantown Patch. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Gonzales Round Municipal Tank". waymarking.com. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Gonzales Water Tower". waymarking.com. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Gonzales Water Tower". Wikimapia. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Water Tower Eindhoven". http://www.architectureguide.nl. Retrieved 24 February 2012. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ "Water Tower". http://mimoa.eu/. Retrieved 24 February 2012. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ plantaardignieuwsbrief12010.pdf
Jump up ^ Pumps to replace water towers
Jump up ^ Pressure in the Distribution System
Jump up ^ "Ginosa Water Tower". Emporis. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Most Phallic Building in the World". Cabinet.
Jump up ^ Harris, NiNi (January 1980). "Treasured Towers". In Hannon, Robert E. St. Louis: Its Neighborhoods and Neighbors, Landmarks and Milestones. St. Louis, MO: Buxton & Skinner Printing Co. Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
Jump up ^ "Watertowers". builtstlouis.net. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water towers.
World's Largest Catsup Bottle Website
International Watertower Archive
Website about 1000 watertowers from Poland
Water Storage Considerations Specifically CFR Title 21 Part 129. US Government document
Authority control
LCCN: sh85145660
GND: 4064809-6
BNF: cb11979541f (data)
BNE: XX556391
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_tower&oldid=800544391"
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